Introduction

VR gaming has emerged as a significant technological advancement with profound implications for mental health. VR gaming distinguishes itself from traditional gaming through its unparalleled level of immersion. Unlike non-VR games, which rely on two-dimensional displays and controllers, VR games incorporate motion-tracking technology and 3D environments, enabling players to navigate and interact naturally within the game world (Bowman & McMahan, 2007). For example, VR fitness games engage players in physical activities such as stretching, slicing virtual objects, or dodging obstacles, creating a deeper connection to the gameplay. VR games like “Supernatural” combine high-intensity workouts with stunning virtual landscapes, enhancing both motivation and adherence through immersive and interactive experiences (Craig et al., 2024). This heightened sense of presence is further enhanced by sensory features like spatial audio and haptic feedback, which allow players to feel more connected to the virtual environment (Billinghurst et al., 2001). These immersive characteristics create a deeper emotional and psychological engagement with the game, making VR gaming a transformative experience compared to traditional screen-based gaming (Boas, 2013).

This literature review delves into the mental health benefits and risks associated with VR gaming and explores its potential for fostering empathy and enhancing social interactions, framed within relevant theoretical perspectives. VR gaming offers substantial mental health benefits, primarily through stress relief, escapism, and the enhancement of emotional well-being. VR environments provide immersive experiences that can distract users from real-world stressors, reducing anxiety and promoting relaxation (Billinghurst et al., 2001). For example, VR meditation apps such as “Tripp” provide guided meditation in virtual environments, offering calming visuals and audio designed to alleviate stress and promote mindfulness (Cavallo et al., 2024). This immersive escapism allows individuals to experience alternate realities, providing a respite from daily life pressures, which is crucial for emotional well-being (Boas, 2013). Furthermore, VR gaming can induce positive emotions and enhance overall life satisfaction, particularly through engaging and enjoyable gameplay (Chen, 2007).

VR has demonstrated significant potential in therapeutic applications across a range of healthcare contexts. For instance, VR exposure therapy has been effectively utilized to treat anxiety disorders, allowing patients to gradually confront their fears in a controlled, simulated environment (Opriş et al., 2012). Similarly, VR rehabilitation programs have been used to enhance motor skills and physical recovery for individuals with neurological conditions such as cerebral palsy and stroke (You et al., 2005). The technology’s immersive nature enables the creation of realistic scenarios, fostering engagement and motivation among patients, which is crucial for successful therapeutic outcomes. Moreover, VR has been applied in pediatric care to reduce pain and anxiety during medical procedures by providing a distraction through immersive games and environments (Harris & Reid, 2005). One notable example is the “SnowWorld” VR application, designed to distract burn patients during painful treatments by immersing them in a calming and interactive snowy environment, significantly reducing their perceived pain levels (Hoffman et al., 2011). These examples illustrate VR’s versatility as a tool to address both physical and mental health challenges.

The Self-Determination Theory (SDT), posited by Ryan and Deci (2000), provides a useful framework for understanding the psychological benefits of VR gaming. SDT emphasizes the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in fostering intrinsic motivation and psychological well-being. VR games often cater to these needs by offering players a sense of control, opportunities to develop skills, and platforms for social interaction, thus enhancing their emotional well-being (Ryan et al., 2006). Additionally, the Flow Theory by Csikszentmihalyi (1990) elucidates how VR games can facilitate a state of deep immersion and optimal experience, where individuals are fully absorbed in activities that challenge their skills without overwhelming them. This state of flow is associated with high levels of enjoyment and satisfaction, contributing positively to mental health (Chen, 2007; Csikszentmihalyi, 2014; Johnson et al., 2016).

Beyond the individual mental health impacts, VR holds significant potential for fostering empathy and social interaction. VR experiences can simulate various social environments, allowing users to develop a deeper understanding of others’ perspectives and fostering empathy. This capability is particularly valuable in therapeutic settings, where VR can be used to enhance social connections and combat loneliness (Fleming et al., 2017; Freeman et al., 2008). For example, VR games like “As If” allow users to experience the daily challenges of chronic pain patients by embodying a virtual character, aiming to foster understanding and empathy (Tong et al., 2020). VR’s potential to create immersive social experiences can also facilitate mental health and addiction treatment by providing a sense of community and support, which are crucial for recovery (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Saleem et al., 2021).

The theoretical framework underpinning VR’s impact on empathy and social interaction includes the Theory of Mind (ToM), Empathy and Perspective-Taking Theory, and Social Presence Theory. ToM refers to the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others, which is fundamental for empathy (Premack & Woodruff, 1978). VR environments that simulate social interactions can enhance ToM by allowing users to experience and understand different perspectives. Empathy and Perspective-Taking Theory is crucial in understanding VR’s role in enhancing social interactions and empathy. VR’s ability to simulate real-life situations allows users to experience different perspectives, promoting empathy and social understanding (Batson, 2009). Social Presence Theory, which focuses on the sense of being with others in a virtual environment, further supports the potential of VR to foster social connections (Biocca et al., 2003). By creating realistic social scenarios, VR can enhance users’ sense of presence and connectedness, thereby promoting mental health.

However, alongside these benefits, VR gaming poses significant risks, particularly concerning addiction. The immersive nature of VR can lead to excessive use, where individuals prioritize gaming over other responsibilities, potentially leading to negative outcomes such as social isolation and physical health issues (Billinghurst et al., 2001). The Biopsychosocial Model of Addiction, proposed by Griffiths (2005), integrates biological, psychological, and social factors to explain addictive behaviors. In the context of VR gaming, the engaging environments can stimulate neural reward pathways, reinforce psychological dependencies, and influence social behaviors, thereby contributing to addiction (Park & Hwang, 2009; King et al., 2020).

Prolonged use of VR headsets can also result in physical discomfort, such as eye strain, motion sickness, and musculoskeletal pain. The close proximity of the VR display to the eyes can cause visual fatigue, blurred vision, and headaches, necessitating moderation and proper usage guidelines (Bowman & McMahan, 2007). Furthermore, the disorienting effects of VR environments can lead to nausea and dizziness, while the physical demands of some VR games can cause muscle strain (Bowman et al., 1997).

VR games are studied within various theoretical frameworks that emphasize the impact across different timeframes. These theoretical perspectives underscore the importance of understanding how VR impacts users’ psychological states and behaviors across various timeframes, from immediate emotional reactions to longer-term behavioral patterns such as addiction potential and therapeutic outcomes (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).

Including an integrative perspective in this study, the dual aspects of VR technology—its potential for addiction and its capability to enhance empathy and social interaction—present a complex landscape for researchers and practitioners. While the immersive nature of VR can lead to excessive use and addiction, it also holds promise for positive outcomes in mental health treatment. The key lies in understanding the factors contributing to these divergent outcomes and developing strategies to maximize benefits while minimizing risks.

To address this duality, the current study investigates the psychological impacts of VR gaming, exploring its dual nature—its potential benefits, such as stress relief and empathy enhancement, alongside risks, such as addiction and excessive use. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory and Flow Theory, this research examines the factors influencing these outcomes, providing a comprehensive analysis of VR’s mental health implications.

Methods

The study employed a qualitative research design, specifically utilizing in-depth interviews to explore the motivations and psychological impacts of playing VR games (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). This design was chosen to gain a deep understanding of participants’ personal experiences and emotions related to VR gaming, allowing for rich, detailed data collection. Qualitative methods were selected because they are particularly effective for exploring complex psychological phenomena and capturing the nuanced experiences of individuals in their natural settings. The Pokémon VR Station game center served as the setting for this research, providing a natural environment for participants to engage in VR gaming sessions prior to their interviews.

The game chosen for this study was “Beat Saber”, a rhythm-based VR game that combines music with physical interaction. Players use motion controllers as lightsabers to slice through blocks that correspond to musical beats, requiring precise timing and full-body movement. Its engaging and immersive gameplay, enhanced by dynamic visuals and rhythmic challenges, makes Beat Saber highly popular among VR enthusiasts. According to the game center’s administration, Beat Saber was the most frequently played game at the center, making it an ideal choice for this study.

Procedure

Each participant was interviewed in a quiet nearby café immediately after their gaming session. The interviews were intentionally structured to capture detailed accounts of participants’ experiences, focusing specifically on the psychological effects of VR gaming. Participants were asked open-ended questions designed to explore their feelings, perceptions, and reflections on VR gaming, including topics such as psychological impacts, benefits, and limitations. For example, they were asked how they felt after playing, what psychological changes they experienced, and their views on the health benefits of VR gaming. A complete list of the interview questions is available in the supplementary material.

To ensure consistency and facilitate fresh recollections, participants were asked about their experiences immediately after playing Beat Saber. This approach enabled the researchers to obtain vivid and accurate responses. Participants included both first-time players and experienced VR users, allowing for a diverse exploration of psychological impacts. This range of experience helped the study analyze psychological effects across different timeframes, including immediate reactions and extended engagement. This systematic categorization enabled a comprehensive analysis of how Beat Saber influenced psychological well-being (Cowie et al., 2021).

Interviews lasted between 20 and 42 min, with an average duration of 29.91 min (SD = 4.07). The interview questions were crafted to delve deeply into participants’ experiences, emotions, and reflections on their VR gaming sessions, facilitating a comprehensive understanding of the psychological impacts of VR gaming. The entire data collection process took place over approximately two months, from January 18, 2019, to March 29, 2019 (Maksatbekova, 2019). All interviews were transcribed verbatim to ensure accuracy and completeness, resulting in approximately 195 pages of textual data.

Participant profile

Participants were recruited voluntarily from the Pokémon VR Station game center through direct invitations and snowball sampling. Researchers approached potential participants at the game center and explained the study’s purpose, procedures, and ethical considerations. Initial participants were also asked to refer others who might be interested, ensuring a diverse and representative sample.

The final sample consisted of 44 participants, comprising 23 males and 21 females, aged between 19 and 35 years (see Table 1). This demographic reflects the primary consumer base for VR games, as noted in previous research (Argan et al., 2006). The sample included first-time players experiencing VR for the first time, as well as regular visitors who had been playing Beat Saber and other VR games for extended periods. This diversity provided valuable insights into the game’s psychological impacts across various levels of familiarity and engagement. According to the game center’s management, the center receives between 350 and 400 visitors per month, predominantly young adults, aligning with the study’s target population.

Table 1 Participant profiles
Full size table

Data analytic plan

Thematic analysis was conducted following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase approach to ensure a rigorous and systematic examination of the interview data. Thematic analysis was chosen because it allows for the identification and interpretation of patterns within qualitative data, making it well-suited for exploring the complex psychological impacts of VR gaming. In the initial phase, each interview was loosely transcribed to capture the breadth of participant responses. Subsequently, a second transcription session was conducted to enhance accuracy and comprehensively capture all participant comments (Cowie et al., 2021).

Generating initial codes involved multiple readings of the transcripts to identify patterns and potential themes, adhering to the inductive principles of qualitative data analysis (Pope et al., 2000). Both open and axial coding techniques were employed (Saldana, 2015; Strauss & Corbin, 1998) to systematically categorize data and refine emergent themes related to the psychological impacts of VR gaming. Open coding facilitated the identification of initial categories, while axial coding helped in establishing relationships between these categories.

An initial list of emergent themes and subthemes was developed based on this approach. To systematically organize these, the researchers collaboratively developed a detailed coding scheme that categorized participants’ responses into multiple themes reflecting the psychological impacts of VR gaming. These themes were analyzed across three timeframes—immediate, intermediate, and long-term—capturing diverse aspects of VR’s influence. For example, themes under “Addiction and Escapism” included intense engagement and time loss (immediate effects) and dependency and escapism (long-term effects). Other themes were similarly structured within this system of categorization. This systematic framework facilitated a comprehensive and nuanced interpretation of participants’ experiences, highlighting both the opportunities and challenges of VR gaming.

Reviewing themes was a critical step in the analytic process, where the second author re-examined all transcripts and codes to ensure accuracy and consistency. Themes and subthemes were refined iteratively, with clear definitions provided for each by the primary researcher (Maksatbekova, 2019), enhancing the coherence and depth of the thematic analysis.

The final synthesis of findings involved presenting a thematic map of the data, accompanied by illustrative quotations that exemplified the most frequent or distinctive participant expressions. Throughout this iterative process, themes were revisited and refined to ensure a comprehensive understanding of participants’ experiences with VR gaming (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

Each phase of the thematic analysis carefully integrated participant feedback, contributing to the final categorization based on their input. This process was further validated through confirmation by the second author, ensuring alignment with the study’s theoretical framework and terminology derived from relevant literature. The results were subsequently discussed with the thesis committee during the defense, where additional insights and perspectives were considered, enriching the interpretation and validation of the findings.

Results

Overview

This study examines the dual impacts of VR on mental health, focusing specifically on addiction and its implications for mental health. The thematic analysis of interview data reveals immediate, intermediate, and long-term outcomes, illustrating how VR influences psychological well-being across various timeframes. To capture the complexity of these impacts, the results are categorized into seven themes: addiction and escapism, empathy and social interaction, emotional benefits, therapeutic use, building social confidence, mental health concerns, and self-reflection and identity exploration. These themes reflect both the anticipated outcomes and emergent insights, offering a nuanced understanding of VR’s psychological effects.

Table 2 presents a structured summary of the themes and their associated effects across different timeframes, highlighting the layered impact of VR on users’ experiences. The tabular format facilitates a clear and concise representation of findings, making complex data accessible.

Table 2 Analysis themes
Full size table

The coding framework identified significant themes and patterns within participants’ responses, providing critical insights into VR’s psychological impacts across timeframes. The emergent theme of self-reflection and identity exploration, for instance, highlights VR’s potential to foster personal growth and awareness, broadening the scope of its therapeutic applications. This comprehensive analysis underscores the importance of considering VR’s effects across immediate, intermediate, and long-term periods, ensuring a balanced understanding of its benefits and challenges.

Addiction and escapism

Participants reported high levels of engagement and immersion during VR gaming sessions, with many indicating that the immersive nature of VR heightened their gaming experience. “The level of immersion is unbelievable; I felt like I was inside the game and lost track of time” (Participant 2, 33 years old, male). This intense engagement, however, raised concerns about potential addiction. Several participants mentioned feeling compelled to continue playing even when they knew they should stop. “I knew I had to study, but the game kept pulling me back. It is like I could not stop myself” (Participant 5, 27 years old, male).

Most participants recognized the risk of addiction, particularly among frequent gamers. One participant noted, “VR can be so absorbing that it becomes hard to distinguish between virtual and real life, leading to excessive use” (Participant 3, 30 years old, male). This sentiment was echoed by others who experienced difficulties in balancing VR gaming with real-world responsibilities. More than half of them (n = 24/44) acknowledged neglecting their daily tasks due to VR gaming. “I missed several deadlines at work because I was too caught up in the game” (Participant 8, 29 years old, male).

Participants described immediate outcomes such as heightened engagement and occasional neglect of real-world tasks, while intermediate outcomes involved developing habits that could potentially lead to addictive behaviors. “I started playing more and more, sometimes for hours, forgetting to eat or sleep properly” (Participant 1, 23 years old, female). Long-term outcomes included potential dependency on VR for entertainment and escapism, highlighting the need for balanced use. “If I don’t set limits, I can easily see myself getting lost in VR and ignoring everything else” (Participant 10, 23 years old, female).

Several participants commented on the psychological mechanisms underlying their addictive behaviors. “The immediate gratification from VR is so strong that it becomes hard to resist. It is like an escape from reality” (Participant 14, 21 years old, female). This pattern of seeking instant gratification was a recurring theme, with many participants acknowledging the powerful allure of VR. “The more you play, the more you want to play. It is a vicious cycle” (Participant 28, 23 years old, male).

Empathy and social interaction

Despite the risks of addiction, VR was found to have significant potential in fostering empathy and enhancing social interactions. Participants highlighted how VR simulations helped them understand and share the feelings of others. Participant 9 (24 years old, female) noted, “Experiencing scenarios through VR made me see things from a different perspective. It was like walking in someone else’s shoes"​​. This ability to simulate real-life social environments was seen as a crucial tool for building empathy.

Several participants commented that these experiences were transformative, leading to deeper emotional connections with others. Participant 11 (23 years old, male) shared, “VR brought me closer to my friends; we shared more meaningful experiences together"​​. The immersive nature of VR experiences allowed users to engage in scenarios that would be difficult to replicate in real life, thus fostering a more profound understanding of different perspectives.

Immediate outcomes included enhanced empathy and improved social interactions during VR sessions. Intermediate outcomes were seen in the strengthening of social bonds and improved communication skills. Participant 7 (22 years old, male) reflected, “Using VR, I’ve become more understanding and patient in my interactions with others"​​. Participants indicated that these skills translated into better interpersonal relationships in their daily lives, demonstrating the long-term benefits of VR in enhancing social competence.

Although Beat Saber is primarily a solo game, participants noted that its immersive challenges fostered empathy in unexpected ways. Participant 31 (21 years old, male) explained, “I can experience things from inside the event while also stepping back to view them from an outside perspective. This has been one of the biggest benefits for me because I believe every situation requires both empathy and the ability to see the bigger picture.” The game’s design encourages deep engagement and personal reflection, helping players develop a better understanding of their own emotions and those of others. Some participants also highlighted how observing friends’ gameplay contributed to this process. Participant 37 (21 years old, female) remarked, “The movements I made seemed ridiculous to someone watching from the outside. Normally, you would feel embarrassed, but after putting on the headset, nothing matters. When my friends played, I started looking at them differently—it developed my sense of empathy.” These experiences, both individual and shared, helped participants recognize that outward appearances often conceal internal struggles. By combining immersive design, personal reflection, and social context, Beat Saber demonstrates how even solo VR games can foster empathy, enhancing social competence and emotional understanding in both the immediate and long-term.

Emotional benefits

Participants highlighted VR’s emotional and stress-relief benefits, describing feelings of joy, relaxation, and improved psychological well-being during and after sessions. Participant 2 (33-year-old, male) emphasized: “It had a great impact on my psychology, providing brain relief and a way to escape stress and relax.” Participant 3 (30-year-old, male) echoed similar sentiments, expressing newfound happiness and a desire to repeat the experience another day.

This emotional uplift was a common immediate outcome, providing a valuable counterbalance to daily stresses. More than half of them (n = 23/44) reported using VR as a tool for relaxation and emotional well-being. “It’s like entering a different world where my worries don’t exist” (Participant 26, 20 years old, female).

Intermediate and long-term outcomes included sustained emotional benefits, such as improved mood and reduced anxiety levels. “Over time, I’ve noticed I’m less anxious and more relaxed in general, thanks to my VR sessions” (Participant 29, 22 years old, male). The positive emotional impacts of VR underscored its potential as a therapeutic tool for enhancing mental health. “I’ve started recommending VR to friends who struggle with stress; it really helps” (Participant 21, 27 years old, female).

Participant 2 (33 years old, male) also highlighted longer-term benefits, noting VR’s potential to alleviate social problems and provide relaxation for those feeling fatigued. This capacity for emotional expression was particularly valued by participants who felt constrained in their real-life environments. “It’s like a safe space where I can be myself without any judgment” (Participant 43, 28 years old, female).

Therapeutic use

Participants also discussed the therapeutic potential of VR beyond mental health. They highlighted its use in physical rehabilitation and pain management. “VR can be a powerful tool in therapy; I’ve read about its use in helping patients with chronic pain” (Participant 11, 23 years old, male). This sentiment was echoed by others who saw VR to motivate physical activity and manage discomfort. “It distracts me from pain and encourages me to move more” (Participant 8, 29 years old, male).

Immediate therapeutic benefits included pain distraction and increased motivation for physical activity. Intermediate outcomes involved improved physical rehabilitation results, and long-term outcomes suggested that VR could become an integral part of therapeutic practices. “With more research, I believe VR could revolutionize the way we approach both mental and physical therapy” (Participant 44, 29 years old, male).

Participants also noted the potential of VR for psychological therapy. “Simulated environments in VR can help people confront their fears and anxieties in a controlled setting” (Participant 9, 24 years old, female). This use of VR for exposure therapy was seen as particularly promising. “Imagine being able to face your phobias in a safe, virtual space before tackling them in real life” (Participant 16, 25 years old, male).

Building social confidence

Participants noted significant changes in their social interactions outside of VR environments. “Using VR, I’ve become more open and sociable in real life. It is like the confidence I build in VR carries over” (Participant 29, 22 years old, male). This transfer of confidence was highlighted by several participants, who felt that VR helped them improve their social skills in the real world. “I used to be really shy, but VR helped me practice social interactions in a safe space, and now I’m more comfortable around people” (Participant 10, 23 years old, female).

Immediate social outcomes included enhanced social skills and increased confidence during VR sessions. Participants reported reduced social anxiety within VR environments. Intermediate outcomes involved noticing improved ability to initiate and maintain social interactions in real life. “Because of VR, I am better at managing social interactions. I used to overthink every conversation, but now I am more relaxed and natural” (Participant 5, 27 years old, male). Long-term effects suggested sustained reduction in social anxiety and enhanced ability to interact and communicate effectively in real-world settings. “Playing VR games where I had to cooperate with others made me more confident in group projects and presentations” (Participant 22, 25 years old, female).

Mental health concerns

While VR offered numerous benefits, participants also reported specific mental health issues that were exacerbated or alleviated by VR use. “Sometimes, the immersive nature of VR can make my anxiety worse, especially if the game is intense or stressful” (Participant 37, 21 years old, female). However, others found that VR helped reduce their anxiety. “I use VR to manage my anxiety. It helps me escape and calm down when I’m feeling overwhelmed” (Participant 14, 21 years old, female).

Immediate mental health outcomes included both positive and negative experiences. Intermediate outcomes involved adapting VR use to maximize benefits and minimize adverse effects. “I’ve learned to choose VR experiences that are relaxing and avoid ones that trigger my anxiety” (Participant 36, 21 years old, female). Long-term outcomes suggested that VR could be a valuable tool in managing mental health when used appropriately. “With the right guidance, VR can be a powerful way to support mental health and well-being” (Participant 42, 28 years old, male).

Participants also discussed the potential of VR for alleviating depression. “During tough times, VR gives me something to look forward to and helps lift my mood” (Participant 33, 20 years old, male). This mood enhancement was particularly valued by participants who struggled with depressive symptoms. “The immersive experiences in VR provide a distraction from my negative thoughts and help me feel more positive” (Participant 14, 21 years old, female).

Self-Reflection and identity exploration

Participants highlighted VR’s role in self-reflection and identity exploration. They noted how VR provided a non-judgmental space to experiment with different identities. “In VR, I can be anyone I want to be, and it helps me understand myself better,” noted Participant 1 (23 years old, female). This exploration was viewed as crucial for personal growth and self-awareness. Participant 40 (25 years old, male) stated, “I’ve discovered new interests and facets of my personality through VR.”

Immediate outcomes included enhanced self-awareness and personal insight, with participants integrating these discoveries into daily life for increased confidence and self-acceptance. “The things I learn about myself in VR help me navigate my real-life challenges better,” explained Participant 11 (23 years old, male). Long-term benefits suggested VR could significantly shape identity formation and personal growth. Participant 7 (22 years old, male) shared, “VR has become a tool for my personal development, allowing me to grow in ways I never thought possible.”

Participants also emphasized VR’s role in exploring diverse perspectives and lifestyles. Participant 39 (22 years old, female) described VR as offering the chance to experience different cultures, which broadened horizons and fostered empathy. “By stepping into someone else’s shoes, I gain a deeper appreciation for their experiences and struggles,” stated Participant 24 (20 years old, female).

The study illustrates VR’s dual nature: while it can lead to addictive behaviors, especially among frequent users, it also offers significant emotional, social, cognitive, and therapeutic benefits. Balanced use with proper guidelines can harness VR’s potential for enhancing mental health. This research offers critical insights into VR’s immediate, intermediate, and long-term impacts, emphasizing its role in mental health treatment and therapeutic strategies, alongside its ability to cultivate empathy and social connection.

Discussion

The qualitative exploration of motivations and psychological impacts of VR gaming at the game center provided valuable insights into participants’ experiences. Through in-depth interviews and thematic analysis, several key themes emerged, reflecting both the positive benefits and potential challenges associated with VR gaming.

Participants frequently cited escapism and stress relief as primary motivations for engaging in VR gaming. This finding aligns with existing literature, which highlights VR’s ability to create immersive environments that offer a temporary escape from real-world stressors, promoting relaxation and emotional well-being (Billinghurst et al., 2001; Boas, 2013). The heightened sense of presence and interactivity provided by VR amplifies these benefits, offering users a more engaging and rewarding experience (Sundar, 2004). Moreover, the study found that VR gaming induced positive emotions and enhanced overall life satisfaction, reflecting the emotional benefits often associated with gameplay (Chen, 2007). Participants also emphasized VR’s ability to serve as a physical distraction, boosting motivation for physical activity and aiding in pain management, which echoes prior research on VR’s therapeutic applications (Riva et al., 2007).

The findings regarding VR’s capacity to enhance empathy align with several theoretical perspectives, including the Theory of Mind (ToM), Empathy and Perspective-Taking Theory, and Social Presence Theory. These frameworks suggest that immersive VR environments enable users to experience different perspectives, fostering social understanding and emotional connectedness (Premack & Woodruff, 1978; Batson, 2009; Biocca et al., 2003). For example, participants reported feeling more empathetic and understanding of others’ emotions after VR gameplay. This supports research demonstrating that VR can promote prosocial behaviors and empathy through its immersive qualities (Rosenberg et al., 2013). Additionally, VR games can boost confidence by providing a safe and controlled environment to practice social interactions, helping to reduce social anxiety and build interpersonal skills (Owens & Beidel, 2015).

The theoretical frameworks of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Flow Theory offer valuable insights into the psychological mechanisms underlying VR gaming’s benefits and challenges. According to SDT, VR games can satisfy intrinsic psychological needs, such as autonomy, competence, and relatedness, enhancing emotional well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan et al., 2006). Furthermore, Flow Theory explains how VR fosters deep immersion and optimal experiences, which participants associated with enjoyment and stress relief (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Johnson et al., 2016). However, participants also identified a critical tension: while flow can enhance therapeutic benefits, it can also lead to frustration and anxiety when games become overly challenging (Chen, 2007). This underscores the importance of balancing difficulty levels to maximize the positive effects of VR.

Despite these benefits, the study highlighted significant risks associated with VR gaming, particularly concerning dependency and maladaptive coping behaviors. Griffiths (2005) notes that the immersive and rewarding nature of digital environments can lead to dependency, especially when users turn to VR as an escape from real-world challenges. Participants shared examples of this, including neglecting responsibilities and strained relationships, when VR shifted from a recreational activity to a means of avoidance. Similarly, the Dopamine Hypothesis of Reward posits that the pleasurable experiences offered by VR can overstimulate neural pathways, leading to repetitive use and dependency (Volkow et al., 2004). Prolonged use of VR headsets also resulted in physical discomfort, such as eye strain, motion sickness, and musculoskeletal pain, highlighting the need for responsible usage guidelines (Bowman & McMahan, 2007; Bowman et al., 1997).

Participants reported varied emotional responses to VR gaming, with some finding it beneficial for anxiety management while others experienced heightened anxiety from intense or overstimulating games. As Lavoie et al. (2021) suggest, the context and content of VR use play critical roles in shaping its emotional impacts. Relaxing gameplay, combined with physical movement and escapism, was effective in reducing stress, while competitive or overly complex games often increased anxiety. Moreover, VR’s potential to alleviate depressive symptoms through immersive, mood-enhancing experiences underscores its therapeutic value for individuals with mental health challenges (Freeman et al., 2017; Pallavicini et al., 2016).

These findings underscore the importance of balancing VR gameplay difficulty, duration, and intent. Structured, goal-oriented use of VR maximizes its benefits while reducing risks of dependency and maladaptive behaviors. To mitigate these risks, features such as session time tracking, in-game reminders, and adaptive difficulty settings can encourage responsible use (King & Delfabbro, 2018). Educating users about healthy gaming habits and potential pitfalls further empowers them to harness VR’s positive potential responsibly.

Ultimately, this study highlights the delicate balance between VR’s therapeutic benefits and its risks as a source of maladaptive coping. The fine line lies in how VR is used: when employed with intention and moderation, it can foster emotional regulation, empathy, and social competence. Without safeguards, however, its immersive qualities may lead to dependency, avoidance, and diminished real-world engagement. With mindful integration into therapeutic and recreational settings, VR can enhance well-being while minimizing its risks.

Implications

The findings of this study carry several implications for research, clinical practice, and the development of VR technologies. Firstly, they underscore the importance of tailored interventions that leverage VR’s immersive capabilities to promote mental health and well-being. By understanding the diverse motivations and experiences of VR gamers, developers and practitioners can design interventions that address specific psychological needs and enhance user engagement (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Saleem et al., 2021).

Secondly, the study highlights the necessity of guidelines and best practices to mitigate potential risks associated with VR gaming. For policymakers, this includes developing ethical guidelines for VR use, setting age limits, and funding research to understand VR’s long-term mental health impacts. Public awareness campaigns can inform users about healthy gaming habits and provide resources for parents to manage children’s VR use and prevent addiction. Additionally, systems should be established to track and assess VR’s societal impact on mental health, enabling timely interventions to address any negative effects.

For mental health professionals, integrating VR into therapy requires specialized training, patient monitoring, and the development of evidence-based best practices. Regular assessments of patient progress using standardized measures can enhance therapy outcomes, while screening for signs of VR addiction and promoting balanced use can prevent maladaptive behaviors. Collaborative efforts among professionals can facilitate knowledge-sharing and foster the development of innovative VR therapy techniques. Features like session time tracking, in-game reminders, and adaptive difficulty settings, as suggested by King and Delfabbro (2018), can help mitigate risks of excessive gaming and support responsible use.

VR offers a range of advantages for mental health, supported by theoretical frameworks such as Theory of Mind (ToM), Empathy and Perspective-Taking Theory, and Social Presence Theory. These frameworks highlight VR’s ability to simulate immersive environments that foster social connections, empathy, and emotional regulation. Beyond promoting social understanding, VR supports stress relief through escapism, enhances confidence by providing safe spaces for interaction, and encourages physical activity through active gameplay. However, these benefits must be weighed against potential risks, such as dependency and maladaptive escapism—where VR becomes a means of avoiding real-world challenges rather than addressing them.

To maximize its potential, VR must be used mindfully, with clear objectives and structured integration into therapeutic and recreational practices. By balancing its advantages and addressing its risks, VR can serve as a powerful tool for enhancing both mental and physical well-being.

Limitations

Despite its contributions, this study is not without limitations. Firstly, the sample primarily consisted of young adults from a single VR gaming center, which limits the generalizability of findings to broader populations or different gaming contexts. Future research should aim to include more diverse demographic groups and consider variations in gaming habits and preferences (Chen, 2007; Csikszentmihalyi, 2014).

Secondly, the reliance on self-reported experiences and perceptions may introduce biases, such as social desirability and retrospective recall (Billinghurst et al., 2001), as well as limitations stemming from participants’ self-awareness. This issue is particularly significant when addressing psychological impacts, motivations, and health benefits, as participants may lack the requisite understanding of the psychological mechanisms underlying their experiences. While efforts were made to enhance data accuracy through verbatim transcription and thematic validation, future studies could benefit from integrating objective measures, physiological assessments, or triangulated data sources to corroborate subjective findings (Boas, 2013; Cowie et al., 2021; Bowman & McMahan, 2007).

Furthermore, the study’s duration and scope may have constrained the depth of exploration into long-term psychological effects and behavioral changes associated with VR gaming (King et al., 2020). The categorization of immediate, intermediate, and long-term outcomes highlights the need for more extensive investigation into these timeframes. Longitudinal studies could provide insights into the sustainability of positive impacts and the emergence of adverse outcomes over extended periods of VR engagement (Boas, 2013; Johnson et al., 2016). This approach aligns with our focus on the study of mental health across various timeframes, emphasizing the necessity to monitor both the benefits and risks of VR gaming over time to better understand its complex effects on mental health (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014; Fleming et al., 2017). While our study relied on participants’ expressions, future research could apply longitudinal methods to gain a deeper understanding of these dynamics.

Conclusion

This qualitative study provides valuable insights into the motivations, psychological impacts, and potential challenges associated with VR gaming among participants at the Pokémon VR Station game center. Through in-depth interviews and thematic analysis, the findings illustrate how VR gaming serves as a source of escapism and stress relief, enhancing emotional well-being through immersive and engaging experiences. These outcomes align with existing literature emphasizing VR’s capacity to satisfy intrinsic psychological needs and foster positive emotions (Billinghurst et al., 2001; Ryan & Deci, 2000).

However, alongside these benefits, the study identified concerns related to addictive behaviors and physical discomfort associated with prolonged VR use. Participants reported instances of excessive gaming leading to neglect of responsibilities and symptoms like eye strain and motion sickness. These findings underscore the critical need for balanced usage guidelines and ergonomic considerations in VR design and implementation (Griffiths, 2005; Bowman & McMahan, 2007). The study highlights the dual-edge nature of VR: its ability to promote emotional well-being and social connection must be carefully balanced against the risks of dependency and maladaptive escapism.

Future research should expand upon these insights by conducting longitudinal studies to explore the sustained effects of VR gaming on mental health and behavior over time. Such research would clarify both the long-term benefits and potential risks of immersive gaming experiences (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Boas, 2013). Additionally, the inclusion of diverse and inclusive samples is crucial to understanding variations in motivations, preferences, and vulnerabilities across populations. These insights can inform the development of targeted interventions and policies that ensure the safe and beneficial use of VR technologies (Chen, 2007; Biocca et al., 2003).

In conclusion, VR gaming offers significant potential as a tool for enhancing emotional well-being, fostering empathy, and enriching human experiences. Yet, these benefits come with challenges that require thoughtful navigation. By integrating theoretical frameworks like Self-Determination Theory and Flow Theory, this study contributes to the broader discourse on VR’s psychological impacts, offering a foundation for responsible and innovative applications. The findings emphasize the need for mindful integration of VR technology in recreational and therapeutic contexts, balancing its immersive capabilities with strategies to address risks such as addiction and physical discomfort. With these insights, VR can be harnessed to maximize its potential for promoting mental health and advancing human well-being.