diff --git a/.azure-pipelines/ci.yml b/.azure-pipelines/ci.yml
index b5b2765e43844f9..9b3415fd2b5861d 100644
--- a/.azure-pipelines/ci.yml
+++ b/.azure-pipelines/ci.yml
@@ -1,11 +1,11 @@
-trigger: ['main', '3.12', '3.11', '3.10', '3.9', '3.8', '3.7']
+trigger: ['main', '3.*']
jobs:
- job: Prebuild
displayName: Pre-build checks
pool:
- vmImage: ubuntu-22.04
+ vmImage: ubuntu-24.04
steps:
- template: ./prebuild-checks.yml
diff --git a/.devcontainer/Dockerfile b/.devcontainer/Dockerfile
index 6f8fe005621c88e..ada5fb0fe64dc29 100644
--- a/.devcontainer/Dockerfile
+++ b/.devcontainer/Dockerfile
@@ -2,11 +2,11 @@ FROM docker.io/library/fedora:40
ENV CC=clang
-ENV WASI_SDK_VERSION=21
+ENV WASI_SDK_VERSION=24
ENV WASI_SDK_PATH=/opt/wasi-sdk
ENV WASMTIME_HOME=/opt/wasmtime
-ENV WASMTIME_VERSION=18.0.3
+ENV WASMTIME_VERSION=22.0.0
ENV WASMTIME_CPU_ARCH=x86_64
RUN dnf -y --nodocs --setopt=install_weak_deps=False install /usr/bin/{blurb,clang,curl,git,ln,tar,xz} 'dnf-command(builddep)' && \
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ RUN dnf -y --nodocs --setopt=install_weak_deps=False install /usr/bin/{blurb,cla
dnf -y clean all
RUN mkdir ${WASI_SDK_PATH} && \
- curl --location https://github.com/WebAssembly/wasi-sdk/releases/download/wasi-sdk-${WASI_SDK_VERSION}/wasi-sdk-${WASI_SDK_VERSION}.0-linux.tar.gz | \
+ curl --location https://github.com/WebAssembly/wasi-sdk/releases/download/wasi-sdk-${WASI_SDK_VERSION}/wasi-sdk-${WASI_SDK_VERSION}.0-x86_64-linux.tar.gz | \
tar --strip-components 1 --directory ${WASI_SDK_PATH} --extract --gunzip
RUN mkdir --parents ${WASMTIME_HOME} && \
diff --git a/.editorconfig b/.editorconfig
index a6187d64f3ce46e..d2801b8c8b60f8b 100644
--- a/.editorconfig
+++ b/.editorconfig
@@ -1,11 +1,11 @@
root = true
-[*.{py,c,cpp,h,js,rst,md,yml}]
+[*.{py,c,cpp,h,js,rst,md,yml,yaml,toml,gram}]
trim_trailing_whitespace = true
insert_final_newline = true
indent_style = space
-[*.{py,c,cpp,h}]
+[*.{py,c,cpp,h,toml,gram}]
indent_size = 4
[*.rst]
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
index 5b81d2cb3c90e9c..a1d26bdf42d3132 100644
--- a/.gitattributes
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -27,14 +27,15 @@ Lib/test/cjkencodings/* noeol
Lib/test/tokenizedata/coding20731.py noeol
Lib/test/decimaltestdata/*.decTest noeol
Lib/test/test_email/data/*.txt noeol
-Lib/test/test_importlib/resources/data01/* noeol
-Lib/test/test_importlib/resources/namespacedata01/* noeol
Lib/test/xmltestdata/* noeol
# Shell scripts should have LF even on Windows because of Cygwin
Lib/venv/scripts/common/activate text eol=lf
Lib/venv/scripts/posix/* text eol=lf
+# Prevent GitHub's web conflict editor from converting LF to CRLF
+*.rst text eol=lf
+
# CRLF files
[attr]dos text eol=crlf
@@ -76,13 +77,16 @@ Include/internal/pycore_ast_state.h generated
Include/internal/pycore_opcode.h generated
Include/internal/pycore_opcode_metadata.h generated
Include/internal/pycore_*_generated.h generated
+Include/internal/pycore_token.h generated
Include/internal/pycore_uop_ids.h generated
Include/internal/pycore_uop_metadata.h generated
Include/opcode.h generated
Include/opcode_ids.h generated
-Include/token.h generated
Lib/_opcode_metadata.py generated
+Lib/idlelib/help.html generated
Lib/keyword.py generated
+Lib/pydoc_data/topics.py generated
+Lib/pydoc_data/module_docs.py generated
Lib/test/certdata/*.pem generated
Lib/test/certdata/*.0 generated
Lib/test/levenshtein_examples.json generated
diff --git a/.github/CODEOWNERS b/.github/CODEOWNERS
index 1f5f7e57dc4859f..2827a9942096a82 100644
--- a/.github/CODEOWNERS
+++ b/.github/CODEOWNERS
@@ -5,10 +5,13 @@
# https://git-scm.com/docs/gitignore#_pattern_format
# GitHub
-.github/** @ezio-melotti @hugovk
+.github/** @ezio-melotti @hugovk @webknjaz
+.github/workflows/jit.yml @savannahostrowski
+Tools/build/compute-changes.py @AA-Turner @hugovk @webknjaz
+Lib/test/test_tools/test_compute_changes.py @AA-Turner @hugovk @webknjaz
# pre-commit
-.pre-commit-config.yaml @hugovk @AlexWaygood
+.pre-commit-config.yaml @hugovk
.ruff.toml @hugovk @AlexWaygood
# Build system
@@ -21,7 +24,8 @@ configure* @erlend-aasland @corona10
**/*context* @1st1
**/*genobject* @markshannon
**/*hamt* @1st1
-**/*jit* @brandtbucher
+**/*jit* @brandtbucher @savannahostrowski
+Python/perf_jit_trampoline.c # Exclude the owners of "**/*jit*", above.
Objects/set* @rhettinger
Objects/dict* @methane @markshannon
Objects/typevarobject.c @JelleZijlstra
@@ -29,20 +33,21 @@ Objects/type* @markshannon
Objects/codeobject.c @markshannon
Objects/frameobject.c @markshannon
Objects/call.c @markshannon
-Python/ceval*.c @markshannon @gvanrossum
-Python/ceval*.h @markshannon @gvanrossum
+Python/ceval*.c @markshannon
+Python/ceval*.h @markshannon
Python/compile.c @markshannon @iritkatriel
Python/assemble.c @markshannon @iritkatriel
Python/flowgraph.c @markshannon @iritkatriel
Python/ast_opt.c @isidentical
-Python/bytecodes.c @markshannon @gvanrossum
-Python/optimizer*.c @markshannon @gvanrossum
+Python/bytecodes.c @markshannon
+Python/optimizer*.c @markshannon
Python/optimizer_analysis.c @Fidget-Spinner
Python/optimizer_bytecodes.c @Fidget-Spinner
Lib/test/test_patma.py @brandtbucher
Lib/test/test_type_*.py @JelleZijlstra
-Lib/test/test_capi/test_misc.py @markshannon @gvanrossum
+Lib/test/test_capi/test_misc.py @markshannon
Tools/c-analyzer/ @ericsnowcurrently
+Tools/check-c-api-docs/ @ZeroIntensity
# dbm
**/*dbm* @corona10 @erlend-aasland @serhiy-storchaka
@@ -150,7 +155,7 @@ Include/internal/pycore_time.h @pganssle @abalkin
/Lib/test/test_tokenize.py @pablogsal @lysnikolaou
# Code generator
-/Tools/cases_generator/ @gvanrossum
+/Tools/cases_generator/ @markshannon
# AST
Python/ast.c @isidentical
@@ -166,7 +171,7 @@ Lib/ast.py @isidentical
**/*multiprocessing* @gpshead
# SQLite 3
-**/*sqlite* @berkerpeksag @erlend-aasland
+**/*sqlite* @erlend-aasland
# subprocess
/Lib/subprocess.py @gpshead
@@ -194,7 +199,6 @@ Doc/c-api/stable.rst @encukou
**/*itertools* @rhettinger
**/*collections* @rhettinger
**/*random* @rhettinger
-**/*queue* @rhettinger
**/*bisect* @rhettinger
**/*heapq* @rhettinger
**/*functools* @rhettinger
@@ -205,6 +209,7 @@ Doc/c-api/stable.rst @encukou
**/*ensurepip* @pfmoore @pradyunsg
**/*idlelib* @terryjreedy
+/Doc/library/idle.rst @terryjreedy
**/*typing* @JelleZijlstra @AlexWaygood
@@ -240,12 +245,12 @@ Doc/howto/clinic.rst @erlend-aasland
**/*interpreteridobject.* @ericsnowcurrently
**/*crossinterp* @ericsnowcurrently
Lib/test/support/interpreters/ @ericsnowcurrently
-Modules/_xx*interp*module.c @ericsnowcurrently
+Modules/_interp*module.c @ericsnowcurrently
Lib/test/test_interpreters/ @ericsnowcurrently
# Android
-**/*Android* @mhsmith
-**/*android* @mhsmith
+**/*Android* @mhsmith @freakboy3742
+**/*android* @mhsmith @freakboy3742
# iOS (but not termios)
**/iOS* @freakboy3742
@@ -266,3 +271,7 @@ Lib/test/test_interpreters/ @ericsnowcurrently
# Config Parser
Lib/configparser.py @jaraco
Lib/test/test_configparser.py @jaraco
+
+# Colorize
+Lib/_colorize.py @hugovk
+Lib/test/test__colorize.py @hugovk
diff --git a/.github/PULL_REQUEST_TEMPLATE.md b/.github/PULL_REQUEST_TEMPLATE.md
index 4cc2f461dbe2f21..03ea959ca14e282 100644
--- a/.github/PULL_REQUEST_TEMPLATE.md
+++ b/.github/PULL_REQUEST_TEMPLATE.md
@@ -7,10 +7,10 @@ Please read this comment in its entirety. It's quite important.
It should be in the following format:
```
-gh-NNNNN: Summary of the changes made
+gh-NNNNNN: Summary of the changes made
```
-Where: gh-NNNNN refers to the GitHub issue number.
+Where: gh-NNNNNN refers to the GitHub issue number.
Most PRs will require an issue number. Trivial changes, like fixing a typo, do not need an issue.
@@ -20,11 +20,11 @@ If this is a backport PR (PR made against branches other than `main`),
please ensure that the PR title is in the following format:
```
-[X.Y] (GH-NNNN)
+[X.Y] <title from the original PR> (GH-NNNNNN)
```
-Where: [X.Y] is the branch name, e.g. [3.6].
+Where: [X.Y] is the branch name, for example: [3.13].
-GH-NNNN refers to the PR number from `main`.
+GH-NNNNNN refers to the PR number from `main`.
-->
diff --git a/.github/actionlint.yaml b/.github/actionlint.yaml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..eacfff24889021b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/actionlint.yaml
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+config-variables: null
+
+paths:
+ .github/workflows/**/*.yml:
+ ignore:
+ - 1st argument of function call is not assignable
+ - SC2(015|038|086|091|097|098|129|155)
diff --git a/.github/dependabot.yml b/.github/dependabot.yml
index c8a3165d6903645..7f3376f8ddb1e25 100644
--- a/.github/dependabot.yml
+++ b/.github/dependabot.yml
@@ -12,6 +12,11 @@ updates:
update-types:
- "version-update:semver-minor"
- "version-update:semver-patch"
+ cooldown:
+ # https://blog.yossarian.net/2025/11/21/We-should-all-be-using-dependency-cooldowns
+ # Cooldowns protect against supply chain attacks by avoiding the
+ # highest-risk window immediately after new releases.
+ default-days: 14
- package-ecosystem: "pip"
directory: "/Tools/"
schedule:
@@ -19,3 +24,5 @@ updates:
labels:
- "skip issue"
- "skip news"
+ cooldown:
+ default-days: 14
diff --git a/.github/workflows/add-issue-header.yml b/.github/workflows/add-issue-header.yml
index 570b8779994a0f9..4c25976b9c24f72 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/add-issue-header.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/add-issue-header.yml
@@ -12,14 +12,17 @@ on:
# Only ever run once
- opened
+permissions:
+ contents: read
jobs:
add-header:
runs-on: ubuntu-latest
permissions:
issues: write
+ timeout-minutes: 5
steps:
- - uses: actions/github-script@v7
+ - uses: actions/github-script@ed597411d8f924073f98dfc5c65a23a2325f34cd # v8.0.0
with:
# language=JavaScript
script: |
diff --git a/.github/workflows/build.yml b/.github/workflows/build.yml
index 1b2677ff6fe8894..2159e06671e6c01 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/build.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/build.yml
@@ -1,165 +1,166 @@
name: Tests
-# gh-84728: "paths-ignore" is not used to skip documentation-only PRs, because
-# it prevents to mark a job as mandatory. A PR cannot be merged if a job is
-# mandatory but not scheduled because of "paths-ignore".
on:
workflow_dispatch:
push:
branches:
- 'main'
- - '3.12'
- - '3.11'
- - '3.10'
- - '3.9'
- - '3.8'
+ - '3.*'
pull_request:
branches:
- 'main'
- - '3.12'
- - '3.11'
- - '3.10'
- - '3.9'
- - '3.8'
+ - '3.*'
permissions:
contents: read
concurrency:
- group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.head_ref || github.run_id }}-reusable
+ # https://docs.github.com/en/actions/writing-workflows/workflow-syntax-for-github-actions#concurrency
+ # 'group' must be a key uniquely representing a PR or push event.
+ # github.workflow is the workflow name
+ # github.actor is the user invoking the workflow
+ # github.head_ref is the source branch of the PR or otherwise blank
+ # github.run_id is a unique number for the current run
+ group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.actor }}-${{ github.head_ref || github.run_id }}
cancel-in-progress: true
+env:
+ FORCE_COLOR: 1
+
jobs:
- check_source:
- name: 'Check for source changes'
- runs-on: ubuntu-latest
- timeout-minutes: 10
- outputs:
- run-docs: ${{ steps.docs-changes.outputs.run-docs || false }}
- run_tests: ${{ steps.check.outputs.run_tests }}
- run_hypothesis: ${{ steps.check.outputs.run_hypothesis }}
- run_cifuzz: ${{ steps.check.outputs.run_cifuzz }}
- config_hash: ${{ steps.config_hash.outputs.hash }}
+ build-context:
+ name: Change detection
+ # To use boolean outputs from this job, parse them as JSON.
+ # Here's some examples:
+ #
+ # if: fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-docs)
+ #
+ # ${{
+ # fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-tests)
+ # && 'truthy-branch'
+ # || 'falsy-branch'
+ # }}
+ #
+ uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-context.yml
+
+ check-docs:
+ name: Docs
+ needs: build-context
+ if: fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-docs)
+ uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-docs.yml
+
+ check-abi:
+ name: 'Check if the ABI has changed'
+ runs-on: ubuntu-22.04 # 24.04 causes spurious errors
+ timeout-minutes: 30
+ needs: build-context
+ if: needs.build-context.outputs.run-tests == 'true'
steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - name: Check for source changes
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - uses: actions/setup-python@a309ff8b426b58ec0e2a45f0f869d46889d02405 # v6.2.0
+ - name: Install dependencies
+ run: |
+ sudo ./.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh
+ sudo apt-get install -yq --no-install-recommends abigail-tools
+ - name: Build CPython
+ env:
+ CFLAGS: -g3 -O0
+ run: |
+ # Build Python with the libpython dynamic library
+ ./configure --enable-shared
+ make -j4
+ - name: Check for changes in the ABI
id: check
run: |
- if [ -z "$GITHUB_BASE_REF" ]; then
- echo "run_tests=true" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
- else
- git fetch origin $GITHUB_BASE_REF --depth=1
- # git diff "origin/$GITHUB_BASE_REF..." (3 dots) may be more
- # reliable than git diff "origin/$GITHUB_BASE_REF.." (2 dots),
- # but it requires to download more commits (this job uses
- # "git fetch --depth=1").
- #
- # git diff "origin/$GITHUB_BASE_REF..." (3 dots) works with Git
- # 2.26, but Git 2.28 is stricter and fails with "no merge base".
- #
- # git diff "origin/$GITHUB_BASE_REF.." (2 dots) should be enough on
- # GitHub, since GitHub starts by merging origin/$GITHUB_BASE_REF
- # into the PR branch anyway.
- #
- # https://github.com/python/core-workflow/issues/373
- git diff --name-only origin/$GITHUB_BASE_REF.. | grep -qvE '(\.rst$|^Doc|^Misc|^\.pre-commit-config\.yaml$|\.ruff\.toml$)' && echo "run_tests=true" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT || true
- fi
-
- # Check if we should run hypothesis tests
- GIT_BRANCH=${GITHUB_BASE_REF:-${GITHUB_REF#refs/heads/}}
- echo $GIT_BRANCH
- if $(echo "$GIT_BRANCH" | grep -q -w '3\.\(8\|9\|10\|11\)'); then
- echo "Branch too old for hypothesis tests"
- echo "run_hypothesis=false" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
- else
- echo "Run hypothesis tests"
- echo "run_hypothesis=true" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
- fi
-
- # oss-fuzz maintains a configuration for fuzzing the main branch of
- # CPython, so CIFuzz should be run only for code that is likely to be
- # merged into the main branch; compatibility with older branches may
- # be broken.
- FUZZ_RELEVANT_FILES='(\.c$|\.h$|\.cpp$|^configure$|^\.github/workflows/build\.yml$|^Modules/_xxtestfuzz)'
- if [ "$GITHUB_BASE_REF" = "main" ] && [ "$(git diff --name-only origin/$GITHUB_BASE_REF.. | grep -qE $FUZZ_RELEVANT_FILES; echo $?)" -eq 0 ]; then
- # The tests are pretty slow so they are executed only for PRs
- # changing relevant files.
- echo "Run CIFuzz tests"
- echo "run_cifuzz=true" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
- else
- echo "Branch too old for CIFuzz tests; or no C files were changed"
- echo "run_cifuzz=false" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
+ if ! make check-abidump; then
+ echo "Generated ABI file is not up to date."
+ echo "Please add the release manager of this branch as a reviewer of this PR."
+ echo ""
+ echo "The up to date ABI file should be attached to this build as an artifact."
+ echo ""
+ echo "To learn more about this check: https://devguide.python.org/getting-started/setup-building/index.html#regenerate-the-abi-dump"
+ echo ""
+ exit 1
fi
- - name: Compute hash for config cache key
- id: config_hash
+ - name: Generate updated ABI files
+ if: ${{ failure() && steps.check.conclusion == 'failure' }}
run: |
- echo "hash=${{ hashFiles('configure', 'configure.ac', '.github/workflows/build.yml') }}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
- - name: Get a list of the changed documentation-related files
- if: github.event_name == 'pull_request'
- id: changed-docs-files
- uses: Ana06/get-changed-files@v2.3.0
+ make regen-abidump
+ - uses: actions/upload-artifact@b7c566a772e6b6bfb58ed0dc250532a479d7789f # v6.0.0
+ name: Publish updated ABI files
+ if: ${{ failure() && steps.check.conclusion == 'failure' }}
with:
- filter: |
- Doc/**
- Misc/**
- .github/workflows/reusable-docs.yml
- format: csv # works for paths with spaces
- - name: Check for docs changes
- if: >-
- github.event_name == 'pull_request'
- && steps.changed-docs-files.outputs.added_modified_renamed != ''
- id: docs-changes
- run: |
- echo "run-docs=true" >> "${GITHUB_OUTPUT}"
+ name: abi-data
+ path: ./Doc/data/*.abi
- check-docs:
- name: Docs
- needs: check_source
- if: fromJSON(needs.check_source.outputs.run-docs)
- uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-docs.yml
-
- check_generated_files:
- name: 'Check if generated files are up to date'
+ check-autoconf-regen:
+ name: 'Check if Autoconf files are up to date'
# Don't use ubuntu-latest but a specific version to make the job
# reproducible: to get the same tools versions (autoconf, aclocal, ...)
- runs-on: ubuntu-22.04
+ runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
+ container:
+ image: ghcr.io/python/autoconf:2024.10.16.11360930377
timeout-minutes: 60
- needs: check_source
- if: needs.check_source.outputs.run_tests == 'true'
+ needs: build-context
+ if: needs.build-context.outputs.run-tests == 'true'
steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - uses: actions/setup-python@v5
- with:
- python-version: '3.x'
- - name: Runner image version
- run: echo "IMAGE_VERSION=${ImageVersion}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- - name: Restore config.cache
- uses: actions/cache@v4
- with:
- path: config.cache
- # Include env.pythonLocation in key to avoid changes in environment when setup-python updates Python
- key: ${{ github.job }}-${{ runner.os }}-${{ env.IMAGE_VERSION }}-${{ needs.check_source.outputs.config_hash }}-${{ env.pythonLocation }}
- - name: Install Dependencies
- run: sudo ./.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh
- - name: Add ccache to PATH
- run: echo "PATH=/usr/lib/ccache:$PATH" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- - name: Configure ccache action
- uses: hendrikmuhs/ccache-action@v1.2
+ - name: Install Git
+ run: |
+ apt update && apt install git -yq
+ git config --global --add safe.directory "$GITHUB_WORKSPACE"
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
with:
- save: false
+ fetch-depth: 1
+ persist-credentials: false
- name: Check Autoconf and aclocal versions
run: |
grep "Generated by GNU Autoconf 2.71" configure
grep "aclocal 1.16.5" aclocal.m4
grep -q "runstatedir" configure
grep -q "PKG_PROG_PKG_CONFIG" aclocal.m4
+ - name: Regenerate autoconf files
+ # Same command used by Tools/build/regen-configure.sh ($AUTORECONF)
+ run: autoreconf -ivf -Werror
+ - name: Check for changes
+ run: |
+ git add -u
+ changes=$(git status --porcelain)
+ # Check for changes in regenerated files
+ if test -n "$changes"; then
+ echo "Generated files not up to date."
+ echo "Perhaps you forgot to run make regen-configure ;)"
+ echo "configure files must be regenerated with a specific version of autoconf."
+ echo "$changes"
+ echo ""
+ git diff --staged || true
+ exit 1
+ fi
+
+ check-generated-files:
+ name: 'Check if generated files are up to date'
+ # Don't use ubuntu-latest but a specific version to make the job
+ # reproducible: to get the same tools versions (autoconf, aclocal, ...)
+ runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
+ timeout-minutes: 60
+ needs: build-context
+ if: needs.build-context.outputs.run-tests == 'true'
+ steps:
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - uses: actions/setup-python@a309ff8b426b58ec0e2a45f0f869d46889d02405 # v6.2.0
+ with:
+ python-version: '3.x'
+ - name: Runner image version
+ run: echo "IMAGE_OS_VERSION=${ImageOS}-${ImageVersion}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ - name: Install dependencies
+ run: sudo ./.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh
- name: Configure CPython
run: |
# Build Python with the libpython dynamic library
./configure --config-cache --with-pydebug --enable-shared
- - name: Regenerate autoconf files
- # Same command used by Tools/build/regen-configure.sh ($AUTORECONF)
- run: autoreconf -ivf -Werror
- name: Build CPython
run: |
make -j4 regen-all
@@ -186,117 +187,153 @@ jobs:
if: github.event_name == 'pull_request' # $GITHUB_EVENT_NAME
run: make check-c-globals
- build_windows:
- name: 'Windows'
- needs: check_source
- if: needs.check_source.outputs.run_tests == 'true'
- uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-windows.yml
+ check-c-api-docs:
+ name: C API Docs
+ needs: build-context
+ if: >-
+ needs.build-context.outputs.run-tests == 'true'
+ || needs.build-context.outputs.run-docs == 'true'
+ uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-check-c-api-docs.yml
- build_windows_free_threading:
- name: 'Windows (free-threading)'
- needs: check_source
- if: needs.check_source.outputs.run_tests == 'true'
+ build-windows:
+ name: >-
+ Windows
+ ${{ fromJSON(matrix.free-threading) && '(free-threading)' || '' }}
+ needs: build-context
+ if: fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-windows-tests)
+ strategy:
+ fail-fast: false
+ matrix:
+ os:
+ - windows-2022
+ arch:
+ - x64
+ free-threading:
+ - false
+ - true
+ include:
+ - os: windows-2022 # FIXME(diegorusso): change to os: windows-aarch64
+ arch: arm64
+ free-threading: false
+ - os: windows-2022 # FIXME(diegorusso): change to os: windows-aarch64
+ arch: arm64
+ free-threading: true
+ - os: windows-2022
+ arch: Win32
+ free-threading: false
uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-windows.yml
with:
- free-threading: true
+ os: ${{ matrix.os }}
+ arch: ${{ matrix.arch }}
+ free-threading: ${{ matrix.free-threading }}
- build_macos:
- name: 'macOS'
- needs: check_source
- if: needs.check_source.outputs.run_tests == 'true'
- uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-macos.yml
+ build-windows-msi:
+ # ${{ '' } is a hack to nest jobs under the same sidebar category.
+ name: Windows MSI${{ '' }} # zizmor: ignore[obfuscation]
+ needs: build-context
+ if: fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-windows-msi)
+ strategy:
+ fail-fast: false
+ matrix:
+ arch:
+ - x86
+ - x64
+ - arm64
+ uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-windows-msi.yml
with:
- config_hash: ${{ needs.check_source.outputs.config_hash }}
- # macos-14 is M1, macos-13 is Intel
- os-matrix: '["macos-14", "macos-13"]'
+ arch: ${{ matrix.arch }}
- build_macos_free_threading:
- name: 'macOS (free-threading)'
- needs: check_source
- if: needs.check_source.outputs.run_tests == 'true'
+ build-macos:
+ name: >-
+ macOS
+ ${{ fromJSON(matrix.free-threading) && '(free-threading)' || '' }}
+ needs: build-context
+ if: needs.build-context.outputs.run-macos == 'true'
+ strategy:
+ fail-fast: false
+ matrix:
+ # macos-26 is Apple Silicon, macos-26-intel is Intel.
+ # macos-26-intel only runs tests against the GIL-enabled CPython.
+ os:
+ - macos-26
+ - macos-26-intel
+ free-threading:
+ - false
+ - true
+ exclude:
+ - os: macos-26-intel
+ free-threading: true
uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-macos.yml
with:
- config_hash: ${{ needs.check_source.outputs.config_hash }}
- free-threading: true
- # macos-14-large is Intel with 12 cores (most parallelism)
- os-matrix: '["macos-14"]'
+ free-threading: ${{ matrix.free-threading }}
+ os: ${{ matrix.os }}
- build_ubuntu:
- name: 'Ubuntu'
- needs: check_source
- if: needs.check_source.outputs.run_tests == 'true'
+ build-ubuntu:
+ name: >-
+ Ubuntu
+ ${{ fromJSON(matrix.free-threading) && '(free-threading)' || '' }}
+ needs: build-context
+ if: needs.build-context.outputs.run-ubuntu == 'true'
+ strategy:
+ fail-fast: false
+ matrix:
+ free-threading:
+ - false
+ - true
uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-ubuntu.yml
with:
- config_hash: ${{ needs.check_source.outputs.config_hash }}
- options: |
- ../cpython-ro-srcdir/configure \
- --config-cache \
- --with-pydebug \
- --with-openssl=$OPENSSL_DIR
+ free-threading: ${{ matrix.free-threading }}
- build_ubuntu_free_threading:
- name: 'Ubuntu (free-threading)'
- needs: check_source
- if: needs.check_source.outputs.run_tests == 'true'
- uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-ubuntu.yml
- with:
- config_hash: ${{ needs.check_source.outputs.config_hash }}
- options: |
- ../cpython-ro-srcdir/configure \
- --config-cache \
- --with-pydebug \
- --with-openssl=$OPENSSL_DIR \
- --disable-gil
+ build-ubuntu-installed:
+ name: 'Ubuntu (installed)'
+ needs: build-context
+ if: needs.build-context.outputs.run-ubuntu == 'true'
+ uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-install.yml
- build_ubuntu_ssltests:
+ build-ubuntu-ssltests:
name: 'Ubuntu SSL tests with OpenSSL'
- runs-on: ubuntu-22.04
+ runs-on: ${{ matrix.os }}
timeout-minutes: 60
- needs: check_source
- if: needs.check_source.outputs.run_tests == 'true'
+ needs: build-context
+ if: needs.build-context.outputs.run-ubuntu == 'true'
strategy:
fail-fast: false
matrix:
- openssl_ver: [1.1.1w, 3.0.13, 3.1.5, 3.2.1]
+ os: [ubuntu-24.04]
+ # Keep 1.1.1w in our list despite it being upstream EOL and otherwise
+ # unsupported as it most resembles other 1.1.1-work-a-like ssl APIs
+ # supported by important vendors such as AWS-LC.
+ openssl_ver: [1.1.1w, 3.0.22, 3.4.7, 3.5.8, 3.6.4]
+ # See Tools/ssl/make_ssl_data.py for notes on adding a new version
env:
OPENSSL_VER: ${{ matrix.openssl_ver }}
MULTISSL_DIR: ${{ github.workspace }}/multissl
OPENSSL_DIR: ${{ github.workspace }}/multissl/openssl/${{ matrix.openssl_ver }}
LD_LIBRARY_PATH: ${{ github.workspace }}/multissl/openssl/${{ matrix.openssl_ver }}/lib
steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - name: Runner image version
- run: echo "IMAGE_VERSION=${ImageVersion}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- - name: Restore config.cache
- uses: actions/cache@v4
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
with:
- path: config.cache
- key: ${{ github.job }}-${{ runner.os }}-${{ env.IMAGE_VERSION }}-${{ needs.check_source.outputs.config_hash }}
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - name: Runner image version
+ run: echo "IMAGE_OS_VERSION=${ImageOS}-${ImageVersion}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
- name: Register gcc problem matcher
run: echo "::add-matcher::.github/problem-matchers/gcc.json"
- - name: Install Dependencies
+ - name: Install dependencies
run: sudo ./.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh
- name: Configure OpenSSL env vars
run: |
- echo "MULTISSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- echo "OPENSSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- echo "LD_LIBRARY_PATH=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}/lib" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+ echo "MULTISSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ echo "OPENSSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ echo "LD_LIBRARY_PATH=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}/lib" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
- name: 'Restore OpenSSL build'
id: cache-openssl
- uses: actions/cache@v4
+ uses: actions/cache@668228422ae6a00e4ad889ee87cd7109ec5666a7 # v5.0.4
with:
path: ./multissl/openssl/${{ env.OPENSSL_VER }}
- key: ${{ runner.os }}-multissl-openssl-${{ env.OPENSSL_VER }}
+ key: ${{ matrix.os }}-multissl-openssl-${{ env.OPENSSL_VER }}
- name: Install OpenSSL
if: steps.cache-openssl.outputs.cache-hit != 'true'
- run: python3 Tools/ssl/multissltests.py --steps=library --base-directory $MULTISSL_DIR --openssl $OPENSSL_VER --system Linux
- - name: Add ccache to PATH
- run: |
- echo "PATH=/usr/lib/ccache:$PATH" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- - name: Configure ccache action
- uses: hendrikmuhs/ccache-action@v1.2
- with:
- save: false
+ run: python3 Tools/ssl/multissltests.py --steps=library --base-directory "$MULTISSL_DIR" --openssl "$OPENSSL_VER" --system Linux
- name: Configure CPython
run: ./configure --config-cache --with-pydebug --with-openssl=$OPENSSL_DIR
- name: Build CPython
@@ -306,72 +343,82 @@ jobs:
- name: SSL tests
run: ./python Lib/test/ssltests.py
- build_wasi:
+ build-android:
+ name: Android (${{ matrix.arch }})
+ needs: build-context
+ if: needs.build-context.outputs.run-android == 'true'
+ timeout-minutes: 60
+ strategy:
+ fail-fast: false
+ matrix:
+ include:
+ - arch: aarch64
+ runs-on: macos-26
+ - arch: x86_64
+ runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
+
+ runs-on: ${{ matrix.runs-on }}
+ steps:
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - name: Build and test
+ run: ./Android/android.py ci --fast-ci ${{ matrix.arch }}-linux-android
+
+ build-wasi:
name: 'WASI'
- needs: check_source
- if: needs.check_source.outputs.run_tests == 'true'
+ needs: build-context
+ if: needs.build-context.outputs.run-wasi == 'true'
uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-wasi.yml
- with:
- config_hash: ${{ needs.check_source.outputs.config_hash }}
- test_hypothesis:
+ test-hypothesis:
name: "Hypothesis tests on Ubuntu"
- runs-on: ubuntu-22.04
+ runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
timeout-minutes: 60
- needs: check_source
- if: needs.check_source.outputs.run_tests == 'true' && needs.check_source.outputs.run_hypothesis == 'true'
+ needs: build-context
+ if: needs.build-context.outputs.run-ubuntu == 'true'
env:
- OPENSSL_VER: 3.0.13
+ OPENSSL_VER: 3.0.22
PYTHONSTRICTEXTENSIONBUILD: 1
steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
- name: Register gcc problem matcher
run: echo "::add-matcher::.github/problem-matchers/gcc.json"
- - name: Install Dependencies
+ - name: Install dependencies
run: sudo ./.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh
- name: Configure OpenSSL env vars
run: |
- echo "MULTISSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- echo "OPENSSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- echo "LD_LIBRARY_PATH=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}/lib" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+ echo "MULTISSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ echo "OPENSSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ echo "LD_LIBRARY_PATH=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}/lib" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
- name: 'Restore OpenSSL build'
id: cache-openssl
- uses: actions/cache@v4
+ uses: actions/cache@668228422ae6a00e4ad889ee87cd7109ec5666a7 # v5.0.4
with:
path: ./multissl/openssl/${{ env.OPENSSL_VER }}
key: ${{ runner.os }}-multissl-openssl-${{ env.OPENSSL_VER }}
- name: Install OpenSSL
if: steps.cache-openssl.outputs.cache-hit != 'true'
run: python3 Tools/ssl/multissltests.py --steps=library --base-directory $MULTISSL_DIR --openssl $OPENSSL_VER --system Linux
- - name: Add ccache to PATH
- run: |
- echo "PATH=/usr/lib/ccache:$PATH" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- - name: Configure ccache action
- uses: hendrikmuhs/ccache-action@v1.2
- with:
- save: false
- name: Setup directory envs for out-of-tree builds
run: |
- echo "CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR=$(realpath -m ${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/../cpython-ro-srcdir)" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- echo "CPYTHON_BUILDDIR=$(realpath -m ${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/../cpython-builddir)" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+ echo "CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR=$(realpath -m "${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}"/../cpython-ro-srcdir)" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ echo "CPYTHON_BUILDDIR=$(realpath -m "${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}"/../cpython-builddir)" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
- name: Create directories for read-only out-of-tree builds
- run: mkdir -p $CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR $CPYTHON_BUILDDIR
+ run: mkdir -p "$CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR" "$CPYTHON_BUILDDIR"
- name: Bind mount sources read-only
- run: sudo mount --bind -o ro $GITHUB_WORKSPACE $CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR
+ run: sudo mount --bind -o ro "$GITHUB_WORKSPACE" "$CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR"
- name: Runner image version
- run: echo "IMAGE_VERSION=${ImageVersion}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- - name: Restore config.cache
- uses: actions/cache@v4
- with:
- path: ${{ env.CPYTHON_BUILDDIR }}/config.cache
- key: ${{ github.job }}-${{ runner.os }}-${{ env.IMAGE_VERSION }}-${{ needs.check_source.outputs.config_hash }}
+ run: echo "IMAGE_OS_VERSION=${ImageOS}-${ImageVersion}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
- name: Configure CPython out-of-tree
working-directory: ${{ env.CPYTHON_BUILDDIR }}
run: |
../cpython-ro-srcdir/configure \
--config-cache \
--with-pydebug \
- --with-openssl=$OPENSSL_DIR
+ --with-openssl="$OPENSSL_DIR"
- name: Build CPython out-of-tree
working-directory: ${{ env.CPYTHON_BUILDDIR }}
run: make -j4
@@ -380,26 +427,26 @@ jobs:
run: make pythoninfo
- name: Remount sources writable for tests
# some tests write to srcdir, lack of pyc files slows down testing
- run: sudo mount $CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR -oremount,rw
+ run: sudo mount "$CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR" -oremount,rw
- name: Setup directory envs for out-of-tree builds
run: |
- echo "CPYTHON_BUILDDIR=$(realpath -m ${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/../cpython-builddir)" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+ echo "CPYTHON_BUILDDIR=$(realpath -m "${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}"/../cpython-builddir)" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
- name: "Create hypothesis venv"
working-directory: ${{ env.CPYTHON_BUILDDIR }}
run: |
VENV_LOC=$(realpath -m .)/hypovenv
VENV_PYTHON=$VENV_LOC/bin/python
- echo "HYPOVENV=${VENV_LOC}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- echo "VENV_PYTHON=${VENV_PYTHON}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- ./python -m venv $VENV_LOC && $VENV_PYTHON -m pip install -r ${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/Tools/requirements-hypothesis.txt
+ echo "HYPOVENV=${VENV_LOC}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ echo "VENV_PYTHON=${VENV_PYTHON}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ ./python -m venv "$VENV_LOC" && "$VENV_PYTHON" -m pip install -r "${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/Tools/requirements-hypothesis.txt"
- name: 'Restore Hypothesis database'
id: cache-hypothesis-database
- uses: actions/cache@v4
+ uses: actions/cache@668228422ae6a00e4ad889ee87cd7109ec5666a7 # v5.0.4
with:
- path: ./hypothesis
+ path: ${{ env.CPYTHON_BUILDDIR }}/.hypothesis/
key: hypothesis-database-${{ github.head_ref || github.run_id }}
restore-keys: |
- - hypothesis-database-
+ hypothesis-database-
- name: "Run tests"
working-directory: ${{ env.CPYTHON_BUILDDIR }}
run: |
@@ -407,10 +454,11 @@ jobs:
#
# (GH-104097) test_sysconfig is skipped because it has tests that are
# failing when executed from inside a virtual environment.
- ${{ env.VENV_PYTHON }} -m test \
+ "${VENV_PYTHON}" -m test \
-W \
- -o \
+ --slowest \
-j4 \
+ --timeout 900 \
-x test_asyncio \
-x test_multiprocessing_fork \
-x test_multiprocessing_forkserver \
@@ -420,62 +468,50 @@ jobs:
-x test_subprocess \
-x test_signal \
-x test_sysconfig
- - uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
+ - uses: actions/upload-artifact@b7c566a772e6b6bfb58ed0dc250532a479d7789f # v6.0.0
if: always()
with:
name: hypothesis-example-db
- path: .hypothesis/examples/
-
+ path: ${{ env.CPYTHON_BUILDDIR }}/.hypothesis/examples/
- build_asan:
+ build-asan:
name: 'Address sanitizer'
- runs-on: ubuntu-22.04
+ runs-on: ${{ matrix.os }}
timeout-minutes: 60
- needs: check_source
- if: needs.check_source.outputs.run_tests == 'true'
+ needs: build-context
+ if: needs.build-context.outputs.run-ubuntu == 'true'
+ strategy:
+ fail-fast: false
+ matrix:
+ os: [ubuntu-24.04]
env:
- OPENSSL_VER: 3.0.13
+ OPENSSL_VER: 3.0.22
PYTHONSTRICTEXTENSIONBUILD: 1
ASAN_OPTIONS: detect_leaks=0:allocator_may_return_null=1:handle_segv=0
steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - name: Runner image version
- run: echo "IMAGE_VERSION=${ImageVersion}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- - name: Restore config.cache
- uses: actions/cache@v4
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
with:
- path: config.cache
- key: ${{ github.job }}-${{ runner.os }}-${{ env.IMAGE_VERSION }}-${{ needs.check_source.outputs.config_hash }}
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - name: Runner image version
+ run: echo "IMAGE_OS_VERSION=${ImageOS}-${ImageVersion}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
- name: Register gcc problem matcher
run: echo "::add-matcher::.github/problem-matchers/gcc.json"
- - name: Install Dependencies
+ - name: Install dependencies
run: sudo ./.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh
- - name: Set up GCC-10 for ASAN
- uses: egor-tensin/setup-gcc@v1
- with:
- version: 10
- name: Configure OpenSSL env vars
run: |
- echo "MULTISSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- echo "OPENSSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- echo "LD_LIBRARY_PATH=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}/lib" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+ echo "MULTISSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ echo "OPENSSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ echo "LD_LIBRARY_PATH=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}/lib" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
- name: 'Restore OpenSSL build'
id: cache-openssl
- uses: actions/cache@v4
+ uses: actions/cache@668228422ae6a00e4ad889ee87cd7109ec5666a7 # v5.0.4
with:
path: ./multissl/openssl/${{ env.OPENSSL_VER }}
- key: ${{ runner.os }}-multissl-openssl-${{ env.OPENSSL_VER }}
+ key: ${{ matrix.os }}-multissl-openssl-${{ env.OPENSSL_VER }}
- name: Install OpenSSL
if: steps.cache-openssl.outputs.cache-hit != 'true'
- run: python3 Tools/ssl/multissltests.py --steps=library --base-directory $MULTISSL_DIR --openssl $OPENSSL_VER --system Linux
- - name: Add ccache to PATH
- run: |
- echo "PATH=/usr/lib/ccache:$PATH" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- - name: Configure ccache action
- uses: hendrikmuhs/ccache-action@v1.2
- with:
- save: ${{ github.event_name == 'push' }}
- max-size: "200M"
+ run: python3 Tools/ssl/multissltests.py --steps=library --base-directory "$MULTISSL_DIR" --openssl "$OPENSSL_VER" --system Linux
- name: Configure CPython
run: ./configure --config-cache --with-address-sanitizer --without-pymalloc
- name: Build CPython
@@ -485,136 +521,139 @@ jobs:
- name: Tests
run: xvfb-run make test
- build_tsan:
- name: 'Thread sanitizer'
- needs: check_source
- if: needs.check_source.outputs.run_tests == 'true'
- uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-tsan.yml
- with:
- config_hash: ${{ needs.check_source.outputs.config_hash }}
- options: ./configure --config-cache --with-thread-sanitizer --with-pydebug
- suppressions_path: Tools/tsan/supressions.txt
-
- build_tsan_free_threading:
- name: 'Thread sanitizer (free-threading)'
- needs: check_source
- if: needs.check_source.outputs.run_tests == 'true'
- uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-tsan.yml
+ build-san:
+ # ${{ '' } is a hack to nest jobs under the same sidebar category.
+ name: Sanitizers${{ '' }} # zizmor: ignore[obfuscation]
+ needs: build-context
+ if: needs.build-context.outputs.run-ubuntu == 'true'
+ strategy:
+ fail-fast: false
+ matrix:
+ check-name:
+ - Thread
+ free-threading:
+ - false
+ - true
+ sanitizer:
+ - TSan
+ uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-san.yml
with:
- config_hash: ${{ needs.check_source.outputs.config_hash }}
- options: ./configure --config-cache --disable-gil --with-thread-sanitizer --with-pydebug
- suppressions_path: Tools/tsan/suppressions_free_threading.txt
+ sanitizer: ${{ matrix.sanitizer }}
+ free-threading: ${{ matrix.free-threading }}
- # CIFuzz job based on https://google.github.io/oss-fuzz/getting-started/continuous-integration/
cifuzz:
- name: CIFuzz
- runs-on: ubuntu-latest
- timeout-minutes: 60
- needs: check_source
- if: needs.check_source.outputs.run_cifuzz == 'true'
+ # ${{ '' } is a hack to nest jobs under the same sidebar category.
+ name: CIFuzz${{ '' }} # zizmor: ignore[obfuscation]
+ needs: build-context
+ if: >-
+ needs.build-context.outputs.run-ci-fuzz == 'true'
+ || needs.build-context.outputs.run-ci-fuzz-stdlib == 'true'
permissions:
+ contents: read
security-events: write
strategy:
fail-fast: false
matrix:
- sanitizer: [address, undefined, memory]
- steps:
- - name: Build fuzzers (${{ matrix.sanitizer }})
- id: build
- uses: google/oss-fuzz/infra/cifuzz/actions/build_fuzzers@master
- with:
- oss-fuzz-project-name: cpython3
- sanitizer: ${{ matrix.sanitizer }}
- - name: Run fuzzers (${{ matrix.sanitizer }})
- uses: google/oss-fuzz/infra/cifuzz/actions/run_fuzzers@master
- with:
- fuzz-seconds: 600
- oss-fuzz-project-name: cpython3
- output-sarif: true
- sanitizer: ${{ matrix.sanitizer }}
- - name: Upload crash
- uses: actions/upload-artifact@v4
- if: failure() && steps.build.outcome == 'success'
- with:
- name: ${{ matrix.sanitizer }}-artifacts
- path: ./out/artifacts
- - name: Upload SARIF
- if: always() && steps.build.outcome == 'success'
- uses: github/codeql-action/upload-sarif@v3
- with:
- sarif_file: cifuzz-sarif/results.sarif
- checkout_path: cifuzz-sarif
+ sanitizer:
+ - address
+ oss-fuzz-project-name:
+ - cpython3
+ - python3-libraries
+ include:
+ - sanitizer: undefined
+ oss-fuzz-project-name: cpython3
+ - sanitizer: memory
+ oss-fuzz-project-name: cpython3
+ exclude:
+ # Note that the 'no-exclude' sentinel below is to prevent
+ # an empty string value from excluding all jobs and causing
+ # GHA to create a 'default' matrix entry with all empty values.
+ - oss-fuzz-project-name: >-
+ ${{
+ needs.build-context.outputs.run-ci-fuzz == 'true'
+ && 'no-exclude'
+ || 'cpython3'
+ }}
+ - oss-fuzz-project-name: >-
+ ${{
+ needs.build-context.outputs.run-ci-fuzz-stdlib == 'true'
+ && 'no-exclude'
+ || 'python3-libraries'
+ }}
+ uses: ./.github/workflows/reusable-cifuzz.yml
+ with:
+ oss-fuzz-project-name: ${{ matrix.oss-fuzz-project-name }}
+ sanitizer: ${{ matrix.sanitizer }}
all-required-green: # This job does nothing and is only used for the branch protection
name: All required checks pass
- if: always()
-
+ runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+ timeout-minutes: 5
needs:
- - check_source # Transitive dependency, needed to access `run_tests` value
+ - build-context # Transitive dependency, needed to access `run-tests` value
- check-docs
- - check_generated_files
- - build_macos
- - build_macos_free_threading
- - build_ubuntu
- - build_ubuntu_free_threading
- - build_ubuntu_ssltests
- - build_wasi
- - build_windows
- - build_windows_free_threading
- - test_hypothesis
- - build_asan
- - build_tsan
- - build_tsan_free_threading
+ - check-autoconf-regen
+ - check-generated-files
+ - check-c-api-docs
+ - build-windows
+ - build-windows-msi
+ - build-macos
+ - build-ubuntu
+ - build-ubuntu-installed
+ - build-ubuntu-ssltests
+ - build-wasi
+ - test-hypothesis
+ - build-asan
+ - build-san
- cifuzz
-
- runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+ if: always()
steps:
- name: Check whether the needed jobs succeeded or failed
uses: re-actors/alls-green@05ac9388f0aebcb5727afa17fcccfecd6f8ec5fe
with:
allowed-failures: >-
- build_ubuntu_ssltests,
+ build-android,
+ build-windows-msi,
+ build-ubuntu-ssltests,
+ test-hypothesis,
cifuzz,
- test_hypothesis,
allowed-skips: >-
+ ${{ !fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-docs) && 'check-docs,' || '' }}
${{
- !fromJSON(needs.check_source.outputs.run-docs)
+ needs.build-context.outputs.run-tests != 'true'
&& '
- check-docs,
+ check-autoconf-regen,
+ check-generated-files,
'
|| ''
}}
${{
- needs.check_source.outputs.run_tests != 'true'
- && '
- check_generated_files,
- build_macos,
- build_macos_free_threading,
- build_ubuntu,
- build_ubuntu_free_threading,
- build_ubuntu_ssltests,
- build_wasi,
- build_windows,
- build_windows_free_threading,
- build_asan,
- build_tsan,
- build_tsan_free_threading,
- '
+ !fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-tests)
+ && !fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-docs)
+ && 'check-c-api-docs,'
|| ''
}}
+ ${{ !fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-windows-tests) && 'build-windows,' || '' }}
${{
- !fromJSON(needs.check_source.outputs.run_cifuzz)
- && '
- cifuzz,
- '
- || ''
+ !fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-ci-fuzz)
+ && !fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-ci-fuzz-stdlib)
+ && 'cifuzz,' ||
+ ''
}}
+ ${{ !fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-macos) && 'build-macos,' || '' }}
${{
- !fromJSON(needs.check_source.outputs.run_hypothesis)
+ !fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-ubuntu)
&& '
- test_hypothesis,
+ build-ubuntu,
+ build-ubuntu-installed,
+ build-ubuntu-ssltests,
+ test-hypothesis,
+ build-asan,
+ build-san,
'
|| ''
}}
+ ${{ !fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-android) && 'build-android,' || '' }}
+ ${{ !fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-wasi) && 'build-wasi,' || '' }}
jobs: ${{ toJSON(needs) }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/build_msi.yml b/.github/workflows/build_msi.yml
deleted file mode 100644
index 65d32c734e77455..000000000000000
--- a/.github/workflows/build_msi.yml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,40 +0,0 @@
-name: TestsMSI
-
-on:
- workflow_dispatch:
- push:
- branches:
- - 'main'
- - '3.*'
- paths:
- - 'Tools/msi/**'
- - '.github/workflows/build_msi.yml'
- pull_request:
- branches:
- - 'main'
- - '3.*'
- paths:
- - 'Tools/msi/**'
- - '.github/workflows/build_msi.yml'
-
-permissions:
- contents: read
-
-concurrency:
- group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.head_ref || github.run_id }}
- cancel-in-progress: true
-
-jobs:
- build:
- name: Windows Installer
- runs-on: windows-latest
- timeout-minutes: 60
- strategy:
- matrix:
- type: [x86, x64, arm64]
- env:
- IncludeFreethreaded: true
- steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - name: Build CPython installer
- run: .\Tools\msi\build.bat --doc -${{ matrix.type }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/documentation-links.yml b/.github/workflows/documentation-links.yml
deleted file mode 100644
index 43a7afec73884e8..000000000000000
--- a/.github/workflows/documentation-links.yml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,27 +0,0 @@
-name: Read the Docs PR preview
-# Automatically edits a pull request's descriptions with a link
-# to the documentation's preview on Read the Docs.
-
-on:
- pull_request_target:
- types:
- - opened
- paths:
- - 'Doc/**'
- - '.github/workflows/doc.yml'
-
-permissions:
- pull-requests: write
-
-concurrency:
- group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.head_ref || github.run_id }}
- cancel-in-progress: true
-
-jobs:
- documentation-links:
- runs-on: ubuntu-latest
- steps:
- - uses: readthedocs/actions/preview@v1
- with:
- project-slug: "cpython-previews"
- single-version: "true"
diff --git a/.github/workflows/jit.yml b/.github/workflows/jit.yml
index 7152cde8f4607c8..ba26379bc8cb1ef 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/jit.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/jit.yml
@@ -5,11 +5,17 @@ on:
- '**jit**'
- 'Python/bytecodes.c'
- 'Python/optimizer*.c'
+ - '!Python/perf_jit_trampoline.c'
+ - '!**/*.md'
+ - '!**/*.ini'
push:
paths:
- '**jit**'
- 'Python/bytecodes.c'
- 'Python/optimizer*.c'
+ - '!Python/perf_jit_trampoline.c'
+ - '!**/*.md'
+ - '!**/*.ini'
workflow_dispatch:
permissions:
@@ -19,9 +25,28 @@ concurrency:
group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.head_ref || github.run_id }}
cancel-in-progress: true
+env:
+ FORCE_COLOR: 1
+
jobs:
+ interpreter:
+ name: Interpreter (Debug)
+ runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+ timeout-minutes: 90
+ steps:
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - name: Build tier two interpreter
+ run: |
+ ./configure --enable-experimental-jit=interpreter --with-pydebug
+ make all --jobs 4
+ - name: Test tier two interpreter
+ run: |
+ ./python -m test --multiprocess 0 --timeout 4500 --verbose2 --verbose3
jit:
name: ${{ matrix.target }} (${{ matrix.debug && 'Debug' || 'Release' }})
+ needs: interpreter
runs-on: ${{ matrix.runner }}
timeout-minutes: 90
strategy:
@@ -45,23 +70,23 @@ jobs:
include:
- target: i686-pc-windows-msvc/msvc
architecture: Win32
- runner: windows-latest
+ runner: windows-2022
compiler: msvc
- target: x86_64-pc-windows-msvc/msvc
architecture: x64
- runner: windows-latest
+ runner: windows-2022
compiler: msvc
- target: aarch64-pc-windows-msvc/msvc
architecture: ARM64
- runner: windows-latest
+ runner: windows-2022
compiler: msvc
- target: x86_64-apple-darwin/clang
architecture: x86_64
- runner: macos-13
+ runner: macos-26-intel
compiler: clang
- target: aarch64-apple-darwin/clang
architecture: aarch64
- runner: macos-14
+ runner: macos-26
compiler: clang
- target: x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu/gcc
architecture: x86_64
@@ -82,16 +107,17 @@ jobs:
env:
CC: ${{ matrix.compiler }}
steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - uses: actions/setup-python@a309ff8b426b58ec0e2a45f0f869d46889d02405 # v6.2.0
with:
python-version: '3.11'
- name: Native Windows
if: runner.os == 'Windows' && matrix.architecture != 'ARM64'
run: |
- choco upgrade llvm -y
- choco install llvm --allow-downgrade --no-progress --version ${{ matrix.llvm }}
+ choco install llvm --allow-downgrade --no-progress --version ${{ matrix.llvm }}.1.0
./PCbuild/build.bat --experimental-jit ${{ matrix.debug && '-d' || '--pgo' }} -p ${{ matrix.architecture }}
./PCbuild/rt.bat ${{ matrix.debug && '-d' || '' }} -p ${{ matrix.architecture }} -q --multiprocess 0 --timeout 4500 --verbose2 --verbose3
@@ -99,8 +125,7 @@ jobs:
- name: Emulated Windows
if: runner.os == 'Windows' && matrix.architecture == 'ARM64'
run: |
- choco upgrade llvm -y
- choco install llvm --allow-downgrade --no-progress --version ${{ matrix.llvm }}
+ choco install llvm --allow-downgrade --no-progress --version ${{ matrix.llvm }}.1.0
./PCbuild/build.bat --experimental-jit ${{ matrix.debug && '-d' || '' }} -p ${{ matrix.architecture }}
- name: Native macOS
@@ -108,22 +133,20 @@ jobs:
run: |
brew update
brew install llvm@${{ matrix.llvm }}
- SDKROOT="$(xcrun --show-sdk-path)" \
- ./configure --enable-experimental-jit ${{ matrix.debug && '--with-pydebug' || '--enable-optimizations --with-lto' }}
+ export SDKROOT="$(xcrun --show-sdk-path)"
+ ./configure --enable-experimental-jit ${{ matrix.debug && '--with-pydebug' || '--enable-optimizations --with-lto' }}
make all --jobs 4
./python.exe -m test --multiprocess 0 --timeout 4500 --verbose2 --verbose3
- # --with-lto has been removed temporarily as a result of an open issue in LLVM 18 (see https://github.com/llvm/llvm-project/issues/87553)
- name: Native Linux
if: runner.os == 'Linux' && matrix.architecture == 'x86_64'
run: |
sudo bash -c "$(wget -O - https://apt.llvm.org/llvm.sh)" ./llvm.sh ${{ matrix.llvm }}
export PATH="$(llvm-config-${{ matrix.llvm }} --bindir):$PATH"
- ./configure --enable-experimental-jit ${{ matrix.debug && '--with-pydebug' || '--enable-optimizations' }}
+ ./configure --enable-experimental-jit ${{ matrix.debug && '--with-pydebug' || '--enable-optimizations --with-lto' }}
make all --jobs 4
./python -m test --multiprocess 0 --timeout 4500 --verbose2 --verbose3
- # --with-lto has been removed temporarily as a result of an open issue in LLVM 18 (see https://github.com/llvm/llvm-project/issues/87553)
- name: Emulated Linux
if: runner.os == 'Linux' && matrix.architecture != 'x86_64'
# The --ignorefile on ./python -m test is used to exclude tests known to fail when running on an emulated Linux.
@@ -141,6 +164,28 @@ jobs:
CC="${{ matrix.compiler == 'clang' && 'clang --target=$HOST' || '$HOST-gcc' }}" \
CPP="$CC --preprocess" \
HOSTRUNNER=qemu-${{ matrix.architecture }} \
- ./configure --enable-experimental-jit ${{ matrix.debug && '--with-pydebug' || '--enable-optimizations ' }} --build=x86_64-linux-gnu --host="$HOST" --with-build-python=../build/bin/python3 --with-pkg-config=no ac_cv_buggy_getaddrinfo=no ac_cv_file__dev_ptc=no ac_cv_file__dev_ptmx=yes
+ ./configure --enable-experimental-jit ${{ matrix.debug && '--with-pydebug' || '--enable-optimizations --with-lto' }} --build=x86_64-linux-gnu --host="$HOST" --with-build-python=../build/bin/python3 --with-pkg-config=no ac_cv_buggy_getaddrinfo=no ac_cv_file__dev_ptc=no ac_cv_file__dev_ptmx=yes
make all --jobs 4
./python -m test --ignorefile=Tools/jit/ignore-tests-emulated-linux.txt --multiprocess 0 --timeout 4500 --verbose2 --verbose3
+
+ jit-with-disabled-gil:
+ name: Free-Threaded (Debug)
+ needs: interpreter
+ runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+ timeout-minutes: 90
+ steps:
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - uses: actions/setup-python@a309ff8b426b58ec0e2a45f0f869d46889d02405 # v6.2.0
+ with:
+ python-version: '3.11'
+ - name: Build with JIT enabled and GIL disabled
+ run: |
+ sudo bash -c "$(wget -O - https://apt.llvm.org/llvm.sh)" ./llvm.sh 18
+ export PATH="$(llvm-config-18 --bindir):$PATH"
+ ./configure --enable-experimental-jit --with-pydebug --disable-gil
+ make all --jobs 4
+ - name: Run tests
+ run: |
+ ./python -m test --multiprocess 0 --timeout 4500 --verbose2 --verbose3
diff --git a/.github/workflows/lint.yml b/.github/workflows/lint.yml
index ccde03f91983df0..e9a4eb2b0808cb7 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/lint.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/lint.yml
@@ -19,8 +19,7 @@ jobs:
timeout-minutes: 10
steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
with:
- python-version: "3.x"
- - uses: pre-commit/action@v3.0.1
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - uses: j178/prek-action@0bb87d7f00b0c99306c8bcb8b8beba1eb581c037 # v1.1.1
diff --git a/.github/workflows/mypy.yml b/.github/workflows/mypy.yml
index 35996f237814baf..60d0a592fee0b31 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/mypy.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/mypy.yml
@@ -8,15 +8,26 @@ on:
pull_request:
paths:
- ".github/workflows/mypy.yml"
+ - "Lib/_colorize.py"
- "Lib/_pyrepl/**"
- "Lib/test/libregrtest/**"
+ - "Lib/tomllib/**"
+ - "Misc/mypy/**"
+ - "Tools/build/mypy.ini"
+ - "Tools/build/check_extension_modules.py"
+ - "Tools/build/compute-changes.py"
+ - "Tools/build/deepfreeze.py"
- "Tools/build/generate_sbom.py"
+ - "Tools/build/generate_stdlib_module_names.py"
+ - "Tools/build/verify_ensurepip_wheels.py"
+ - "Tools/build/update_file.py"
+ - "Tools/build/umarshal.py"
- "Tools/cases_generator/**"
+ - "Tools/check-c-api-docs/**"
- "Tools/clinic/**"
- "Tools/jit/**"
- "Tools/peg_generator/**"
- "Tools/requirements-dev.txt"
- - "Tools/wasm/**"
workflow_dispatch:
permissions:
@@ -33,27 +44,32 @@ concurrency:
jobs:
mypy:
+ name: Run mypy on ${{ matrix.target }}
+ runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+ timeout-minutes: 10
strategy:
+ fail-fast: false
matrix:
target: [
"Lib/_pyrepl",
"Lib/test/libregrtest",
+ "Lib/tomllib",
"Tools/build",
"Tools/cases_generator",
+ "Tools/check-c-api-docs",
"Tools/clinic",
"Tools/jit",
"Tools/peg_generator",
- "Tools/wasm",
]
- name: Run mypy on ${{ matrix.target }}
- runs-on: ubuntu-latest
- timeout-minutes: 10
steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - uses: astral-sh/setup-uv@08807647e7069bb48b6ef5acd8ec9567f424441b # v8.1.0
with:
- python-version: "3.11"
- cache: pip
- cache-dependency-path: Tools/requirements-dev.txt
- - run: pip install -r Tools/requirements-dev.txt
- - run: mypy --config-file ${{ matrix.target }}/mypy.ini
+ python-version: "3.13"
+ activate-environment: true
+ cache-dependency-glob: Tools/requirements-dev.txt
+ - run: uv pip install -r Tools/requirements-dev.txt
+ - run: python3 Misc/mypy/make_symlinks.py --symlink
+ - run: mypy --num-workers 4 --config-file ${{ matrix.target }}/mypy.ini
diff --git a/.github/workflows/new-bugs-announce-notifier.yml b/.github/workflows/new-bugs-announce-notifier.yml
index 9f1a8a824e5f19a..e585657dde68816 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/new-bugs-announce-notifier.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/new-bugs-announce-notifier.yml
@@ -6,19 +6,21 @@ on:
- opened
permissions:
- issues: read
+ contents: read
jobs:
notify-new-bugs-announce:
runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+ permissions:
+ issues: read
timeout-minutes: 10
steps:
- - uses: actions/setup-node@v4
+ - uses: actions/setup-node@53b83947a5a98c8d113130e565377fae1a50d02f # v6.3.0
with:
node-version: 20
- run: npm install mailgun.js form-data
- name: Send notification
- uses: actions/github-script@v7
+ uses: actions/github-script@ed597411d8f924073f98dfc5c65a23a2325f34cd # v8.0.0
env:
MAILGUN_API_KEY: ${{ secrets.MAILGUN_PYTHON_ORG_MAILGUN_KEY }}
with:
diff --git a/.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh b/.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh
index fb485bd4f82bd2f..69de368f5d7b61c 100755
--- a/.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh
+++ b/.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh
@@ -1,12 +1,9 @@
#!/bin/sh
apt-get update
-# autoconf-archive is needed by autoreconf (check_generated_files job)
-apt-get -yq install \
+apt-get -yq --no-install-recommends install \
build-essential \
pkg-config \
- autoconf-archive \
- ccache \
gdb \
lcov \
libb2-dev \
@@ -15,7 +12,6 @@ apt-get -yq install \
libgdbm-dev \
libgdbm-compat-dev \
liblzma-dev \
- libmpdec-dev \
libncurses5-dev \
libreadline6-dev \
libsqlite3-dev \
diff --git a/.github/workflows/project-updater.yml b/.github/workflows/project-updater.yml
index 066d8593a70cf62..710424a28f2824b 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/project-updater.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/project-updater.yml
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@ jobs:
runs-on: ubuntu-latest
timeout-minutes: 10
strategy:
+ fail-fast: false
matrix:
include:
# if an issue has any of these labels, it will be added
@@ -23,7 +24,7 @@ jobs:
- { project: 32, label: sprint }
steps:
- - uses: actions/add-to-project@v1.0.0
+ - uses: actions/add-to-project@244f685bbc3b7adfa8466e08b698b5577571133e # v1.0.2
with:
project-url: https://github.com/orgs/python/projects/${{ matrix.project }}
github-token: ${{ secrets.ADD_TO_PROJECT_PAT }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/regen-abidump.sh b/.github/workflows/regen-abidump.sh
index 251bb3857ecfcb6..75a1a72e3702024 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/regen-abidump.sh
+++ b/.github/workflows/regen-abidump.sh
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ set -ex
export DEBIAN_FRONTEND=noninteractive
./.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh
-apt-get install -yq abigail-tools python3
+apt-get install -yq --no-install-recommends abigail-tools python3
export CFLAGS="-g3 -O0"
./configure --enable-shared && make
make regen-abidump
diff --git a/.github/workflows/require-pr-label.yml b/.github/workflows/require-pr-label.yml
index ff5cbdf3eda749a..206f24cf9d5fb32 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/require-pr-label.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/require-pr-label.yml
@@ -5,18 +5,19 @@ on:
types: [opened, reopened, labeled, unlabeled, synchronize]
permissions:
- issues: write
- pull-requests: write
+ contents: read
jobs:
label:
name: DO-NOT-MERGE / unresolved review
if: github.repository_owner == 'python'
runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+ permissions:
+ pull-requests: read
timeout-minutes: 10
steps:
- - uses: mheap/github-action-required-labels@v5
+ - uses: mheap/github-action-required-labels@0ac283b4e65c1fb28ce6079dea5546ceca98ccbe # v5.5.2
with:
mode: exactly
count: 0
diff --git a/.github/workflows/reusable-check-c-api-docs.yml b/.github/workflows/reusable-check-c-api-docs.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..db030c80008b1ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/reusable-check-c-api-docs.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+name: Reusable C API Docs Check
+
+on:
+ workflow_call:
+
+permissions:
+ contents: read
+
+env:
+ FORCE_COLOR: 1
+
+jobs:
+ check-c-api-docs:
+ name: 'Check if all C APIs are documented'
+ runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+ timeout-minutes: 5
+ steps:
+ - uses: actions/checkout@9c091bb21b7c1c1d1991bb908d89e4e9dddfe3e0 # v7.0.0
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - uses: actions/setup-python@a309ff8b426b58ec0e2a45f0f869d46889d02405 # v6.2.0
+ with:
+ python-version: '3.x'
+ - name: Check for undocumented C APIs
+ run: python Tools/check-c-api-docs/main.py
diff --git a/.github/workflows/reusable-cifuzz.yml b/.github/workflows/reusable-cifuzz.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..9b49e7fd26f0078
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/reusable-cifuzz.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+# CIFuzz job based on https://google.github.io/oss-fuzz/getting-started/continuous-integration/
+name: Reusable CIFuzz
+
+on:
+ workflow_call:
+ inputs:
+ oss-fuzz-project-name:
+ description: OSS-Fuzz project name
+ required: true
+ type: string
+ sanitizer:
+ description: OSS-Fuzz sanitizer
+ required: true
+ type: string
+
+permissions:
+ contents: read
+
+jobs:
+ cifuzz:
+ name: ${{ inputs.oss-fuzz-project-name }} (${{ inputs.sanitizer }})
+ runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+ timeout-minutes: 60
+ steps:
+ - name: Build fuzzers (${{ inputs.sanitizer }})
+ id: build
+ uses: google/oss-fuzz/infra/cifuzz/actions/build_fuzzers@ed23f8af80ff82b25ca67cd9b101e690b8897b3f # master
+ with:
+ oss-fuzz-project-name: ${{ inputs.oss-fuzz-project-name }}
+ sanitizer: ${{ inputs.sanitizer }}
+ - name: Run fuzzers (${{ inputs.sanitizer }})
+ uses: google/oss-fuzz/infra/cifuzz/actions/run_fuzzers@ed23f8af80ff82b25ca67cd9b101e690b8897b3f # master
+ with:
+ fuzz-seconds: 600
+ oss-fuzz-project-name: ${{ inputs.oss-fuzz-project-name }}
+ output-sarif: true
+ sanitizer: ${{ inputs.sanitizer }}
+ - name: Upload crash
+ if: failure() && steps.build.outcome == 'success'
+ uses: actions/upload-artifact@b7c566a772e6b6bfb58ed0dc250532a479d7789f # v6.0.0
+ with:
+ name: ${{ inputs.sanitizer }}-artifacts
+ path: ./out/artifacts
+ - name: Upload SARIF
+ if: always() && steps.build.outcome == 'success'
+ uses: github/codeql-action/upload-sarif@c10b8064de6f491fea524254123dbe5e09572f13 # v4.35.1
+ with:
+ sarif_file: cifuzz-sarif/results.sarif
+ checkout_path: cifuzz-sarif
diff --git a/.github/workflows/reusable-context.yml b/.github/workflows/reusable-context.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..8ed6873104db7be
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/reusable-context.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,121 @@
+name: Reusable build context
+
+on: # yamllint disable-line rule:truthy
+ workflow_call:
+ outputs:
+ # Every referenced step MUST always set its output variable,
+ # either via ``Tools/build/compute-changes.py`` or in this workflow file.
+ # Boolean outputs (generally prefixed ``run-``) can then later be used
+ # safely through the following idiom in job conditionals and other
+ # expressions. Here's some examples:
+ #
+ # if: fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-tests)
+ #
+ # ${{
+ # fromJSON(needs.build-context.outputs.run-tests)
+ # && 'truthy-branch'
+ # || 'falsy-branch'
+ # }}
+ #
+ run-android:
+ description: Whether to run the Android tests
+ value: ${{ jobs.compute-changes.outputs.run-android }} # bool
+ run-ci-fuzz:
+ description: Whether to run the CIFuzz job for 'cpython' fuzzer
+ value: ${{ jobs.compute-changes.outputs.run-ci-fuzz }} # bool
+ run-ci-fuzz-stdlib:
+ description: Whether to run the CIFuzz job for 'python3-libraries' fuzzer
+ value: ${{ jobs.compute-changes.outputs.run-ci-fuzz-stdlib }} # bool
+ run-docs:
+ description: Whether to build the docs
+ value: ${{ jobs.compute-changes.outputs.run-docs }} # bool
+ run-macos:
+ description: Whether to run the macOS tests
+ value: ${{ jobs.compute-changes.outputs.run-macos }} # bool
+ run-tests:
+ description: Whether to run the regular tests
+ value: ${{ jobs.compute-changes.outputs.run-tests }} # bool
+ run-ubuntu:
+ description: Whether to run the Ubuntu tests
+ value: ${{ jobs.compute-changes.outputs.run-ubuntu }} # bool
+ run-wasi:
+ description: Whether to run the WASI tests
+ value: ${{ jobs.compute-changes.outputs.run-wasi }} # bool
+ run-windows-msi:
+ description: Whether to run the MSI installer smoke tests
+ value: ${{ jobs.compute-changes.outputs.run-windows-msi }} # bool
+ run-windows-tests:
+ description: Whether to run the Windows tests
+ value: ${{ jobs.compute-changes.outputs.run-windows-tests }} # bool
+
+permissions:
+ contents: read
+
+jobs:
+ compute-changes:
+ name: Create context from changed files
+ runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+ timeout-minutes: 10
+ outputs:
+ run-android: ${{ steps.changes.outputs.run-android }}
+ run-ci-fuzz: ${{ steps.changes.outputs.run-ci-fuzz }}
+ run-ci-fuzz-stdlib: ${{ steps.changes.outputs.run-ci-fuzz-stdlib }}
+ run-docs: ${{ steps.changes.outputs.run-docs }}
+ run-macos: ${{ steps.changes.outputs.run-macos }}
+ run-tests: ${{ steps.changes.outputs.run-tests }}
+ run-ubuntu: ${{ steps.changes.outputs.run-ubuntu }}
+ run-wasi: ${{ steps.changes.outputs.run-wasi }}
+ run-windows-msi: ${{ steps.changes.outputs.run-windows-msi }}
+ run-windows-tests: ${{ steps.changes.outputs.run-windows-tests }}
+ steps:
+ - name: Set up Python
+ uses: actions/setup-python@a309ff8b426b58ec0e2a45f0f869d46889d02405 # v6.2.0
+ with:
+ python-version: "3"
+
+ - run: >-
+ echo '${{ github.event_name }}'
+
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ ref: >-
+ ${{
+ github.event_name == 'pull_request'
+ && github.event.pull_request.head.sha
+ || ''
+ }}
+
+ # Adapted from https://github.com/actions/checkout/issues/520#issuecomment-1167205721
+ - name: Fetch commits to get branch diff
+ if: github.event_name == 'pull_request'
+ run: |
+ set -eux
+
+ # Fetch enough history to find a common ancestor commit (aka merge-base):
+ git fetch origin "${refspec_pr}" --depth=$(( commits + 1 )) \
+ --no-tags --prune --no-recurse-submodules
+
+ # This should get the oldest commit in the local fetched history (which may not be the commit the PR branched from):
+ COMMON_ANCESTOR=$( git rev-list --first-parent --max-parents=0 --max-count=1 "${branch_pr}" )
+ DATE=$( git log --date=iso8601 --format=%cd "${COMMON_ANCESTOR}" )
+
+ # Get all commits since that commit date from the base branch (eg: main):
+ git fetch origin "${refspec_base}" --shallow-since="${DATE}" \
+ --no-tags --prune --no-recurse-submodules
+ env:
+ branch_pr: 'origin/${{ github.event.pull_request.head.ref }}'
+ commits: ${{ github.event.pull_request.commits }}
+ refspec_base: '+${{ github.event.pull_request.base.sha }}:remotes/origin/${{ github.event.pull_request.base.ref }}'
+ refspec_pr: '+${{ github.event.pull_request.head.sha }}:remotes/origin/${{ github.event.pull_request.head.ref }}'
+
+ # We only want to run tests on PRs when related files are changed,
+ # or when someone triggers a manual workflow run.
+ - name: Compute changed files
+ id: changes
+ run: python Tools/build/compute-changes.py
+ env:
+ GITHUB_DEFAULT_BRANCH: ${{ github.event.repository.default_branch }}
+ GITHUB_EVENT_NAME: ${{ github.event_name }}
+ CCF_TARGET_REF: ${{ github.base_ref || github.event.repository.default_branch }}
+ CCF_HEAD_REF: ${{ github.event.pull_request.head.sha || github.sha }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/reusable-docs.yml b/.github/workflows/reusable-docs.yml
index 9e26d7847d2bd33..6db7668aef9506e 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/reusable-docs.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/reusable-docs.yml
@@ -1,8 +1,19 @@
-name: Docs
+name: Reusable Docs
on:
workflow_call:
workflow_dispatch:
+ # Pushes to CPython branches seed the pip caches under the exact keys every
+ # docs PR restores from. Without a branch-scoped copy, each PR saves a
+ # duplicate into its own refs/pull/N/merge scope that nothing else can read.
+ push:
+ branches:
+ - main
+ - '3.*'
+ paths:
+ - 'Doc/pylock.toml'
+ - 'Doc/requirements.txt'
+ - '.github/workflows/reusable-docs.yml'
permissions:
contents: read
@@ -11,37 +22,48 @@ concurrency:
group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.head_ref || github.run_id }}
cancel-in-progress: true
+env:
+ FORCE_COLOR: 1
+
jobs:
- build_doc:
+ build-doc:
name: 'Docs'
runs-on: ubuntu-latest
timeout-minutes: 60
env:
branch_base: 'origin/${{ github.event.pull_request.base.ref }}'
branch_pr: 'origin/${{ github.event.pull_request.head.ref }}'
+ commits: ${{ github.event.pull_request.commits }}
refspec_base: '+${{ github.event.pull_request.base.sha }}:remotes/origin/${{ github.event.pull_request.base.ref }}'
refspec_pr: '+${{ github.event.pull_request.head.sha }}:remotes/origin/${{ github.event.pull_request.head.ref }}'
steps:
- name: 'Check out latest PR branch commit'
- uses: actions/checkout@v4
+ uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
with:
- ref: ${{ github.event.pull_request.head.sha }}
+ persist-credentials: false
+ ref: >-
+ ${{
+ github.event_name == 'pull_request'
+ && github.event.pull_request.head.sha
+ || ''
+ }}
# Adapted from https://github.com/actions/checkout/issues/520#issuecomment-1167205721
- name: 'Fetch commits to get branch diff'
+ if: github.event_name == 'pull_request'
run: |
# Fetch enough history to find a common ancestor commit (aka merge-base):
- git fetch origin ${{ env.refspec_pr }} --depth=$(( ${{ github.event.pull_request.commits }} + 1 )) \
+ git fetch origin "${refspec_pr}" --depth=$(( commits + 1 )) \
--no-tags --prune --no-recurse-submodules
# This should get the oldest commit in the local fetched history (which may not be the commit the PR branched from):
- COMMON_ANCESTOR=$( git rev-list --first-parent --max-parents=0 --max-count=1 ${{ env.branch_pr }} )
+ COMMON_ANCESTOR=$( git rev-list --first-parent --max-parents=0 --max-count=1 "${branch_pr}" )
DATE=$( git log --date=iso8601 --format=%cd "${COMMON_ANCESTOR}" )
# Get all commits since that commit date from the base branch (eg: master or main):
- git fetch origin ${{ env.refspec_base }} --shallow-since="${DATE}" \
+ git fetch origin "${refspec_base}" --shallow-since="${DATE}" \
--no-tags --prune --no-recurse-submodules
- name: 'Set up Python'
- uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+ uses: actions/setup-python@a309ff8b426b58ec0e2a45f0f869d46889d02405 # v6.2.0
with:
python-version: '3'
cache: 'pip'
@@ -54,49 +76,37 @@ jobs:
continue-on-error: true
run: |
set -Eeuo pipefail
- # Build docs with the '-n' (nit-picky) option; write warnings to file
- make -C Doc/ PYTHON=../python SPHINXOPTS="-q -n -W --keep-going -w sphinx-warnings.txt" html
+ # Build docs with the nit-picky option; write warnings to file
+ make -C Doc/ PYTHON=../python SPHINXOPTS="--quiet --nitpicky --warning-file sphinx-warnings.txt" html
- name: 'Check warnings'
if: github.event_name == 'pull_request'
run: |
python Doc/tools/check-warnings.py \
- --annotate-diff '${{ env.branch_base }}' '${{ env.branch_pr }}' \
+ --annotate-diff "${branch_base}" "${branch_pr}" \
--fail-if-regression \
- --fail-if-improved
-
- # This build doesn't use problem matchers or check annotations
- build_doc_oldest_supported_sphinx:
- name: 'Docs (Oldest Sphinx)'
- runs-on: ubuntu-latest
- timeout-minutes: 60
- steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - name: 'Set up Python'
- uses: actions/setup-python@v5
- with:
- python-version: '3.12' # known to work with Sphinx 6.2.1
- cache: 'pip'
- cache-dependency-path: 'Doc/requirements-oldest-sphinx.txt'
- - name: 'Install build dependencies'
- run: make -C Doc/ venv REQUIREMENTS="requirements-oldest-sphinx.txt"
- - name: 'Build HTML documentation'
- run: make -C Doc/ SPHINXOPTS="-q" SPHINXERRORHANDLING="-W --keep-going" html
+ --fail-if-improved \
+ --fail-if-new-news-nit
+ - name: 'Build list of changes'
+ run: |
+ make -C Doc/ PYTHON=../python changes
# Run "doctest" on HEAD as new syntax doesn't exist in the latest stable release
doctest:
name: 'Doctest'
- runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+ runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
timeout-minutes: 60
steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - uses: actions/cache@v4
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - uses: actions/cache@668228422ae6a00e4ad889ee87cd7109ec5666a7 # v5.0.4
with:
path: ~/.cache/pip
key: ubuntu-doc-${{ hashFiles('Doc/requirements.txt') }}
restore-keys: |
ubuntu-doc-
- name: 'Install Dependencies'
- run: sudo ./.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh && sudo apt-get install wamerican
+ run: sudo ./.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh && sudo apt-get install --no-install-recommends wamerican
- name: 'Configure CPython'
run: ./configure --with-pydebug
- name: 'Build CPython'
@@ -105,4 +115,31 @@ jobs:
run: make -C Doc/ PYTHON=../python venv
# Use "xvfb-run" since some doctest tests open GUI windows
- name: 'Run documentation doctest'
- run: xvfb-run make -C Doc/ PYTHON=../python SPHINXERRORHANDLING="-W --keep-going" doctest
+ run: xvfb-run make -C Doc/ PYTHON=../python SPHINXERRORHANDLING="--fail-on-warning" doctest
+
+ check-epub:
+ name: 'Check EPUB'
+ runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+ timeout-minutes: 30
+ steps:
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - name: 'Set up Python'
+ uses: actions/setup-python@a309ff8b426b58ec0e2a45f0f869d46889d02405 # v6.2.0
+ with:
+ python-version: '3'
+ cache: 'pip'
+ cache-dependency-path: 'Doc/requirements.txt'
+ - name: 'Install build dependencies'
+ run: |
+ make -C Doc/ venv
+ python -m pip install epubcheck
+ - name: 'Build EPUB documentation'
+ run: make -C Doc/ PYTHON=../python epub
+ - name: 'Run epubcheck'
+ continue-on-error: true
+ run: epubcheck Doc/build/epub/Python.epub &> Doc/epubcheck.txt
+ - run: cat Doc/epubcheck.txt
+ - name: 'Check for fatal errors in EPUB'
+ run: python Doc/tools/check-epub.py
diff --git a/.github/workflows/reusable-install.yml b/.github/workflows/reusable-install.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..79b7147b12c368f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/reusable-install.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+name: Reusable Ubuntu (installed)
+
+on:
+ workflow_call:
+
+permissions:
+ contents: read
+
+env:
+ FORCE_COLOR: 1
+
+jobs:
+ build-install-test:
+ name: build, install and test
+ runs-on: ubuntu-24.04-arm
+ timeout-minutes: 60
+ env:
+ PYTHONSTRICTEXTENSIONBUILD: 1
+ steps:
+ - uses: actions/checkout@9c091bb21b7c1c1d1991bb908d89e4e9dddfe3e0 # v7.0.0
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - name: Register gcc problem matcher
+ run: echo "::add-matcher::.github/problem-matchers/gcc.json"
+ - name: Set install dir
+ run:
+ echo "INSTALL_DIR=$(realpath "${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/../installed-python")" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ - name: Install dependencies
+ run: sudo ./.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh
+ - name: Configure CPython
+ run: ./configure --config-cache --prefix="$INSTALL_DIR"
+ - name: Build CPython
+ run: make -j
+ - name: Install CPython
+ run: make install
+ - name: Set installed interpreter
+ run: |
+ ldversion=$(./python -c 'import sysconfig; print(sysconfig.get_config_var("LDVERSION"))')
+ echo "INSTALLED_PYTHON=${INSTALL_DIR}/bin/python${ldversion}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ - name: Display build info
+ run: |
+ "$INSTALLED_PYTHON" -m test.pythoninfo
+ - name: Test the installed Python
+ run: xvfb-run "$INSTALLED_PYTHON" -m test --fast-ci --timeout=900
diff --git a/.github/workflows/reusable-macos.yml b/.github/workflows/reusable-macos.yml
index d06a718d199c96d..04f4d03b49129a2 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/reusable-macos.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/reusable-macos.yml
@@ -1,20 +1,27 @@
+name: Reusable macOS
+
on:
workflow_call:
inputs:
- config_hash:
- required: true
- type: string
free-threading:
required: false
type: boolean
default: false
- os-matrix:
- required: false
+ os:
+ description: OS to run the job
+ required: true
type: string
+permissions:
+ contents: read
+
+env:
+ FORCE_COLOR: 1
+
jobs:
- build_macos:
- name: 'build and test'
+ build-macos:
+ name: build and test (${{ inputs.os }})
+ runs-on: ${{ inputs.os }}
timeout-minutes: 60
env:
HOMEBREW_NO_ANALYTICS: 1
@@ -23,22 +30,17 @@ jobs:
HOMEBREW_NO_INSTALLED_DEPENDENTS_CHECK: 1
PYTHONSTRICTEXTENSIONBUILD: 1
TERM: linux
- strategy:
- fail-fast: false
- matrix:
- os: ${{fromJson(inputs.os-matrix)}}
- runs-on: ${{ matrix.os }}
steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - name: Runner image version
- run: echo "IMAGE_VERSION=${ImageVersion}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- - name: Restore config.cache
- uses: actions/cache@v4
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
with:
- path: config.cache
- key: ${{ github.job }}-${{ matrix.os }}-${{ env.IMAGE_VERSION }}-${{ inputs.config_hash }}
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - name: Runner image version
+ run: echo "IMAGE_OS_VERSION=${ImageOS}-${ImageVersion}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
- name: Install Homebrew dependencies
- run: brew install pkg-config openssl@3.0 xz gdbm tcl-tk
+ run: |
+ brew bundle --file=Misc/Brewfile
+ # Because alternate versions are not symlinked into place by default:
+ brew link --overwrite tcl-tk@8
- name: Configure CPython
run: |
GDBM_CFLAGS="-I$(brew --prefix gdbm)/include" \
diff --git a/.github/workflows/reusable-san.yml b/.github/workflows/reusable-san.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..f4b23eed8bff573
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/reusable-san.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
+name: Reusable Sanitizer
+
+on:
+ workflow_call:
+ inputs:
+ sanitizer:
+ required: true
+ type: string
+ free-threading:
+ description: Whether to use free-threaded mode
+ required: false
+ type: boolean
+ default: false
+
+permissions:
+ contents: read
+
+env:
+ FORCE_COLOR: 1
+
+jobs:
+ build-san-reusable:
+ name: >-
+ ${{ inputs.sanitizer }}${{
+ inputs.free-threading
+ && ' (free-threading)'
+ || ''
+ }}
+ runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
+ timeout-minutes: 60
+ steps:
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - name: Runner image version
+ run: echo "IMAGE_OS_VERSION=${ImageOS}-${ImageVersion}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ - name: Install dependencies
+ run: |
+ sudo ./.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh
+ # Install clang
+ wget https://apt.llvm.org/llvm.sh
+ chmod +x llvm.sh
+ sudo ./llvm.sh 20
+ sudo update-alternatives --install /usr/bin/clang clang /usr/bin/clang-20 100
+ sudo update-alternatives --set clang /usr/bin/clang-20
+ sudo update-alternatives --install /usr/bin/clang++ clang++ /usr/bin/clang++-20 100
+ sudo update-alternatives --set clang++ /usr/bin/clang++-20
+
+ if [ "${SANITIZER}" = "TSan" ]; then
+ # Reduce ASLR to avoid TSan crashing
+ sudo sysctl -w vm.mmap_rnd_bits=28
+ fi
+
+ - name: Sanitizer option setup
+ run: |
+ if [ "${SANITIZER}" = "TSan" ]; then
+ echo "TSAN_OPTIONS=${SAN_LOG_OPTION} suppressions=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/Tools/tsan/suppressions${{
+ inputs.free-threading
+ && '_free_threading'
+ || ''
+ }}.txt handle_segv=0" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ else
+ echo "UBSAN_OPTIONS=${SAN_LOG_OPTION}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ fi
+ echo "CC=clang" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ echo "CXX=clang++" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ env:
+ SANITIZER: ${{ inputs.sanitizer }}
+ SAN_LOG_OPTION: log_path=${{ github.workspace }}/san_log
+ - name: Configure CPython
+ run: >-
+ ./configure
+ --config-cache
+ ${{
+ inputs.sanitizer == 'TSan'
+ && '--with-thread-sanitizer'
+ || '--with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer'
+ }}
+ --with-pydebug
+ ${{ inputs.free-threading && '--disable-gil' || '' }}
+ - name: Build CPython
+ run: make -j4
+ - name: Display build info
+ run: make pythoninfo
+ - name: Tests
+ run: >-
+ ./python -m test
+ ${{ inputs.sanitizer == 'TSan' && '--tsan' || '' }}
+ -j4 -W
+ - name: Display logs
+ if: always()
+ run: find "${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}" -name 'san_log.*' | xargs head -n 1000
+ - name: Archive logs
+ if: always()
+ uses: actions/upload-artifact@b7c566a772e6b6bfb58ed0dc250532a479d7789f # v6.0.0
+ with:
+ name: >-
+ ${{ inputs.sanitizer }}-logs-${{
+ inputs.free-threading
+ && 'free-threading'
+ || 'default'
+ }}
+ path: san_log.*
+ if-no-files-found: ignore
diff --git a/.github/workflows/reusable-tsan.yml b/.github/workflows/reusable-tsan.yml
deleted file mode 100644
index 48bd5b547e8cba8..000000000000000
--- a/.github/workflows/reusable-tsan.yml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,62 +0,0 @@
-on:
- workflow_call:
- inputs:
- config_hash:
- required: true
- type: string
- options:
- required: true
- type: string
- suppressions_path:
- description: 'A repo relative path to the suppressions file'
- required: true
- type: string
-
-jobs:
- build_tsan_reusable:
- name: 'Thread sanitizer'
- runs-on: ubuntu-22.04
- timeout-minutes: 60
- steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - name: Runner image version
- run: echo "IMAGE_VERSION=${ImageVersion}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- - name: Restore config.cache
- uses: actions/cache@v4
- with:
- path: config.cache
- key: ${{ github.job }}-${{ runner.os }}-${{ env.IMAGE_VERSION }}-${{ inputs.config_hash }}
- - name: Install Dependencies
- run: |
- sudo ./.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh
- # Install clang-18
- wget https://apt.llvm.org/llvm.sh
- chmod +x llvm.sh
- sudo ./llvm.sh 18
- sudo update-alternatives --install /usr/bin/clang clang /usr/bin/clang-18 100
- sudo update-alternatives --set clang /usr/bin/clang-18
- sudo update-alternatives --install /usr/bin/clang++ clang++ /usr/bin/clang++-18 100
- sudo update-alternatives --set clang++ /usr/bin/clang++-18
- # Reduce ASLR to avoid TSAN crashing
- sudo sysctl -w vm.mmap_rnd_bits=28
- - name: TSAN Option Setup
- run: |
- echo "TSAN_OPTIONS=suppressions=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/${{ inputs.suppressions_path }}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- echo "CC=clang" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- echo "CXX=clang++" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- - name: Add ccache to PATH
- run: |
- echo "PATH=/usr/lib/ccache:$PATH" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- - name: Configure ccache action
- uses: hendrikmuhs/ccache-action@v1.2
- with:
- save: ${{ github.event_name == 'push' }}
- max-size: "200M"
- - name: Configure CPython
- run: ${{ inputs.options }}
- - name: Build CPython
- run: make -j4
- - name: Display build info
- run: make pythoninfo
- - name: Tests
- run: ./python -m test --tsan -j4
diff --git a/.github/workflows/reusable-ubuntu.yml b/.github/workflows/reusable-ubuntu.yml
index fa450ed33763219..d8f65795d0bc801 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/reusable-ubuntu.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/reusable-ubuntu.yml
@@ -1,78 +1,82 @@
+name: Reusable Ubuntu
+
on:
workflow_call:
inputs:
- config_hash:
- required: true
- type: string
- options:
- required: true
- type: string
+ free-threading:
+ description: Whether to use free-threaded mode
+ required: false
+ type: boolean
+ default: false
+
+permissions:
+ contents: read
+
+env:
+ FORCE_COLOR: 1
jobs:
- build_ubuntu_reusable:
+ build-ubuntu-reusable:
name: 'build and test'
+ runs-on: ${{ matrix.os }}
timeout-minutes: 60
- runs-on: ubuntu-22.04
+ strategy:
+ fail-fast: false
+ matrix:
+ os: [ubuntu-24.04, ubuntu-24.04-arm]
env:
- FORCE_COLOR: 1
- OPENSSL_VER: 3.0.13
+ OPENSSL_VER: 3.0.22
PYTHONSTRICTEXTENSIONBUILD: 1
TERM: linux
steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
- name: Register gcc problem matcher
run: echo "::add-matcher::.github/problem-matchers/gcc.json"
- name: Install dependencies
run: sudo ./.github/workflows/posix-deps-apt.sh
- name: Configure OpenSSL env vars
run: |
- echo "MULTISSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- echo "OPENSSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- echo "LD_LIBRARY_PATH=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}/lib" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+ echo "MULTISSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ echo "OPENSSL_DIR=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ echo "LD_LIBRARY_PATH=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/multissl/openssl/${OPENSSL_VER}/lib" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
- name: 'Restore OpenSSL build'
id: cache-openssl
- uses: actions/cache@v4
+ uses: actions/cache@668228422ae6a00e4ad889ee87cd7109ec5666a7 # v5.0.4
with:
path: ./multissl/openssl/${{ env.OPENSSL_VER }}
- key: ${{ runner.os }}-multissl-openssl-${{ env.OPENSSL_VER }}
+ key: ${{ matrix.os }}-multissl-openssl-${{ env.OPENSSL_VER }}
- name: Install OpenSSL
if: steps.cache-openssl.outputs.cache-hit != 'true'
- run: python3 Tools/ssl/multissltests.py --steps=library --base-directory $MULTISSL_DIR --openssl $OPENSSL_VER --system Linux
- - name: Add ccache to PATH
- run: |
- echo "PATH=/usr/lib/ccache:$PATH" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- - name: Configure ccache action
- uses: hendrikmuhs/ccache-action@v1.2
- with:
- save: ${{ github.event_name == 'push' }}
- max-size: "200M"
+ run: python3 Tools/ssl/multissltests.py --steps=library --base-directory "$MULTISSL_DIR" --openssl "$OPENSSL_VER" --system Linux
- name: Setup directory envs for out-of-tree builds
run: |
- echo "CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR=$(realpath -m ${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/../cpython-ro-srcdir)" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- echo "CPYTHON_BUILDDIR=$(realpath -m ${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/../cpython-builddir)" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+ echo "CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR=$(realpath -m "${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}"/../cpython-ro-srcdir)" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+ echo "CPYTHON_BUILDDIR=$(realpath -m "${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}"/../cpython-builddir)" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
- name: Create directories for read-only out-of-tree builds
- run: mkdir -p $CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR $CPYTHON_BUILDDIR
+ run: mkdir -p "$CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR" "$CPYTHON_BUILDDIR"
- name: Bind mount sources read-only
- run: sudo mount --bind -o ro $GITHUB_WORKSPACE $CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR
+ run: sudo mount --bind -o ro "$GITHUB_WORKSPACE" "$CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR"
- name: Runner image version
- run: echo "IMAGE_VERSION=${ImageVersion}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
- - name: Restore config.cache
- uses: actions/cache@v4
- with:
- path: ${{ env.CPYTHON_BUILDDIR }}/config.cache
- key: ${{ github.job }}-${{ runner.os }}-${{ env.IMAGE_VERSION }}-${{ inputs.config_hash }}
+ run: echo "IMAGE_OS_VERSION=${ImageOS}-${ImageVersion}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
- name: Configure CPython out-of-tree
working-directory: ${{ env.CPYTHON_BUILDDIR }}
- run: ${{ inputs.options }}
+ run: >-
+ ../cpython-ro-srcdir/configure
+ --config-cache
+ --with-pydebug
+ --with-openssl="$OPENSSL_DIR"
+ ${{ inputs.free-threading && '--disable-gil' || '' }}
- name: Build CPython out-of-tree
working-directory: ${{ env.CPYTHON_BUILDDIR }}
- run: make -j4
+ run: make -j
- name: Display build info
working-directory: ${{ env.CPYTHON_BUILDDIR }}
run: make pythoninfo
- name: Remount sources writable for tests
# some tests write to srcdir, lack of pyc files slows down testing
- run: sudo mount $CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR -oremount,rw
+ run: sudo mount "$CPYTHON_RO_SRCDIR" -oremount,rw
- name: Tests
working-directory: ${{ env.CPYTHON_BUILDDIR }}
run: xvfb-run make test
diff --git a/.github/workflows/reusable-wasi.yml b/.github/workflows/reusable-wasi.yml
index c389fe9e173b38d..41fad6d72dbf2c7 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/reusable-wasi.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/reusable-wasi.yml
@@ -1,73 +1,63 @@
+name: Reusable WASI
+
on:
workflow_call:
- inputs:
- config_hash:
- required: true
- type: string
+
+permissions:
+ contents: read
+
+env:
+ FORCE_COLOR: 1
jobs:
- build_wasi_reusable:
+ build-wasi-reusable:
name: 'build and test'
+ runs-on: ubuntu-24.04
timeout-minutes: 60
- runs-on: ubuntu-22.04
env:
- WASMTIME_VERSION: 18.0.3
- WASI_SDK_VERSION: 21
+ WASMTIME_VERSION: 38.0.3
+ WASI_SDK_VERSION: 24
WASI_SDK_PATH: /opt/wasi-sdk
- CROSS_BUILD_PYTHON: cross-build/build
- CROSS_BUILD_WASI: cross-build/wasm32-wasi
+ CROSS_BUILD_WASI: cross-build/wasm32-wasip1
steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
# No problem resolver registered as one doesn't currently exist for Clang.
- name: "Install wasmtime"
- uses: jcbhmr/setup-wasmtime@v2
+ uses: bytecodealliance/actions/wasmtime/setup@9152e710e9f7182e4c29ad218e4f335a7b203613 # v1.1.3
with:
- wasmtime-version: ${{ env.WASMTIME_VERSION }}
+ version: ${{ env.WASMTIME_VERSION }}
- name: "Restore WASI SDK"
id: cache-wasi-sdk
- uses: actions/cache@v4
+ uses: actions/cache@668228422ae6a00e4ad889ee87cd7109ec5666a7 # v5.0.4
with:
path: ${{ env.WASI_SDK_PATH }}
key: ${{ runner.os }}-wasi-sdk-${{ env.WASI_SDK_VERSION }}
- - name: "Install WASI SDK"
+ - name: "Install WASI SDK" # Hard-coded to x64.
if: steps.cache-wasi-sdk.outputs.cache-hit != 'true'
run: |
- mkdir ${{ env.WASI_SDK_PATH }} && \
- curl -s -S --location https://github.com/WebAssembly/wasi-sdk/releases/download/wasi-sdk-${{ env.WASI_SDK_VERSION }}/wasi-sdk-${{ env.WASI_SDK_VERSION }}.0-linux.tar.gz | \
- tar --strip-components 1 --directory ${{ env.WASI_SDK_PATH }} --extract --gunzip
- - name: "Configure ccache action"
- uses: hendrikmuhs/ccache-action@v1.2
- with:
- save: ${{ github.event_name == 'push' }}
- max-size: "200M"
- - name: "Add ccache to PATH"
- run: echo "PATH=/usr/lib/ccache:$PATH" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+ mkdir "${WASI_SDK_PATH}" && \
+ curl -s -S --location "https://github.com/WebAssembly/wasi-sdk/releases/download/wasi-sdk-${WASI_SDK_VERSION}/wasi-sdk-${WASI_SDK_VERSION}.0-x86_64-linux.tar.gz" | \
+ tar --strip-components 1 --directory "${WASI_SDK_PATH}" --extract --gunzip
- name: "Install Python"
- uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+ uses: actions/setup-python@a309ff8b426b58ec0e2a45f0f869d46889d02405 # v6.2.0
with:
python-version: '3.x'
- - name: "Restore Python build config.cache"
- uses: actions/cache@v4
- with:
- path: ${{ env.CROSS_BUILD_PYTHON }}/config.cache
- # Include env.pythonLocation in key to avoid changes in environment when setup-python updates Python
- key: ${{ github.job }}-${{ runner.os }}-${{ env.IMAGE_VERSION }}-${{ inputs.config_hash }}-${{ env.pythonLocation }}
+ - name: "Runner image version"
+ run: echo "IMAGE_OS_VERSION=${ImageOS}-${ImageVersion}" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
- name: "Configure build Python"
run: python3 Tools/wasm/wasi.py configure-build-python -- --config-cache --with-pydebug
- name: "Make build Python"
run: python3 Tools/wasm/wasi.py make-build-python
- - name: "Restore host config.cache"
- uses: actions/cache@v4
- with:
- path: ${{ env.CROSS_BUILD_WASI }}/config.cache
- # Include env.pythonLocation in key to avoid changes in environment when setup-python updates Python
- key: ${{ github.job }}-${{ runner.os }}-${{ env.IMAGE_VERSION }}-wasi-sdk-${{ env.WASI_SDK_VERSION }}-${{ inputs.config_hash }}-${{ env.pythonLocation }}
- - name: "Configure host"
+ - name: "Display build info of the build Python"
+ run: python3 Tools/wasm/wasi.py pythoninfo-build
+ - name: "Configure host/WASI Python"
# `--with-pydebug` inferred from configure-build-python
run: python3 Tools/wasm/wasi.py configure-host -- --config-cache
- - name: "Make host"
+ - name: "Make host/WASI Python"
run: python3 Tools/wasm/wasi.py make-host
- - name: "Display build info"
- run: make --directory ${{ env.CROSS_BUILD_WASI }} pythoninfo
+ - name: "Display build info of the host/WASI Python"
+ run: python3 Tools/wasm/wasi.py pythoninfo-host
- name: "Test"
- run: make --directory ${{ env.CROSS_BUILD_WASI }} test
+ run: make --directory "${CROSS_BUILD_WASI}" test
diff --git a/.github/workflows/reusable-windows-msi.yml b/.github/workflows/reusable-windows-msi.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..e690224f35537b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/reusable-windows-msi.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+name: Reusable Windows MSI
+
+on:
+ workflow_call:
+ inputs:
+ arch:
+ description: CPU architecture
+ required: true
+ type: string
+
+permissions:
+ contents: read
+
+env:
+ FORCE_COLOR: 1
+
+jobs:
+ build:
+ name: installer for ${{ inputs.arch }}
+ runs-on: windows-2022
+ timeout-minutes: 60
+ env:
+ ARCH: ${{ inputs.arch }}
+ IncludeFreethreaded: true
+ steps:
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - name: Build CPython installer
+ run: ./Tools/msi/build.bat --doc -"${ARCH}"
+ shell: bash
diff --git a/.github/workflows/reusable-windows.yml b/.github/workflows/reusable-windows.yml
index c0209e0e1c92e93..74ee4513fb6b1c5 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/reusable-windows.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/reusable-windows.yml
@@ -1,53 +1,59 @@
+name: Reusable Windows
+
on:
workflow_call:
inputs:
+ os:
+ description: OS to run on
+ required: true
+ type: string
+ arch:
+ description: CPU architecture
+ required: true
+ type: string
free-threading:
+ description: Whether to compile CPython in free-threading mode
required: false
type: boolean
default: false
-jobs:
- build_win32:
- name: 'build and test (x86)'
- runs-on: windows-latest
- timeout-minutes: 60
- env:
- IncludeUwp: 'true'
- steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - name: Build CPython
- run: .\PCbuild\build.bat -e -d -v -p Win32 ${{ inputs.free-threading && '--disable-gil' || '' }}
- - name: Display build info
- run: .\python.bat -m test.pythoninfo
- - name: Tests
- run: .\PCbuild\rt.bat -p Win32 -d -q --fast-ci ${{ inputs.free-threading && '--disable-gil' || '' }}
+permissions:
+ contents: read
- build_win_amd64:
- name: 'build and test (x64)'
- runs-on: windows-latest
- timeout-minutes: 60
- env:
- IncludeUwp: 'true'
- steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - name: Register MSVC problem matcher
- run: echo "::add-matcher::.github/problem-matchers/msvc.json"
- - name: Build CPython
- run: .\PCbuild\build.bat -e -d -v -p x64 ${{ inputs.free-threading && '--disable-gil' || '' }}
- - name: Display build info
- run: .\python.bat -m test.pythoninfo
- - name: Tests
- run: .\PCbuild\rt.bat -p x64 -d -q --fast-ci ${{ inputs.free-threading && '--disable-gil' || '' }}
+env:
+ FORCE_COLOR: 1
+ IncludeUwp: >-
+ true
- build_win_arm64:
- name: 'build (arm64)'
- runs-on: windows-latest
+jobs:
+ build:
+ name: ${{ inputs.arch == 'arm64' && 'build' || 'build and test' }} (${{ inputs.arch }})
+ runs-on: ${{ inputs.os }}
timeout-minutes: 60
env:
- IncludeUwp: 'true'
+ ARCH: ${{ inputs.arch }}
steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
- name: Register MSVC problem matcher
+ if: inputs.arch != 'Win32'
run: echo "::add-matcher::.github/problem-matchers/msvc.json"
- name: Build CPython
- run: .\PCbuild\build.bat -e -d -v -p arm64 ${{ inputs.free-threading && '--disable-gil' || '' }}
+ run: >-
+ .\\PCbuild\\build.bat
+ -e -d -v
+ -p "${ARCH}"
+ ${{ inputs.free-threading && '--disable-gil' || '' }}
+ shell: bash
+ - name: Display build info # FIXME(diegorusso): remove the `if`
+ if: inputs.arch != 'arm64'
+ run: .\\python.bat -m test.pythoninfo
+ - name: Tests # FIXME(diegorusso): remove the `if`
+ if: inputs.arch != 'arm64'
+ run: >-
+ .\\PCbuild\\rt.bat
+ -p "${ARCH}"
+ -d -q --fast-ci
+ ${{ inputs.free-threading && '--disable-gil' || '' }}
+ shell: bash
diff --git a/.github/workflows/stale.yml b/.github/workflows/stale.yml
index f97587e68cbbe43..1fbc4a20dbc7ddd 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/stale.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/stale.yml
@@ -5,18 +5,19 @@ on:
- cron: "0 */6 * * *"
permissions:
- pull-requests: write
+ contents: read
jobs:
stale:
if: github.repository_owner == 'python'
-
runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+ permissions:
+ pull-requests: write
timeout-minutes: 10
steps:
- name: "Check PRs"
- uses: actions/stale@v9
+ uses: actions/stale@5bef64f19d7facfb25b37b414482c7164d639639 # v9.1.0
with:
repo-token: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
stale-pr-message: 'This PR is stale because it has been open for 30 days with no activity.'
diff --git a/.github/workflows/verify-ensurepip-wheels.yml b/.github/workflows/verify-ensurepip-wheels.yml
index 83b007f1c9c2efe..cb40f6abc0b3b75 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/verify-ensurepip-wheels.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/verify-ensurepip-wheels.yml
@@ -25,8 +25,10 @@ jobs:
runs-on: ubuntu-latest
timeout-minutes: 10
steps:
- - uses: actions/checkout@v4
- - uses: actions/setup-python@v5
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - uses: actions/setup-python@a309ff8b426b58ec0e2a45f0f869d46889d02405 # v6.2.0
with:
python-version: '3'
- name: Compare checksum of bundled wheels to the ones published on PyPI
diff --git a/.github/workflows/verify-expat.yml b/.github/workflows/verify-expat.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..472a11db2da5fbf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/workflows/verify-expat.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+name: Verify bundled libexpat
+
+on:
+ workflow_dispatch:
+ push:
+ paths:
+ - 'Modules/expat/**'
+ - '.github/workflows/verify-expat.yml'
+ pull_request:
+ paths:
+ - 'Modules/expat/**'
+ - '.github/workflows/verify-expat.yml'
+
+permissions:
+ contents: read
+
+concurrency:
+ group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.head_ref || github.run_id }}
+ cancel-in-progress: true
+
+jobs:
+ verify:
+ runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+ timeout-minutes: 5
+ steps:
+ - uses: actions/checkout@de0fac2e4500dabe0009e67214ff5f5447ce83dd # v6.0.2
+ with:
+ persist-credentials: false
+ - name: Download and verify bundled libexpat files
+ run: |
+ ./Modules/expat/refresh.sh
+ git diff --exit-code Modules/expat/
diff --git a/.github/zizmor.yml b/.github/zizmor.yml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..7c776d5ea1f941a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.github/zizmor.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+# Configuration for the zizmor static analysis tool, run via prek in CI
+# https://docs.zizmor.sh/configuration/
+rules:
+ dangerous-triggers:
+ ignore:
+ - documentation-links.yml
diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
index 8872e9d5508ff14..661f7c8ec4b4a61 100644
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -38,6 +38,7 @@ tags
TAGS
.vs/
.vscode/
+.cache/
gmon.out
.coverage
.mypy_cache/
@@ -79,7 +80,6 @@ iOS/testbed/Python.xcframework/ios-*/lib
iOS/testbed/Python.xcframework/ios-*/Python.framework
iOS/testbed/iOSTestbed.xcodeproj/project.xcworkspace
iOS/testbed/iOSTestbed.xcodeproj/xcuserdata
-iOS/testbed/iOSTestbed.xcodeproj/xcshareddata
Mac/Makefile
Mac/PythonLauncher/Info.plist
Mac/PythonLauncher/Makefile
@@ -134,14 +134,15 @@ Tools/unicode/data/
/config.log
/config.status
/config.status.lineno
-# hendrikmuhs/ccache-action@v1
/.ccache
/cross-build/
-/jit_stencils.h
+/jit_stencils*.h
+/jit_unwind_info*.h
/platform
/profile-clean-stamp
/profile-run-stamp
/profile-bolt-stamp
+/profile-gen-stamp
/pybuilddir.txt
/pyconfig.h
/python-config
@@ -169,5 +170,3 @@ Python/frozen_modules/MANIFEST
/python
!/Python/
-# main branch only: ABI files are not checked/maintained.
-Doc/data/python*.abi
diff --git a/.pre-commit-config.yaml b/.pre-commit-config.yaml
index fde9d9149bf62b1..7f8383e6b4aa75c 100644
--- a/.pre-commit-config.yaml
+++ b/.pre-commit-config.yaml
@@ -1,26 +1,72 @@
repos:
- repo: https://github.com/astral-sh/ruff-pre-commit
- rev: v0.3.4
+ rev: a27a2e47c7751b639d2b5badf0ef6ff11fee893f # frozen: v0.15.4
hooks:
- - id: ruff
- name: Run Ruff on Lib/test/
+ - id: ruff-check
+ name: Run Ruff (lint) on Doc/
+ args: [--exit-non-zero-on-fix]
+ files: ^Doc/
+ - id: ruff-check
+ name: Run Ruff (lint) on Lib/test/
args: [--exit-non-zero-on-fix]
files: ^Lib/test/
- - id: ruff
- name: Run Ruff on Argument Clinic
+ - id: ruff-check
+ name: Run Ruff (lint) on Tools/i18n/
+ args: [--exit-non-zero-on-fix, --config=Tools/i18n/.ruff.toml]
+ files: ^Tools/i18n/
+ - id: ruff-check
+ name: Run Ruff (lint) on Argument Clinic
args: [--exit-non-zero-on-fix, --config=Tools/clinic/.ruff.toml]
files: ^Tools/clinic/|Lib/test/test_clinic.py
+ - id: ruff-check
+ name: Run Ruff (lint) on Tools/peg_generator/
+ args: [--exit-non-zero-on-fix, --config=Tools/peg_generator/.ruff.toml]
+ files: ^Tools/peg_generator/
+ - id: ruff-check
+ name: Run Ruff (lint) on Tools/wasm/
+ args: [--exit-non-zero-on-fix, --config=Tools/wasm/.ruff.toml]
+ files: ^Tools/wasm/
+ - id: ruff-format
+ name: Run Ruff (format) on Doc/
+ args: [--exit-non-zero-on-fix]
+ files: ^Doc/
+ - id: ruff-format
+ name: Run Ruff (format) on Tools/wasm/
+ args: [--exit-non-zero-on-fix, --config=Tools/wasm/.ruff.toml]
+ files: ^Tools/wasm/
- repo: https://github.com/psf/black-pre-commit-mirror
- rev: 24.4.2
+ rev: ea488cebbfd88a5f50b8bd95d5c829d0bb76feb8 # frozen: 26.1.0
hooks:
- id: black
name: Run Black on Tools/jit/
files: ^Tools/jit/
- language_version: python3.12
+
+ - repo: https://github.com/Lucas-C/pre-commit-hooks
+ rev: ad1b27d73581aa16cca06fc4a0761fc563ffe8e8 # frozen: v1.5.6
+ hooks:
+ - id: remove-tabs
+ types: [python]
+ exclude: ^Tools/c-analyzer/cpython/_parser.py
+
+ - repo: local
+ hooks:
+ - id: blurb-no-space-c-api
+ name: Check C API news entries
+ language: fail
+ entry: Space found in path, move to Misc/NEWS.d/next/C_API/
+ files: Misc/NEWS.d/next/C API/20.*.rst
+
+ - repo: local
+ hooks:
+ - id: blurb-no-space-core-and-builtins
+ name: Check Core and Builtins news entries
+ language: fail
+ entry: Space found in path, move to Misc/NEWS.d/next/Core_and_Builtins/
+ files: Misc/NEWS.d/next/Core and Builtins/20.*.rst
- repo: https://github.com/pre-commit/pre-commit-hooks
- rev: v4.5.0
+ rev: 3e8a8703264a2f4a69428a0aa4dcb512790b2c8c # frozen: v6.0.0
hooks:
- id: check-case-conflict
- id: check-merge-conflict
@@ -28,13 +74,37 @@ repos:
exclude: ^Lib/test/test_tomllib/
- id: check-yaml
- id: end-of-file-fixer
- types: [python]
+ types_or: [python, yaml]
exclude: Lib/test/tokenizedata/coding20731.py
+ - id: end-of-file-fixer
+ files: '^\.github/CODEOWNERS$'
+ - id: mixed-line-ending
+ args: [--fix=auto]
+ exclude: '^Lib/test/.*data/'
+ - id: trailing-whitespace
+ types_or: [c, inc, python, rst, yaml]
- id: trailing-whitespace
- types_or: [c, inc, python, rst]
+ files: '^\.github/CODEOWNERS|\.(gram)$'
+
+ - repo: https://github.com/python-jsonschema/check-jsonschema
+ rev: 9f48a48aa91a6040d749ad68ec70907d907a5a7f # frozen: 0.37.0
+ hooks:
+ - id: check-dependabot
+ - id: check-github-workflows
+ - id: check-readthedocs
+
+ - repo: https://github.com/rhysd/actionlint
+ rev: 914e7df21a07ef503a81201c76d2b11c789d3fca # frozen: v1.7.12
+ hooks:
+ - id: actionlint
+
+ - repo: https://github.com/zizmorcore/zizmor-pre-commit
+ rev: b546b77c44c466a54a42af5499dcc0dcc1a3193f # frozen: v1.22.0
+ hooks:
+ - id: zizmor
- repo: https://github.com/sphinx-contrib/sphinx-lint
- rev: v0.9.1
+ rev: c883505f64b59c3c5c9375191e4ad9f98e727ccd # frozen: v1.0.2
hooks:
- id: sphinx-lint
args: [--enable=default-role]
diff --git a/.readthedocs.yml b/.readthedocs.yml
index 59830c79a404e0f..038417e4bb34385 100644
--- a/.readthedocs.yml
+++ b/.readthedocs.yml
@@ -8,25 +8,53 @@ sphinx:
configuration: Doc/conf.py
build:
- os: ubuntu-22.04
+ os: ubuntu-24.04
tools:
python: "3"
+ apt_packages:
+ - jq
- commands:
- # https://docs.readthedocs.io/en/stable/build-customization.html#cancel-build-based-on-a-condition
- #
- # Cancel building pull requests when there aren't changes in the Doc directory.
- #
- # If there are no changes (git diff exits with 0) we force the command to return with 183.
- # This is a special exit code on Read the Docs that will cancel the build immediately.
- - |
- if [ "$READTHEDOCS_VERSION_TYPE" = "external" ] && [ "$(git diff --quiet origin/main -- Doc/ .readthedocs.yml; echo $?)" -eq 0 ];
- then
- echo "No changes to Doc/ - exiting the build.";
- exit 183;
- fi
-
- - make -C Doc venv html
- - mkdir _readthedocs
- - mv Doc/build/html _readthedocs/html
-
+ jobs:
+ post_system_dependencies:
+ # https://docs.readthedocs.com/platform/stable/guides/build/skip-build.html#skip-builds-based-on-conditions
+ #
+ # Cancel building pull requests when there are no changes in the Doc
+ # directory or RTD configuration, or if we can't cleanly merge the base
+ # branch.
+ - |
+ set -eEux;
+ if [ "$READTHEDOCS_VERSION_TYPE" = "external" ];
+ then
+ base_branch=$(wget -qO- "https://api.github.com/repos/python/cpython/pulls/$READTHEDOCS_VERSION" | jq -er ".base.ref");
+ git fetch --depth=50 origin $base_branch:origin-$base_branch;
+ for attempt in $(seq 10);
+ do
+ if ! git merge-base HEAD origin-$base_branch;
+ then
+ git fetch --deepen=50 origin $base_branch;
+ else
+ break;
+ fi;
+ done;
+ if ! git -c "user.name=rtd" -c "user.email=no-reply@readthedocs.org" merge --no-stat --no-edit origin-$base_branch;
+ then
+ echo "Unsuccessful merge with '$base_branch' branch, skipping the build";
+ exit 183;
+ fi;
+ if git diff --exit-code --stat origin-$base_branch -- Doc/ .readthedocs.yml;
+ then
+ echo "No changes to Doc/ - skipping the build.";
+ exit 183;
+ fi;
+ fi;
+ create_environment:
+ - echo "Skipping default environment creation"
+ install:
+ - asdf plugin add uv
+ - asdf install uv latest
+ - asdf global uv latest
+ build:
+ html:
+ - make -C Doc venv html
+ - mkdir -p "$READTHEDOCS_OUTPUT"
+ - mv Doc/build/html "$READTHEDOCS_OUTPUT/"
diff --git a/.ruff.toml b/.ruff.toml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..1c015fa88415bc9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.ruff.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+# Default settings for Ruff in CPython
+
+# PYTHON_FOR_REGEN
+target-version = "py310"
+
+# PEP 8
+line-length = 79
+
+# Enable automatic fixes by default.
+# To override this, use ``fix = false`` in a subdirectory's config file
+# or ``--no-fix`` on the command line.
+fix = true
diff --git a/Android/README.md b/Android/README.md
index f5f463ca116589c..271ef94d0b40dfa 100644
--- a/Android/README.md
+++ b/Android/README.md
@@ -1,19 +1,22 @@
# Python for Android
-These instructions are only needed if you're planning to compile Python for
-Android yourself. Most users should *not* need to do this. If you're looking to
-use Python on Android, one of the following tools will provide a much more
-approachable user experience:
+If you obtained this README as part of a release package, then the only
+applicable sections are "Prerequisites", "Testing", and "Using in your own app".
-* [Briefcase](https://briefcase.readthedocs.io), from the BeeWare project
-* [Buildozer](https://buildozer.readthedocs.io), from the Kivy project
-* [Chaquopy](https://chaquo.com/chaquopy/)
+If you obtained this README as part of the CPython source tree, then you can
+also follow the other sections to compile Python for Android yourself.
+
+However, most app developers should not need to do any of these things manually.
+Instead, use one of the tools listed
+[here](https://docs.python.org/3/using/android.html), which will provide a much
+easier experience.
## Prerequisites
-Export the `ANDROID_HOME` environment variable to point at your Android SDK. If
-you don't already have the SDK, here's how to install it:
+If you already have an Android SDK installed, export the `ANDROID_HOME`
+environment variable to point at its location. Otherwise, here's how to install
+it:
* Download the "Command line tools" from <https://developer.android.com/studio>.
* Create a directory `android-sdk/cmdline-tools`, and unzip the command line
@@ -22,25 +25,24 @@ you don't already have the SDK, here's how to install it:
`android-sdk/cmdline-tools/latest`.
* `export ANDROID_HOME=/path/to/android-sdk`
-The `android.py` script also requires the following commands to be on the `PATH`:
+The `android.py` script will automatically use the SDK's `sdkmanager` to install
+any packages it needs.
+
+The script also requires the following commands to be on the `PATH`:
* `curl`
-* `java`
-* `tar`
-* `unzip`
+* `java` (or set the `JAVA_HOME` environment variable).
+ Java versions 17, 21 and 25 are supported.
## Building
Python can be built for Android on any POSIX platform supported by the Android
-development tools, which currently means Linux or macOS. This involves doing a
-cross-build where you use a "build" Python (for your development machine) to
-help produce a "host" Python for Android.
+development tools, which currently means Linux or macOS.
-First, make sure you have all the usual tools and libraries needed to build
-Python for your development machine. The only Android tool you need to install
-is the command line tools package above: the build script will download the
-rest.
+First we'll make a "build" Python (for your development machine), then use it to
+help produce a "host" Python for Android. So make sure you have all the usual
+tools and libraries needed to build Python for your development machine.
The easiest way to do a build is to use the `android.py` script. You can either
have it perform the entire build process from start to finish in one step, or
@@ -65,8 +67,8 @@ To do all steps in a single command, run:
./android.py build HOST
```
-In the end you should have a build Python in `cross-build/build`, and an Android
-build in `cross-build/HOST`.
+In the end you should have a build Python in `cross-build/build`, and a host
+Python in `cross-build/HOST`.
You can use `--` as a separator for any of the `configure`-related commands –
including `build` itself – to pass arguments to the underlying `configure`
@@ -78,20 +80,82 @@ call. For example, if you want a pydebug build that also caches the results from
```
+## Packaging
+
+After building an architecture as described in the section above, you can
+package it for release with this command:
+
+```sh
+./android.py package HOST
+```
+
+`HOST` is defined in the section above.
+
+This will generate a tarball in `cross-build/HOST/dist`, whose structure is
+similar to the `Android` directory of the CPython source tree.
+
+
## Testing
-To run the Python test suite on Android:
-
-* Install Android Studio, if you don't already have it.
-* Follow the instructions in the previous section to build all supported
- architectures.
-* Run `./android.py setup-testbed` to download the Gradle wrapper.
-* Open the `testbed` directory in Android Studio.
-* In the *Device Manager* dock, connect a device or start an emulator.
- Then select it from the drop-down list in the toolbar.
-* Click the "Run" button in the toolbar.
-* The testbed app displays nothing on screen while running. To see its output,
- open the [Logcat window](https://developer.android.com/studio/debug/logcat).
-
-To run specific tests, or pass any other arguments to the test suite, edit the
-command line in testbed/app/src/main/python/main.py.
+The Python test suite can be run on Linux, macOS, or Windows.
+
+On Linux, the emulator needs access to the KVM virtualization interface. This may
+require adding your user to a group, or changing your udev rules. On GitHub
+Actions, the test script will do this automatically using the commands shown
+[here](https://github.blog/changelog/2024-04-02-github-actions-hardware-accelerated-android-virtualization-now-available/).
+
+You can run the test suite either:
+
+* Within the CPython repository, after doing a build as described above. On
+ Windows, you won't be able to do the build on the same machine, so you'll have
+ to copy the `cross-build/HOST/prefix` directory from somewhere else.
+
+* Or by taking a release package built using the `package` command, extracting
+ it wherever you want, and using its own copy of `android.py`.
+
+The test script supports the following modes:
+
+* In `--connected` mode, it runs on a device or emulator you have already
+ connected to the build machine. List the available devices with
+ `$ANDROID_HOME/platform-tools/adb devices -l`, then pass a device ID to the
+ script like this:
+
+ ```sh
+ ./android.py test --connected emulator-5554
+ ```
+
+* In `--managed` mode, it uses a temporary headless emulator defined in the
+ `managedDevices` section of testbed/app/build.gradle.kts. This mode is slower,
+ but more reproducible.
+
+ We currently define two devices: `minVersion` and `maxVersion`, corresponding
+ to our minimum and maximum supported Android versions. For example:
+
+ ```sh
+ ./android.py test --managed maxVersion
+ ```
+
+By default, the only messages the script will show are Python's own stdout and
+stderr. Add the `-v` option to also show Gradle output, and non-Python logcat
+messages.
+
+Any other arguments on the `android.py test` command line will be passed through
+to `python -m test` – use `--` to separate them from android.py's own options.
+See the [Python Developer's
+Guide](https://devguide.python.org/testing/run-write-tests/) for common options
+– most of them will work on Android, except for those that involve subprocesses,
+such as `-j`.
+
+Every time you run `android.py test`, changes in pure-Python files in the
+repository's `Lib` directory will be picked up immediately. Changes in C files,
+and architecture-specific files such as sysconfigdata, will not take effect
+until you re-run `android.py make-host` or `build`.
+
+The testbed app can also be used to test third-party packages. For more details,
+run `android.py test --help`, paying attention to the options `--site-packages`,
+`--cwd`, `-c` and `-m`.
+
+
+## Using in your own app
+
+See https://docs.python.org/3/using/android.html.
diff --git a/Android/android-env.sh b/Android/android-env.sh
index 545d559d93ab36c..40381316a2071e0 100644
--- a/Android/android-env.sh
+++ b/Android/android-env.sh
@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
# This script must be sourced with the following variables already set:
-: ${ANDROID_HOME:?} # Path to Android SDK
-: ${HOST:?} # GNU target triplet
+: "${ANDROID_HOME:?}" # Path to Android SDK
+: "${HOST:?}" # GNU target triplet
# You may also override the following:
-: ${api_level:=21} # Minimum Android API level the build will run on
-: ${PREFIX:-} # Path in which to find required libraries
+: "${ANDROID_API_LEVEL:=21}" # Minimum Android API level the build will run on
+: "${PREFIX:-}" # Path in which to find required libraries
-# Print all messages on stderr so they're visible when running within build-wheel.
+# Print all messages on stderr so they're visible when stdout is captured.
log() {
echo "$1" >&2
}
@@ -24,26 +24,26 @@ fail() {
# * https://android.googlesource.com/platform/ndk/+/ndk-rXX-release/docs/BuildSystemMaintainers.md
# where XX is the NDK version. Do a diff against the version you're upgrading from, e.g.:
# https://android.googlesource.com/platform/ndk/+/ndk-r25-release..ndk-r26-release/docs/BuildSystemMaintainers.md
-ndk_version=26.2.11394342
+ndk_version=27.3.13750724
ndk=$ANDROID_HOME/ndk/$ndk_version
-if ! [ -e $ndk ]; then
- log "Installing NDK: this may take several minutes"
- yes | $ANDROID_HOME/cmdline-tools/latest/bin/sdkmanager "ndk;$ndk_version"
+if ! [ -e "$ndk/package.xml" ]; then
+ log "Installing NDK - this may take several minutes"
+ yes | "$ANDROID_HOME/cmdline-tools/latest/bin/sdkmanager" "ndk;$ndk_version"
fi
-if [ $HOST = "arm-linux-androideabi" ]; then
+if [ "$HOST" = "arm-linux-androideabi" ]; then
clang_triplet=armv7a-linux-androideabi
else
- clang_triplet=$HOST
+ clang_triplet="$HOST"
fi
# These variables are based on BuildSystemMaintainers.md above, and
# $ndk/build/cmake/android.toolchain.cmake.
-toolchain=$(echo $ndk/toolchains/llvm/prebuilt/*)
+toolchain=$(echo "$ndk"/toolchains/llvm/prebuilt/*)
export AR="$toolchain/bin/llvm-ar"
export AS="$toolchain/bin/llvm-as"
-export CC="$toolchain/bin/${clang_triplet}${api_level}-clang"
+export CC="$toolchain/bin/${clang_triplet}${ANDROID_API_LEVEL}-clang"
export CXX="${CC}++"
export LD="$toolchain/bin/ld"
export NM="$toolchain/bin/llvm-nm"
@@ -58,8 +58,8 @@ for path in "$AR" "$AS" "$CC" "$CXX" "$LD" "$NM" "$RANLIB" "$READELF" "$STRIP";
fi
done
-export CFLAGS=""
-export LDFLAGS="-Wl,--build-id=sha1 -Wl,--no-rosegment"
+export CFLAGS="-D__BIONIC_NO_PAGE_SIZE_MACRO"
+export LDFLAGS="-Wl,--build-id=sha1 -Wl,--no-rosegment -Wl,-z,max-page-size=16384"
# Unlike Linux, Android does not implicitly use a dlopened library to resolve
# relocations in subsequently-loaded libraries, even if RTLD_GLOBAL is used
@@ -72,12 +72,12 @@ LDFLAGS="$LDFLAGS -lm"
# -mstackrealign is included where necessary in the clang launcher scripts which are
# pointed to by $CC, so we don't need to include it here.
-if [ $HOST = "arm-linux-androideabi" ]; then
+if [ "$HOST" = "arm-linux-androideabi" ]; then
CFLAGS="$CFLAGS -march=armv7-a -mthumb"
fi
if [ -n "${PREFIX:-}" ]; then
- abs_prefix=$(realpath $PREFIX)
+ abs_prefix="$(realpath "$PREFIX")"
CFLAGS="$CFLAGS -I$abs_prefix/include"
LDFLAGS="$LDFLAGS -L$abs_prefix/lib"
@@ -85,9 +85,15 @@ if [ -n "${PREFIX:-}" ]; then
export PKG_CONFIG_LIBDIR="$abs_prefix/lib/pkgconfig"
fi
+# When compiling C++, some build systems will combine CFLAGS and CXXFLAGS, and some will
+# use CXXFLAGS alone.
+export CXXFLAGS="$CFLAGS"
+
# Use the same variable name as conda-build
-if [ $(uname) = "Darwin" ]; then
- export CPU_COUNT=$(sysctl -n hw.ncpu)
+if [ "$(uname)" = "Darwin" ]; then
+ CPU_COUNT="$(sysctl -n hw.ncpu)"
+ export CPU_COUNT
else
- export CPU_COUNT=$(nproc)
+ CPU_COUNT="$(nproc)"
+ export CPU_COUNT
fi
diff --git a/Android/android.py b/Android/android.py
index 0a1393e61ddb0e6..c5198c96bdd40c7 100755
--- a/Android/android.py
+++ b/Android/android.py
@@ -1,33 +1,107 @@
#!/usr/bin/env python3
+import asyncio
import argparse
+import json
import os
+import platform
import re
+import shlex
import shutil
+import signal
import subprocess
import sys
import sysconfig
-from os.path import basename, relpath
+from asyncio import wait_for
+from contextlib import asynccontextmanager
+from datetime import datetime, timezone
+from enum import IntEnum, auto
+from glob import glob
+from os.path import abspath, basename, relpath
from pathlib import Path
+from subprocess import CalledProcessError
from tempfile import TemporaryDirectory
+
SCRIPT_NAME = Path(__file__).name
-CHECKOUT = Path(__file__).resolve().parent.parent
-CROSS_BUILD_DIR = CHECKOUT / "cross-build"
+ANDROID_DIR = Path(__file__).resolve().parent
+PYTHON_DIR = ANDROID_DIR.parent
+in_source_tree = (
+ ANDROID_DIR.name == "Android" and (PYTHON_DIR / "pyconfig.h.in").exists()
+)
+
+ENV_SCRIPT = ANDROID_DIR / "android-env.sh"
+TESTBED_DIR = ANDROID_DIR / "testbed"
+CROSS_BUILD_DIR = PYTHON_DIR / "cross-build"
+
+HOSTS = [
+ "aarch64-linux-android",
+ "arm-linux-androideabi",
+ "i686-linux-android",
+ "x86_64-linux-android",
+]
+APP_ID = "org.python.testbed"
+DECODE_ARGS = ("UTF-8", "backslashreplace")
+
+
+try:
+ android_home = Path(os.environ['ANDROID_HOME'])
+except KeyError:
+ sys.exit("The ANDROID_HOME environment variable is required.")
+
+adb = Path(
+ f"{android_home}/platform-tools/adb"
+ + (".exe" if os.name == "nt" else "")
+)
+
+gradlew = Path(
+ f"{TESTBED_DIR}/gradlew"
+ + (".bat" if os.name == "nt" else "")
+)
+
+# Whether we've seen any output from Python yet.
+python_started = False
+
+# Buffer for verbose output which will be displayed only if a test fails and
+# there has been no output from Python.
+hidden_output = []
+
+# Based on android/log.h in the NDK.
+class LogPriority(IntEnum):
+ UNKNOWN = 0
+ DEFAULT = auto()
+ VERBOSE = auto()
+ DEBUG = auto()
+ INFO = auto()
+ WARN = auto()
+ ERROR = auto()
+ FATAL = auto()
+ SILENT = auto()
-def delete_if_exists(path):
- if path.exists():
+
+def log_verbose(context, line, stream=sys.stdout):
+ if context.verbose:
+ stream.write(line)
+ else:
+ hidden_output.append((stream, line))
+
+
+def delete_glob(pattern):
+ # Path.glob doesn't accept non-relative patterns.
+ for path in glob(str(pattern)):
+ path = Path(path)
print(f"Deleting {path} ...")
- shutil.rmtree(path)
+ if path.is_dir() and not path.is_symlink():
+ shutil.rmtree(path)
+ else:
+ path.unlink()
-def subdir(name, *, clean=None):
- path = CROSS_BUILD_DIR / name
- if clean:
- delete_if_exists(path)
+def subdir(*parts, create=False):
+ path = CROSS_BUILD_DIR.joinpath(*parts)
if not path.exists():
- if clean is None:
+ if not create:
sys.exit(
f"{path} does not exist. Create it by running the appropriate "
f"`configure` subcommand of {SCRIPT_NAME}.")
@@ -36,39 +110,69 @@ def subdir(name, *, clean=None):
return path
-def run(command, *, host=None, **kwargs):
- env = os.environ.copy()
+def run(command, *, host=None, env=None, log=True, **kwargs):
+ kwargs.setdefault("check", True)
+ if env is None:
+ env = os.environ.copy()
+
if host:
- env_script = CHECKOUT / "Android/android-env.sh"
- env_output = subprocess.run(
- f"set -eu; "
- f"HOST={host}; "
- f"PREFIX={subdir(host)}/prefix; "
- f". {env_script}; "
- f"export",
- check=True, shell=True, text=True, stdout=subprocess.PIPE
- ).stdout
-
- for line in env_output.splitlines():
- # We don't require every line to match, as there may be some other
- # output from installing the NDK.
- if match := re.search(
- "^(declare -x |export )?(\\w+)=['\"]?(.*?)['\"]?$", line
- ):
- key, value = match[2], match[3]
- if env.get(key) != value:
- print(line)
- env[key] = value
-
- if env == os.environ:
- raise ValueError(f"Found no variables in {env_script.name} output:\n"
- + env_output)
-
- print(">", " ".join(map(str, command)))
- try:
- subprocess.run(command, check=True, env=env, **kwargs)
- except subprocess.CalledProcessError as e:
- sys.exit(e)
+ host_env = android_env(host)
+ print_env(host_env)
+ env.update(host_env)
+
+ if log:
+ print(">", join_command(command))
+ return subprocess.run(command, env=env, **kwargs)
+
+
+# Format a command so it can be copied into a shell. Like shlex.join, but also
+# accepts arguments which are Paths, or a single string/Path outside of a list.
+def join_command(args):
+ if isinstance(args, (str, Path)):
+ return str(args)
+ else:
+ return shlex.join(map(str, args))
+
+
+# Format the environment so it can be pasted into a shell.
+def print_env(env):
+ for key, value in sorted(env.items()):
+ print(f"export {key}={shlex.quote(value)}")
+
+
+def android_env(host):
+ if host:
+ prefix = subdir(host) / "prefix"
+ else:
+ prefix = ANDROID_DIR / "prefix"
+ sysconfig_files = prefix.glob("lib/python*/_sysconfigdata__android_*.py")
+ sysconfig_filename = next(sysconfig_files).name
+ host = re.fullmatch(r"_sysconfigdata__android_(.+).py", sysconfig_filename)[1]
+
+ env_output = subprocess.run(
+ f"set -eu; "
+ f"HOST={host}; "
+ f"PREFIX={prefix}; "
+ f". {ENV_SCRIPT}; "
+ f"export",
+ check=True, shell=True, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, encoding='utf-8',
+ ).stdout
+
+ env = {}
+ for line in env_output.splitlines():
+ # We don't require every line to match, as there may be some other
+ # output from installing the NDK.
+ if match := re.search(
+ "^(declare -x |export )?(\\w+)=['\"]?(.*?)['\"]?$", line
+ ):
+ key, value = match[2], match[3]
+ if os.environ.get(key) != value:
+ env[key] = value
+
+ if not env:
+ raise ValueError(f"Found no variables in {ENV_SCRIPT.name} output:\n"
+ + env_output)
+ return env
def build_python_path():
@@ -85,9 +189,11 @@ def build_python_path():
def configure_build_python(context):
- os.chdir(subdir("build", clean=context.clean))
+ if context.clean:
+ clean("build")
+ os.chdir(subdir("build", create=True))
- command = [relpath(CHECKOUT / "configure")]
+ command = [relpath(PYTHON_DIR / "configure")]
if context.args:
command.extend(context.args)
run(command)
@@ -98,39 +204,64 @@ def make_build_python(context):
run(["make", "-j", str(os.cpu_count())])
-def unpack_deps(host):
+def pythoninfo_build_python(context):
+ os.chdir(subdir("build"))
+ run(["make", "pythoninfo"])
+
+
+# To create new builds of these dependencies, usually all that's necessary is to
+# push a tag to the cpython-android-source-deps repository, and GitHub Actions
+# will do the rest.
+#
+# If you're a member of the Python core team, and you'd like to be able to push
+# these tags yourself, please contact Malcolm Smith or Russell Keith-Magee.
+def unpack_deps(host, prefix_dir, cache_dir):
+ os.chdir(prefix_dir)
deps_url = "https://github.com/beeware/cpython-android-source-deps/releases/download"
- for name_ver in ["bzip2-1.0.8-1", "libffi-3.4.4-2", "openssl-3.0.13-1",
- "sqlite-3.45.1-0", "xz-5.4.6-0"]:
+ for name_ver in [
+ "bzip2-1.0.8-3",
+ "libffi-3.4.4-3",
+ "openssl-3.0.22-0",
+ "sqlite-3.50.4-0",
+ "xz-5.4.6-1"
+ ]:
filename = f"{name_ver}-{host}.tar.gz"
- download(f"{deps_url}/{name_ver}/{filename}")
- run(["tar", "-xf", filename])
- os.remove(filename)
+ out_path = download(f"{deps_url}/{name_ver}/{filename}", cache_dir)
+ shutil.unpack_archive(out_path)
-def download(url, target_dir="."):
- out_path = f"{target_dir}/{basename(url)}"
- run(["curl", "-Lf", "-o", out_path, url])
+def download(url, cache_dir):
+ out_path = cache_dir / basename(url)
+ cache_dir.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+ if not out_path.is_file():
+ run(["curl", "-Lf", "--retry", "5", "--retry-all-errors", "-o", out_path, url])
+ else:
+ print(f"Using cached version of {basename(url)}")
return out_path
-def configure_host_python(context):
- host_dir = subdir(context.host, clean=context.clean)
+def configure_host_python(context, host=None):
+ if host is None:
+ host = context.host
+ if context.clean:
+ clean(host)
+ host_dir = subdir(host, create=True)
prefix_dir = host_dir / "prefix"
if not prefix_dir.exists():
prefix_dir.mkdir()
- os.chdir(prefix_dir)
- unpack_deps(context.host)
-
- build_dir = host_dir / "build"
- build_dir.mkdir(exist_ok=True)
- os.chdir(build_dir)
+ cache_dir = (
+ Path(context.cache_dir).resolve()
+ if context.cache_dir
+ else CROSS_BUILD_DIR / "downloads"
+ )
+ unpack_deps(host, prefix_dir, cache_dir)
+ os.chdir(host_dir)
command = [
# Basic cross-compiling configuration
- relpath(CHECKOUT / "configure"),
- f"--host={context.host}",
+ relpath(PYTHON_DIR / "configure"),
+ f"--host={host}",
f"--build={sysconfig.get_config_var('BUILD_GNU_TYPE')}",
f"--with-build-python={build_python_path()}",
"--without-ensurepip",
@@ -146,91 +277,785 @@ def configure_host_python(context):
if context.args:
command.extend(context.args)
- run(command, host=context.host)
+ run(command, host=host)
+
+
+def make_host_python(context, host=None):
+ if host is None:
+ host = context.host
+ # The CFLAGS and LDFLAGS set in android-env include the prefix dir, so
+ # delete any previous Python installation to prevent it being used during
+ # the build.
+ host_dir = subdir(host)
+ prefix_dir = host_dir / "prefix"
+ for pattern in ("include/python*", "lib/libpython*", "lib/python*"):
+ delete_glob(f"{prefix_dir}/{pattern}")
+
+ # The Android environment variables were already captured in the Makefile by
+ # `configure`, and passing them again when running `make` may cause some
+ # flags to be duplicated. So we don't use the `host` argument here.
+ os.chdir(host_dir)
+ run(["make", "-j", str(os.cpu_count())])
+
+ # The `make install` output is very verbose and rarely useful, so
+ # suppress it by default.
+ run(
+ ["make", "install", f"prefix={prefix_dir}"],
+ capture_output=not context.verbose,
+ )
+
+def build_targets(context):
+ if context.target in {"all", "build"}:
+ configure_build_python(context)
+ make_build_python(context)
+ pythoninfo_build_python(context)
-def make_host_python(context):
- host_dir = subdir(context.host)
- os.chdir(host_dir / "build")
- run(["make", "-j", str(os.cpu_count())], host=context.host)
- run(["make", "install", f"prefix={host_dir}/prefix"], host=context.host)
+ for host in HOSTS:
+ if context.target in {"all", "hosts", host}:
+ configure_host_python(context, host)
+ make_host_python(context, host)
-def build_all(context):
- steps = [configure_build_python, make_build_python, configure_host_python,
- make_host_python]
- for step in steps:
- step(context)
+def clean(host):
+ delete_glob(CROSS_BUILD_DIR / host)
-def clean_all(context):
- delete_if_exists(CROSS_BUILD_DIR)
+def clean_targets(context):
+ if context.target in {"all", "build"}:
+ clean("build")
+
+ for host in HOSTS:
+ if context.target in {"all", "hosts", host}:
+ clean(host)
+
+
+def setup_ci():
+ if "GITHUB_ACTIONS" in os.environ:
+ # Enable emulator hardware acceleration
+ # (https://github.blog/changelog/2024-04-02-github-actions-hardware-accelerated-android-virtualization-now-available/).
+ if platform.system() == "Linux":
+ run(
+ ["sudo", "tee", "/etc/udev/rules.d/99-kvm4all.rules"],
+ input='KERNEL=="kvm", GROUP="kvm", MODE="0666", OPTIONS+="static_node=kvm"\n',
+ text=True,
+ )
+ run(["sudo", "udevadm", "control", "--reload-rules"])
+ run(["sudo", "udevadm", "trigger", "--name-match=kvm"])
+
+ # Free up disk space by deleting unused versions of the NDK
+ # (https://github.com/freakboy3742/pyspamsum/pull/108).
+ for line in ENV_SCRIPT.read_text().splitlines():
+ if match := re.fullmatch(r"ndk_version=(.+)", line):
+ ndk_version = match[1]
+ break
+ else:
+ raise ValueError(f"Failed to find NDK version in {ENV_SCRIPT.name}")
+
+ for item in (android_home / "ndk").iterdir():
+ if item.name[0].isdigit() and item.name != ndk_version:
+ delete_glob(item)
+
+
+def setup_sdk():
+ sdkmanager = android_home / (
+ "cmdline-tools/latest/bin/sdkmanager"
+ + (".bat" if os.name == "nt" else "")
+ )
+
+ # Gradle will fail if it needs to install an SDK package whose license
+ # hasn't been accepted, so pre-accept all licenses.
+ if not all((android_home / "licenses" / path).exists() for path in [
+ "android-sdk-arm-dbt-license", "android-sdk-license"
+ ]):
+ run(
+ [sdkmanager, "--licenses"],
+ text=True,
+ capture_output=True,
+ input="y\n" * 100,
+ )
+
+ # Gradle may install this automatically, but we can't rely on that because
+ # we need to run adb within the logcat task.
+ if not adb.exists():
+ run([sdkmanager, "platform-tools"])
# To avoid distributing compiled artifacts without corresponding source code,
# the Gradle wrapper is not included in the CPython repository. Instead, we
-# extract it from the Gradle release.
-def setup_testbed(context):
- ver_long = "8.7.0"
- ver_short = ver_long.removesuffix(".0")
- testbed_dir = CHECKOUT / "Android/testbed"
-
- for filename in ["gradlew", "gradlew.bat"]:
- out_path = download(
- f"https://raw.githubusercontent.com/gradle/gradle/v{ver_long}/{filename}",
- testbed_dir)
+# extract it from the Gradle GitHub repository.
+def setup_testbed():
+ paths = ["gradlew", "gradlew.bat", "gradle/wrapper/gradle-wrapper.jar"]
+ if all((TESTBED_DIR / path).exists() for path in paths):
+ return
+
+ # Any version of the wrapper can run any reasonably close version of Gradle, so this
+ # doesn't need to match the Gradle version used for the build, which is specified in
+ # testbed/gradle/wrapper/gradle-wrapper.properties.
+ version = "9.5.0"
+
+ for path in paths:
+ out_path = TESTBED_DIR / path
+ out_path.parent.mkdir(exist_ok=True)
+ download(
+ f"https://raw.githubusercontent.com/gradle/gradle/v{version}/{path}",
+ out_path.parent,
+ )
os.chmod(out_path, 0o755)
+
+# Work around a bug involving sys.exit and TaskGroups
+# (https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101515).
+def exit(*args):
+ raise MySystemExit(*args)
+
+
+class MySystemExit(Exception):
+ pass
+
+
+# The `test` subcommand runs all subprocesses through this context manager so
+# that no matter what happens, they can always be cancelled from another task,
+# and they will always be cleaned up on exit.
+@asynccontextmanager
+async def async_process(*args, **kwargs):
+ process = await asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(*args, **kwargs)
+ try:
+ yield process
+ finally:
+ if process.returncode is None:
+ # Allow a reasonably long time for Gradle to clean itself up,
+ # because we don't want stale emulators left behind.
+ timeout = 10
+ process.terminate()
+ try:
+ await wait_for(process.wait(), timeout)
+ except TimeoutError:
+ print(
+ f"Command {args} did not terminate after {timeout} seconds "
+ f" - sending SIGKILL"
+ )
+ process.kill()
+
+ # Even after killing the process we must still wait for it,
+ # otherwise we'll get the warning "Exception ignored in __del__".
+ await wait_for(process.wait(), timeout=1)
+
+
+async def async_check_output(*args, **kwargs):
+ async with async_process(
+ *args, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs
+ ) as process:
+ stdout, stderr = await process.communicate()
+ if process.returncode == 0:
+ return stdout.decode(*DECODE_ARGS)
+ else:
+ raise CalledProcessError(
+ process.returncode, args,
+ stdout.decode(*DECODE_ARGS), stderr.decode(*DECODE_ARGS)
+ )
+
+
+# Return a list of the serial numbers of connected devices. Emulators will have
+# serials of the form "emulator-5678".
+async def list_devices():
+ serials = []
+ header_found = False
+
+ lines = (await async_check_output(adb, "devices")).splitlines()
+ for line in lines:
+ # Ignore blank lines, and all lines before the header.
+ line = line.strip()
+ if line == "List of devices attached":
+ header_found = True
+ elif header_found and line:
+ try:
+ serial, status = line.split()
+ except ValueError:
+ raise ValueError(f"failed to parse {line!r}")
+ if status == "device":
+ serials.append(serial)
+
+ if not header_found:
+ raise ValueError(f"failed to parse {lines}")
+ return serials
+
+
+async def find_device(context, initial_devices):
+ if context.managed:
+ print("Waiting for managed device - this may take several minutes")
+ while True:
+ new_devices = set(await list_devices()).difference(initial_devices)
+ if len(new_devices) == 0:
+ await asyncio.sleep(1)
+ elif len(new_devices) == 1:
+ serial = new_devices.pop()
+ print(f"Serial: {serial}")
+ return serial
+ else:
+ exit(f"Found more than one new device: {new_devices}")
+ else:
+ return context.connected
+
+
+# An older version of this script in #121595 filtered the logs by UID instead.
+# But logcat can't filter by UID until API level 31. If we ever switch back to
+# filtering by UID, we'll also have to filter by time so we only show messages
+# produced after the initial call to `stop_app`.
+#
+# We're more likely to miss the PID because it's shorter-lived, so there's a
+# workaround in PythonSuite.kt to stop it being *too* short-lived.
+async def find_pid(serial):
+ print("Waiting for app to start - this may take several minutes")
+ shown_error = False
+ while True:
+ try:
+ # `pidof` requires API level 24 or higher. The level 23 emulator
+ # includes it, but it doesn't work (it returns all processes).
+ pid = (await async_check_output(
+ adb, "-s", serial, "shell", "pidof", "-s", APP_ID
+ )).strip()
+ except CalledProcessError as e:
+ # If the app isn't running yet, pidof gives no output. So if there
+ # is output, there must have been some other error. However, this
+ # sometimes happens transiently, especially when running a managed
+ # emulator for the first time, so don't make it fatal.
+ if (e.stdout or e.stderr) and not shown_error:
+ print_called_process_error(e)
+ print("This may be transient, so continuing to wait")
+ shown_error = True
+ else:
+ # Some older devices (e.g. Nexus 4) return zero even when no process
+ # was found, so check whether we actually got any output.
+ if pid:
+ print(f"PID: {pid}")
+ return pid
+
+ # Loop fairly rapidly to avoid missing a short-lived process.
+ await asyncio.sleep(0.2)
+
+
+async def logcat_task(context, initial_devices):
+ # Gradle may need to do some large downloads of libraries and emulator
+ # images. This will happen during find_device in --managed mode, or find_pid
+ # in --connected mode.
+ startup_timeout = 600
+ serial = await wait_for(find_device(context, initial_devices), startup_timeout)
+ pid = await wait_for(find_pid(serial), startup_timeout)
+
+ # `--pid` requires API level 24 or higher.
+ #
+ # `--binary` mode is used in order to detect which messages end with a
+ # newline, which most of the other modes don't indicate (except `--format
+ # long`). For example, every time pytest runs a test, it prints a "." and
+ # flushes the stream. Each "." becomes a separate log message, but we should
+ # show them all on the same line.
+ args = [adb, "-s", serial, "logcat", "--pid", pid, "--binary"]
+ logcat_started = False
+ async with async_process(
+ *args, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=None
+ ) as process:
+ while True:
+ try:
+ priority, tag, message = await read_logcat(process.stdout)
+ logcat_started = True
+ except asyncio.IncompleteReadError:
+ break
+
+ # Exclude high-volume messages which are rarely useful.
+ if context.verbose < 2 and "from python test_syslog" in message:
+ continue
+
+ # Put high-level messages on stderr so they're highlighted in the
+ # buildbot logs. This will include Python's own stderr.
+ stream = sys.stderr if priority >= LogPriority.WARN else sys.stdout
+
+ # The app's stdout and stderr should be passed through transparently
+ # to our own corresponding streams.
+ if tag in ["python.stdout", "python.stderr"]:
+ global python_started
+ python_started = True
+ stream.write(message)
+ stream.flush()
+ else:
+ # Non-Python messages add a lot of noise, but they may
+ # sometimes help explain a failure. Format them in the same way
+ # as `logcat --format tag`.
+ formatted = f"{priority.name[0]}/{tag}: {message}"
+ if not formatted.endswith("\n"):
+ formatted += "\n"
+ log_verbose(context, formatted, stream)
+
+ # If the device disconnects while logcat is running, which always
+ # happens in --managed mode, some versions of adb return non-zero.
+ # Distinguish this from a logcat startup error by checking whether we've
+ # received any logcat messages yet.
+ status = await wait_for(process.wait(), timeout=1)
+ if status != 0 and not logcat_started:
+ raise CalledProcessError(status, args)
+
+
+# Read one binary log message from the given StreamReader. The message format is
+# described at https://android.stackexchange.com/a/74660. All supported versions
+# of Android use format version 2 or later.
+async def read_logcat(stream):
+ async def read_bytes(size):
+ return await stream.readexactly(size)
+
+ async def read_int(size):
+ return int.from_bytes(await read_bytes(size), "little")
+
+ payload_len = await read_int(2)
+ if payload_len < 2:
+ # 1 byte for priority, 1 byte for null terminator of tag.
+ raise ValueError(f"payload length {payload_len} is too short")
+
+ header_len = await read_int(2)
+ if header_len < 4:
+ raise ValueError(f"header length {header_len} is too short")
+ await read_bytes(header_len - 4) # Ignore other header fields.
+
+ priority_int = await read_int(1)
+ try:
+ priority = LogPriority(priority_int)
+ except ValueError:
+ priority = LogPriority.UNKNOWN
+
+ payload = await read_bytes(payload_len - 1)
+ payload_fields = payload.split(b"\0")
+ if len(payload_fields) < 2:
+ raise ValueError(
+ f"payload {payload!r} does not contain at least 2 "
+ f"null-separated fields"
+ )
+ tag, message, *_ = [
+ field.decode(*DECODE_ARGS) for field in payload_fields
+ ]
+ return priority, tag, message
+
+
+def stop_app(serial):
+ run([adb, "-s", serial, "shell", "am", "force-stop", APP_ID], log=False)
+
+
+async def gradle_task(context):
+ env = os.environ.copy()
+ if context.managed:
+ task_prefix = context.managed
+ else:
+ task_prefix = "connected"
+ env["ANDROID_SERIAL"] = context.connected
+
+ # Ensure that CROSS_BUILD_DIR is in the Gradle environment, regardless
+ # of whether it was set by environment variable or `--cross-build-dir`.
+ env["CROSS_BUILD_DIR"] = CROSS_BUILD_DIR
+
+ if context.ci_mode:
+ context.args[0:0] = [
+ # See _add_ci_python_opts in libregrtest/main.py.
+ "-W", "error", "-bb", "-E",
+
+ # Randomization is disabled because order-dependent failures are
+ # much less likely to pass on a rerun in single-process mode.
+ "-m", "test",
+ f"--{context.ci_mode}-ci", "--single-process", "--no-randomize"
+ ]
+
+ if not any(arg in context.args for arg in ["-c", "-m"]):
+ context.args[0:0] = ["-m", "test"]
+
+ args = [
+ gradlew, "--console", "plain", f"{task_prefix}DebugAndroidTest",
+ ] + [
+ f"-P{name}={value}"
+ for name, value in [
+ ("python.sitePackages", context.site_packages),
+ ("python.cwd", context.cwd),
+ (
+ "android.testInstrumentationRunnerArguments.pythonArgs",
+ json.dumps(context.args),
+ ),
+ ]
+ if value
+ ]
+ if context.verbose >= 2:
+ args.append("--info")
+ log_verbose(context, f"> {join_command(args)}\n")
+
+ try:
+ async with async_process(
+ *args, cwd=TESTBED_DIR, env=env,
+ stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.STDOUT,
+ ) as process:
+ while line := (await process.stdout.readline()).decode(*DECODE_ARGS):
+ # Gradle may take several minutes to install SDK packages, so
+ # it's worth showing those messages even in non-verbose mode.
+ if line.startswith('Preparing "Install'):
+ sys.stdout.write(line)
+ else:
+ log_verbose(context, line)
+
+ status = await wait_for(process.wait(), timeout=1)
+ if status == 0:
+ exit(0)
+ else:
+ raise CalledProcessError(status, args)
+ finally:
+ # Gradle does not stop the tests when interrupted.
+ if context.connected:
+ stop_app(context.connected)
+
+
+async def run_testbed(context):
+ setup_ci()
+ setup_sdk()
+ setup_testbed()
+
+ if context.managed:
+ # In this mode, Gradle will create a device with an unpredictable name.
+ # So we save a list of the running devices before starting Gradle, and
+ # find_device then waits for a new device to appear.
+ initial_devices = await list_devices()
+ else:
+ # In case the previous shutdown was unclean, make sure the app isn't
+ # running, otherwise we might show logs from a previous run. This is
+ # unnecessary in --managed mode, because Gradle creates a new emulator
+ # every time.
+ stop_app(context.connected)
+ initial_devices = None
+
+ try:
+ async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
+ tg.create_task(logcat_task(context, initial_devices))
+ tg.create_task(gradle_task(context))
+ except* MySystemExit as e:
+ raise SystemExit(*e.exceptions[0].args) from None
+ except* CalledProcessError as e:
+ # If Python produced no output, then the user probably wants to see the
+ # verbose output to explain why the test failed.
+ if not python_started:
+ for stream, line in hidden_output:
+ stream.write(line)
+
+ # Extract it from the ExceptionGroup so it can be handled by `main`.
+ raise e.exceptions[0]
+
+
+def package_version(prefix_dir):
+ patchlevel_glob = f"{prefix_dir}/include/python*/patchlevel.h"
+ patchlevel_paths = glob(patchlevel_glob)
+ if len(patchlevel_paths) != 1:
+ sys.exit(f"{patchlevel_glob} matched {len(patchlevel_paths)} paths.")
+
+ for line in open(patchlevel_paths[0]):
+ if match := re.fullmatch(r'\s*#define\s+PY_VERSION\s+"(.+)"\s*', line):
+ version = match[1]
+ break
+ else:
+ sys.exit(f"Failed to find Python version in {patchlevel_paths[0]}.")
+
+ # If not building against a tagged commit, add a timestamp to the version.
+ # Follow the PyPA version number rules, as this will make it easier to
+ # process with other tools.
+ if version.endswith("+"):
+ version += datetime.now(timezone.utc).strftime("%Y%m%d.%H%M%S")
+
+ return version
+
+
+def package(context):
+ prefix_dir = subdir(context.host, "prefix")
+ version = package_version(prefix_dir)
+
with TemporaryDirectory(prefix=SCRIPT_NAME) as temp_dir:
- os.chdir(temp_dir)
- bin_zip = download(
- f"https://services.gradle.org/distributions/gradle-{ver_short}-bin.zip")
- outer_jar = f"gradle-{ver_short}/lib/plugins/gradle-wrapper-{ver_short}.jar"
- run(["unzip", bin_zip, outer_jar])
- run(["unzip", "-o", "-d", f"{testbed_dir}/gradle/wrapper", outer_jar,
- "gradle-wrapper.jar"])
+ temp_dir = Path(temp_dir)
+ # Include all tracked files from the Android directory.
+ for line in run(
+ ["git", "ls-files"],
+ cwd=ANDROID_DIR, capture_output=True, text=True, log=False,
+ ).stdout.splitlines():
+ src = ANDROID_DIR / line
+ dst = temp_dir / line
+ dst.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+ shutil.copy2(src, dst, follow_symlinks=False)
-def main():
+ # Include anything from the prefix directory which could be useful
+ # either for embedding Python in an app, or building third-party
+ # packages against it.
+ for rel_dir, patterns in [
+ ("include", ["openssl*", "python*", "sqlite*"]),
+ ("lib", ["engines-3", "libcrypto*.so", "libpython*", "libsqlite*",
+ "libssl*.so", "ossl-modules", "python*"]),
+ ("lib/pkgconfig", ["*crypto*", "*ssl*", "*python*", "*sqlite*"]),
+ ]:
+ for pattern in patterns:
+ for src in glob(f"{prefix_dir}/{rel_dir}/{pattern}"):
+ dst = temp_dir / relpath(src, prefix_dir.parent)
+ dst.parent.mkdir(parents=True, exist_ok=True)
+ if Path(src).is_dir():
+ shutil.copytree(
+ src, dst, symlinks=True,
+ ignore=lambda *args: ["__pycache__"]
+ )
+ else:
+ shutil.copy2(src, dst, follow_symlinks=False)
+
+ # Strip debug information.
+ if not context.debug:
+ so_files = glob(f"{temp_dir}/**/*.so", recursive=True)
+ run([android_env(context.host)["STRIP"], *so_files], log=False)
+
+ dist_dir = subdir(context.host, "dist", create=True)
+ package_path = shutil.make_archive(
+ f"{dist_dir}/python-{version}-{context.host}", "gztar", temp_dir
+ )
+ print(f"Wrote {package_path}")
+ return package_path
+
+
+def ci(context):
+ for step in [
+ configure_build_python,
+ make_build_python,
+ pythoninfo_build_python,
+ configure_host_python,
+ make_host_python,
+ package,
+ ]:
+ caption = (
+ step.__name__.replace("_", " ")
+ .capitalize()
+ .replace("python", "Python")
+ )
+ print(f"::group::{caption}")
+ result = step(context)
+ if step is package:
+ package_path = result
+ print("::endgroup::")
+
+ if (
+ "GITHUB_ACTIONS" in os.environ
+ and (platform.system(), platform.machine()) != ("Linux", "x86_64")
+ ):
+ print(
+ "Skipping tests: GitHub Actions does not support the Android "
+ "emulator on this platform."
+ )
+ else:
+ with TemporaryDirectory(prefix=SCRIPT_NAME) as temp_dir:
+ print("::group::Tests")
+
+ # Prove the package is self-contained by using it to run the tests.
+ shutil.unpack_archive(package_path, temp_dir)
+ launcher_args = [
+ "--managed", "maxVersion", "-v", f"--{context.ci_mode}-ci"
+ ]
+ run(
+ ["./android.py", "test", *launcher_args],
+ cwd=temp_dir
+ )
+ print("::endgroup::")
+
+
+def env(context):
+ print_env(android_env(getattr(context, "host", None)))
+
+
+# Handle SIGTERM the same way as SIGINT. This ensures that if we're terminated
+# by the buildbot worker, we'll make an attempt to clean up our subprocesses.
+def install_signal_handler():
+ def signal_handler(*args):
+ os.kill(os.getpid(), signal.SIGINT)
+
+ signal.signal(signal.SIGTERM, signal_handler)
+
+
+def parse_args():
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
- subcommands = parser.add_subparsers(dest="subcommand")
- build = subcommands.add_parser("build", help="Build everything")
- configure_build = subcommands.add_parser("configure-build",
- help="Run `configure` for the "
- "build Python")
- make_build = subcommands.add_parser("make-build",
- help="Run `make` for the build Python")
- configure_host = subcommands.add_parser("configure-host",
- help="Run `configure` for Android")
- make_host = subcommands.add_parser("make-host",
- help="Run `make` for Android")
- subcommands.add_parser(
- "clean", help="Delete the cross-build directory")
- subcommands.add_parser(
- "setup-testbed", help="Download the testbed Gradle wrapper")
-
- for subcommand in build, configure_build, configure_host:
+ subcommands = parser.add_subparsers(dest="subcommand", required=True)
+
+ def add_parser(*args, **kwargs):
+ parser = subcommands.add_parser(*args, **kwargs)
+ parser.add_argument(
+ "--cross-build-dir",
+ action="store",
+ default=os.environ.get("CROSS_BUILD_DIR"),
+ dest="cross_build_dir",
+ type=Path,
+ help=(
+ "Path to the cross-build directory "
+ f"(default: {CROSS_BUILD_DIR}). Can also be set "
+ "with the CROSS_BUILD_DIR environment variable."
+ ),
+ )
+ parser.add_argument(
+ "-v", "--verbose", action="count", default=0,
+ help="Show verbose output. Use twice to be even more verbose.")
+ return parser
+
+ # Subcommands
+ build = add_parser(
+ "build",
+ help="Run configure and make for the selected target"
+ )
+ configure_build = add_parser(
+ "configure-build", help="Run `configure` for the build Python")
+ add_parser(
+ "make-build", help="Run `make` for the build Python")
+ add_parser(
+ "pythoninfo-build", help="Display build info of the build Python")
+ configure_host = add_parser(
+ "configure-host", help="Run `configure` for Android")
+ make_host = add_parser(
+ "make-host", help="Run `make` for Android")
+
+ clean = add_parser(
+ "clean",
+ help="Delete build directories for the selected target"
+ )
+
+ test = add_parser("test", help="Run the testbed app")
+ package = add_parser("package", help="Make a release package")
+ ci = add_parser("ci", help="Run build, package and test")
+ env = add_parser("env", help="Print environment variables")
+
+ # Common arguments
+ # --cache-dir option
+ for cmd in [configure_host, build, ci]:
+ cmd.add_argument(
+ "--cache-dir",
+ default=os.environ.get("CACHE_DIR"),
+ help="The directory to store cached downloads.",
+ )
+
+ # --clean option
+ for subcommand in [build, configure_build, configure_host, ci]:
subcommand.add_argument(
"--clean", action="store_true", default=False, dest="clean",
- help="Delete any relevant directories before building")
- for subcommand in build, configure_host, make_host:
+ help="Delete the relevant build directories first")
+
+ # Allow "all", "build" and "hosts" targets for some commands
+ for subcommand in [clean, build]:
subcommand.add_argument(
- "host", metavar="HOST",
- choices=["aarch64-linux-android", "x86_64-linux-android"],
+ "target",
+ nargs="?",
+ default="all",
+ choices=["all", "build", "hosts"] + HOSTS,
+ help=(
+ "The host triplet (e.g., aarch64-linux-android), "
+ "or 'build' for just the build platform, or 'hosts' for all "
+ "host platforms, or 'all' for the build platform and all "
+ "hosts. Defaults to 'all'"
+ ),
+ )
+
+ host_commands = [configure_host, make_host, package, ci]
+ if in_source_tree:
+ host_commands.append(env)
+ for subcommand in host_commands:
+ subcommand.add_argument(
+ "host", metavar="HOST", choices=HOSTS,
help="Host triplet: choices=[%(choices)s]")
- for subcommand in build, configure_build, configure_host:
+
+ for subcommand in [build, configure_build, configure_host, ci]:
subcommand.add_argument("args", nargs="*",
help="Extra arguments to pass to `configure`")
- context = parser.parse_args()
- dispatch = {"configure-build": configure_build_python,
- "make-build": make_build_python,
- "configure-host": configure_host_python,
- "make-host": make_host_python,
- "build": build_all,
- "clean": clean_all,
- "setup-testbed": setup_testbed}
- dispatch[context.subcommand](context)
+ # Test arguments
+ device_group = test.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True)
+ device_group.add_argument(
+ "--connected", metavar="SERIAL", help="Run on a connected device. "
+ "Connect it yourself, then get its serial from `adb devices`.")
+ device_group.add_argument(
+ "--managed", metavar="NAME", help="Run on a Gradle-managed device. "
+ "These are defined in `managedDevices` in testbed/app/build.gradle.kts.")
+
+ test.add_argument(
+ "--site-packages", metavar="DIR", type=abspath,
+ help="Directory to copy as the app's site-packages.")
+ test.add_argument(
+ "--cwd", metavar="DIR", type=abspath,
+ help="Directory to copy as the app's working directory.")
+ test.add_argument(
+ "args", nargs="*", help=f"Python command-line arguments. "
+ f"Separate them from {SCRIPT_NAME}'s own arguments with `--`. "
+ f"If neither -c nor -m are included, `-m test` will be prepended, "
+ f"which will run Python's own test suite.")
+
+ # Package arguments.
+ for subcommand in [package, ci]:
+ subcommand.add_argument(
+ "-g", action="store_true", default=False, dest="debug",
+ help="Include debug information in package")
+
+ # CI arguments
+ for subcommand in [test, ci]:
+ group = subcommand.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=subcommand is ci)
+ group.add_argument(
+ "--fast-ci", action="store_const", dest="ci_mode", const="fast",
+ help="Add test arguments for GitHub Actions")
+ group.add_argument(
+ "--slow-ci", action="store_const", dest="ci_mode", const="slow",
+ help="Add test arguments for buildbots")
+
+ return parser.parse_args()
+
+
+def main():
+ install_signal_handler()
+
+ # Under the buildbot, stdout is not a TTY, but we must still flush after
+ # every line to make sure our output appears in the correct order relative
+ # to the output of our subprocesses.
+ for stream in [sys.stdout, sys.stderr]:
+ stream.reconfigure(line_buffering=True)
+
+ context = parse_args()
+
+ # Set the CROSS_BUILD_DIR if an argument was provided
+ if context.cross_build_dir:
+ global CROSS_BUILD_DIR
+ CROSS_BUILD_DIR = context.cross_build_dir.resolve()
+
+ dispatch = {
+ "configure-build": configure_build_python,
+ "make-build": make_build_python,
+ "pythoninfo-build": pythoninfo_build_python,
+ "configure-host": configure_host_python,
+ "make-host": make_host_python,
+ "build": build_targets,
+ "clean": clean_targets,
+ "test": run_testbed,
+ "package": package,
+ "ci": ci,
+ "env": env,
+ }
+
+ try:
+ result = dispatch[context.subcommand](context)
+ if asyncio.iscoroutine(result):
+ asyncio.run(result)
+ except CalledProcessError as e:
+ print_called_process_error(e)
+ sys.exit(1)
+
+
+def print_called_process_error(e):
+ for stream_name in ["stdout", "stderr"]:
+ content = getattr(e, stream_name)
+ if isinstance(content, bytes):
+ content = content.decode(*DECODE_ARGS)
+ stream = getattr(sys, stream_name)
+ if content:
+ stream.write(content)
+ if not content.endswith("\n"):
+ stream.write("\n")
+
+ # shlex uses single quotes, so we surround the command with double quotes.
+ print(
+ f'Command "{join_command(e.cmd)}" returned exit status {e.returncode}'
+ )
if __name__ == "__main__":
diff --git a/Android/testbed/.gitignore b/Android/testbed/.gitignore
index b9a7d611c943cf6..7c57aee58c160a2 100644
--- a/Android/testbed/.gitignore
+++ b/Android/testbed/.gitignore
@@ -1,18 +1,19 @@
-# The Gradle wrapper should be downloaded by running `../android.py setup-testbed`.
+# The Gradle wrapper can be downloaded by running the `test` or `build-testbed`
+# commands of android.py.
/gradlew
/gradlew.bat
/gradle/wrapper/gradle-wrapper.jar
+# The repository's top-level .gitignore file ignores all .idea directories, but
+# we want to keep any files which can't be regenerated from the Gradle
+# configuration.
+!.idea/
+/.idea/*
+!/.idea/inspectionProfiles
+
*.iml
.gradle
/local.properties
-/.idea/caches
-/.idea/deploymentTargetDropdown.xml
-/.idea/libraries
-/.idea/modules.xml
-/.idea/workspace.xml
-/.idea/navEditor.xml
-/.idea/assetWizardSettings.xml
.DS_Store
/build
/captures
diff --git a/Android/testbed/.idea/inspectionProfiles/Project_Default.xml b/Android/testbed/.idea/inspectionProfiles/Project_Default.xml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..220d9ed4ef20f7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Android/testbed/.idea/inspectionProfiles/Project_Default.xml
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+<component name="InspectionProjectProfileManager">
+ <profile version="1.0">
+ <option name="myName" value="Project Default" />
+ <inspection_tool class="AndroidLintGradleDependency" enabled="true" level="WEAK WARNING" enabled_by_default="true" editorAttributes="INFO_ATTRIBUTES" />
+ <inspection_tool class="AndroidLintOldTargetApi" enabled="true" level="WEAK WARNING" enabled_by_default="true" editorAttributes="INFO_ATTRIBUTES" />
+ <inspection_tool class="UnstableApiUsage" enabled="true" level="WEAK WARNING" enabled_by_default="true" editorAttributes="INFO_ATTRIBUTES" />
+ </profile>
+</component>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/Android/testbed/app/build.gradle.kts b/Android/testbed/app/build.gradle.kts
index 7690d3fd86b2fdf..e724ba7dbc9d1ce 100644
--- a/Android/testbed/app/build.gradle.kts
+++ b/Android/testbed/app/build.gradle.kts
@@ -1,59 +1,193 @@
import com.android.build.api.variant.*
+import kotlin.math.max
plugins {
id("com.android.application")
- id("org.jetbrains.kotlin.android")
}
-val PYTHON_DIR = File(projectDir, "../../..").canonicalPath
-val PYTHON_CROSS_DIR = "$PYTHON_DIR/cross-build"
-val ABIS = mapOf(
- "arm64-v8a" to "aarch64-linux-android",
- "x86_64" to "x86_64-linux-android",
+val ANDROID_DIR = file("../..")
+val PYTHON_DIR = ANDROID_DIR.parentFile!!
+val PYTHON_CROSS_DIR = file(System.getenv("CROSS_BUILD_DIR") ?: "$PYTHON_DIR/cross-build")
+val inSourceTree = (
+ ANDROID_DIR.name == "Android" && file("$PYTHON_DIR/pyconfig.h.in").exists()
)
-val PYTHON_VERSION = File("$PYTHON_DIR/Include/patchlevel.h").useLines {
- for (line in it) {
- val match = """#define PY_VERSION\s+"(\d+\.\d+)""".toRegex().find(line)
- if (match != null) {
- return@useLines match.groupValues[1]
+val KNOWN_ABIS = mapOf(
+ "aarch64-linux-android" to "arm64-v8a",
+ "arm-linux-androideabi" to "armeabi-v7a",
+ "i686-linux-android" to "x86",
+ "x86_64-linux-android" to "x86_64",
+)
+
+val osArch = System.getProperty("os.arch")
+val NATIVE_ABI = mapOf(
+ "aarch64" to "arm64-v8a",
+ "amd64" to "x86_64",
+ "arm64" to "arm64-v8a",
+ "x86_64" to "x86_64",
+)[osArch] ?: throw GradleException("Unknown os.arch '$osArch'")
+
+// Discover prefixes.
+val prefixes = ArrayList<File>()
+if (inSourceTree) {
+ for ((triplet, _) in KNOWN_ABIS.entries) {
+ val prefix = file("$PYTHON_CROSS_DIR/$triplet/prefix")
+ if (prefix.exists()) {
+ prefixes.add(prefix)
}
}
- throw GradleException("Failed to find Python version")
+} else {
+ // Testbed is inside a release package.
+ val prefix = file("$ANDROID_DIR/prefix")
+ if (prefix.exists()) {
+ prefixes.add(prefix)
+ }
+}
+if (prefixes.isEmpty()) {
+ throw GradleException(
+ "No Android prefixes found: see README.md for testing instructions"
+ )
+}
+
+// Detect Python versions and ABIs.
+lateinit var pythonVersion: String
+var abis = HashMap<File, String>()
+for ((i, prefix) in prefixes.withIndex()) {
+ val libDir = file("$prefix/lib")
+ val version = run {
+ for (filename in libDir.list()!!) {
+ """python(\d+\.\d+[a-z]*)""".toRegex().matchEntire(filename)?.let {
+ return@run it.groupValues[1]
+ }
+ }
+ throw GradleException("Failed to find Python version in $libDir")
+ }
+ if (i == 0) {
+ pythonVersion = version
+ } else if (pythonVersion != version) {
+ throw GradleException(
+ "${prefixes[0]} is Python $pythonVersion, but $prefix is Python $version"
+ )
+ }
+
+ val libPythonDir = file("$libDir/python$pythonVersion")
+ val triplet = run {
+ for (filename in libPythonDir.list()!!) {
+ """_sysconfigdata_[a-z]*_android_(.+).py""".toRegex()
+ .matchEntire(filename)?.let {
+ return@run it.groupValues[1]
+ }
+ }
+ throw GradleException("Failed to find Python triplet in $libPythonDir")
+ }
+ abis[prefix] = KNOWN_ABIS[triplet]!!
}
android {
+ val androidEnvFile = file("../../android-env.sh").absoluteFile
+
namespace = "org.python.testbed"
- compileSdk = 34
+ compileSdk = 35
defaultConfig {
applicationId = "org.python.testbed"
- minSdk = 21
- targetSdk = 34
+
+ minSdk = androidEnvFile.useLines {
+ for (line in it) {
+ """ANDROID_API_LEVEL:=(\d+)""".toRegex().find(line)?.let {
+ return@useLines it.groupValues[1].toInt()
+ }
+ }
+ throw GradleException("Failed to find API level in $androidEnvFile")
+ }
+
+ // This controls the API level of the maxVersion managed emulator, which is used
+ // by CI and cibuildwheel.
+ // * 32 has intermittent failures accessing the internet (#142387).
+ // * 33 has excessive buffering in the logcat client
+ // (https://cs.android.com/android/_/android/platform/system/logging/+/d340721894f223327339010df59b0ac514308826).
+ // * 34 consumes too much disk space on GitHub Actions (#142289), though switching to the
+ // "default" image may be a workaround.
+ // * 36 and later are not available as aosp_atd images yet.
+ targetSdk = 35
+
versionCode = 1
versionName = "1.0"
- ndk.abiFilters.addAll(ABIS.keys)
+ ndk.abiFilters.addAll(abis.values)
externalNativeBuild.cmake.arguments(
- "-DPYTHON_CROSS_DIR=$PYTHON_CROSS_DIR",
- "-DPYTHON_VERSION=$PYTHON_VERSION")
+ "-DPYTHON_PREFIX_DIR=" + if (inSourceTree) {
+ // AGP uses the ${} syntax for its own purposes, so use a Jinja style
+ // placeholder.
+ "$PYTHON_CROSS_DIR/{{triplet}}/prefix"
+ } else {
+ prefixes[0]
+ },
+ "-DPYTHON_VERSION=$pythonVersion",
+ "-DANDROID_SUPPORT_FLEXIBLE_PAGE_SIZES=ON",
+ )
+
+ testInstrumentationRunner = "androidx.test.runner.AndroidJUnitRunner"
}
+ ndkVersion = androidEnvFile.useLines {
+ for (line in it) {
+ """ndk_version=(\S+)""".toRegex().find(line)?.let {
+ return@useLines it.groupValues[1]
+ }
+ }
+ throw GradleException("Failed to find NDK version in $androidEnvFile")
+ }
externalNativeBuild.cmake {
path("src/main/c/CMakeLists.txt")
}
- // Set this property to something non-empty, otherwise it'll use the default
- // list, which ignores asset directories beginning with an underscore.
- aaptOptions.ignoreAssetsPattern = ".git"
-
compileOptions {
sourceCompatibility = JavaVersion.VERSION_1_8
targetCompatibility = JavaVersion.VERSION_1_8
}
- kotlinOptions {
- jvmTarget = "1.8"
+
+ testOptions {
+ managedDevices {
+ localDevices {
+ // systemImageSource should use what its documentation calls an
+ // "explicit source", i.e. the sdkmanager package name format, because
+ // that will be required in CreateEmulatorTask below.
+ create("minVersion") {
+ device = "Small Phone"
+
+ // Managed devices have a minimum API level of 27.
+ apiLevel = max(27, defaultConfig.minSdk!!)
+
+ // ATD devices are smaller and faster, but have a minimum
+ // API level of 30.
+ systemImageSource = if (apiLevel >= 30) "aosp_atd" else "default"
+ }
+
+ create("maxVersion") {
+ device = "Small Phone"
+ apiLevel = defaultConfig.targetSdk!!
+ systemImageSource = "aosp_atd"
+ }
+ }
+
+ // If the previous test run succeeded and nothing has changed,
+ // Gradle thinks there's no need to run it again. Override that.
+ afterEvaluate {
+ (localDevices.names + listOf("connected")).forEach {
+ tasks.named("${it}DebugAndroidTest") {
+ outputs.upToDateWhen { false }
+ }
+ }
+ }
+ }
+ }
+ androidResources {
+ // Set this property to something nonexistent but non-empty. Otherwise it'll use
+ // the default list, which ignores asset directories beginning with an
+ // underscore, and maybe also other files required by tests.
+ ignoreAssetsPattern = "android-testbed-dont-ignore-anything"
}
}
@@ -61,41 +195,205 @@ dependencies {
implementation("androidx.appcompat:appcompat:1.6.1")
implementation("com.google.android.material:material:1.11.0")
implementation("androidx.constraintlayout:constraintlayout:2.1.4")
+ androidTestImplementation("androidx.test.ext:junit:1.1.5")
+ androidTestImplementation("androidx.test:rules:1.5.0")
+}
+
+
+afterEvaluate {
+ // Every new emulator has a maximum of 2 GB RAM, regardless of its hardware profile
+ // (https://cs.android.com/android-studio/platform/tools/base/+/refs/tags/studio-2025.3.2:sdklib/src/main/java/com/android/sdklib/internal/avd/EmulatedProperties.java;l=68).
+ // This is barely enough to test Python, and not enough to test Pandas
+ // (https://github.com/python/cpython/pull/137186#issuecomment-3136301023,
+ // https://github.com/pandas-dev/pandas/pull/63405#issuecomment-3667846159).
+ // So we'll increase it by editing the emulator configuration files.
+ //
+ // If the emulator doesn't exist yet, we want to edit it after it's created, but
+ // before it starts for the first time. Otherwise it'll need to be cold-booted
+ // again, which would slow down the first run, which is likely the only run in CI
+ // environments. But the Setup task both creates and starts the emulator if it
+ // doesn't already exist. So we create it ourselves before the Setup task runs.
+ for (device in android.testOptions.managedDevices.localDevices) {
+ val createTask = tasks.register<CreateEmulatorTask>("${device.name}Create") {
+ this.device = device.device
+ apiLevel = device.apiLevel
+ systemImageSource = device.systemImageSource
+ abi = NATIVE_ABI
+ }
+ tasks.named("${device.name}Setup") {
+ dependsOn(createTask)
+ }
+ }
+}
+
+abstract class CreateEmulatorTask : DefaultTask() {
+ @get:Input abstract val device: Property<String>
+ @get:Input abstract val apiLevel: Property<Int>
+ @get:Input abstract val systemImageSource: Property<String>
+ @get:Input abstract val abi: Property<String>
+ @get:Inject abstract val execOps: ExecOperations
+
+ private val avdName by lazy {
+ listOf(
+ "dev${apiLevel.get()}",
+ systemImageSource.get(),
+ abi.get(),
+ device.get().replace(' ', '_'),
+ ).joinToString("_")
+ }
+
+ private val avdDir by lazy {
+ // XDG_CONFIG_HOME is respected by both avdmanager and Gradle.
+ val userHome = System.getenv("ANDROID_USER_HOME") ?: (
+ (System.getenv("XDG_CONFIG_HOME") ?: System.getProperty("user.home")!!)
+ + "/.android"
+ )
+ File("$userHome/avd/gradle-managed", "$avdName.avd")
+ }
+
+ @TaskAction
+ fun run() {
+ if (!avdDir.exists()) {
+ createAvd()
+ }
+ updateAvd()
+ }
+
+ fun createAvd() {
+ val systemImage = listOf(
+ "system-images",
+ "android-${apiLevel.get()}",
+ systemImageSource.get(),
+ abi.get(),
+ ).joinToString(";")
+
+ runCmdlineTool("sdkmanager", systemImage)
+ runCmdlineTool(
+ "avdmanager", "create", "avd",
+ "--name", avdName,
+ "--path", avdDir,
+ "--device", device.get().lowercase().replace(" ", "_"),
+ "--package", systemImage,
+ )
+
+ val iniName = "$avdName.ini"
+ if (!File(avdDir.parentFile.parentFile, iniName).renameTo(
+ File(avdDir.parentFile, iniName)
+ )) {
+ throw GradleException("Failed to rename $iniName")
+ }
+ }
+
+ fun updateAvd() {
+ for (filename in listOf(
+ "config.ini", // Created by avdmanager; always exists
+ "hardware-qemu.ini", // Created on first run; might not exist
+ )) {
+ val iniFile = File(avdDir, filename)
+ if (!iniFile.exists()) {
+ if (filename == "config.ini") {
+ throw GradleException("$iniFile does not exist")
+ }
+ continue
+ }
+
+ val iniText = iniFile.readText()
+ val pattern = Regex(
+ """^\s*hw.ramSize\s*=\s*(.+?)\s*$""", RegexOption.MULTILINE
+ )
+ val matches = pattern.findAll(iniText).toList()
+ if (matches.size != 1) {
+ throw GradleException(
+ "Found ${matches.size} instances of $pattern in $iniFile; expected 1"
+ )
+ }
+
+ val expectedRam = "4096"
+ if (matches[0].groupValues[1] != expectedRam) {
+ iniFile.writeText(
+ iniText.replace(pattern, "hw.ramSize = $expectedRam")
+ )
+ }
+ }
+ }
+
+ fun runCmdlineTool(tool: String, vararg args: Any) {
+ val androidHome = System.getenv("ANDROID_HOME")!!
+ val exeSuffix =
+ if (System.getProperty("os.name").lowercase().startsWith("win")) ".exe"
+ else ""
+ val command =
+ listOf("$androidHome/cmdline-tools/latest/bin/$tool$exeSuffix", *args)
+ println(command.joinToString(" "))
+ execOps.exec {
+ commandLine(command)
+ }
+ }
}
// Create some custom tasks to copy Python and its standard library from
// elsewhere in the repository.
androidComponents.onVariants { variant ->
+ val pyPlusVer = "python$pythonVersion"
generateTask(variant, variant.sources.assets!!) {
into("python") {
- for (triplet in ABIS.values) {
- for (subDir in listOf("include", "lib")) {
- into(subDir) {
- from("$PYTHON_CROSS_DIR/$triplet/prefix/$subDir")
- include("python$PYTHON_VERSION/**")
- duplicatesStrategy = DuplicatesStrategy.EXCLUDE
- }
+ // Include files such as pyconfig.h are used by some of the tests.
+ into("include/$pyPlusVer") {
+ for (prefix in prefixes) {
+ from("$prefix/include/$pyPlusVer")
}
+ duplicatesStrategy = DuplicatesStrategy.EXCLUDE
}
- into("lib/python$PYTHON_VERSION") {
- // Uncomment this to pick up edits from the source directory
- // without having to rerun `make install`.
- // from("$PYTHON_DIR/Lib")
- // duplicatesStrategy = DuplicatesStrategy.INCLUDE
+
+ into("lib/$pyPlusVer") {
+ // To aid debugging, the source directory takes priority when
+ // running inside a CPython source tree.
+ if (inSourceTree) {
+ from("$PYTHON_DIR/Lib")
+ }
+ for (prefix in prefixes) {
+ from("$prefix/lib/$pyPlusVer")
+ }
into("site-packages") {
from("$projectDir/src/main/python")
+
+ val sitePackages = findProperty("python.sitePackages") as String?
+ if (!sitePackages.isNullOrEmpty()) {
+ if (!file(sitePackages).exists()) {
+ throw GradleException("$sitePackages does not exist")
+ }
+ from(sitePackages)
+ }
+ }
+
+ duplicatesStrategy = DuplicatesStrategy.EXCLUDE
+ exclude("**/__pycache__")
+ }
+
+ into("cwd") {
+ val cwd = findProperty("python.cwd") as String?
+ if (!cwd.isNullOrEmpty()) {
+ if (!file(cwd).exists()) {
+ throw GradleException("$cwd does not exist")
+ }
+ from(cwd)
}
}
+
+ // A filename ending with .gz will be automatically decompressed
+ // while building the APK. Avoid this by adding a dash to the end,
+ // and add an extra dash to any filenames that already end with one.
+ // This will be undone in MainActivity.kt.
+ rename(""".*(\.gz|-)""", "$0-")
}
- exclude("**/__pycache__")
}
generateTask(variant, variant.sources.jniLibs!!) {
- for ((abi, triplet) in ABIS.entries) {
+ for ((prefix, abi) in abis.entries) {
into(abi) {
- from("$PYTHON_CROSS_DIR/$triplet/prefix/lib")
+ from("$prefix/lib")
include("libpython*.*.so")
include("lib*_python.so")
}
diff --git a/Android/testbed/app/src/androidTest/java/org/python/testbed/PythonSuite.kt b/Android/testbed/app/src/androidTest/java/org/python/testbed/PythonSuite.kt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..e57243566f91dca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Android/testbed/app/src/androidTest/java/org/python/testbed/PythonSuite.kt
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+package org.python.testbed
+
+import androidx.test.annotation.UiThreadTest
+import androidx.test.platform.app.InstrumentationRegistry
+import androidx.test.ext.junit.runners.AndroidJUnit4
+
+import org.junit.Test
+import org.junit.runner.RunWith
+
+import org.junit.Assert.*
+
+
+@RunWith(AndroidJUnit4::class)
+class PythonSuite {
+ @Test
+ @UiThreadTest
+ fun testPython() {
+ val start = System.currentTimeMillis()
+ try {
+ val status = PythonTestRunner(
+ InstrumentationRegistry.getInstrumentation().targetContext
+ ).run(
+ InstrumentationRegistry.getArguments().getString("pythonArgs")!!,
+ )
+ assertEquals(0, status)
+ } finally {
+ // Make sure the process lives long enough for the test script to
+ // detect it (see `find_pid` in android.py).
+ val delay = 2000 - (System.currentTimeMillis() - start)
+ if (delay > 0) {
+ Thread.sleep(delay)
+ }
+ }
+ }
+}
diff --git a/Android/testbed/app/src/main/c/CMakeLists.txt b/Android/testbed/app/src/main/c/CMakeLists.txt
index 1d5df9a73465b6e..6d5ccd96f8ae290 100644
--- a/Android/testbed/app/src/main/c/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/Android/testbed/app/src/main/c/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -1,9 +1,14 @@
cmake_minimum_required(VERSION 3.4.1)
project(testbed)
-set(PREFIX_DIR ${PYTHON_CROSS_DIR}/${CMAKE_LIBRARY_ARCHITECTURE}/prefix)
-include_directories(${PREFIX_DIR}/include/python${PYTHON_VERSION})
-link_directories(${PREFIX_DIR}/lib)
+# Resolve variables from the command line.
+string(
+ REPLACE {{triplet}} ${CMAKE_LIBRARY_ARCHITECTURE}
+ PYTHON_PREFIX_DIR ${PYTHON_PREFIX_DIR}
+)
+
+include_directories(${PYTHON_PREFIX_DIR}/include/python${PYTHON_VERSION})
+link_directories(${PYTHON_PREFIX_DIR}/lib)
link_libraries(log python${PYTHON_VERSION})
add_library(main_activity SHARED main_activity.c)
diff --git a/Android/testbed/app/src/main/c/main_activity.c b/Android/testbed/app/src/main/c/main_activity.c
index 73aba4164d000f7..7f024f0a348b61c 100644
--- a/Android/testbed/app/src/main/c/main_activity.c
+++ b/Android/testbed/app/src/main/c/main_activity.c
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
#include <jni.h>
#include <pthread.h>
#include <Python.h>
+#include <signal.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <unistd.h>
@@ -15,6 +16,13 @@ static void throw_runtime_exception(JNIEnv *env, const char *message) {
message);
}
+static void throw_errno(JNIEnv *env, const char *error_prefix) {
+ char error_message[1024];
+ snprintf(error_message, sizeof(error_message),
+ "%s: %s", error_prefix, strerror(errno));
+ throw_runtime_exception(env, error_message);
+}
+
// --- Stdio redirection ------------------------------------------------------
@@ -34,9 +42,12 @@ typedef struct {
int pipe[2];
} StreamInfo;
+// The FILE member can't be initialized here because stdout and stderr are not
+// compile-time constants. Instead, it's initialized immediately before the
+// redirection.
static StreamInfo STREAMS[] = {
- {stdout, STDOUT_FILENO, ANDROID_LOG_INFO, "native.stdout", {-1, -1}},
- {stderr, STDERR_FILENO, ANDROID_LOG_WARN, "native.stderr", {-1, -1}},
+ {NULL, STDOUT_FILENO, ANDROID_LOG_INFO, "native.stdout", {-1, -1}},
+ {NULL, STDERR_FILENO, ANDROID_LOG_WARN, "native.stderr", {-1, -1}},
{NULL, -1, ANDROID_LOG_UNKNOWN, NULL, {-1, -1}},
};
@@ -84,64 +95,108 @@ static char *redirect_stream(StreamInfo *si) {
return 0;
}
-JNIEXPORT void JNICALL Java_org_python_testbed_MainActivity_redirectStdioToLogcat(
+JNIEXPORT void JNICALL Java_org_python_testbed_PythonTestRunner_redirectStdioToLogcat(
JNIEnv *env, jobject obj
) {
+ STREAMS[0].file = stdout;
+ STREAMS[1].file = stderr;
for (StreamInfo *si = STREAMS; si->file; si++) {
char *error_prefix;
if ((error_prefix = redirect_stream(si))) {
- char error_message[1024];
- snprintf(error_message, sizeof(error_message),
- "%s: %s", error_prefix, strerror(errno));
- throw_runtime_exception(env, error_message);
+ throw_errno(env, error_prefix);
return;
}
}
}
-// --- Python intialization ----------------------------------------------------
-
-static PyStatus set_config_string(
- JNIEnv *env, PyConfig *config, wchar_t **config_str, jstring value
-) {
- const char *value_utf8 = (*env)->GetStringUTFChars(env, value, NULL);
- PyStatus status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(config, config_str, value_utf8);
- (*env)->ReleaseStringUTFChars(env, value, value_utf8);
- return status;
+// --- Python initialization ---------------------------------------------------
+
+static char *init_signals() {
+ // Some tests use SIGUSR1, but that's blocked by default in an Android app in
+ // order to make it available to `sigwait` in the Signal Catcher thread.
+ // (https://cs.android.com/android/platform/superproject/+/android14-qpr3-release:art/runtime/signal_catcher.cc).
+ // That thread's functionality is only useful for debugging the JVM, so disabling
+ // it should not weaken the tests.
+ //
+ // There's no safe way of stopping the thread completely (#123982), but simply
+ // unblocking SIGUSR1 is enough to fix most tests.
+ //
+ // However, in tests that generate multiple different signals in quick
+ // succession, it's possible for SIGUSR1 to arrive while the main thread is busy
+ // running the C-level handler for a different signal. In that case, the SIGUSR1
+ // may be sent to the Signal Catcher thread instead, which will generate a log
+ // message containing the text "reacting to signal".
+ //
+ // Such tests may need to be changed in one of the following ways:
+ // * Use a signal other than SIGUSR1 (e.g. test_stress_delivery_simultaneous in
+ // test_signal.py).
+ // * Send the signal to a specific thread rather than the whole process (e.g.
+ // test_signals in test_threadsignals.py.
+ sigset_t set;
+ if (sigemptyset(&set)) {
+ return "sigemptyset";
+ }
+ if (sigaddset(&set, SIGUSR1)) {
+ return "sigaddset";
+ }
+ if ((errno = pthread_sigmask(SIG_UNBLOCK, &set, NULL))) {
+ return "pthread_sigmask";
+ }
+ return NULL;
}
static void throw_status(JNIEnv *env, PyStatus status) {
throw_runtime_exception(env, status.err_msg ? status.err_msg : "");
}
-JNIEXPORT void JNICALL Java_org_python_testbed_MainActivity_runPython(
- JNIEnv *env, jobject obj, jstring home, jstring runModule
+JNIEXPORT int JNICALL Java_org_python_testbed_PythonTestRunner_runPython(
+ JNIEnv *env, jobject obj, jstring home, jarray args
) {
+ const char *home_utf8 = (*env)->GetStringUTFChars(env, home, NULL);
+ char cwd[PATH_MAX];
+ snprintf(cwd, sizeof(cwd), "%s/%s", home_utf8, "cwd");
+ if (chdir(cwd)) {
+ throw_errno(env, "chdir");
+ return 1;
+ }
+
+ char *error_prefix;
+ if ((error_prefix = init_signals())) {
+ throw_errno(env, error_prefix);
+ return 1;
+ }
+
PyConfig config;
PyStatus status;
- PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(&config);
+ PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
- status = set_config_string(env, &config, &config.home, home);
- if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
+ jsize argc = (*env)->GetArrayLength(env, args);
+ const char *argv[argc + 1];
+ for (int i = 0; i < argc; i++) {
+ jobject arg = (*env)->GetObjectArrayElement(env, args, i);
+ argv[i] = (*env)->GetStringUTFChars(env, arg, NULL);
+ }
+ argv[argc] = NULL;
+
+ // PyConfig_SetBytesArgv "must be called before other methods, since the
+ // preinitialization configuration depends on command line arguments"
+ if (PyStatus_Exception(status = PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(&config, argc, (char**)argv))) {
throw_status(env, status);
- return;
+ return 1;
}
- status = set_config_string(env, &config, &config.run_module, runModule);
+ status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.home, home_utf8);
if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
throw_status(env, status);
- return;
+ return 1;
}
- // Some tests generate SIGPIPE and SIGXFSZ, which should be ignored.
- config.install_signal_handlers = 1;
-
status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
throw_status(env, status);
- return;
+ return 1;
}
- Py_RunMain();
+ return Py_RunMain();
}
diff --git a/Android/testbed/app/src/main/java/org/python/testbed/MainActivity.kt b/Android/testbed/app/src/main/java/org/python/testbed/MainActivity.kt
index 5a590d5d04e9542..c8fe3acd849ac7a 100644
--- a/Android/testbed/app/src/main/java/org/python/testbed/MainActivity.kt
+++ b/Android/testbed/app/src/main/java/org/python/testbed/MainActivity.kt
@@ -1,38 +1,68 @@
package org.python.testbed
+import android.content.Context
import android.os.*
import android.system.Os
import android.widget.TextView
import androidx.appcompat.app.*
+import org.json.JSONArray
import java.io.*
+
+// Launching the tests from an activity is OK for a quick check, but for
+// anything more complicated it'll be more convenient to use `android.py test`
+// to launch the tests via PythonSuite.
class MainActivity : AppCompatActivity() {
override fun onCreate(savedInstanceState: Bundle?) {
super.onCreate(savedInstanceState)
setContentView(R.layout.activity_main)
+ val status = PythonTestRunner(this).run("""["-m", "test", "-W", "-uall"]""")
+ findViewById<TextView>(R.id.tvHello).text = "Exit status $status"
+ }
+}
+
+
+class PythonTestRunner(val context: Context) {
+ /** Run Python.
+ *
+ * @param args Python command-line, encoded as JSON.
+ * @return The Python exit status: zero on success, nonzero on failure. */
+ fun run(args: String) : Int {
+ // Argument 0 is a placeholder for the executable name in embedded mode.
+ val argsJsonArray = JSONArray(args)
+ val argsStringArray = Array<String>(argsJsonArray.length() + 1) { i ->
+ if (i == 0) ""
+ else argsJsonArray.getString(i - 1)
+ }
// Python needs this variable to help it find the temporary directory,
// but Android only sets it on API level 33 and later.
- Os.setenv("TMPDIR", cacheDir.toString(), false)
+ Os.setenv("TMPDIR", context.cacheDir.toString(), false)
val pythonHome = extractAssets()
System.loadLibrary("main_activity")
redirectStdioToLogcat()
- runPython(pythonHome.toString(), "main")
- findViewById<TextView>(R.id.tvHello).text = "Python complete"
+ return runPython(pythonHome.toString(), argsStringArray)
}
private fun extractAssets() : File {
- val pythonHome = File(filesDir, "python")
+ val pythonHome = File(context.filesDir, "python")
if (pythonHome.exists() && !pythonHome.deleteRecursively()) {
throw RuntimeException("Failed to delete $pythonHome")
}
- extractAssetDir("python", filesDir)
+ extractAssetDir("python", context.filesDir)
+
+ // Empty directories are lost in the asset packing/unpacking process.
+ val cwd = File(pythonHome, "cwd")
+ if (!cwd.exists()) {
+ cwd.mkdir()
+ }
+
return pythonHome
}
private fun extractAssetDir(path: String, targetDir: File) {
- val names = assets.list(path)
+ val names = context.assets.list(path)
?: throw RuntimeException("Failed to list $path")
val targetSubdir = File(targetDir, path)
if (!targetSubdir.mkdirs()) {
@@ -43,13 +73,15 @@ class MainActivity : AppCompatActivity() {
val subPath = "$path/$name"
val input: InputStream
try {
- input = assets.open(subPath)
+ input = context.assets.open(subPath)
} catch (e: FileNotFoundException) {
extractAssetDir(subPath, targetDir)
continue
}
input.use {
- File(targetSubdir, name).outputStream().use { output ->
+ // Undo the .gz workaround from build.gradle.kts.
+ val outputName = name.replace(Regex("""(.*)-"""), "$1")
+ File(targetSubdir, outputName).outputStream().use { output ->
input.copyTo(output)
}
}
@@ -57,5 +89,5 @@ class MainActivity : AppCompatActivity() {
}
private external fun redirectStdioToLogcat()
- private external fun runPython(home: String, runModule: String)
-}
\ No newline at end of file
+ private external fun runPython(home: String, args: Array<String>) : Int
+}
diff --git a/Android/testbed/app/src/main/python/main.py b/Android/testbed/app/src/main/python/main.py
deleted file mode 100644
index a1b6def34ede811..000000000000000
--- a/Android/testbed/app/src/main/python/main.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,17 +0,0 @@
-import runpy
-import signal
-import sys
-
-# Some tests use SIGUSR1, but that's blocked by default in an Android app in
-# order to make it available to `sigwait` in the "Signal Catcher" thread. That
-# thread's functionality is only relevant to the JVM ("forcing GC (no HPROF) and
-# profile save"), so disabling it should not weaken the tests.
-signal.pthread_sigmask(signal.SIG_UNBLOCK, [signal.SIGUSR1])
-
-# To run specific tests, or pass any other arguments to the test suite, edit
-# this command line.
-sys.argv[1:] = [
- "--use", "all,-cpu",
- "--verbose3",
-]
-runpy.run_module("test")
diff --git a/Android/testbed/build.gradle.kts b/Android/testbed/build.gradle.kts
index 53f4a67287fcc57..3c48be4bb585139 100644
--- a/Android/testbed/build.gradle.kts
+++ b/Android/testbed/build.gradle.kts
@@ -1,5 +1,4 @@
// Top-level build file where you can add configuration options common to all sub-projects/modules.
plugins {
- id("com.android.application") version "8.2.2" apply false
- id("org.jetbrains.kotlin.android") version "1.9.22" apply false
-}
\ No newline at end of file
+ id("com.android.application") version "9.3.1" apply false
+}
diff --git a/Android/testbed/gradle.properties b/Android/testbed/gradle.properties
index 3c5031eb7d63f78..22821df51100134 100644
--- a/Android/testbed/gradle.properties
+++ b/Android/testbed/gradle.properties
@@ -11,13 +11,10 @@ org.gradle.jvmargs=-Xmx2048m -Dfile.encoding=UTF-8
# This option should only be used with decoupled projects. More details, visit
# http://www.gradle.org/docs/current/userguide/multi_project_builds.html#sec:decoupled_projects
# org.gradle.parallel=true
-# AndroidX package structure to make it clearer which packages are bundled with the
-# Android operating system, and which are packaged with your app's APK
-# https://developer.android.com/topic/libraries/support-library/androidx-rn
-android.useAndroidX=true
# Kotlin code style for this project: "official" or "obsolete":
kotlin.code.style=official
-# Enables namespacing of each library's R class so that its R class includes only the
-# resources declared in the library itself and none from the library's dependencies,
-# thereby reducing the size of the R class for that library
-android.nonTransitiveRClass=true
\ No newline at end of file
+
+# By default, the app will be uninstalled after the tests finish (apparently
+# after 10 seconds in case of an unclean shutdown). We disable this, because
+# when using android.py it can conflict with the installation of the next run.
+android.injected.androidTest.leaveApksInstalledAfterRun=true
diff --git a/Android/testbed/gradle/wrapper/gradle-wrapper.properties b/Android/testbed/gradle/wrapper/gradle-wrapper.properties
index 2dc3339a3ef2130..6632d9e5c1c4045 100644
--- a/Android/testbed/gradle/wrapper/gradle-wrapper.properties
+++ b/Android/testbed/gradle/wrapper/gradle-wrapper.properties
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
#Mon Feb 19 20:29:06 GMT 2024
distributionBase=GRADLE_USER_HOME
distributionPath=wrapper/dists
-distributionUrl=https\://services.gradle.org/distributions/gradle-8.2-bin.zip
+distributionUrl=https\://services.gradle.org/distributions/gradle-9.5.0-bin.zip
zipStoreBase=GRADLE_USER_HOME
zipStorePath=wrapper/dists
diff --git a/Doc/.ruff.toml b/Doc/.ruff.toml
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..3e676e13c3f41ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/.ruff.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+extend = "../.ruff.toml" # Inherit the project-wide settings
+
+target-version = "py312" # Align with the version in oldest_supported_sphinx
+extend-exclude = [
+ "includes/*",
+ # Temporary exclusions:
+ "tools/extensions/pyspecific.py",
+]
+
+[lint]
+preview = true
+select = [
+ "C4", # flake8-comprehensions
+ "B", # flake8-bugbear
+ "E", # pycodestyle
+ "F", # pyflakes
+ "FA", # flake8-future-annotations
+ "FLY", # flynt
+ "FURB", # refurb
+ "G", # flake8-logging-format
+ "I", # isort
+ "LOG", # flake8-logging
+ "N", # pep8-naming
+ "PERF", # perflint
+ "PGH", # pygrep-hooks
+ "PT", # flake8-pytest-style
+ "TCH", # flake8-type-checking
+ "UP", # pyupgrade
+ "W", # pycodestyle
+]
+ignore = [
+ "E501", # Ignore line length errors (we use auto-formatting)
+]
+
+[format]
+preview = true
+quote-style = "preserve"
+docstring-code-format = true
+exclude = [
+ "tools/extensions/lexers/*",
+]
diff --git a/Doc/Makefile b/Doc/Makefile
index dd068c520ad60cf..60ffcd286e3c820 100644
--- a/Doc/Makefile
+++ b/Doc/Makefile
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@
# You can set these variables from the command line.
PYTHON = python3
VENVDIR = ./venv
+UV = uv
SPHINXBUILD = PATH=$(VENVDIR)/bin:$$PATH sphinx-build
BLURB = PATH=$(VENVDIR)/bin:$$PATH blurb
JOBS = auto
@@ -13,15 +14,15 @@ PAPER =
SOURCES =
DISTVERSION = $(shell $(PYTHON) tools/extensions/patchlevel.py)
REQUIREMENTS = requirements.txt
-SPHINXERRORHANDLING = -W
+SPHINXERRORHANDLING = --fail-on-warning
# Internal variables.
-PAPEROPT_a4 = -D latex_elements.papersize=a4paper
-PAPEROPT_letter = -D latex_elements.papersize=letterpaper
+PAPEROPT_a4 = --define latex_elements.papersize=a4paper
+PAPEROPT_letter = --define latex_elements.papersize=letterpaper
-ALLSPHINXOPTS = -b $(BUILDER) \
- -d build/doctrees \
- -j $(JOBS) \
+ALLSPHINXOPTS = --builder $(BUILDER) \
+ --doctree-dir build/doctrees \
+ --jobs $(JOBS) \
$(PAPEROPT_$(PAPER)) \
$(SPHINXOPTS) $(SPHINXERRORHANDLING) \
. build/$(BUILDER) $(SOURCES)
@@ -32,6 +33,7 @@ help:
@echo " clean to remove build files"
@echo " venv to create a venv with necessary tools"
@echo " html to make standalone HTML files"
+ @echo " gettext to generate POT files"
@echo " htmlview to open the index page built by the html target in your browser"
@echo " htmllive to rebuild and reload HTML files in your browser"
@echo " htmlhelp to make HTML files and a HTML help project"
@@ -56,7 +58,7 @@ build:
@if [ -f ../Misc/NEWS ] ; then \
echo "Using existing Misc/NEWS file"; \
cp ../Misc/NEWS build/NEWS; \
- elif $(BLURB) help >/dev/null 2>&1 && $(SPHINXBUILD) --version >/dev/null 2>&1; then \
+ elif $(BLURB) --version && $(SPHINXBUILD) --version ; then \
if [ -d ../Misc/NEWS.d ]; then \
echo "Building NEWS from Misc/NEWS.d with blurb"; \
$(BLURB) merge -f build/NEWS; \
@@ -138,16 +140,22 @@ doctest:
pydoc-topics: BUILDER = pydoc-topics
pydoc-topics: build
@echo "Building finished; now run this:" \
- "cp build/pydoc-topics/topics.py ../Lib/pydoc_data/topics.py"
+ "cp build/pydoc-topics/topics.py ../Lib/pydoc_data/topics.py" \
+ "&& cp build/pydoc-topics/module_docs.py ../Lib/pydoc_data/module_docs.py"
+
+.PHONY: gettext
+gettext: BUILDER = gettext
+gettext: override SPHINXOPTS := --doctree-dir build/doctrees-gettext $(SPHINXOPTS)
+gettext: build
.PHONY: htmlview
htmlview: html
$(PYTHON) -c "import os, webbrowser; webbrowser.open('file://' + os.path.realpath('build/html/index.html'))"
.PHONY: htmllive
-htmllive: SPHINXBUILD = $(VENVDIR)/bin/sphinx-autobuild
+htmllive: SPHINXBUILD = PATH=$(VENVDIR)/bin:$$PATH sphinx-autobuild
htmllive: SPHINXOPTS = --re-ignore="/venv/" --open-browser --delay 0
-htmllive: html
+htmllive: _ensure-sphinx-autobuild html
.PHONY: clean
clean: clean-venv
@@ -163,93 +171,153 @@ venv:
echo "venv already exists."; \
echo "To recreate it, remove it first with \`make clean-venv'."; \
else \
+ set -e; \
echo "Creating venv in $(VENVDIR)"; \
- $(PYTHON) -m venv $(VENVDIR); \
- $(VENVDIR)/bin/python3 -m pip install --upgrade pip; \
- $(VENVDIR)/bin/python3 -m pip install -r $(REQUIREMENTS); \
+ if $(UV) --version >/dev/null 2>&1; then \
+ $(UV) venv --python=$(PYTHON) $(VENVDIR); \
+ VIRTUAL_ENV=$(VENVDIR) $(UV) pip install -r $(REQUIREMENTS); \
+ else \
+ $(PYTHON) -m venv $(VENVDIR); \
+ $(VENVDIR)/bin/python3 -m pip install --upgrade pip; \
+ $(VENVDIR)/bin/python3 -m pip install -r $(REQUIREMENTS); \
+ fi; \
echo "The venv has been created in the $(VENVDIR) directory"; \
fi
+.PHONY: dist-no-html
+dist-no-html: dist-text dist-epub dist-texinfo
+
.PHONY: dist
dist:
rm -rf dist
mkdir -p dist
-
+ $(MAKE) dist-html
+ $(MAKE) dist-text
+ $(MAKE) dist-pdf
+ $(MAKE) dist-epub
+ $(MAKE) dist-texinfo
+
+.PHONY: dist-html
+dist-html:
# archive the HTML
- make html
+ @echo "Building HTML..."
+ mkdir -p dist
+ rm -rf build/html
+ find dist -name 'python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-html*' -exec rm -rf {} \;
+ $(MAKE) html
cp -pPR build/html dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-html
+ rm -rf dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-html/_images/social_previews/
tar -C dist -cf dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-html.tar python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-html
bzip2 -9 -k dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-html.tar
(cd dist; zip -q -r -9 python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-html.zip python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-html)
rm -r dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-html
rm dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-html.tar
+ @echo "Build finished and archived!"
+.PHONY: dist-text
+dist-text:
# archive the text build
- make text
+ @echo "Building text..."
+ mkdir -p dist
+ rm -rf build/text
+ find dist -name 'python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-text*' -exec rm -rf {} \;
+ $(MAKE) text
cp -pPR build/text dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-text
tar -C dist -cf dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-text.tar python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-text
bzip2 -9 -k dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-text.tar
(cd dist; zip -q -r -9 python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-text.zip python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-text)
rm -r dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-text
rm dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-text.tar
+ @echo "Build finished and archived!"
+.PHONY: dist-pdf
+dist-pdf:
# archive the A4 latex
+ @echo "Building LaTeX (A4 paper)..."
+ mkdir -p dist
rm -rf build/latex
- make latex PAPER=a4
- -sed -i 's/makeindex/makeindex -q/' build/latex/Makefile
- (cd build/latex; make clean && make all-pdf && make FMT=pdf zip bz2)
+ find dist -name 'python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-pdf*' -exec rm -rf {} \;
+ $(MAKE) latex PAPER=a4
+ # remove zip & bz2 dependency on all-pdf,
+ # as otherwise the full latexmk process is run twice.
+ # ($$ is needed to escape the $; https://www.gnu.org/software/make/manual/make.html#Basics-of-Variable-References)
+ -sed -i 's/: all-$$(FMT)/:/' build/latex/Makefile
+ if [ -n "$(filter output-sync,$(value .FEATURES))" ]; then OUTPUTSYNC=--output-sync; else OUTPUTSYNC=; fi && \
+ (cd build/latex; $(MAKE) clean && $(MAKE) --jobs=$$((`getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN`+1)) $$OUTPUTSYNC LATEXMKOPTS='-quiet' all-pdf && $(MAKE) FMT=pdf zip bz2)
cp build/latex/docs-pdf.zip dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-pdf-a4.zip
cp build/latex/docs-pdf.tar.bz2 dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-pdf-a4.tar.bz2
+ @echo "Build finished and archived!"
- # archive the letter latex
- rm -rf build/latex
- make latex PAPER=letter
- -sed -i 's/makeindex/makeindex -q/' build/latex/Makefile
- (cd build/latex; make clean && make all-pdf && make FMT=pdf zip bz2)
- cp build/latex/docs-pdf.zip dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-pdf-letter.zip
- cp build/latex/docs-pdf.tar.bz2 dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-pdf-letter.tar.bz2
-
+.PHONY: dist-epub
+dist-epub:
# copy the epub build
+ @echo "Building EPUB..."
+ mkdir -p dist
rm -rf build/epub
- make epub
+ rm -f dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs.epub
+ $(MAKE) epub
cp -pPR build/epub/Python.epub dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs.epub
+ @echo "Build finished and archived!"
+.PHONY: dist-texinfo
+dist-texinfo:
# archive the texinfo build
+ @echo "Building Texinfo..."
+ mkdir -p dist
rm -rf build/texinfo
- make texinfo
- make info --directory=build/texinfo
+ find dist -name 'python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-texinfo*' -exec rm -rf {} \;
+ $(MAKE) texinfo
+ $(MAKE) info --directory=build/texinfo
cp -pPR build/texinfo dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-texinfo
tar -C dist -cf dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-texinfo.tar python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-texinfo
bzip2 -9 -k dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-texinfo.tar
(cd dist; zip -q -r -9 python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-texinfo.zip python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-texinfo)
rm -r dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-texinfo
rm dist/python-$(DISTVERSION)-docs-texinfo.tar
+ @echo "Build finished and archived!"
+
+.PHONY: _ensure-package
+_ensure-package: venv
+ if $(UV) --version >/dev/null 2>&1; then \
+ VIRTUAL_ENV=$(VENVDIR) $(UV) pip install $(PACKAGE); \
+ else \
+ $(VENVDIR)/bin/python3 -m pip install $(PACKAGE); \
+ fi
+
+.PHONY: _ensure-pre-commit
+_ensure-pre-commit:
+ $(MAKE) _ensure-package PACKAGE=pre-commit
+
+.PHONY: _ensure-sphinx-autobuild
+_ensure-sphinx-autobuild:
+ $(MAKE) _ensure-package PACKAGE=sphinx-autobuild
.PHONY: check
-check: venv
- $(VENVDIR)/bin/python3 -m pre_commit --version > /dev/null || $(VENVDIR)/bin/python3 -m pip install pre-commit
+check: _ensure-pre-commit
$(VENVDIR)/bin/python3 -m pre_commit run --all-files
.PHONY: serve
serve:
- @echo "The serve target was removed, use htmlview instead (see bpo-36329)"
+ @echo "The serve target was removed, use htmllive instead (see gh-80510)"
# Targets for daily automated doc build
# By default, Sphinx only rebuilds pages where the page content has changed.
# This means it doesn't always pick up changes to preferred link targets, etc
# To ensure such changes are picked up, we build the published docs with
-# `-E` (to ignore the cached environment) and `-a` (to ignore already existing
-# output files)
+# ``--fresh-env`` (to ignore the cached environment) and ``--write-all``
+# (to ignore already existing output files)
# for development releases: always build
.PHONY: autobuild-dev
+autobuild-dev: DISTVERSION = $(shell $(PYTHON) tools/extensions/patchlevel.py --short)
autobuild-dev:
- make dist SPHINXOPTS='$(SPHINXOPTS) -Ea -A daily=1'
+ $(MAKE) dist-no-html SPHINXOPTS='$(SPHINXOPTS) --fresh-env --write-all --html-define daily=1' DISTVERSION=$(DISTVERSION)
-# for quick rebuilds (HTML only)
+# for HTML-only rebuilds
.PHONY: autobuild-dev-html
+autobuild-dev-html: DISTVERSION = $(shell $(PYTHON) tools/extensions/patchlevel.py --short)
autobuild-dev-html:
- make html SPHINXOPTS='$(SPHINXOPTS) -Ea -A daily=1'
+ $(MAKE) dist-html SPHINXOPTS='$(SPHINXOPTS) --fresh-env --write-all --html-define daily=1' DISTVERSION=$(DISTVERSION)
# for stable releases: only build if not in pre-release stage (alpha, beta)
# release candidate downloads are okay, since the stable tree can be in that stage
@@ -259,7 +327,7 @@ autobuild-stable:
echo "Not building; $(DISTVERSION) is not a release version."; \
exit 1;; \
esac
- @make autobuild-dev
+ @$(MAKE) autobuild-dev
.PHONY: autobuild-stable-html
autobuild-stable-html:
@@ -267,4 +335,4 @@ autobuild-stable-html:
echo "Not building; $(DISTVERSION) is not a release version."; \
exit 1;; \
esac
- @make autobuild-dev-html
+ @$(MAKE) autobuild-dev-html
diff --git a/Doc/README.rst b/Doc/README.rst
index a3bb5fa5445c23a..2d1148753e0c6bb 100644
--- a/Doc/README.rst
+++ b/Doc/README.rst
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ install the tools into there.
Using make
----------
-To get started on UNIX, you can create a virtual environment and build
+To get started on Unix, you can create a virtual environment and build
documentation with the commands::
make venv
@@ -40,13 +40,13 @@ If you'd like to create the virtual environment in a different location,
you can specify it using the ``VENVDIR`` variable.
You can also skip creating the virtual environment altogether, in which case
-the Makefile will look for instances of ``sphinx-build`` and ``blurb``
+the ``Makefile`` will look for instances of ``sphinx-build`` and ``blurb``
installed on your process ``PATH`` (configurable with the ``SPHINXBUILD`` and
``BLURB`` variables).
-On Windows, we try to emulate the Makefile as closely as possible with a
+On Windows, we try to emulate the ``Makefile`` as closely as possible with a
``make.bat`` file. If you need to specify the Python interpreter to use,
-set the PYTHON environment variable.
+set the ``PYTHON`` environment variable.
Available make targets are:
@@ -62,15 +62,19 @@ Available make targets are:
* "htmlview", which re-uses the "html" builder, but then opens the main page
in your default web browser.
+* "htmllive", which re-uses the "html" builder, rebuilds the docs,
+ starts a local server, and automatically reloads the page in your browser
+ when you make changes to reST files (Unix only).
+
* "htmlhelp", which builds HTML files and a HTML Help project file usable to
convert them into a single Compiled HTML (.chm) file -- these are popular
under Microsoft Windows, but very handy on every platform.
To create the CHM file, you need to run the Microsoft HTML Help Workshop
- over the generated project (.hhp) file. The make.bat script does this for
+ over the generated project (.hhp) file. The ``make.bat`` script does this for
you on Windows.
-* "latex", which builds LaTeX source files as input to "pdflatex" to produce
+* "latex", which builds LaTeX source files as input to ``pdflatex`` to produce
PDF documents.
* "text", which builds a plain text file for each source file.
@@ -95,8 +99,6 @@ Available make targets are:
* "check", which checks for frequent markup errors.
-* "serve", which serves the build/html directory on port 8000.
-
* "dist", (Unix only) which creates distributable archives of HTML, text,
PDF, and EPUB builds.
@@ -131,8 +133,5 @@ Bugs in the content should be reported to the
Bugs in the toolset should be reported to the tools themselves.
-You can also send a mail to the Python Documentation Team at docs@python.org,
-and we will process your request as soon as possible.
-
-If you want to help the Documentation Team, you are always welcome. Just send
-a mail to docs@python.org.
+To help with the documentation, or report any problems, please leave a message
+on `discuss.python.org <https://discuss.python.org/c/documentation>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/about.rst b/Doc/about.rst
index 5e6160ff2700ed1..f0dba08130e2c01 100644
--- a/Doc/about.rst
+++ b/Doc/about.rst
@@ -1,15 +1,16 @@
-=====================
-About these documents
-=====================
+========================
+About this documentation
+========================
-These documents are generated from `reStructuredText`_ sources by `Sphinx`_, a
-document processor specifically written for the Python documentation.
+Python's documentation is generated from `reStructuredText`_ sources
+using `Sphinx`_, a documentation generator originally created for Python
+and now maintained as an independent project.
.. _reStructuredText: https://docutils.sourceforge.io/rst.html
.. _Sphinx: https://www.sphinx-doc.org/
-.. In the online version of these documents, you can submit comments and suggest
+.. In the online version of this documentation, you can submit comments and suggest
changes directly on the documentation pages.
Development of the documentation and its toolchain is an entirely volunteer
@@ -20,14 +21,14 @@ volunteers are always welcome!
Many thanks go to:
* Fred L. Drake, Jr., the creator of the original Python documentation toolset
- and writer of much of the content;
+ and author of much of the content;
* the `Docutils <https://docutils.sourceforge.io/>`_ project for creating
reStructuredText and the Docutils suite;
* Fredrik Lundh for his Alternative Python Reference project from which Sphinx
got many good ideas.
-Contributors to the Python Documentation
+Contributors to the Python documentation
----------------------------------------
Many people have contributed to the Python language, the Python standard
diff --git a/Doc/bugs.rst b/Doc/bugs.rst
index 9aff2f0ff5187df..9f2b9876ba51dc9 100644
--- a/Doc/bugs.rst
+++ b/Doc/bugs.rst
@@ -9,28 +9,29 @@ stability. In order to maintain this reputation, the developers would like to
know of any deficiencies you find in Python.
It can be sometimes faster to fix bugs yourself and contribute patches to
-Python as it streamlines the process and involves less people. Learn how to
+Python as it streamlines the process and involves fewer people. Learn how to
:ref:`contribute <contributing-to-python>`.
Documentation bugs
==================
If you find a bug in this documentation or would like to propose an improvement,
-please submit a bug report on the :ref:`tracker <using-the-tracker>`. If you
+please submit a bug report on the :ref:`issue tracker <using-the-tracker>`. If you
have a suggestion on how to fix it, include that as well.
+.. only:: translation
+
+ If the bug or suggested improvement concerns the translation of this
+ documentation, submit the report to the
+ `translation’s repository <TRANSLATION_REPO_>`_ instead.
+
You can also open a discussion item on our
`Documentation Discourse forum <https://discuss.python.org/c/documentation/26>`_.
If you find a bug in the theme (HTML / CSS / JavaScript) of the
-documentation, please submit a bug report on the `python-doc-theme bug
+documentation, please submit a bug report on the `python-doc-theme issue
tracker <https://github.com/python/python-docs-theme>`_.
-If you're short on time, you can also email documentation bug reports to
-docs@python.org (behavioral bugs can be sent to python-list@python.org).
-'docs@' is a mailing list run by volunteers; your request will be noticed,
-though it may take a while to be processed.
-
.. seealso::
`Documentation bugs`_
diff --git a/Doc/library/constants.rst b/Doc/builtins/constants.rst
similarity index 73%
rename from Doc/library/constants.rst
rename to Doc/builtins/constants.rst
index 93a7244f87de6b9..6aa703ec259d6fb 100644
--- a/Doc/library/constants.rst
+++ b/Doc/builtins/constants.rst
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ A small number of constants live in the built-in namespace. They are:
An object frequently used to represent the absence of a value, as when
default arguments are not passed to a function. Assignments to ``None``
are illegal and raise a :exc:`SyntaxError`.
- ``None`` is the sole instance of the :data:`~types.NoneType` type.
+ ``None`` is the sole instance of the :class:`~types.NoneType` type.
.. data:: NotImplemented
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ A small number of constants live in the built-in namespace. They are:
the other type; may be returned by the in-place binary special methods
(e.g. :meth:`~object.__imul__`, :meth:`~object.__iand__`, etc.) for the same purpose.
It should not be evaluated in a boolean context.
- :data:`!NotImplemented` is the sole instance of the :data:`types.NotImplementedType` type.
+ :data:`!NotImplemented` is the sole instance of the :class:`types.NotImplementedType` type.
.. note::
@@ -46,11 +46,12 @@ A small number of constants live in the built-in namespace. They are:
See :ref:`implementing-the-arithmetic-operations` for examples.
- .. note::
+ .. caution::
- ``NotImplementedError`` and :data:`!NotImplemented` are not interchangeable,
- even though they have similar names and purposes.
- See :exc:`NotImplementedError` for details on when to use it.
+ :data:`!NotImplemented` and :exc:`!NotImplementedError` are not
+ interchangeable. This constant should only be used as described
+ above; see :exc:`NotImplementedError` for details on correct usage
+ of the exception.
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
Evaluating :data:`!NotImplemented` in a boolean context is deprecated. While
@@ -61,9 +62,10 @@ A small number of constants live in the built-in namespace. They are:
.. index:: single: ...; ellipsis literal
.. data:: Ellipsis
- The same as the ellipsis literal "``...``". Special value used mostly in conjunction
- with extended slicing syntax for user-defined container data types.
- ``Ellipsis`` is the sole instance of the :data:`types.EllipsisType` type.
+ The same as the ellipsis literal "``...``", an object frequently used to
+ indicate that something is omitted. Assignment to ``Ellipsis`` is possible, but
+ assignment to ``...`` raises a :exc:`SyntaxError`.
+ ``Ellipsis`` is the sole instance of the :class:`types.EllipsisType` type.
.. data:: __debug__
@@ -79,6 +81,8 @@ A small number of constants live in the built-in namespace. They are:
:exc:`SyntaxError`), so they can be considered "true" constants.
+.. _site-consts:
+
Constants added by the :mod:`site` module
-----------------------------------------
@@ -91,9 +95,18 @@ should not be used in programs.
exit(code=None)
Objects that when printed, print a message like "Use quit() or Ctrl-D
- (i.e. EOF) to exit", and when called, raise :exc:`SystemExit` with the
+ (i.e. EOF) to exit", and when accessed directly in the interactive
+ interpreter or called as functions, raise :exc:`SystemExit` with the
specified exit code.
+.. data:: help
+ :noindex:
+
+ Object that when printed, prints the message "Type help() for interactive
+ help, or help(object) for help about object.", and when accessed directly
+ in the interactive interpreter, invokes the built-in help system
+ (see :func:`help`).
+
.. data:: copyright
credits
diff --git a/Doc/library/exceptions.rst b/Doc/builtins/exceptions.rst
similarity index 94%
rename from Doc/library/exceptions.rst
rename to Doc/builtins/exceptions.rst
index 7879fb015bddfa3..df80bfaceca7aac 100644
--- a/Doc/library/exceptions.rst
+++ b/Doc/builtins/exceptions.rst
@@ -204,10 +204,16 @@ The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised.
assignment fails. (When an object does not support attribute references or
attribute assignments at all, :exc:`TypeError` is raised.)
- The :attr:`name` and :attr:`obj` attributes can be set using keyword-only
- arguments to the constructor. When set they represent the name of the attribute
- that was attempted to be accessed and the object that was accessed for said
- attribute, respectively.
+ The optional *name* and *obj* keyword-only arguments
+ set the corresponding attributes:
+
+ .. attribute:: name
+
+ The name of the attribute that was attempted to be accessed.
+
+ .. attribute:: obj
+
+ The object that was accessed for the named attribute.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
Added the :attr:`name` and :attr:`obj` attributes.
@@ -215,7 +221,7 @@ The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised.
.. exception:: EOFError
Raised when the :func:`input` function hits an end-of-file condition (EOF)
- without reading any data. (N.B.: the :meth:`io.IOBase.read` and
+ without reading any data. (Note: the :meth:`io.TextIOBase.read` and
:meth:`io.IOBase.readline` methods return an empty string when they hit EOF.)
@@ -312,9 +318,11 @@ The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised.
unqualified names. The associated value is an error message that includes the
name that could not be found.
- The :attr:`name` attribute can be set using a keyword-only argument to the
- constructor. When set it represent the name of the variable that was attempted
- to be accessed.
+ The optional *name* keyword-only argument sets the attribute:
+
+ .. attribute:: name
+
+ The name of the variable that was attempted to be accessed.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
Added the :attr:`name` attribute.
@@ -333,11 +341,13 @@ The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised.
meant to be supported at all -- in that case either leave the operator /
method undefined or, if a subclass, set it to :data:`None`.
- .. note::
+ .. caution::
+
+ :exc:`!NotImplementedError` and :data:`!NotImplemented` are not
+ interchangeable. This exception should only be used as described
+ above; see :data:`NotImplemented` for details on correct usage of
+ the built-in constant.
- ``NotImplementedError`` and :data:`NotImplemented` are not interchangeable,
- even though they have similar names and purposes. See
- :data:`!NotImplemented` for details on when to use it.
.. exception:: OSError([arg])
OSError(errno, strerror[, filename[, winerror[, filename2]]])
@@ -380,7 +390,7 @@ The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised.
The corresponding error message, as provided by
the operating system. It is formatted by the C
- functions :c:func:`perror` under POSIX, and :c:func:`FormatMessage`
+ functions :c:func:`!perror` under POSIX, and :c:func:`!FormatMessage`
under Windows.
.. attribute:: filename
@@ -396,7 +406,7 @@ The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
:exc:`EnvironmentError`, :exc:`IOError`, :exc:`WindowsError`,
:exc:`socket.error`, :exc:`select.error` and
- :exc:`mmap.error` have been merged into :exc:`OSError`, and the
+ :exc:`!mmap.error` have been merged into :exc:`OSError`, and the
constructor may return a subclass.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
@@ -412,8 +422,8 @@ The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised.
represented. This cannot occur for integers (which would rather raise
:exc:`MemoryError` than give up). However, for historical reasons,
OverflowError is sometimes raised for integers that are outside a required
- range. Because of the lack of standardization of floating point exception
- handling in C, most floating point operations are not checked.
+ range. Because of the lack of standardization of floating-point exception
+ handling in C, most floating-point operations are not checked.
.. exception:: PythonFinalizationError
@@ -562,9 +572,13 @@ The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised.
Raised when the interpreter finds an internal error, but the situation does not
look so serious to cause it to abandon all hope. The associated value is a
- string indicating what went wrong (in low-level terms).
+ string indicating what went wrong (in low-level terms). In :term:`CPython`,
+ this could be raised by incorrectly using Python's C API, such as returning
+ a ``NULL`` value without an exception set.
- You should report this to the author or maintainer of your Python interpreter.
+ If you're confident that this exception wasn't your fault, or the fault of
+ a package you're using, you should report this to the author or maintainer
+ of your Python interpreter.
Be sure to report the version of the Python interpreter (``sys.version``; it is
also printed at the start of an interactive Python session), the exact error
message (the exception's associated value) and if possible the source of the
@@ -580,7 +594,7 @@ The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised.
handled, the Python interpreter exits; no stack traceback is printed. The
constructor accepts the same optional argument passed to :func:`sys.exit`.
If the value is an integer, it specifies the system exit status (passed to
- C's :c:func:`exit` function); if it is ``None``, the exit status is zero; if
+ C's :c:func:`!exit` function); if it is ``None``, the exit status is zero; if
it has another type (such as a string), the object's value is printed and
the exit status is one.
@@ -711,8 +725,8 @@ depending on the system error code.
.. attribute:: characters_written
- An integer containing the number of characters written to the stream
- before it blocked. This attribute is available when using the
+ An integer containing the number of **bytes** written to the stream
+ before it blocked. This attribute is available when using the
buffered I/O classes from the :mod:`io` module.
.. exception:: ChildProcessError
@@ -866,6 +880,9 @@ The following exceptions are used as warning categories; see the
Base class for warnings about dubious syntax.
+ This warning is typically emitted when compiling Python source code, and usually won't be reported
+ when running already compiled code.
+
.. exception:: RuntimeWarning
@@ -944,6 +961,15 @@ their subgroups based on the types of the contained exceptions.
raises a :exc:`TypeError` if any contained exception is not an
:exc:`Exception` subclass.
+ Exception groups are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the type of their
+ contained exceptions.
+
+ .. impl-detail::
+
+ The ``excs`` parameter may be any sequence, but lists and tuples are
+ specifically processed more efficiently here. For optimal performance,
+ pass a tuple as ``excs``.
+
.. attribute:: message
The ``msg`` argument to the constructor. This is a read-only attribute.
@@ -989,7 +1015,8 @@ their subgroups based on the types of the contained exceptions.
Returns an exception group with the same :attr:`message`, but which
wraps the exceptions in ``excs``.
- This method is used by :meth:`subgroup` and :meth:`split`. A
+ This method is used by :meth:`subgroup` and :meth:`split`, which
+ are used in various contexts to break up an exception group. A
subclass needs to override it in order to make :meth:`subgroup`
and :meth:`split` return instances of the subclass rather
than :exc:`ExceptionGroup`.
@@ -1031,7 +1058,7 @@ their subgroups based on the types of the contained exceptions.
subclasses that need a different constructor signature need to
override that rather than :meth:`~object.__init__`. For example, the following
defines an exception group subclass which accepts an exit_code and
- and constructs the group's message from it. ::
+ constructs the group's message from it. ::
class Errors(ExceptionGroup):
def __new__(cls, errors, exit_code):
diff --git a/Doc/library/functions.rst b/Doc/builtins/functions.rst
similarity index 82%
rename from Doc/library/functions.rst
rename to Doc/builtins/functions.rst
index 0c7ef67774cd057..bf2c8d70120f2d7 100644
--- a/Doc/library/functions.rst
+++ b/Doc/builtins/functions.rst
@@ -54,15 +54,15 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. |func-bytearray| replace:: ``bytearray()``
.. |func-bytes| replace:: ``bytes()``
-.. function:: abs(x)
+.. function:: abs(number, /)
Return the absolute value of a number. The argument may be an
- integer, a floating point number, or an object implementing
+ integer, a floating-point number, or an object implementing
:meth:`~object.__abs__`.
If the argument is a complex number, its magnitude is returned.
-.. function:: aiter(async_iterable)
+.. function:: aiter(async_iterable, /)
Return an :term:`asynchronous iterator` for an :term:`asynchronous iterable`.
Equivalent to calling ``x.__aiter__()``.
@@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. versionadded:: 3.10
-.. function:: all(iterable)
+.. function:: all(iterable, /)
Return ``True`` if all elements of the *iterable* are true (or if the iterable
is empty). Equivalent to::
@@ -83,8 +83,8 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
return True
-.. awaitablefunction:: anext(async_iterator)
- anext(async_iterator, default)
+.. awaitablefunction:: anext(async_iterator, /)
+ anext(async_iterator, default, /)
When awaited, return the next item from the given :term:`asynchronous
iterator`, or *default* if given and the iterator is exhausted.
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. versionadded:: 3.10
-.. function:: any(iterable)
+.. function:: any(iterable, /)
Return ``True`` if any element of the *iterable* is true. If the iterable
is empty, return ``False``. Equivalent to::
@@ -111,7 +111,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
return False
-.. function:: ascii(object)
+.. function:: ascii(object, /)
As :func:`repr`, return a string containing a printable representation of an
object, but escape the non-ASCII characters in the string returned by
@@ -119,10 +119,10 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
similar to that returned by :func:`repr` in Python 2.
-.. function:: bin(x)
+.. function:: bin(integer, /)
Convert an integer number to a binary string prefixed with "0b". The result
- is a valid Python expression. If *x* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it
+ is a valid Python expression. If *integer* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it
has to define an :meth:`~object.__index__` method that returns an integer. Some
examples:
@@ -138,13 +138,16 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')
+ See also :func:`enum.bin` to represent negative values as twos-complement.
+
See also :func:`format` for more information.
-.. class:: bool(x=False)
+.. class:: bool(object=False, /)
- Return a Boolean value, i.e. one of ``True`` or ``False``. *x* is converted
- using the standard :ref:`truth testing procedure <truth>`. If *x* is false
+ Return a Boolean value, i.e. one of ``True`` or ``False``. The argument
+ is converted using the standard :ref:`truth testing procedure <truth>`.
+ If the argument is false
or omitted, this returns ``False``; otherwise, it returns ``True``. The
:class:`bool` class is a subclass of :class:`int` (see :ref:`typesnumeric`).
It cannot be subclassed further. Its only instances are ``False`` and
@@ -153,14 +156,14 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. index:: pair: Boolean; type
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- *x* is now a positional-only parameter.
+ The parameter is now positional-only.
.. function:: breakpoint(*args, **kws)
This function drops you into the debugger at the call site. Specifically,
it calls :func:`sys.breakpointhook`, passing ``args`` and ``kws`` straight
through. By default, ``sys.breakpointhook()`` calls
- :func:`pdb.set_trace()` expecting no arguments. In this case, it is
+ :func:`pdb.set_trace` expecting no arguments. In this case, it is
purely a convenience function so you don't have to explicitly import
:mod:`pdb` or type as much code to enter the debugger. However,
:func:`sys.breakpointhook` can be set to some other function and
@@ -182,8 +185,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. _func-bytearray:
.. class:: bytearray(source=b'')
- bytearray(source, encoding)
- bytearray(source, encoding, errors)
+ bytearray(source, encoding, errors='strict')
:noindex:
Return a new array of bytes. The :class:`bytearray` class is a mutable
@@ -214,8 +216,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. _func-bytes:
.. class:: bytes(source=b'')
- bytes(source, encoding)
- bytes(source, encoding, errors)
+ bytes(source, encoding, errors='strict')
:noindex:
Return a new "bytes" object which is an immutable sequence of integers in
@@ -230,7 +231,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
See also :ref:`binaryseq`, :ref:`typebytes`, and :ref:`bytes-methods`.
-.. function:: callable(object)
+.. function:: callable(object, /)
Return :const:`True` if the *object* argument appears callable,
:const:`False` if not. If this returns ``True``, it is still possible that a
@@ -243,14 +244,14 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
in Python 3.2.
-.. function:: chr(i)
+.. function:: chr(codepoint, /)
- Return the string representing a character whose Unicode code point is the
- integer *i*. For example, ``chr(97)`` returns the string ``'a'``, while
+ Return the string representing a character with the specified Unicode code point.
+ For example, ``chr(97)`` returns the string ``'a'``, while
``chr(8364)`` returns the string ``'€'``. This is the inverse of :func:`ord`.
The valid range for the argument is from 0 through 1,114,111 (0x10FFFF in
- base 16). :exc:`ValueError` will be raised if *i* is outside that range.
+ base 16). :exc:`ValueError` will be raised if it is outside that range.
.. decorator:: classmethod
@@ -282,9 +283,11 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
:func:`property`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
- Class methods now inherit the method attributes (``__module__``,
- ``__name__``, ``__qualname__``, ``__doc__`` and ``__annotations__``) and
- have a new ``__wrapped__`` attribute.
+ Class methods now inherit the method attributes
+ (:attr:`~function.__module__`, :attr:`~function.__name__`,
+ :attr:`~function.__qualname__`, :attr:`~function.__doc__` and
+ :attr:`~function.__annotations__`) and have a new ``__wrapped__``
+ attribute.
.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
Class methods can no longer wrap other :term:`descriptors <descriptor>` such as
@@ -333,8 +336,8 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
``__debug__`` is true), ``1`` (asserts are removed, ``__debug__`` is false)
or ``2`` (docstrings are removed too).
- This function raises :exc:`SyntaxError` if the compiled source is invalid,
- and :exc:`ValueError` if the source contains null bytes.
+ This function raises :exc:`SyntaxError` or :exc:`ValueError` if the compiled
+ source is invalid.
If you want to parse Python code into its AST representation, see
:func:`ast.parse`.
@@ -371,29 +374,73 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
support for top-level ``await``, ``async for``, and ``async with``.
-.. class:: complex(real=0, imag=0)
- complex(string)
+.. class:: complex(number=0, /)
+ complex(string, /)
+ complex(real=0, imag=0)
+
+ Convert a single string or number to a complex number, or create a
+ complex number from real and imaginary parts.
+
+ Examples:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> complex('+1.23')
+ (1.23+0j)
+ >>> complex('-4.5j')
+ -4.5j
+ >>> complex('-1.23+4.5j')
+ (-1.23+4.5j)
+ >>> complex('\t( -1.23+4.5J )\n')
+ (-1.23+4.5j)
+ >>> complex('-Infinity+NaNj')
+ (-inf+nanj)
+ >>> complex(1.23)
+ (1.23+0j)
+ >>> complex(imag=-4.5)
+ -4.5j
+ >>> complex(-1.23, 4.5)
+ (-1.23+4.5j)
+
+ If the argument is a string, it must contain either a real part (in the
+ same format as for :func:`float`) or an imaginary part (in the same
+ format but with a ``'j'`` or ``'J'`` suffix), or both real and imaginary
+ parts (the sign of the imaginary part is mandatory in this case).
+ The string can optionally be surrounded by whitespaces and the round
+ parentheses ``'('`` and ``')'``, which are ignored.
+ The string must not contain whitespace between ``'+'``, ``'-'``, the
+ ``'j'`` or ``'J'`` suffix, and the decimal number.
+ For example, ``complex('1+2j')`` is fine, but ``complex('1 + 2j')`` raises
+ :exc:`ValueError`.
+ More precisely, the input must conform to the :token:`~float:complexvalue`
+ production rule in the following grammar, after parentheses and leading and
+ trailing whitespace characters are removed:
- Return a complex number with the value *real* + *imag*\*1j or convert a string
- or number to a complex number. If the first parameter is a string, it will
- be interpreted as a complex number and the function must be called without a
- second parameter. The second parameter can never be a string. Each argument
- may be any numeric type (including complex). If *imag* is omitted, it
- defaults to zero and the constructor serves as a numeric conversion like
- :class:`int` and :class:`float`. If both arguments are omitted, returns
- ``0j``.
+ .. productionlist:: float
+ complexvalue: `floatvalue` |
+ : `floatvalue` ("j" | "J") |
+ : `floatvalue` `sign` `absfloatvalue` ("j" | "J")
+ If the argument is a number, the constructor serves as a numeric
+ conversion like :class:`int` and :class:`float`.
For a general Python object ``x``, ``complex(x)`` delegates to
- ``x.__complex__()``. If :meth:`~object.__complex__` is not defined then it falls back
- to :meth:`~object.__float__`. If :meth:`!__float__` is not defined then it falls back
+ ``x.__complex__()``.
+ If :meth:`~object.__complex__` is not defined then it falls back
+ to :meth:`~object.__float__`.
+ If :meth:`!__float__` is not defined then it falls back
to :meth:`~object.__index__`.
- .. note::
+ If two arguments are provided or keyword arguments are used, each argument
+ may be any numeric type (including complex).
+ If both arguments are real numbers, return a complex number with the real
+ component *real* and the imaginary component *imag*.
+ If both arguments are complex numbers, return a complex number with the real
+ component ``real.real-imag.imag`` and the imaginary component
+ ``real.imag+imag.real``.
+ If one of arguments is a real number, only its real component is used in
+ the above expressions.
- When converting from a string, the string must not contain whitespace
- around the central ``+`` or ``-`` operator. For example,
- ``complex('1+2j')`` is fine, but ``complex('1 + 2j')`` raises
- :exc:`ValueError`.
+ If all arguments are omitted, returns ``0j``.
The complex type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.
@@ -405,7 +452,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
:meth:`~object.__float__` are not defined.
-.. function:: delattr(object, name)
+.. function:: delattr(object, name, /)
This is a relative of :func:`setattr`. The arguments are an object and a
string. The string must be the name of one of the object's attributes. The
@@ -415,20 +462,20 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. _func-dict:
-.. class:: dict(**kwarg)
- dict(mapping, **kwarg)
- dict(iterable, **kwarg)
+.. class:: dict(**kwargs)
+ dict(mapping, /, **kwargs)
+ dict(iterable, /, **kwargs)
:noindex:
Create a new dictionary. The :class:`dict` object is the dictionary class.
- See :class:`dict` and :ref:`typesmapping` for documentation about this class.
+ See also :ref:`typesmapping` for documentation about this class.
For other containers see the built-in :class:`list`, :class:`set`, and
:class:`tuple` classes, as well as the :mod:`collections` module.
.. function:: dir()
- dir(object)
+ dir(object, /)
Without arguments, return the list of names in the current local scope. With an
argument, attempt to return a list of valid attributes for that object.
@@ -488,12 +535,12 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
class.
-.. function:: divmod(a, b)
+.. function:: divmod(a, b, /)
Take two (non-complex) numbers as arguments and return a pair of numbers
consisting of their quotient and remainder when using integer division. With
mixed operand types, the rules for binary arithmetic operators apply. For
- integers, the result is the same as ``(a // b, a % b)``. For floating point
+ integers, the result is the same as ``(a // b, a % b)``. For floating-point
numbers the result is ``(q, a % b)``, where *q* is usually ``math.floor(a /
b)`` but may be 1 less than that. In any case ``q * b + a % b`` is very
close to *a*, if ``a % b`` is non-zero it has the same sign as *b*, and ``0
@@ -541,20 +588,28 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
:returns: The result of the evaluated expression.
:raises: Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.
- The *expression* argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python expression
- (technically speaking, a condition list) using the *globals* and *locals*
- dictionaries as global and local namespace. If the *globals* dictionary is
- present and does not contain a value for the key ``__builtins__``, a
+ .. warning::
+
+ This function executes arbitrary code. Calling it with
+ untrusted user-supplied input will lead to security vulnerabilities.
+
+ The *source* argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python expression
+ (technically speaking, an :ref:`expression list <exprlists>`)
+ using the *globals* and *locals* mappings as global and local namespace.
+ If the *globals* dictionary is present and does not contain a value for the
+ key ``__builtins__``, a
reference to the dictionary of the built-in module :mod:`builtins` is
- inserted under that key before *expression* is parsed. That way you can
- control what builtins are available to the executed code by inserting your
- own ``__builtins__`` dictionary into *globals* before passing it to
- :func:`eval`. If the *locals* dictionary is omitted it defaults to the
- *globals* dictionary. If both dictionaries are omitted, the expression is
+ inserted under that key before *source* is parsed.
+ Overriding ``__builtins__`` can be used to restrict or change the available
+ names, but this is **not** a security mechanism: the executed code can
+ still access all builtins.
+ If the *locals* mapping is omitted it defaults to the
+ *globals* dictionary. If both mappings are omitted, the source is
executed with the *globals* and *locals* in the environment where
- :func:`eval` is called. Note, *eval()* does not have access to the
+ :func:`eval` is called. Note, *eval()* will only have access to the
:term:`nested scopes <nested scope>` (non-locals) in the enclosing
- environment.
+ environment if they are already referenced in the scope that is calling
+ :func:`eval` (e.g. via a :keyword:`nonlocal` statement).
Example:
@@ -562,6 +617,9 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
>>> eval('x+1')
2
+ >>> eval("1, 2")
+ (1, 2)
+
This function can also be used to execute arbitrary code objects (such as
those created by :func:`compile`). In this case, pass a code object instead
of a string. If the code object has been compiled with ``'exec'`` as the
@@ -575,7 +633,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
If the given source is a string, then leading and trailing spaces and tabs
are stripped.
- See :func:`ast.literal_eval` for a function that can safely evaluate strings
+ See :func:`ast.literal_eval` for a function to evaluate strings
with expressions containing only literals.
.. audit-event:: exec code_object eval
@@ -587,10 +645,20 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
The *globals* and *locals* arguments can now be passed as keywords.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+
+ The semantics of the default *locals* namespace have been adjusted as
+ described for the :func:`locals` builtin.
+
.. index:: pair: built-in function; exec
.. function:: exec(source, /, globals=None, locals=None, *, closure=None)
+ .. warning::
+
+ This function executes arbitrary code. Calling it with
+ untrusted user-supplied input will lead to security vulnerabilities.
+
This function supports dynamic execution of Python code. *source* must be
either a string or a code object. If it is a string, the string is parsed as
a suite of Python statements which is then executed (unless a syntax error
@@ -608,20 +676,28 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
will be used for both the global and the local variables. If *globals* and
*locals* are given, they are used for the global and local variables,
respectively. If provided, *locals* can be any mapping object. Remember
- that at the module level, globals and locals are the same dictionary. If exec
- gets two separate objects as *globals* and *locals*, the code will be
- executed as if it were embedded in a class definition.
+ that at the module level, globals and locals are the same dictionary.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ When ``exec`` gets two separate objects as *globals* and *locals*, the
+ code will be executed as if it were embedded in a class definition. This
+ means functions and classes defined in the executed code will not be able
+ to access variables assigned at the top level (as the "top level"
+ variables are treated as class variables in a class definition).
If the *globals* dictionary does not contain a value for the key
``__builtins__``, a reference to the dictionary of the built-in module
- :mod:`builtins` is inserted under that key. That way you can control what
- builtins are available to the executed code by inserting your own
- ``__builtins__`` dictionary into *globals* before passing it to :func:`exec`.
+ :mod:`builtins` is inserted under that key.
+ Overriding ``__builtins__`` can be used to restrict or change the available
+ names, but this is **not** a security mechanism: the executed code can
+ still access all builtins.
The *closure* argument specifies a closure--a tuple of cellvars.
- It's only valid when the *object* is a code object containing free variables.
- The length of the tuple must exactly match the number of free variables
- referenced by the code object.
+ It's only valid when the *object* is a code object containing
+ :term:`free (closure) variables <closure variable>`.
+ The length of the tuple must exactly match the length of the code object's
+ :attr:`~codeobject.co_freevars` attribute.
.. audit-event:: exec code_object exec
@@ -631,7 +707,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. note::
The built-in functions :func:`globals` and :func:`locals` return the current
- global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be useful to pass around
+ global and local namespace, respectively, which may be useful to pass around
for use as the second and third argument to :func:`exec`.
.. note::
@@ -647,8 +723,13 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
The *globals* and *locals* arguments can now be passed as keywords.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+
+ The semantics of the default *locals* namespace have been adjusted as
+ described for the :func:`locals` builtin.
+
-.. function:: filter(function, iterable)
+.. function:: filter(function, iterable, /)
Construct an iterator from those elements of *iterable* for which *function*
is true. *iterable* may be either a sequence, a container which
@@ -665,21 +746,38 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
elements of *iterable* for which *function* is false.
-.. class:: float(x=0.0)
+.. class:: float(number=0.0, /)
+ float(string, /)
.. index::
single: NaN
single: Infinity
- Return a floating point number constructed from a number or string *x*.
+ Return a floating-point number constructed from a number or a string.
+
+ Examples:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> float('+1.23')
+ 1.23
+ >>> float(' -12345\n')
+ -12345.0
+ >>> float('1e-003')
+ 0.001
+ >>> float('+1E6')
+ 1000000.0
+ >>> float('-Infinity')
+ -inf
If the argument is a string, it should contain a decimal number, optionally
preceded by a sign, and optionally embedded in whitespace. The optional
sign may be ``'+'`` or ``'-'``; a ``'+'`` sign has no effect on the value
produced. The argument may also be a string representing a NaN
- (not-a-number), or positive or negative infinity. More precisely, the
- input must conform to the ``floatvalue`` production rule in the following
- grammar, after leading and trailing whitespace characters are removed:
+ (not-a-number), or positive or negative infinity.
+ More precisely, the input must conform to the :token:`~float:floatvalue`
+ production rule in the following grammar, after leading and trailing
+ whitespace characters are removed:
.. productionlist:: float
sign: "+" | "-"
@@ -688,15 +786,16 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
digit: <a Unicode decimal digit, i.e. characters in Unicode general category Nd>
digitpart: `digit` (["_"] `digit`)*
number: [`digitpart`] "." `digitpart` | `digitpart` ["."]
- exponent: ("e" | "E") ["+" | "-"] `digitpart`
- floatnumber: number [`exponent`]
- floatvalue: [`sign`] (`floatnumber` | `infinity` | `nan`)
+ exponent: ("e" | "E") [`sign`] `digitpart`
+ floatnumber: `number` [`exponent`]
+ absfloatvalue: `floatnumber` | `infinity` | `nan`
+ floatvalue: [`sign`] `absfloatvalue`
Case is not significant, so, for example, "inf", "Inf", "INFINITY", and
"iNfINity" are all acceptable spellings for positive infinity.
- Otherwise, if the argument is an integer or a floating point number, a
- floating point number with the same value (within Python's floating point
+ Otherwise, if the argument is an integer or a floating-point number, a
+ floating-point number with the same value (within Python's floating-point
precision) is returned. If the argument is outside the range of a Python
float, an :exc:`OverflowError` will be raised.
@@ -706,26 +805,13 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
If no argument is given, ``0.0`` is returned.
- Examples::
-
- >>> float('+1.23')
- 1.23
- >>> float(' -12345\n')
- -12345.0
- >>> float('1e-003')
- 0.001
- >>> float('+1E6')
- 1000000.0
- >>> float('-Infinity')
- -inf
-
The float type is described in :ref:`typesnumeric`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- *x* is now a positional-only parameter.
+ The parameter is now positional-only.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
Falls back to :meth:`~object.__index__` if :meth:`~object.__float__` is not defined.
@@ -735,7 +821,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
single: __format__
single: string; format() (built-in function)
-.. function:: format(value, format_spec="")
+.. function:: format(value, format_spec="", /)
Convert a *value* to a "formatted" representation, as controlled by
*format_spec*. The interpretation of *format_spec* will depend on the type
@@ -758,11 +844,11 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. _func-frozenset:
-.. class:: frozenset(iterable=set())
+.. class:: frozenset(iterable=(), /)
:noindex:
Return a new :class:`frozenset` object, optionally with elements taken from
- *iterable*. ``frozenset`` is a built-in class. See :class:`frozenset` and
+ *iterable*. :class:`frozenset` is a built-in class. See also
:ref:`types-set` for documentation about this class.
For other containers see the built-in :class:`set`, :class:`list`,
@@ -770,8 +856,8 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
module.
-.. function:: getattr(object, name)
- getattr(object, name, default)
+.. function:: getattr(object, name, /)
+ getattr(object, name, default, /)
Return the value of the named attribute of *object*. *name* must be a string.
If the string is the name of one of the object's attributes, the result is the
@@ -795,7 +881,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
regardless of where the function is called.
-.. function:: hasattr(object, name)
+.. function:: hasattr(object, name, /)
The arguments are an object and a string. The result is ``True`` if the
string is the name of one of the object's attributes, ``False`` if not. (This
@@ -803,7 +889,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
raises an :exc:`AttributeError` or not.)
-.. function:: hash(object)
+.. function:: hash(object, /)
Return the hash value of the object (if it has one). Hash values are
integers. They are used to quickly compare dictionary keys during a
@@ -838,10 +924,10 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
signatures for callables are now more comprehensive and consistent.
-.. function:: hex(x)
+.. function:: hex(integer, /)
Convert an integer number to a lowercase hexadecimal string prefixed with
- "0x". If *x* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it has to define an
+ "0x". If *integer* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it has to define an
:meth:`~object.__index__` method that returns an integer. Some examples:
>>> hex(255)
@@ -870,7 +956,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
:meth:`float.hex` method.
-.. function:: id(object)
+.. function:: id(object, /)
Return the "identity" of an object. This is an integer which
is guaranteed to be unique and constant for this object during its lifetime.
@@ -883,7 +969,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. function:: input()
- input(prompt)
+ input(prompt, /)
If the *prompt* argument is present, it is written to standard output without
a trailing newline. The function then reads a line from input, converts it
@@ -909,17 +995,36 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
with the result after successfully reading input.
-.. class:: int(x=0)
- int(x, base=10)
+.. class:: int(number=0, /)
+ int(string, /, base=10)
+
+ Return an integer object constructed from a number or a string, or return
+ ``0`` if no arguments are given.
+
+ Examples:
+
+ .. doctest::
- Return an integer object constructed from a number or string *x*, or return
- ``0`` if no arguments are given. If *x* defines :meth:`~object.__int__`,
- ``int(x)`` returns ``x.__int__()``. If *x* defines :meth:`~object.__index__`,
- it returns ``x.__index__()``. If *x* defines :meth:`~object.__trunc__`,
+ >>> int(123.45)
+ 123
+ >>> int('123')
+ 123
+ >>> int(' -12_345\n')
+ -12345
+ >>> int('FACE', 16)
+ 64206
+ >>> int('0xface', 0)
+ 64206
+ >>> int('01110011', base=2)
+ 115
+
+ If the argument defines :meth:`~object.__int__`,
+ ``int(x)`` returns ``x.__int__()``. If the argument defines :meth:`~object.__index__`,
+ it returns ``x.__index__()``. If the argument defines :meth:`~object.__trunc__`,
it returns ``x.__trunc__()``.
- For floating point numbers, this truncates towards zero.
+ For floating-point numbers, this truncates towards zero.
- If *x* is not a number or if *base* is given, then *x* must be a string,
+ If the argument is not a number or if *base* is given, then it must be a string,
:class:`bytes`, or :class:`bytearray` instance representing an integer
in radix *base*. Optionally, the string can be preceded by ``+`` or ``-``
(with no space in between), have leading zeros, be surrounded by whitespace,
@@ -949,7 +1054,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- *x* is now a positional-only parameter.
+ The first parameter is now positional-only.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
Falls back to :meth:`~object.__index__` if :meth:`~object.__int__` is not defined.
@@ -960,12 +1065,13 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
:class:`int` string inputs and string representations can be limited to
help avoid denial of service attacks. A :exc:`ValueError` is raised when
- the limit is exceeded while converting a string *x* to an :class:`int` or
+ the limit is exceeded while converting a string to an :class:`int` or
when converting an :class:`int` into a string would exceed the limit.
See the :ref:`integer string conversion length limitation
<int_max_str_digits>` documentation.
-.. function:: isinstance(object, classinfo)
+
+.. function:: isinstance(object, classinfo, /)
Return ``True`` if the *object* argument is an instance of the *classinfo*
argument, or of a (direct, indirect, or :term:`virtual <abstract base
@@ -982,7 +1088,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
*classinfo* can be a :ref:`types-union`.
-.. function:: issubclass(class, classinfo)
+.. function:: issubclass(class, classinfo, /)
Return ``True`` if *class* is a subclass (direct, indirect, or :term:`virtual
<abstract base class>`) of *classinfo*. A
@@ -996,19 +1102,19 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
*classinfo* can be a :ref:`types-union`.
-.. function:: iter(object)
- iter(object, sentinel)
+.. function:: iter(iterable, /)
+ iter(callable, sentinel, /)
Return an :term:`iterator` object. The first argument is interpreted very
differently depending on the presence of the second argument. Without a
- second argument, *object* must be a collection object which supports the
+ second argument, the single argument must be a collection object which supports the
:term:`iterable` protocol (the :meth:`~object.__iter__` method),
or it must support
the sequence protocol (the :meth:`~object.__getitem__` method with integer arguments
starting at ``0``). If it does not support either of those protocols,
:exc:`TypeError` is raised. If the second argument, *sentinel*, is given,
- then *object* must be a callable object. The iterator created in this case
- will call *object* with no arguments for each call to its
+ then the first argument must be a callable object. The iterator created in this case
+ will call *callable* with no arguments for each call to its
:meth:`~iterator.__next__` method; if the value returned is equal to
*sentinel*, :exc:`StopIteration` will be raised, otherwise the value will
be returned.
@@ -1025,7 +1131,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
process_block(block)
-.. function:: len(s)
+.. function:: len(object, /)
Return the length (the number of items) of an object. The argument may be a
sequence (such as a string, bytes, tuple, list, or range) or a collection
@@ -1038,8 +1144,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. _func-list:
-.. class:: list()
- list(iterable)
+.. class:: list(iterable=(), /)
:noindex:
Rather than being a function, :class:`list` is actually a mutable
@@ -1048,43 +1153,55 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. function:: locals()
- Return a mapping object representing the current local symbol table, with
- variable names as the keys, and their currently bound references as the
- values.
-
- At module scope, as well as when using ``exec()`` or ``eval()`` with a
- single namespace, this function returns the same namespace as ``globals()``.
-
- At class scope, it returns the namespace that will be passed to the
- metaclass constructor.
+ Return a mapping object representing the current local symbol table, with
+ variable names as the keys, and their currently bound references as the
+ values.
+
+ At module scope, as well as when using :func:`exec` or :func:`eval` with
+ a single namespace, this function returns the same namespace as
+ :func:`globals`.
+
+ At class scope, it returns the namespace that will be passed to the
+ metaclass constructor.
+
+ When using ``exec()`` or ``eval()`` with separate local and global
+ arguments, it returns the local namespace passed in to the function call.
+
+ In all of the above cases, each call to ``locals()`` in a given frame of
+ execution will return the *same* mapping object. Changes made through
+ the mapping object returned from ``locals()`` will be visible as assigned,
+ reassigned, or deleted local variables, and assigning, reassigning, or
+ deleting local variables will immediately affect the contents of the
+ returned mapping object.
+
+ In an :term:`optimized scope` (including functions, generators, and
+ coroutines), each call to ``locals()`` instead returns a fresh dictionary
+ containing the current bindings of the function's local variables and any
+ nonlocal cell references. In this case, name binding changes made via the
+ returned dict are *not* written back to the corresponding local variables
+ or nonlocal cell references, and assigning, reassigning, or deleting local
+ variables and nonlocal cell references does *not* affect the contents
+ of previously returned dictionaries.
+
+ Calling ``locals()`` as part of a comprehension in a function, generator, or
+ coroutine is equivalent to calling it in the containing scope, except that
+ the comprehension's initialised iteration variables will be included. In
+ other scopes, it behaves as if the comprehension were running as a nested
+ function.
+
+ Calling ``locals()`` as part of a generator expression is equivalent to
+ calling it in a nested generator function.
- When using ``exec()`` or ``eval()`` with separate local and global
- namespaces, it returns the local namespace passed in to the function call.
-
- In all of the above cases, each call to ``locals()`` in a given frame of
- execution will return the *same* mapping object. Changes made through
- the mapping object returned from ``locals()`` will be visible as bound,
- rebound, or deleted local variables, and binding, rebinding, or deleting
- local variables will immediately affect the contents of the returned mapping
- object.
-
- At function scope (including for generators and coroutines), each call to
- ``locals()`` instead returns a fresh dictionary containing the current
- bindings of the function's local variables and any nonlocal cell references.
- In this case, name binding changes made via the returned dict are *not*
- written back to the corresponding local variables or nonlocal cell
- references, and binding, rebinding, or deleting local variables and nonlocal
- cell references does *not* affect the contents of previously returned
- dictionaries.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ The behaviour of ``locals()`` in a comprehension has been updated as
+ described in :pep:`709`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
- In previous versions, the semantics of mutating the mapping object
- returned from this function were formally undefined. In CPython
- specifically, the mapping returned at function scope could be
- implicitly refreshed by other operations, such as calling ``locals()``
- again. Obtaining the legacy CPython behaviour now requires explicit
- calls to update the initially returned dictionary with the results
- of subsequent calls to ``locals()``.
+ As part of :pep:`667`, the semantics of mutating the mapping objects
+ returned from this function are now defined. The behavior in
+ :term:`optimized scopes <optimized scope>` is now as described above.
+ Aside from being defined, the behaviour in other scopes remains
+ unchanged from previous versions.
.. function:: map(function, iterable, *iterables)
@@ -1097,9 +1214,9 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
already arranged into argument tuples, see :func:`itertools.starmap`\.
-.. function:: max(iterable, *, key=None)
- max(iterable, *, default, key=None)
- max(arg1, arg2, *args, key=None)
+.. function:: max(iterable, /, *, key=None)
+ max(iterable, /, *, default, key=None)
+ max(arg1, arg2, /, *args, key=None)
Return the largest item in an iterable or the largest of two or more
arguments.
@@ -1135,9 +1252,9 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
:ref:`typememoryview` for more information.
-.. function:: min(iterable, *, key=None)
- min(iterable, *, default, key=None)
- min(arg1, arg2, *args, key=None)
+.. function:: min(iterable, /, *, key=None)
+ min(iterable, /, *, default, key=None)
+ min(arg1, arg2, /, *args, key=None)
Return the smallest item in an iterable or the smallest of two or more
arguments.
@@ -1165,8 +1282,8 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
The *key* can be ``None``.
-.. function:: next(iterator)
- next(iterator, default)
+.. function:: next(iterator, /)
+ next(iterator, default, /)
Retrieve the next item from the :term:`iterator` by calling its
:meth:`~iterator.__next__` method. If *default* is given, it is returned
@@ -1175,20 +1292,22 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. class:: object()
- Return a new featureless object. :class:`object` is a base for all classes.
- It has methods that are common to all instances of Python classes. This
- function does not accept any arguments.
+ This is the ultimate base class of all other classes. It has methods
+ that are common to all instances of Python classes. When the constructor
+ is called, it returns a new featureless object. The constructor does not
+ accept any arguments.
.. note::
- :class:`object` does *not* have a :attr:`~object.__dict__`, so you can't
- assign arbitrary attributes to an instance of the :class:`object` class.
+ :class:`object` instances do *not* have :attr:`~object.__dict__`
+ attributes, so you can't assign arbitrary attributes to an instance of
+ :class:`object`.
-.. function:: oct(x)
+.. function:: oct(integer, /)
Convert an integer number to an octal string prefixed with "0o". The result
- is a valid Python expression. If *x* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it
+ is a valid Python expression. If *integer* is not a Python :class:`int` object, it
has to define an :meth:`~object.__index__` method that returns an integer. For
example:
@@ -1231,7 +1350,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
(which on *some* Unix systems, means that *all* writes append to the end of
the file regardless of the current seek position). In text mode, if
*encoding* is not specified the encoding used is platform-dependent:
- :func:`locale.getencoding()` is called to get the current locale encoding.
+ :func:`locale.getencoding` is called to get the current locale encoding.
(For reading and writing raw bytes use binary mode and leave
*encoding* unspecified.) The available modes are:
@@ -1404,7 +1523,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
(where :func:`open` is declared), :mod:`os`, :mod:`os.path`, :mod:`tempfile`,
and :mod:`shutil`.
- .. audit-event:: open file,mode,flags open
+ .. audit-event:: open path,mode,flags open
The ``mode`` and ``flags`` arguments may have been modified or inferred from
the original call.
@@ -1437,13 +1556,19 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
The ``'U'`` mode has been removed.
-.. function:: ord(c)
+.. function:: ord(character, /)
- Given a string representing one Unicode character, return an integer
- representing the Unicode code point of that character. For example,
+ Return the ordinal value of a character.
+
+ If the argument is a one-character string, return the Unicode code point
+ of that character. For example,
``ord('a')`` returns the integer ``97`` and ``ord('€')`` (Euro sign)
returns ``8364``. This is the inverse of :func:`chr`.
+ If the argument is a :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray` object of
+ length 1, return its single byte value.
+ For example, ``ord(b'a')`` returns the integer ``97``.
+
.. function:: pow(base, exp, mod=None)
@@ -1452,7 +1577,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
``pow(base, exp) % mod``). The two-argument form ``pow(base, exp)`` is
equivalent to using the power operator: ``base**exp``.
- The arguments must have numeric types. With mixed operand types, the
+ When arguments are builtin numeric types with mixed operand types, the
coercion rules for binary arithmetic operators apply. For :class:`int`
operands, the result has the same type as the operands (after coercion)
unless the second argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are
@@ -1460,7 +1585,9 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
returns ``100``, but ``pow(10, -2)`` returns ``0.01``. For a negative base of
type :class:`int` or :class:`float` and a non-integral exponent, a complex
result is delivered. For example, ``pow(-9, 0.5)`` returns a value close
- to ``3j``.
+ to ``3j``. Whereas, for a negative base of type :class:`int` or :class:`float`
+ with an integral exponent, a float result is delivered. For example,
+ ``pow(-9, 2.0)`` returns ``81.0``.
For :class:`int` operands *base* and *exp*, if *mod* is present, *mod* must
also be of integer type and *mod* must be nonzero. If *mod* is present and
@@ -1540,7 +1667,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
If given, *doc* will be the docstring of the property attribute. Otherwise, the
property will copy *fget*'s docstring (if it exists). This makes it possible to
- create read-only properties easily using :func:`property` as a :term:`decorator`::
+ create read-only properties easily using :deco:`property` as a :term:`decorator`::
class Parrot:
def __init__(self):
@@ -1593,17 +1720,24 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
The docstrings of property objects are now writeable.
+ .. attribute:: __name__
+
+ Attribute holding the name of the property. The name of the property
+ can be changed at runtime.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
.. _func-range:
-.. class:: range(stop)
- range(start, stop, step=1)
+.. class:: range(stop, /)
+ range(start, stop, step=1, /)
:noindex:
Rather than being a function, :class:`range` is actually an immutable
sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq-range` and :ref:`typesseq`.
-.. function:: repr(object)
+.. function:: repr(object, /)
Return a string containing a printable representation of an object. For many
types, this function makes an attempt to return a string that would yield an
@@ -1627,9 +1761,9 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
return f"Person('{self.name}', {self.age})"
-.. function:: reversed(seq)
+.. function:: reversed(object, /)
- Return a reverse :term:`iterator`. *seq* must be an object which has
+ Return a reverse :term:`iterator`. The argument must be an object which has
a :meth:`~object.__reversed__` method or supports the sequence protocol (the
:meth:`~object.__len__` method and the :meth:`~object.__getitem__` method
with integer arguments starting at ``0``).
@@ -1663,12 +1797,11 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. _func-set:
-.. class:: set()
- set(iterable)
+.. class:: set(iterable=(), /)
:noindex:
Return a new :class:`set` object, optionally with elements taken from
- *iterable*. ``set`` is a built-in class. See :class:`set` and
+ *iterable*. :class:`set` is a built-in class. See also
:ref:`types-set` for documentation about this class.
For other containers see the built-in :class:`frozenset`, :class:`list`,
@@ -1676,7 +1809,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
module.
-.. function:: setattr(object, name, value)
+.. function:: setattr(object, name, value, /)
This is the counterpart of :func:`getattr`. The arguments are an object, a
string, and an arbitrary value. The string may name an existing attribute or a
@@ -1698,22 +1831,22 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
:func:`setattr`.
-.. class:: slice(stop)
- slice(start, stop, step=None)
+.. class:: slice(stop, /)
+ slice(start, stop, step=None, /)
Return a :term:`slice` object representing the set of indices specified by
``range(start, stop, step)``. The *start* and *step* arguments default to
``None``.
+ Slice objects have read-only data attributes :attr:`!start`,
+ :attr:`!stop`, and :attr:`!step` which merely return the argument
+ values (or their default). They have no other explicit functionality;
+ however, they are used by NumPy and other third-party packages.
+
.. attribute:: slice.start
.. attribute:: slice.stop
.. attribute:: slice.step
- Slice objects have read-only data attributes :attr:`!start`,
- :attr:`!stop`, and :attr:`!step` which merely return the argument
- values (or their default). They have no other explicit functionality;
- however, they are used by NumPy and other third-party packages.
-
Slice objects are also generated when extended indexing syntax is used. For
example: ``a[start:stop:step]`` or ``a[start:stop, i]``. See
:func:`itertools.islice` for an alternate version that returns an
@@ -1751,7 +1884,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
the same data with other ordering tools such as :func:`max` that rely
on a different underlying method. Implementing all six comparisons
also helps avoid confusion for mixed type comparisons which can call
- reflected the :meth:`~object.__gt__` method.
+ the reflected :meth:`~object.__gt__` method.
For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see :ref:`sortinghowto`.
@@ -1775,7 +1908,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
be used in the class definition (such as ``f()``).
Static methods in Python are similar to those found in Java or C++. Also, see
- :func:`classmethod` for a variant that is useful for creating alternate class
+ :deco:`classmethod` for a variant that is useful for creating alternate class
constructors.
Like all decorators, it is also possible to call ``staticmethod`` as
@@ -1793,18 +1926,21 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
For more information on static methods, see :ref:`types`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
- Static methods now inherit the method attributes (``__module__``,
- ``__name__``, ``__qualname__``, ``__doc__`` and ``__annotations__``),
- have a new ``__wrapped__`` attribute, and are now callable as regular
- functions.
+ Static methods now inherit the method attributes
+ (:attr:`~function.__module__`, :attr:`~function.__name__`,
+ :attr:`~function.__qualname__`, :attr:`~function.__doc__` and
+ :attr:`~function.__annotations__`), have a new ``__wrapped__`` attribute,
+ and are now callable as regular functions.
.. index::
single: string; str() (built-in function)
.. _func-str:
-.. class:: str(object='')
- str(object=b'', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
+.. class:: str(*, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
+ str(object)
+ str(object, encoding, errors='strict')
+ str(object, *, errors)
:noindex:
Return a :class:`str` version of *object*. See :func:`str` for details.
@@ -1821,7 +1957,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
For some use cases, there are good alternatives to :func:`sum`.
The preferred, fast way to concatenate a sequence of strings is by calling
- ``''.join(sequence)``. To add floating point values with extended precision,
+ ``''.join(sequence)``. To add floating-point values with extended precision,
see :func:`math.fsum`\. To concatenate a series of iterables, consider using
:func:`itertools.chain`.
@@ -1833,7 +1969,7 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. class:: super()
- super(type, object_or_type=None)
+ super(type, object_or_type=None, /)
Return a proxy object that delegates method calls to a parent or sibling
class of *type*. This is useful for accessing inherited methods that have
@@ -1843,14 +1979,14 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
to be searched. The search starts from the class right after the
*type*.
- For example, if :attr:`~class.__mro__` of *object_or_type* is
+ For example, if :attr:`~type.__mro__` of *object_or_type* is
``D -> B -> C -> A -> object`` and the value of *type* is ``B``,
then :func:`super` searches ``C -> A -> object``.
- The :attr:`~class.__mro__` attribute of the *object_or_type* lists the method
- resolution search order used by both :func:`getattr` and :func:`super`. The
- attribute is dynamic and can change whenever the inheritance hierarchy is
- updated.
+ The :attr:`~type.__mro__` attribute of the class corresponding to
+ *object_or_type* lists the method resolution search order used by both
+ :func:`getattr` and :func:`super`. The attribute is dynamic and can change
+ whenever the inheritance hierarchy is updated.
If the second argument is omitted, the super object returned is unbound. If
the second argument is an object, ``isinstance(obj, type)`` must be true. If
@@ -1911,74 +2047,84 @@ are always available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
.. _func-tuple:
-.. class:: tuple()
- tuple(iterable)
+.. class:: tuple(iterable=(), /)
:noindex:
Rather than being a function, :class:`tuple` is actually an immutable
sequence type, as documented in :ref:`typesseq-tuple` and :ref:`typesseq`.
-.. class:: type(object)
- type(name, bases, dict, **kwds)
+.. class:: type(object, /)
+ type(name, bases, dict, /, **kwargs)
.. index:: pair: object; type
With one argument, return the type of an *object*. The return value is a
type object and generally the same object as returned by
- :attr:`object.__class__ <instance.__class__>`.
+ :attr:`object.__class__`.
The :func:`isinstance` built-in function is recommended for testing the type
of an object, because it takes subclasses into account.
-
With three arguments, return a new type object. This is essentially a
dynamic form of the :keyword:`class` statement. The *name* string is
- the class name and becomes the :attr:`~definition.__name__` attribute.
+ the class name and becomes the :attr:`~type.__name__` attribute.
The *bases* tuple contains the base classes and becomes the
- :attr:`~class.__bases__` attribute; if empty, :class:`object`, the
+ :attr:`~type.__bases__` attribute; if empty, :class:`object`, the
ultimate base of all classes, is added. The *dict* dictionary contains
attribute and method definitions for the class body; it may be copied
- or wrapped before becoming the :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute.
- The following two statements create identical :class:`type` objects:
+ or wrapped before becoming the :attr:`~type.__dict__` attribute.
+ The following two statements create identical :class:`!type` objects:
>>> class X:
... a = 1
...
>>> X = type('X', (), dict(a=1))
- See also :ref:`bltin-type-objects`.
+ See also:
+
+ * :ref:`Documentation on attributes and methods on classes <class-attrs-and-methods>`.
+ * :ref:`bltin-type-objects`
Keyword arguments provided to the three argument form are passed to the
appropriate metaclass machinery (usually :meth:`~object.__init_subclass__`)
in the same way that keywords in a class
definition (besides *metaclass*) would.
+ Unlike a :keyword:`class` statement, the three argument form does not
+ call the metaclass ``__prepare__`` method (see :ref:`prepare`). Use
+ :func:`types.new_class` to dynamically create a class using the
+ appropriate metaclass.
+
See also :ref:`class-customization`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
- Subclasses of :class:`type` which don't override ``type.__new__`` may no
+ Subclasses of :class:`!type` which don't override ``type.__new__`` may no
longer use the one-argument form to get the type of an object.
.. function:: vars()
- vars(object)
+ vars(object, /)
Return the :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute for a module, class, instance,
- or any other object with a :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute.
+ or any other object with a :attr:`!__dict__` attribute.
Objects such as modules and instances have an updateable :attr:`~object.__dict__`
attribute; however, other objects may have write restrictions on their
- :attr:`~object.__dict__` attributes (for example, classes use a
+ :attr:`!__dict__` attributes (for example, classes use a
:class:`types.MappingProxyType` to prevent direct dictionary updates).
- Without an argument, :func:`vars` acts like :func:`locals`. Note, the
- locals dictionary is only useful for reads since updates to the locals
- dictionary are ignored.
+ Without an argument, :func:`vars` acts like :func:`locals`.
A :exc:`TypeError` exception is raised if an object is specified but
it doesn't have a :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute (for example, if
its class defines the :attr:`~object.__slots__` attribute).
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+
+ The result of calling this function without an argument has been
+ updated as described for the :func:`locals` builtin.
+
+
.. function:: zip(*iterables, strict=False)
Iterate over several iterables in parallel, producing tuples with an item
diff --git a/Doc/builtins/index.rst b/Doc/builtins/index.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..0b9c0389e6e59c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/builtins/index.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+.. _builtins-index:
+
+##############################
+ Python built-ins reference
+##############################
+
+Python comes with a number of built-in functions and classes.
+
+The built-in classes include data types that would normally be considered part
+of the "core" of a language, such as numbers and lists. For these types, the
+Python language core defines the form of literals and places some constraints
+on their semantics, but does not fully define the semantics.
+
+The built-ins also include functions and exceptions --- objects that can
+be used by all Python code without the need of an :keyword:`import` statement.
+Some of these are defined by the core language, but many are not essential for
+the core semantics and are only described here.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+ In addition to the built-ins, Python provides an extensive importable
+ standard library, see :ref:`library-index`.
+
+.. We don't use :numbered: option for the TOC below as it enforces
+ numbered sections for the entire builtin docs. If desired,
+ :numbered: can be enabled on a per-page basis.
+.. toctree::
+ :maxdepth: 2
+
+ stdtypes.rst
+ constants.rst
+ functions.rst
+ exceptions.rst
diff --git a/Doc/library/stdtypes.rst b/Doc/builtins/stdtypes.rst
similarity index 84%
rename from Doc/library/stdtypes.rst
rename to Doc/builtins/stdtypes.rst
index 8f5f9ee519a5739..0102d1f62ed4111 100644
--- a/Doc/library/stdtypes.rst
+++ b/Doc/builtins/stdtypes.rst
@@ -164,7 +164,7 @@ This table summarizes the comparison operations:
pair: object; numeric
pair: objects; comparing
-Objects of different types, except different numeric types, never compare equal.
+Unless stated otherwise, objects of different types never compare equal.
The ``==`` operator is always defined but for some object types (for example,
class objects) is equivalent to :keyword:`is`. The ``<``, ``<=``, ``>`` and ``>=``
operators are only defined where they make sense; for example, they raise a
@@ -209,18 +209,18 @@ Numeric Types --- :class:`int`, :class:`float`, :class:`complex`
pair: object; numeric
pair: object; Boolean
pair: object; integer
- pair: object; floating point
+ pair: object; floating-point
pair: object; complex number
pair: C; language
-There are three distinct numeric types: :dfn:`integers`, :dfn:`floating
-point numbers`, and :dfn:`complex numbers`. In addition, Booleans are a
-subtype of integers. Integers have unlimited precision. Floating point
+There are three distinct numeric types: :dfn:`integers`, :dfn:`floating-point
+numbers`, and :dfn:`complex numbers`. In addition, Booleans are a
+subtype of integers. Integers have unlimited precision. Floating-point
numbers are usually implemented using :c:expr:`double` in C; information
-about the precision and internal representation of floating point
+about the precision and internal representation of floating-point
numbers for the machine on which your program is running is available
in :data:`sys.float_info`. Complex numbers have a real and imaginary
-part, which are each a floating point number. To extract these parts
+part, which are each a floating-point number. To extract these parts
from a complex number *z*, use ``z.real`` and ``z.imag``. (The standard
library includes the additional numeric types :mod:`fractions.Fraction`, for
rationals, and :mod:`decimal.Decimal`, for floating-point numbers with
@@ -229,7 +229,7 @@ user-definable precision.)
.. index::
pair: numeric; literals
pair: integer; literals
- pair: floating point; literals
+ pair: floating-point; literals
pair: complex number; literals
pair: hexadecimal; literals
pair: octal; literals
@@ -238,7 +238,7 @@ user-definable precision.)
Numbers are created by numeric literals or as the result of built-in functions
and operators. Unadorned integer literals (including hex, octal and binary
numbers) yield integers. Numeric literals containing a decimal point or an
-exponent sign yield floating point numbers. Appending ``'j'`` or ``'J'`` to a
+exponent sign yield floating-point numbers. Appending ``'j'`` or ``'J'`` to a
numeric literal yields an imaginary number (a complex number with a zero real
part) which you can add to an integer or float to get a complex number with real
and imaginary parts.
@@ -673,7 +673,7 @@ A hexadecimal string takes the form::
[sign] ['0x'] integer ['.' fraction] ['p' exponent]
-where the optional ``sign`` may by either ``+`` or ``-``, ``integer``
+where the optional ``sign`` may be either ``+`` or ``-``, ``integer``
and ``fraction`` are strings of hexadecimal digits, and ``exponent``
is a decimal integer with an optional leading sign. Case is not
significant, and there must be at least one hexadecimal digit in
@@ -832,7 +832,7 @@ over ``&``, ``|`` and ``^``.
.. deprecated:: 3.12
The use of the bitwise inversion operator ``~`` is deprecated and will
- raise an error in Python 3.14.
+ raise an error in Python 3.16.
:class:`bool` is a subclass of :class:`int` (see :ref:`typesnumeric`). In
many numeric contexts, ``False`` and ``True`` behave like the integers 0 and 1, respectively.
@@ -907,9 +907,9 @@ Generator Types
---------------
Python's :term:`generator`\s provide a convenient way to implement the iterator
-protocol. If a container object's :meth:`~iterator.__iter__` method is implemented as a
+protocol. If a container object's :meth:`~object.__iter__` method is implemented as a
generator, it will automatically return an iterator object (technically, a
-generator object) supplying the :meth:`!__iter__` and :meth:`~generator.__next__`
+generator object) supplying the :meth:`~iterator.__iter__` and :meth:`~generator.__next__`
methods.
More information about generators can be found in :ref:`the documentation for
the yield expression <yieldexpr>`.
@@ -958,8 +958,6 @@ operations have the same priority as the corresponding numeric operations. [3]_
pair: slice; operation
pair: operator; in
pair: operator; not in
- single: count() (sequence method)
- single: index() (sequence method)
+--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
| Operation | Result | Notes |
@@ -976,7 +974,7 @@ operations have the same priority as the corresponding numeric operations. [3]_
| ``s * n`` or | equivalent to adding *s* to | (2)(7) |
| ``n * s`` | itself *n* times | |
+--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
-| ``s[i]`` | *i*\ th item of *s*, origin 0 | \(3) |
+| ``s[i]`` | *i*\ th item of *s*, origin 0 | (3)(8) |
+--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
| ``s[i:j]`` | slice of *s* from *i* to *j* | (3)(4) |
+--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
@@ -989,13 +987,6 @@ operations have the same priority as the corresponding numeric operations. [3]_
+--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
| ``max(s)`` | largest item of *s* | |
+--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
-| ``s.index(x[, i[, j]])`` | index of the first occurrence | \(8) |
-| | of *x* in *s* (at or after | |
-| | index *i* and before index *j*)| |
-+--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
-| ``s.count(x)`` | total number of occurrences of | |
-| | *x* in *s* | |
-+--------------------------+--------------------------------+----------+
Sequences of the same type also support comparisons. In particular, tuples
and lists are compared lexicographically by comparing corresponding elements.
@@ -1058,11 +1049,14 @@ Notes:
still ``0``.
(4)
- The slice of *s* from *i* to *j* is defined as the sequence of items with index
- *k* such that ``i <= k < j``. If *i* or *j* is greater than ``len(s)``, use
- ``len(s)``. If *i* is omitted or ``None``, use ``0``. If *j* is omitted or
- ``None``, use ``len(s)``. If *i* is greater than or equal to *j*, the slice is
- empty.
+ The slice of *s* from *i* to *j* is defined as the sequence of items with
+ index *k* such that ``i <= k < j``.
+
+ * If *i* is omitted or ``None``, use ``0``.
+ * If *j* is omitted or ``None``, use ``len(s)``.
+ * If *i* or *j* is less than ``-len(s)``, use ``0``.
+ * If *i* or *j* is greater than ``len(s)``, use ``len(s)``.
+ * If *i* is greater than or equal to *j*, the slice is empty.
(5)
The slice of *s* from *i* to *j* with step *k* is defined as the sequence of
@@ -1101,12 +1095,41 @@ Notes:
concatenation or repetition.
(8)
- ``index`` raises :exc:`ValueError` when *x* is not found in *s*.
- Not all implementations support passing the additional arguments *i* and *j*.
- These arguments allow efficient searching of subsections of the sequence. Passing
- the extra arguments is roughly equivalent to using ``s[i:j].index(x)``, only
- without copying any data and with the returned index being relative to
- the start of the sequence rather than the start of the slice.
+ An :exc:`IndexError` is raised if *i* is outside the sequence range.
+
+.. rubric:: Sequence Methods
+
+Sequence types also support the following methods:
+
+.. method:: list.count(value, /)
+ range.count(value, /)
+ tuple.count(value, /)
+ :no-contents-entry:
+ :no-index-entry:
+ :no-typesetting:
+.. method:: sequence.count(value, /)
+
+ Return the total number of occurrences of *value* in *sequence*.
+
+.. method:: list.index(value[, start[, stop]])
+ range.index(value[, start[, stop]])
+ tuple.index(value[, start[, stop]])
+ :no-contents-entry:
+ :no-index-entry:
+ :no-typesetting:
+.. method:: sequence.index(value[, start[, stop]])
+
+ Return the index of the first occurrence of *value* in *sequence*.
+
+ Raises :exc:`ValueError` if *value* is not found in *sequence*.
+
+ The *start* or *stop* arguments allow for efficient searching
+ of subsections of the sequence, beginning at *start* and ending at *stop*.
+ This is roughly equivalent to ``start + sequence[start:stop].index(value)``,
+ only without copying any data.
+
+ .. caution::
+ Not all sequence types support passing the *start* and *stop* arguments.
.. _typesseq-immutable:
@@ -1157,14 +1180,6 @@ accepts integers that meet the value restriction ``0 <= x <= 255``).
pair: subscript; assignment
pair: slice; assignment
pair: statement; del
- single: append() (sequence method)
- single: clear() (sequence method)
- single: copy() (sequence method)
- single: extend() (sequence method)
- single: insert() (sequence method)
- single: pop() (sequence method)
- single: remove() (sequence method)
- single: reverse() (sequence method)
+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
| Operation | Result | Notes |
@@ -1172,11 +1187,15 @@ accepts integers that meet the value restriction ``0 <= x <= 255``).
| ``s[i] = x`` | item *i* of *s* is replaced by | |
| | *x* | |
+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
+| ``del s[i]`` | removes item *i* of *s* | |
++------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
| ``s[i:j] = t`` | slice of *s* from *i* to *j* | |
| | is replaced by the contents of | |
| | the iterable *t* | |
+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
-| ``del s[i:j]`` | same as ``s[i:j] = []`` | |
+| ``del s[i:j]`` | removes the elements of | |
+| | ``s[i:j]`` from the list | |
+| | (same as ``s[i:j] = []``) | |
+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
| ``s[i:j:k] = t`` | the elements of ``s[i:j:k]`` | \(1) |
| | are replaced by those of *t* | |
@@ -1184,71 +1203,120 @@ accepts integers that meet the value restriction ``0 <= x <= 255``).
| ``del s[i:j:k]`` | removes the elements of | |
| | ``s[i:j:k]`` from the list | |
+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
-| ``s.append(x)`` | appends *x* to the end of the | |
-| | sequence (same as | |
-| | ``s[len(s):len(s)] = [x]``) | |
-+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
-| ``s.clear()`` | removes all items from *s* | \(5) |
-| | (same as ``del s[:]``) | |
-+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
-| ``s.copy()`` | creates a shallow copy of *s* | \(5) |
-| | (same as ``s[:]``) | |
-+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
-| ``s.extend(t)`` or | extends *s* with the | |
-| ``s += t`` | contents of *t* (for the | |
+| ``s += t`` | extends *s* with the | |
+| | contents of *t* (for the | |
| | most part the same as | |
| | ``s[len(s):len(s)] = t``) | |
+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
-| ``s *= n`` | updates *s* with its contents | \(6) |
+| ``s *= n`` | updates *s* with its contents | \(2) |
| | repeated *n* times | |
+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
-| ``s.insert(i, x)`` | inserts *x* into *s* at the | |
-| | index given by *i* | |
-| | (same as ``s[i:i] = [x]``) | |
-+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
-| ``s.pop()`` or ``s.pop(i)`` | retrieves the item at *i* and | \(2) |
-| | also removes it from *s* | |
-+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
-| ``s.remove(x)`` | remove the first item from *s* | \(3) |
-| | where ``s[i]`` is equal to *x* | |
-+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
-| ``s.reverse()`` | reverses the items of *s* in | \(4) |
-| | place | |
-+------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+
-
Notes:
(1)
- *t* must have the same length as the slice it is replacing.
+ If *k* is not equal to ``1``, *t* must have the same length as the slice it is replacing.
(2)
- The optional argument *i* defaults to ``-1``, so that by default the last
- item is removed and returned.
+ The value *n* is an integer, or an object implementing
+ :meth:`~object.__index__`. Zero and negative values of *n* clear
+ the sequence. Items in the sequence are not copied; they are referenced
+ multiple times, as explained for ``s * n`` under :ref:`typesseq-common`.
-(3)
- :meth:`remove` raises :exc:`ValueError` when *x* is not found in *s*.
+.. rubric:: Mutable Sequence Methods
-(4)
- The :meth:`reverse` method modifies the sequence in place for economy of
- space when reversing a large sequence. To remind users that it operates by
- side effect, it does not return the reversed sequence.
+Mutable sequence types also support the following methods:
-(5)
- :meth:`clear` and :meth:`!copy` are included for consistency with the
- interfaces of mutable containers that don't support slicing operations
- (such as :class:`dict` and :class:`set`). :meth:`!copy` is not part of the
- :class:`collections.abc.MutableSequence` ABC, but most concrete
- mutable sequence classes provide it.
+.. method:: bytearray.append(value, /)
+ list.append(value, /)
+ :no-contents-entry:
+ :no-index-entry:
+ :no-typesetting:
+.. method:: sequence.append(value, /)
+
+ Append *value* to the end of the sequence.
+ This is equivalent to writing ``seq[len(seq):len(seq)] = [value]``.
+
+.. method:: bytearray.clear()
+ list.clear()
+ :no-contents-entry:
+ :no-index-entry:
+ :no-typesetting:
+.. method:: sequence.clear()
.. versionadded:: 3.3
- :meth:`clear` and :meth:`!copy` methods.
-(6)
- The value *n* is an integer, or an object implementing
- :meth:`~object.__index__`. Zero and negative values of *n* clear
- the sequence. Items in the sequence are not copied; they are referenced
- multiple times, as explained for ``s * n`` under :ref:`typesseq-common`.
+ Remove all items from *sequence*.
+ This is equivalent to writing ``del sequence[:]``.
+
+.. method:: bytearray.copy()
+ list.copy()
+ :no-contents-entry:
+ :no-index-entry:
+ :no-typesetting:
+.. method:: sequence.copy()
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+ Create a shallow copy of *sequence*.
+ This is equivalent to writing ``sequence[:]``.
+
+ .. hint:: The :meth:`!copy` method is not part of the
+ :class:`~collections.abc.MutableSequence` :class:`~abc.ABC`,
+ but most concrete mutable sequence types provide it.
+
+.. method:: bytearray.extend(iterable, /)
+ list.extend(iterable, /)
+ :no-contents-entry:
+ :no-index-entry:
+ :no-typesetting:
+.. method:: sequence.extend(iterable, /)
+
+ Extend *sequence* with the contents of *iterable*.
+ For the most part, this is the same as writing
+ ``seq[len(seq):len(seq)] = iterable``.
+
+.. method:: bytearray.insert(index, value, /)
+ list.insert(index, value, /)
+ :no-contents-entry:
+ :no-index-entry:
+ :no-typesetting:
+.. method:: sequence.insert(index, value, /)
+
+ Insert *value* into *sequence* at the given *index*.
+ This is equivalent to writing ``sequence[index:index] = [value]``.
+
+.. method:: bytearray.pop(index=-1, /)
+ list.pop(index=-1, /)
+ :no-contents-entry:
+ :no-index-entry:
+ :no-typesetting:
+.. method:: sequence.pop(index=-1, /)
+
+ Retrieve the item at *index* and also remove it from *sequence*.
+ By default, the last item in *sequence* is removed and returned.
+
+.. method:: bytearray.remove(value, /)
+ list.remove(value, /)
+ :no-contents-entry:
+ :no-index-entry:
+ :no-typesetting:
+.. method:: sequence.remove(value, /)
+
+ Remove the first item from *sequence* where ``sequence[i] == value``.
+
+ Raises :exc:`ValueError` if *value* is not found in *sequence*.
+
+.. method:: bytearray.reverse()
+ list.reverse()
+ :no-contents-entry:
+ :no-index-entry:
+ :no-typesetting:
+.. method:: sequence.reverse()
+
+ Reverse the items of *sequence* in place.
+ This method maintains economy of space when reversing a large sequence.
+ To remind users that it operates by side-effect, it returns ``None``.
.. _typesseq-list:
@@ -1262,7 +1330,7 @@ Lists are mutable sequences, typically used to store collections of
homogeneous items (where the precise degree of similarity will vary by
application).
-.. class:: list([iterable])
+.. class:: list(iterable=(), /)
Lists may be constructed in several ways:
@@ -1283,6 +1351,8 @@ application).
Many other operations also produce lists, including the :func:`sorted`
built-in.
+ Lists are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the types of their items.
+
Lists implement all of the :ref:`common <typesseq-common>` and
:ref:`mutable <typesseq-mutable>` sequence operations. Lists also provide the
following additional method:
@@ -1343,7 +1413,7 @@ built-in). Tuples are also used for cases where an immutable sequence of
homogeneous data is needed (such as allowing storage in a :class:`set` or
:class:`dict` instance).
-.. class:: tuple([iterable])
+.. class:: tuple(iterable=(), /)
Tuples may be constructed in a number of ways:
@@ -1369,6 +1439,10 @@ homogeneous data is needed (such as allowing storage in a :class:`set` or
Tuples implement all of the :ref:`common <typesseq-common>` sequence
operations.
+ Tuples are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the types of their contents.
+ For more information, refer to
+ :ref:`the typing documentation on annotating tuples <annotating-tuples>`.
+
For heterogeneous collections of data where access by name is clearer than
access by index, :func:`collections.namedtuple` may be a more appropriate
choice than a simple tuple object.
@@ -1385,8 +1459,8 @@ The :class:`range` type represents an immutable sequence of numbers and is
commonly used for looping a specific number of times in :keyword:`for`
loops.
-.. class:: range(stop)
- range(start, stop[, step])
+.. class:: range(stop, /)
+ range(start, stop, step=1, /)
The arguments to the range constructor must be integers (either built-in
:class:`int` or any object that implements the :meth:`~object.__index__` special
@@ -1497,8 +1571,8 @@ objects that compare equal might have different :attr:`~range.start`,
.. seealso::
* The `linspace recipe <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/579000-equally-spaced-numbers-linspace/>`_
- shows how to implement a lazy version of range suitable for floating
- point applications.
+ shows how to implement a lazy version of range suitable for floating-point
+ applications.
.. index::
single: string; text sequence type
@@ -1552,8 +1626,10 @@ multiple fragments.
.. index::
single: string; str (built-in class)
-.. class:: str(object='')
- str(object=b'', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
+.. class:: str(*, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
+ str(object)
+ str(object, encoding, errors='strict')
+ str(object, *, errors)
Return a :ref:`string <textseq>` version of *object*. If *object* is not
provided, returns the empty string. Otherwise, the behavior of ``str()``
@@ -1639,6 +1715,14 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
lowercase letter ``'ß'`` is equivalent to ``"ss"``. Since it is already
lowercase, :meth:`lower` would do nothing to ``'ß'``; :meth:`casefold`
converts it to ``"ss"``.
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'straße'.lower()
+ 'straße'
+ >>> 'straße'.casefold()
+ 'strasse'
The casefolding algorithm is
`described in section 3.13 'Default Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard
@@ -1647,12 +1731,18 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
.. versionadded:: 3.3
-.. method:: str.center(width[, fillchar])
+.. method:: str.center(width, fillchar=' ', /)
Return centered in a string of length *width*. Padding is done using the
specified *fillchar* (default is an ASCII space). The original string is
- returned if *width* is less than or equal to ``len(s)``.
+ returned if *width* is less than or equal to ``len(s)``. For example::
+ >>> 'Python'.center(10)
+ ' Python '
+ >>> 'Python'.center(10, '-')
+ '--Python--'
+ >>> 'Python'.center(4)
+ 'Python'
.. method:: str.count(sub[, start[, end]])
@@ -1662,8 +1752,18 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
interpreted as in slice notation.
If *sub* is empty, returns the number of empty strings between characters
- which is the length of the string plus one.
-
+ which is the length of the string plus one. For example::
+
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('spam')
+ 3
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('spam', 5)
+ 2
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('spam', 5, 10)
+ 1
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('eggs')
+ 0
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('')
+ 17
.. method:: str.encode(encoding="utf-8", errors="strict")
@@ -1683,6 +1783,14 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
unless an encoding error actually occurs,
:ref:`devmode` is enabled
or a :ref:`debug build <debug-build>` is used.
+ For example::
+
+ >>> encoded_str_to_bytes = 'Python'.encode()
+ >>> type(encoded_str_to_bytes)
+ <class 'bytes'>
+ >>> encoded_str_to_bytes
+ b'Python'
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.1
Added support for keyword arguments.
@@ -1697,7 +1805,19 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
Return ``True`` if the string ends with the specified *suffix*, otherwise return
``False``. *suffix* can also be a tuple of suffixes to look for. With optional
*start*, test beginning at that position. With optional *end*, stop comparing
- at that position.
+ at that position. Using *start* and *end* is equivalent to
+ ``str[start:end].endswith(suffix)``. For example::
+
+ >>> 'Python'.endswith('on')
+ True
+ >>> 'a tuple of suffixes'.endswith(('at', 'in'))
+ False
+ >>> 'a tuple of suffixes'.endswith(('at', 'es'))
+ True
+ >>> 'Python is amazing'.endswith('is', 0, 9)
+ True
+
+ See also :meth:`startswith` and :meth:`removesuffix`.
.. method:: str.expandtabs(tabsize=8)
@@ -1713,12 +1833,15 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
(``\n``) or return (``\r``), it is copied and the current column is reset to
zero. Any other character is copied unchanged and the current column is
incremented by one regardless of how the character is represented when
- printed.
+ printed. For example::
>>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
'01 012 0123 01234'
>>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
'01 012 0123 01234'
+ >>> print('01\t012\n0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4))
+ 01 012
+ 0123 01234
.. method:: str.find(sub[, start[, end]])
@@ -1726,6 +1849,14 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
Return the lowest index in the string where substring *sub* is found within
the slice ``s[start:end]``. Optional arguments *start* and *end* are
interpreted as in slice notation. Return ``-1`` if *sub* is not found.
+ For example::
+
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.find('sp')
+ 0
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.find('sp', 5)
+ 6
+
+ See also :meth:`rfind` and :meth:`index`.
.. note::
@@ -1744,10 +1875,16 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
``{}``. Each replacement field contains either the numeric index of a
positional argument, or the name of a keyword argument. Returns a copy of
the string where each replacement field is replaced with the string value of
- the corresponding argument.
+ the corresponding argument. For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
>>> "The sum of 1 + 2 is {0}".format(1+2)
'The sum of 1 + 2 is 3'
+ >>> "The sum of {a} + {b} is {answer}".format(answer=1+2, a=1, b=2)
+ 'The sum of 1 + 2 is 3'
+ >>> "{1} expects the {0} Inquisition!".format("Spanish", "Nobody")
+ 'Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!'
See :ref:`formatstrings` for a description of the various formatting options
that can be specified in format strings.
@@ -1768,7 +1905,7 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
cases.
-.. method:: str.format_map(mapping)
+.. method:: str.format_map(mapping, /)
Similar to ``str.format(**mapping)``, except that ``mapping`` is
used directly and not copied to a :class:`dict`. This is useful
@@ -1787,7 +1924,20 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
.. method:: str.index(sub[, start[, end]])
Like :meth:`~str.find`, but raise :exc:`ValueError` when the substring is
- not found.
+ not found. For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.index('spam')
+ 0
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.index('eggs')
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "<python-input-0>", line 1, in <module>
+ 'spam, spam, spam'.index('eggs')
+ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^
+ ValueError: substring not found
+
+ See also :meth:`rindex`.
.. method:: str.isalnum()
@@ -1795,7 +1945,18 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
Return ``True`` if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and there is at
least one character, ``False`` otherwise. A character ``c`` is alphanumeric if one
of the following returns ``True``: ``c.isalpha()``, ``c.isdecimal()``,
- ``c.isdigit()``, or ``c.isnumeric()``.
+ ``c.isdigit()``, or ``c.isnumeric()``. For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'abc123'.isalnum()
+ True
+ >>> 'abc123!@#'.isalnum()
+ False
+ >>> ''.isalnum()
+ False
+ >>> ' '.isalnum()
+ False
.. method:: str.isalpha()
@@ -1804,16 +1965,35 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
one character, ``False`` otherwise. Alphabetic characters are those characters defined
in the Unicode character database as "Letter", i.e., those with general category
property being one of "Lm", "Lt", "Lu", "Ll", or "Lo". Note that this is different
- from the `Alphabetic property defined in the section 4.10 'Letters, Alphabetic, and
+ from the `Alphabetic property defined in section 4.10 'Letters, Alphabetic, and
Ideographic' of the Unicode Standard
<https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/ch04.pdf>`_.
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'Letters and spaces'.isalpha()
+ False
+ >>> 'LettersOnly'.isalpha()
+ True
+ >>> 'µ'.isalpha() # non-ASCII characters can be considered alphabetical too
+ True
+
+ See :ref:`unicode-properties`.
.. method:: str.isascii()
Return ``True`` if the string is empty or all characters in the string are ASCII,
``False`` otherwise.
- ASCII characters have code points in the range U+0000-U+007F.
+ ASCII characters have code points in the range U+0000-U+007F. For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'ASCII characters'.isascii()
+ True
+ >>> 'µ'.isascii()
+ False
.. versionadded:: 3.7
@@ -1823,9 +2003,18 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
Return ``True`` if all characters in the string are decimal
characters and there is at least one character, ``False``
otherwise. Decimal characters are those that can be used to form
- numbers in base 10, e.g. U+0660, ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT
+ numbers in base 10, such as U+0660, ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT
ZERO. Formally a decimal character is a character in the Unicode
- General Category "Nd".
+ General Category "Nd". For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> '0123456789'.isdecimal()
+ True
+ >>> '٠١٢٣٤٥٦٧٨٩'.isdecimal() # Arabic-Indic digits zero to nine
+ True
+ >>> 'alphabetic'.isdecimal()
+ False
.. method:: str.isdigit()
@@ -1834,9 +2023,25 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
character, ``False`` otherwise. Digits include decimal characters and digits that need
special handling, such as the compatibility superscript digits.
This covers digits which cannot be used to form numbers in base 10,
- like the Kharosthi numbers. Formally, a digit is a character that has the
+ like the `Kharosthi numbers <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharosthi#Numerals>`__.
+ Formally, a digit is a character that has the
property value Numeric_Type=Digit or Numeric_Type=Decimal.
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> '0123456789'.isdigit()
+ True
+ >>> '٠١٢٣٤٥٦٧٨٩'.isdigit() # Arabic-Indic digits zero to nine
+ True
+ >>> '⅕'.isdigit() # Vulgar fraction one fifth
+ False
+ >>> '²'.isdecimal(), '²'.isdigit(), '²'.isnumeric()
+ (False, True, True)
+
+ See also :meth:`isdecimal` and :meth:`isnumeric`.
+
.. method:: str.isidentifier()
@@ -1871,17 +2076,48 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
that have the Unicode numeric value property, e.g. U+2155,
VULGAR FRACTION ONE FIFTH. Formally, numeric characters are those with the property
value Numeric_Type=Digit, Numeric_Type=Decimal or Numeric_Type=Numeric.
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> '0123456789'.isnumeric()
+ True
+ >>> '٠١٢٣٤٥٦٧٨٩'.isnumeric() # Arabic-Indic digits zero to nine
+ True
+ >>> '⅕'.isnumeric() # Vulgar fraction one fifth
+ True
+ >>> '²'.isdecimal(), '²'.isdigit(), '²'.isnumeric()
+ (False, True, True)
+
+ See also :meth:`isdecimal` and :meth:`isdigit`.
.. method:: str.isprintable()
- Return ``True`` if all characters in the string are printable or the string is
- empty, ``False`` otherwise. Nonprintable characters are those characters defined
- in the Unicode character database as "Other" or "Separator", excepting the
- ASCII space (0x20) which is considered printable. (Note that printable
- characters in this context are those which should not be escaped when
- :func:`repr` is invoked on a string. It has no bearing on the handling of
- strings written to :data:`sys.stdout` or :data:`sys.stderr`.)
+ Return ``True`` if all characters in the string are printable, ``False`` if it
+ contains at least one non-printable character.
+
+ Here "printable" means the character is suitable for :func:`repr` to use in
+ its output; "non-printable" means that :func:`repr` on built-in types will
+ hex-escape the character. It has no bearing on the handling of strings
+ written to :data:`sys.stdout` or :data:`sys.stderr`.
+
+ The printable characters are those which in the Unicode character database
+ (see :mod:`unicodedata`) have a general category in group Letter, Mark,
+ Number, Punctuation, or Symbol (L, M, N, P, or S); plus the ASCII space 0x20.
+ Nonprintable characters are those in group Separator or Other (Z or C),
+ except the ASCII space.
+
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> ''.isprintable(), ' '.isprintable()
+ (True, True)
+ >>> '\t'.isprintable(), '\n'.isprintable()
+ (False, False)
+
+ See also :meth:`isspace`.
.. method:: str.isspace()
@@ -1889,11 +2125,26 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
Return ``True`` if there are only whitespace characters in the string and there is
at least one character, ``False`` otherwise.
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> ''.isspace()
+ False
+ >>> ' '.isspace()
+ True
+ >>> '\t\n'.isspace() # TAB and BREAK LINE
+ True
+ >>> '\u3000'.isspace() # IDEOGRAPHIC SPACE
+ True
+
A character is *whitespace* if in the Unicode character database
(see :mod:`unicodedata`), either its general category is ``Zs``
("Separator, space"), or its bidirectional class is one of ``WS``,
``B``, or ``S``.
+ See also :meth:`isprintable`.
+
.. method:: str.istitle()
@@ -1901,6 +2152,19 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
character, for example uppercase characters may only follow uncased characters
and lowercase characters only cased ones. Return ``False`` otherwise.
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'Spam, Spam, Spam'.istitle()
+ True
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.istitle()
+ False
+ >>> 'SPAM, SPAM, SPAM'.istitle()
+ False
+
+ See also :meth:`title`.
+
.. method:: str.isupper()
@@ -1920,32 +2184,59 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
.. _meth-str-join:
-.. method:: str.join(iterable)
+.. method:: str.join(iterable, /)
Return a string which is the concatenation of the strings in *iterable*.
A :exc:`TypeError` will be raised if there are any non-string values in
*iterable*, including :class:`bytes` objects. The separator between
- elements is the string providing this method.
+ elements is the string providing this method. For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+ >>> ', '.join(['spam', 'spam', 'spam'])
+ 'spam, spam, spam'
+ >>> '-'.join('Python')
+ 'P-y-t-h-o-n'
-.. method:: str.ljust(width[, fillchar])
+ See also :meth:`split`.
+
+
+.. method:: str.ljust(width, fillchar=' ', /)
Return the string left justified in a string of length *width*. Padding is
done using the specified *fillchar* (default is an ASCII space). The
original string is returned if *width* is less than or equal to ``len(s)``.
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'Python'.ljust(10)
+ 'Python '
+ >>> 'Python'.ljust(10, '.')
+ 'Python....'
+ >>> 'Monty Python'.ljust(10, '.')
+ 'Monty Python'
+
+ See also :meth:`rjust`.
+
.. method:: str.lower()
Return a copy of the string with all the cased characters [4]_ converted to
- lowercase.
+ lowercase. For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'Lower Method Example'.lower()
+ 'lower method example'
The lowercasing algorithm used is
`described in section 3.13 'Default Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard
<https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/ch03.pdf>`__.
-.. method:: str.lstrip([chars])
+.. method:: str.lstrip(chars=None, /)
Return a copy of the string with leading characters removed. The *chars*
argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed. If omitted
@@ -1966,7 +2257,8 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
'three!'
-.. staticmethod:: str.maketrans(x[, y[, z]])
+.. staticmethod:: str.maketrans(dict, /)
+ str.maketrans(from, to, remove='', /)
This static method returns a translation table usable for :meth:`str.translate`.
@@ -1976,24 +2268,39 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
converted to ordinals.
If there are two arguments, they must be strings of equal length, and in the
- resulting dictionary, each character in x will be mapped to the character at
- the same position in y. If there is a third argument, it must be a string,
+ resulting dictionary, each character in *from* will be mapped to the character at
+ the same position in *to*. If there is a third argument, it must be a string,
whose characters will be mapped to ``None`` in the result.
-.. method:: str.partition(sep)
+.. method:: str.partition(sep, /)
Split the string at the first occurrence of *sep*, and return a 3-tuple
containing the part before the separator, the separator itself, and the part
after the separator. If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing
the string itself, followed by two empty strings.
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'Monty Python'.partition(' ')
+ ('Monty', ' ', 'Python')
+ >>> "Monty Python's Flying Circus".partition(' ')
+ ('Monty', ' ', "Python's Flying Circus")
+ >>> 'Monty Python'.partition('-')
+ ('Monty Python', '', '')
+
+ See also :meth:`rpartition`.
+
.. method:: str.removeprefix(prefix, /)
If the string starts with the *prefix* string, return
``string[len(prefix):]``. Otherwise, return a copy of the original
- string::
+ string:
+
+ .. doctest::
>>> 'TestHook'.removeprefix('Test')
'Hook'
@@ -2002,12 +2309,16 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
.. versionadded:: 3.9
+ See also :meth:`removesuffix` and :meth:`startswith`.
+
.. method:: str.removesuffix(suffix, /)
If the string ends with the *suffix* string and that *suffix* is not empty,
return ``string[:-len(suffix)]``. Otherwise, return a copy of the
- original string::
+ original string:
+
+ .. doctest::
>>> 'MiscTests'.removesuffix('Tests')
'Misc'
@@ -2016,12 +2327,22 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
.. versionadded:: 3.9
+ See also :meth:`removeprefix` and :meth:`endswith`.
-.. method:: str.replace(old, new, count=-1)
+
+.. method:: str.replace(old, new, /, count=-1)
Return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring *old* replaced by
*new*. If *count* is given, only the first *count* occurrences are replaced.
If *count* is not specified or ``-1``, then all occurrences are replaced.
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.replace('spam', 'eggs')
+ 'eggs, eggs, eggs'
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.replace('spam', 'eggs', 1)
+ 'eggs, spam, spam'
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
*count* is now supported as a keyword argument.
@@ -2032,51 +2353,105 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
Return the highest index in the string where substring *sub* is found, such
that *sub* is contained within ``s[start:end]``. Optional arguments *start*
and *end* are interpreted as in slice notation. Return ``-1`` on failure.
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.rfind('sp')
+ 12
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.rfind('sp', 0, 10)
+ 6
+
+ See also :meth:`find` and :meth:`rindex`.
.. method:: str.rindex(sub[, start[, end]])
Like :meth:`rfind` but raises :exc:`ValueError` when the substring *sub* is not
found.
+ For example:
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.rindex('spam')
+ 12
+ >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.rindex('eggs')
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "<stdin-0>", line 1, in <module>
+ 'spam, spam, spam'.rindex('eggs')
+ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^
+ ValueError: substring not found
-.. method:: str.rjust(width[, fillchar])
+ See also :meth:`index` and :meth:`find`.
+
+
+.. method:: str.rjust(width, fillchar=' ', /)
Return the string right justified in a string of length *width*. Padding is
done using the specified *fillchar* (default is an ASCII space). The
original string is returned if *width* is less than or equal to ``len(s)``.
+ For example:
-.. method:: str.rpartition(sep)
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'Python'.rjust(10)
+ ' Python'
+ >>> 'Python'.rjust(10, '.')
+ '....Python'
+ >>> 'Monty Python'.rjust(10, '.')
+ 'Monty Python'
+
+ See also :meth:`ljust` and :meth:`zfill`.
+
+
+.. method:: str.rpartition(sep, /)
Split the string at the last occurrence of *sep*, and return a 3-tuple
containing the part before the separator, the separator itself, and the part
after the separator. If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing
two empty strings, followed by the string itself.
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'Monty Python'.rpartition(' ')
+ ('Monty', ' ', 'Python')
+ >>> "Monty Python's Flying Circus".rpartition(' ')
+ ("Monty Python's Flying", ' ', 'Circus')
+ >>> 'Monty Python'.rpartition('-')
+ ('', '', 'Monty Python')
+
+ See also :meth:`partition`.
+
.. method:: str.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
Return a list of the words in the string, using *sep* as the delimiter string.
If *maxsplit* is given, at most *maxsplit* splits are done, the *rightmost*
- ones. If *sep* is not specified or ``None``, any whitespace string is a
+ ones. If *sep* is not specified or ``None``, any
+ :meth:`whitespace <str.isspace>` string is a
separator. Except for splitting from the right, :meth:`rsplit` behaves like
:meth:`split` which is described in detail below.
-.. method:: str.rstrip([chars])
+.. method:: str.rstrip(chars=None, /)
Return a copy of the string with trailing characters removed. The *chars*
argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed. If omitted
or ``None``, the *chars* argument defaults to removing whitespace. The *chars*
- argument is not a suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped::
+ argument is not a suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped.
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
>>> ' spacious '.rstrip()
' spacious'
>>> 'mississippi'.rstrip('ipz')
'mississ'
- See :meth:`str.removesuffix` for a method that will remove a single suffix
+ See :meth:`removesuffix` for a method that will remove a single suffix
string rather than all of a set of characters. For example::
>>> 'Monty Python'.rstrip(' Python')
@@ -2084,6 +2459,9 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
>>> 'Monty Python'.removesuffix(' Python')
'Monty'
+ See also :meth:`strip`.
+
+
.. method:: str.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
Return a list of the words in the string, using *sep* as the delimiter
@@ -2095,10 +2473,13 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
If *sep* is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together and are
deemed to delimit empty strings (for example, ``'1,,2'.split(',')`` returns
``['1', '', '2']``). The *sep* argument may consist of multiple characters
- (for example, ``'1<>2<>3'.split('<>')`` returns ``['1', '2', '3']``).
- Splitting an empty string with a specified separator returns ``['']``.
+ as a single delimiter (to split with multiple delimiters, use
+ :func:`re.split`). Splitting an empty string with a specified separator
+ returns ``['']``.
- For example::
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
>>> '1,2,3'.split(',')
['1', '2', '3']
@@ -2106,15 +2487,20 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
['1', '2,3']
>>> '1,2,,3,'.split(',')
['1', '2', '', '3', '']
+ >>> '1<>2<>3<4'.split('<>')
+ ['1', '2', '3<4']
If *sep* is not specified or is ``None``, a different splitting algorithm is
- applied: runs of consecutive whitespace are regarded as a single separator,
+ applied: runs of consecutive :meth:`whitespace <str.isspace>` are regarded
+ as a single separator,
and the result will contain no empty strings at the start or end if the
string has leading or trailing whitespace. Consequently, splitting an empty
string or a string consisting of just whitespace with a ``None`` separator
returns ``[]``.
- For example::
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
>>> '1 2 3'.split()
['1', '2', '3']
@@ -2123,6 +2509,22 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
>>> ' 1 2 3 '.split()
['1', '2', '3']
+ If *sep* is not specified or is ``None`` and *maxsplit* is ``0``, only
+ leading runs of consecutive whitespace are considered.
+
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> "".split(None, 0)
+ []
+ >>> " ".split(None, 0)
+ []
+ >>> " foo ".split(maxsplit=0)
+ ['foo ']
+
+ See also :meth:`join` and :meth:`rsplit`.
+
.. index::
single: universal newlines; str.splitlines method
@@ -2197,14 +2599,33 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
test string beginning at that position. With optional *end*, stop comparing
string at that position.
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'Python'.startswith('Py')
+ True
+ >>> 'a tuple of prefixes'.startswith(('at', 'a'))
+ True
+ >>> 'Python is amazing'.startswith('is', 7)
+ True
+
+ See also :meth:`endswith` and :meth:`removeprefix`.
-.. method:: str.strip([chars])
+
+.. method:: str.strip(chars=None, /)
Return a copy of the string with the leading and trailing characters removed.
The *chars* argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed.
If omitted or ``None``, the *chars* argument defaults to removing whitespace.
The *chars* argument is not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its
- values are stripped::
+ values are stripped.
+
+ Whitespace characters are defined by :meth:`str.isspace`.
+
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
>>> ' spacious '.strip()
'spacious'
@@ -2215,18 +2636,37 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
from the string. Characters are removed from the leading end until
reaching a string character that is not contained in the set of
characters in *chars*. A similar action takes place on the trailing end.
- For example::
+
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
>>> comment_string = '#....... Section 3.2.1 Issue #32 .......'
>>> comment_string.strip('.#! ')
'Section 3.2.1 Issue #32'
+ See also :meth:`rstrip`.
+
.. method:: str.swapcase()
Return a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and
- vice versa. Note that it is not necessarily true that
- ``s.swapcase().swapcase() == s``.
+ vice versa. For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'Hello World'.swapcase()
+ 'hELLO wORLD'
+
+ Note that it is not necessarily true that ``s.swapcase().swapcase() == s``.
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> 'straße'.swapcase().swapcase()
+ 'strasse'
+
+ See also :meth:`str.lower` and :meth:`str.upper`.
.. method:: str.title()
@@ -2262,8 +2702,10 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
>>> titlecase("they're bill's friends.")
"They're Bill's Friends."
+ See also :meth:`istitle`.
+
-.. method:: str.translate(table)
+.. method:: str.translate(table, /)
Return a copy of the string in which each character has been mapped through
the given translation table. The table must be an object that implements
@@ -2294,7 +2736,7 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
<https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/ch03.pdf>`__.
-.. method:: str.zfill(width)
+.. method:: str.zfill(width, /)
Return a copy of the string left filled with ASCII ``'0'`` digits to
make a string of length *width*. A leading sign prefix (``'+'``/``'-'``)
@@ -2302,13 +2744,157 @@ expression support in the :mod:`re` module).
than before. The original string is returned if *width* is less than
or equal to ``len(s)``.
- For example::
+ For example:
+
+ .. doctest::
>>> "42".zfill(5)
'00042'
>>> "-42".zfill(5)
'-0042'
+ See also :meth:`rjust`.
+
+
+.. index::
+ single: ! formatted string literal
+ single: formatted string literals
+ single: ! f-string
+ single: f-strings
+ single: fstring
+ single: interpolated string literal
+ single: string; formatted literal
+ single: string; interpolated literal
+ single: {} (curly brackets); in formatted string literal
+ single: ! (exclamation mark); in formatted string literal
+ single: : (colon); in formatted string literal
+ single: = (equals); for help in debugging using string literals
+
+Formatted String Literals (f-strings)
+-------------------------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.6
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+ The :keyword:`await` and :keyword:`async for` can be used in expressions
+ within f-strings.
+.. versionchanged:: 3.8
+ Added the debugging operator (``=``)
+.. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ Many restrictions on expressions within f-strings have been removed.
+ Notably, nested strings, comments, and backslashes are now permitted.
+
+An :dfn:`f-string` (formally a :dfn:`formatted string literal`) is
+a string literal that is prefixed with ``f`` or ``F``.
+This type of string literal allows embedding arbitrary Python expressions
+within *replacement fields*, which are delimited by curly brackets (``{}``).
+These expressions are evaluated at runtime, similarly to :meth:`str.format`,
+and are converted into regular :class:`str` objects.
+For example:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+ >>> who = 'nobody'
+ >>> nationality = 'Spanish'
+ >>> f'{who.title()} expects the {nationality} Inquisition!'
+ 'Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!'
+
+It is also possible to use a multi line f-string:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+ >>> f'''This is a string
+ ... on two lines'''
+ 'This is a string\non two lines'
+
+A single opening curly bracket, ``'{'``, marks a *replacement field* that
+can contain any Python expression:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+ >>> nationality = 'Spanish'
+ >>> f'The {nationality} Inquisition!'
+ 'The Spanish Inquisition!'
+
+To include a literal ``{`` or ``}``, use a double bracket:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+ >>> x = 42
+ >>> f'{{x}} is {x}'
+ '{x} is 42'
+
+Functions can also be used, and :ref:`format specifiers <formatstrings>`:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+ >>> from math import sqrt
+ >>> f'√2 \N{ALMOST EQUAL TO} {sqrt(2):.5f}'
+ '√2 ≈ 1.41421'
+
+Any non-string expression is converted using :func:`str`, by default:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+ >>> from fractions import Fraction
+ >>> f'{Fraction(1, 3)}'
+ '1/3'
+
+To use an explicit conversion, use the ``!`` (exclamation mark) operator,
+followed by any of the valid formats, which are:
+
+========== ==============
+Conversion Meaning
+========== ==============
+``!a`` :func:`ascii`
+``!r`` :func:`repr`
+``!s`` :func:`str`
+========== ==============
+
+For example:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+ >>> from fractions import Fraction
+ >>> f'{Fraction(1, 3)!s}'
+ '1/3'
+ >>> f'{Fraction(1, 3)!r}'
+ 'Fraction(1, 3)'
+ >>> question = '¿Dónde está el Presidente?'
+ >>> print(f'{question!a}')
+ '\xbfD\xf3nde est\xe1 el Presidente?'
+
+While debugging it may be helpful to see both the expression and its value,
+by using the equals sign (``=``) after the expression.
+This preserves spaces within the brackets, and can be used with a converter.
+By default, the debugging operator uses the :func:`repr` (``!r``) conversion.
+For example:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+ >>> from fractions import Fraction
+ >>> calculation = Fraction(1, 3)
+ >>> f'{calculation=}'
+ 'calculation=Fraction(1, 3)'
+ >>> f'{calculation = }'
+ 'calculation = Fraction(1, 3)'
+ >>> f'{calculation = !s}'
+ 'calculation = 1/3'
+
+Once the output has been evaluated, it can be formatted using a
+:ref:`format specifier <formatstrings>` following a colon (``':'``).
+After the expression has been evaluated, and possibly converted to a string,
+the :meth:`!__format__` method of the result is called with the format specifier,
+or the empty string if no format specifier is given.
+The formatted result is then used as the final value for the replacement field.
+For example:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+ >>> from fractions import Fraction
+ >>> f'{Fraction(1, 7):.6f}'
+ '0.142857'
+ >>> f'{Fraction(1, 7):_^+10}'
+ '___+1/7___'
.. _old-string-formatting:
@@ -2439,19 +3025,19 @@ The conversion types are:
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ``'X'`` | Signed hexadecimal (uppercase). | \(2) |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
-| ``'e'`` | Floating point exponential format (lowercase). | \(3) |
+| ``'e'`` | Floating-point exponential format (lowercase). | \(3) |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
-| ``'E'`` | Floating point exponential format (uppercase). | \(3) |
+| ``'E'`` | Floating-point exponential format (uppercase). | \(3) |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
-| ``'f'`` | Floating point decimal format. | \(3) |
+| ``'f'`` | Floating-point decimal format. | \(3) |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
-| ``'F'`` | Floating point decimal format. | \(3) |
+| ``'F'`` | Floating-point decimal format. | \(3) |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
-| ``'g'`` | Floating point format. Uses lowercase exponential | \(4) |
+| ``'g'`` | Floating-point format. Uses lowercase exponential | \(4) |
| | format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than | |
| | precision, decimal format otherwise. | |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
-| ``'G'`` | Floating point format. Uses uppercase exponential | \(4) |
+| ``'G'`` | Floating-point format. Uses uppercase exponential | \(4) |
| | format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than | |
| | precision, decimal format otherwise. | |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
@@ -2471,6 +3057,10 @@ The conversion types are:
| | character in the result. | |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
+For floating-point formats, the result should be correctly rounded to a given
+precision ``p`` of digits after the decimal point. The rounding mode matches
+that of the :func:`round` builtin.
+
Notes:
(1)
@@ -2545,7 +3135,8 @@ binary protocols are based on the ASCII text encoding, bytes objects offer
several methods that are only valid when working with ASCII compatible
data and are closely related to string objects in a variety of other ways.
-.. class:: bytes([source[, encoding[, errors]]])
+.. class:: bytes(source=b'')
+ bytes(source, encoding, errors='strict')
Firstly, the syntax for bytes literals is largely the same as that for string
literals, except that a ``b`` prefix is added:
@@ -2585,7 +3176,7 @@ data and are closely related to string objects in a variety of other ways.
numbers are a commonly used format for describing binary data. Accordingly,
the bytes type has an additional class method to read data in that format:
- .. classmethod:: fromhex(string)
+ .. classmethod:: fromhex(string, /)
This :class:`bytes` class method returns a bytes object, decoding the
given string object. The string must contain two hexadecimal digits per
@@ -2601,7 +3192,8 @@ data and are closely related to string objects in a variety of other ways.
A reverse conversion function exists to transform a bytes object into its
hexadecimal representation.
- .. method:: hex([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])
+ .. method:: hex(*, bytes_per_sep=1)
+ hex(sep, bytes_per_sep=1)
Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for each
byte in the instance.
@@ -2650,7 +3242,8 @@ Bytearray Objects
:class:`bytearray` objects are a mutable counterpart to :class:`bytes`
objects.
-.. class:: bytearray([source[, encoding[, errors]]])
+.. class:: bytearray(source=b'')
+ bytearray(source, encoding, errors='strict')
There is no dedicated literal syntax for bytearray objects, instead
they are always created by calling the constructor:
@@ -2670,9 +3263,9 @@ objects.
numbers are a commonly used format for describing binary data. Accordingly,
the bytearray type has an additional class method to read data in that format:
- .. classmethod:: fromhex(string)
+ .. classmethod:: fromhex(string, /)
- This :class:`bytearray` class method returns bytearray object, decoding
+ This :class:`bytearray` class method returns a bytearray object, decoding
the given string object. The string must contain two hexadecimal digits
per byte, with ASCII whitespace being ignored.
@@ -2686,7 +3279,8 @@ objects.
A reverse conversion function exists to transform a bytearray object into its
hexadecimal representation.
- .. method:: hex([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])
+ .. method:: hex(*, bytes_per_sep=1)
+ hex(sep, bytes_per_sep=1)
Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for each
byte in the instance.
@@ -2892,8 +3486,8 @@ arbitrary binary data.
Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.
-.. method:: bytes.join(iterable)
- bytearray.join(iterable)
+.. method:: bytes.join(iterable, /)
+ bytearray.join(iterable, /)
Return a bytes or bytearray object which is the concatenation of the
binary data sequences in *iterable*. A :exc:`TypeError` will be raised
@@ -2903,8 +3497,8 @@ arbitrary binary data.
bytearray object providing this method.
-.. staticmethod:: bytes.maketrans(from, to)
- bytearray.maketrans(from, to)
+.. staticmethod:: bytes.maketrans(from, to, /)
+ bytearray.maketrans(from, to, /)
This static method returns a translation table usable for
:meth:`bytes.translate` that will map each character in *from* into the
@@ -2914,8 +3508,8 @@ arbitrary binary data.
.. versionadded:: 3.1
-.. method:: bytes.partition(sep)
- bytearray.partition(sep)
+.. method:: bytes.partition(sep, /)
+ bytearray.partition(sep, /)
Split the sequence at the first occurrence of *sep*, and return a 3-tuple
containing the part before the separator, the separator itself or its
@@ -2927,8 +3521,8 @@ arbitrary binary data.
The separator to search for may be any :term:`bytes-like object`.
-.. method:: bytes.replace(old, new[, count])
- bytearray.replace(old, new[, count])
+.. method:: bytes.replace(old, new, count=-1, /)
+ bytearray.replace(old, new, count=-1, /)
Return a copy of the sequence with all occurrences of subsequence *old*
replaced by *new*. If the optional argument *count* is given, only the
@@ -2971,8 +3565,8 @@ arbitrary binary data.
Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255 as the subsequence.
-.. method:: bytes.rpartition(sep)
- bytearray.rpartition(sep)
+.. method:: bytes.rpartition(sep, /)
+ bytearray.rpartition(sep, /)
Split the sequence at the last occurrence of *sep*, and return a 3-tuple
containing the part before the separator, the separator itself or its
@@ -3022,8 +3616,8 @@ with arbitrary binary data by passing appropriate arguments. Note that all of
the bytearray methods in this section do *not* operate in place, and instead
produce new objects.
-.. method:: bytes.center(width[, fillbyte])
- bytearray.center(width[, fillbyte])
+.. method:: bytes.center(width, fillbyte=b' ', /)
+ bytearray.center(width, fillbyte=b' ', /)
Return a copy of the object centered in a sequence of length *width*.
Padding is done using the specified *fillbyte* (default is an ASCII
@@ -3036,8 +3630,8 @@ produce new objects.
it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
-.. method:: bytes.ljust(width[, fillbyte])
- bytearray.ljust(width[, fillbyte])
+.. method:: bytes.ljust(width, fillbyte=b' ', /)
+ bytearray.ljust(width, fillbyte=b' ', /)
Return a copy of the object left justified in a sequence of length *width*.
Padding is done using the specified *fillbyte* (default is an ASCII
@@ -3050,14 +3644,14 @@ produce new objects.
it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
-.. method:: bytes.lstrip([chars])
- bytearray.lstrip([chars])
+.. method:: bytes.lstrip(bytes=None, /)
+ bytearray.lstrip(bytes=None, /)
Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading bytes removed. The
- *chars* argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of byte values to
- be removed - the name refers to the fact this method is usually used with
- ASCII characters. If omitted or ``None``, the *chars* argument defaults
- to removing ASCII whitespace. The *chars* argument is not a prefix;
+ *bytes* argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of byte values to
+ be removed. If omitted or ``None``, the *bytes* argument defaults
+ to removing :meth:`ASCII whitespace <bytes.isspace>`.
+ The *bytes* argument is not a prefix;
rather, all combinations of its values are stripped::
>>> b' spacious '.lstrip()
@@ -3081,8 +3675,8 @@ produce new objects.
it always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
-.. method:: bytes.rjust(width[, fillbyte])
- bytearray.rjust(width[, fillbyte])
+.. method:: bytes.rjust(width, fillbyte=b' ', /)
+ bytearray.rjust(width, fillbyte=b' ', /)
Return a copy of the object right justified in a sequence of length *width*.
Padding is done using the specified *fillbyte* (default is an ASCII
@@ -3101,19 +3695,20 @@ produce new objects.
Split the binary sequence into subsequences of the same type, using *sep*
as the delimiter string. If *maxsplit* is given, at most *maxsplit* splits
are done, the *rightmost* ones. If *sep* is not specified or ``None``,
- any subsequence consisting solely of ASCII whitespace is a separator.
+ any subsequence consisting solely of
+ :meth:`ASCII whitespace <bytes.isspace>` is a separator.
Except for splitting from the right, :meth:`rsplit` behaves like
:meth:`split` which is described in detail below.
-.. method:: bytes.rstrip([chars])
- bytearray.rstrip([chars])
+.. method:: bytes.rstrip(bytes=None, /)
+ bytearray.rstrip(bytes=None, /)
Return a copy of the sequence with specified trailing bytes removed. The
- *chars* argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of byte values to
- be removed - the name refers to the fact this method is usually used with
- ASCII characters. If omitted or ``None``, the *chars* argument defaults to
- removing ASCII whitespace. The *chars* argument is not a suffix; rather,
+ *bytes* argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of byte values to
+ be removed. If omitted or ``None``, the *bytes* argument defaults to
+ removing :meth:`ASCII whitespace <bytes.isspace>`.
+ The *bytes* argument is not a suffix; rather,
all combinations of its values are stripped::
>>> b' spacious '.rstrip()
@@ -3149,10 +3744,9 @@ produce new objects.
If *sep* is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together and are
deemed to delimit empty subsequences (for example, ``b'1,,2'.split(b',')``
returns ``[b'1', b'', b'2']``). The *sep* argument may consist of a
- multibyte sequence (for example, ``b'1<>2<>3'.split(b'<>')`` returns
- ``[b'1', b'2', b'3']``). Splitting an empty sequence with a specified
- separator returns ``[b'']`` or ``[bytearray(b'')]`` depending on the type
- of object being split. The *sep* argument may be any
+ multibyte sequence as a single delimiter. Splitting an empty sequence with
+ a specified separator returns ``[b'']`` or ``[bytearray(b'')]`` depending
+ on the type of object being split. The *sep* argument may be any
:term:`bytes-like object`.
For example::
@@ -3163,9 +3757,12 @@ produce new objects.
[b'1', b'2,3']
>>> b'1,2,,3,'.split(b',')
[b'1', b'2', b'', b'3', b'']
+ >>> b'1<>2<>3<4'.split(b'<>')
+ [b'1', b'2', b'3<4']
If *sep* is not specified or is ``None``, a different splitting algorithm
- is applied: runs of consecutive ASCII whitespace are regarded as a single
+ is applied: runs of consecutive :meth:`ASCII whitespace <bytes.isspace>`
+ are regarded as a single
separator, and the result will contain no empty strings at the start or
end if the sequence has leading or trailing whitespace. Consequently,
splitting an empty sequence or a sequence consisting solely of ASCII
@@ -3182,14 +3779,14 @@ produce new objects.
[b'1', b'2', b'3']
-.. method:: bytes.strip([chars])
- bytearray.strip([chars])
+.. method:: bytes.strip(bytes=None, /)
+ bytearray.strip(bytes=None, /)
Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading and trailing bytes
- removed. The *chars* argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of
- byte values to be removed - the name refers to the fact this method is
- usually used with ASCII characters. If omitted or ``None``, the *chars*
- argument defaults to removing ASCII whitespace. The *chars* argument is
+ removed. The *bytes* argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of
+ byte values to be removed. If omitted or ``None``, the *bytes*
+ argument defaults to removing :meth:`ASCII whitespace <bytes.isspace>`.
+ The *bytes* argument is
not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are
stripped::
@@ -3436,7 +4033,7 @@ place, and instead produce new objects.
``b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'``. Uppercase ASCII characters
are those byte values in the sequence ``b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'``.
- Unlike :func:`str.swapcase()`, it is always the case that
+ Unlike :func:`str.swapcase`, it is always the case that
``bin.swapcase().swapcase() == bin`` for the binary versions. Case
conversions are symmetrical in ASCII, even though that is not generally
true for arbitrary Unicode code points.
@@ -3511,8 +4108,8 @@ place, and instead produce new objects.
always produces a new object, even if no changes were made.
-.. method:: bytes.zfill(width)
- bytearray.zfill(width)
+.. method:: bytes.zfill(width, /)
+ bytearray.zfill(width, /)
Return a copy of the sequence left filled with ASCII ``b'0'`` digits to
make a sequence of length *width*. A leading sign prefix (``b'+'``/
@@ -3563,7 +4160,7 @@ the ``%`` operator (modulo).
This is also known as the bytes *formatting* or *interpolation* operator.
Given ``format % values`` (where *format* is a bytes object), ``%`` conversion
specifications in *format* are replaced with zero or more elements of *values*.
-The effect is similar to using the :c:func:`sprintf` in the C language.
+The effect is similar to using the :c:func:`sprintf` function in the C language.
If *format* requires a single argument, *values* may be a single non-tuple
object. [5]_ Otherwise, *values* must be a tuple with exactly the number of
@@ -3657,19 +4254,19 @@ The conversion types are:
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ``'X'`` | Signed hexadecimal (uppercase). | \(2) |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
-| ``'e'`` | Floating point exponential format (lowercase). | \(3) |
+| ``'e'`` | Floating-point exponential format (lowercase). | \(3) |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
-| ``'E'`` | Floating point exponential format (uppercase). | \(3) |
+| ``'E'`` | Floating-point exponential format (uppercase). | \(3) |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
-| ``'f'`` | Floating point decimal format. | \(3) |
+| ``'f'`` | Floating-point decimal format. | \(3) |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
-| ``'F'`` | Floating point decimal format. | \(3) |
+| ``'F'`` | Floating-point decimal format. | \(3) |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
-| ``'g'`` | Floating point format. Uses lowercase exponential | \(4) |
+| ``'g'`` | Floating-point format. Uses lowercase exponential | \(4) |
| | format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than | |
| | precision, decimal format otherwise. | |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
-| ``'G'`` | Floating point format. Uses uppercase exponential | \(4) |
+| ``'G'`` | Floating-point format. Uses uppercase exponential | \(4) |
| | format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than | |
| | precision, decimal format otherwise. | |
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+
@@ -3761,7 +4358,7 @@ copying.
byte, but other types such as :class:`array.array` may have bigger elements.
``len(view)`` is equal to the length of :class:`~memoryview.tolist`, which
- is the nested list representation of the view. If ``view.ndim = 1``,
+ is the nested list representation of the view. If ``view.ndim == 1``,
this is equal to the number of elements in the view.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
@@ -3846,7 +4443,7 @@ copying.
:class:`collections.abc.Sequence`
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
- memoryviews can now be indexed with tuple of integers.
+ memoryviews can now be indexed with a tuple of integers.
:class:`memoryview` has several methods:
@@ -3891,7 +4488,7 @@ copying.
>>> a == b
False
- Note that, as with floating point numbers, ``v is w`` does *not* imply
+ Note that, as with floating-point numbers, ``v is w`` does *not* imply
``v == w`` for memoryview objects.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
@@ -3921,7 +4518,8 @@ copying.
in-memory Fortran order is preserved. For non-contiguous views, the
data is converted to C first. *order=None* is the same as *order='C'*.
- .. method:: hex([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])
+ .. method:: hex(*, bytes_per_sep=1)
+ hex(sep, bytes_per_sep=1)
Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for each
byte in the buffer. ::
@@ -3982,7 +4580,7 @@ copying.
dangling resources) as soon as possible.
After this method has been called, any further operation on the view
- raises a :class:`ValueError` (except :meth:`release()` itself which can
+ raises a :class:`ValueError` (except :meth:`release` itself which can
be called multiple times)::
>>> m = memoryview(b'abc')
@@ -4006,7 +4604,8 @@ copying.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
- .. method:: cast(format[, shape])
+ .. method:: cast(format, /)
+ cast(format, shape, /)
Cast a memoryview to a new format or shape. *shape* defaults to
``[byte_length//new_itemsize]``, which means that the result view
@@ -4253,8 +4852,8 @@ of elements within braces, for example: ``{'jack', 'sjoerd'}``, in addition to t
The constructors for both classes work the same:
-.. class:: set([iterable])
- frozenset([iterable])
+.. class:: set(iterable=(), /)
+ frozenset(iterable=(), /)
Return a new set or frozenset object whose elements are taken from
*iterable*. The elements of a set must be :term:`hashable`. To
@@ -4262,165 +4861,174 @@ The constructors for both classes work the same:
objects. If *iterable* is not specified, a new empty set is
returned.
- Sets can be created by several means:
+Sets can be created by several means:
- * Use a comma-separated list of elements within braces: ``{'jack', 'sjoerd'}``
- * Use a set comprehension: ``{c for c in 'abracadabra' if c not in 'abc'}``
- * Use the type constructor: ``set()``, ``set('foobar')``, ``set(['a', 'b', 'foo'])``
+* Use a comma-separated list of elements within braces: ``{'jack', 'sjoerd'}``
+* Use a set comprehension: ``{c for c in 'abracadabra' if c not in 'abc'}``
+* Use the type constructor: ``set()``, ``set('foobar')``, ``set(['a', 'b', 'foo'])``
- Instances of :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset` provide the following
- operations:
+Instances of :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset` provide the following
+operations:
- .. describe:: len(s)
+.. describe:: len(s)
- Return the number of elements in set *s* (cardinality of *s*).
+ Return the number of elements in set *s* (cardinality of *s*).
- .. describe:: x in s
+.. describe:: x in s
- Test *x* for membership in *s*.
+ Test *x* for membership in *s*.
- .. describe:: x not in s
+.. describe:: x not in s
- Test *x* for non-membership in *s*.
+ Test *x* for non-membership in *s*.
- .. method:: isdisjoint(other)
+.. method:: frozenset.isdisjoint(other, /)
+ set.isdisjoint(other, /)
- Return ``True`` if the set has no elements in common with *other*. Sets are
- disjoint if and only if their intersection is the empty set.
+ Return ``True`` if the set has no elements in common with *other*. Sets are
+ disjoint if and only if their intersection is the empty set.
- .. method:: issubset(other)
- set <= other
+.. method:: frozenset.issubset(other, /)
+ set.issubset(other, /)
+.. describe:: set <= other
- Test whether every element in the set is in *other*.
+ Test whether every element in the set is in *other*.
- .. method:: set < other
+.. describe:: set < other
- Test whether the set is a proper subset of *other*, that is,
- ``set <= other and set != other``.
+ Test whether the set is a proper subset of *other*, that is,
+ ``set <= other and set != other``.
- .. method:: issuperset(other)
- set >= other
+.. method:: frozenset.issuperset(other, /)
+ set.issuperset(other, /)
+.. describe:: set >= other
- Test whether every element in *other* is in the set.
+ Test whether every element in *other* is in the set.
- .. method:: set > other
+.. describe:: set > other
- Test whether the set is a proper superset of *other*, that is, ``set >=
- other and set != other``.
+ Test whether the set is a proper superset of *other*, that is, ``set >=
+ other and set != other``.
- .. method:: union(*others)
- set | other | ...
+.. method:: frozenset.union(*others)
+ set.union(*others)
+.. describe:: set | other | ...
- Return a new set with elements from the set and all others.
+ Return a new set with elements from the set and all others.
- .. method:: intersection(*others)
- set & other & ...
+.. method:: frozenset.intersection(*others)
+ set.intersection(*others)
+.. describe:: set & other & ...
- Return a new set with elements common to the set and all others.
+ Return a new set with elements common to the set and all others.
- .. method:: difference(*others)
- set - other - ...
+.. method:: frozenset.difference(*others)
+ set.difference(*others)
+.. describe:: set - other - ...
- Return a new set with elements in the set that are not in the others.
+ Return a new set with elements in the set that are not in the others.
- .. method:: symmetric_difference(other)
- set ^ other
+.. method:: frozenset.symmetric_difference(other, /)
+ set.symmetric_difference(other, /)
+.. describe:: set ^ other
- Return a new set with elements in either the set or *other* but not both.
+ Return a new set with elements in either the set or *other* but not both.
- .. method:: copy()
+.. method:: frozenset.copy()
+ set.copy()
- Return a shallow copy of the set.
+ Return a shallow copy of the set.
- Note, the non-operator versions of :meth:`union`, :meth:`intersection`,
- :meth:`difference`, :meth:`symmetric_difference`, :meth:`issubset`, and
- :meth:`issuperset` methods will accept any iterable as an argument. In
- contrast, their operator based counterparts require their arguments to be
- sets. This precludes error-prone constructions like ``set('abc') & 'cbs'``
- in favor of the more readable ``set('abc').intersection('cbs')``.
+Note, the non-operator versions of :meth:`~frozenset.union`,
+:meth:`~frozenset.intersection`, :meth:`~frozenset.difference`, :meth:`~frozenset.symmetric_difference`, :meth:`~frozenset.issubset`, and
+:meth:`~frozenset.issuperset` methods will accept any iterable as an argument. In
+contrast, their operator based counterparts require their arguments to be
+sets. This precludes error-prone constructions like ``set('abc') & 'cbs'``
+in favor of the more readable ``set('abc').intersection('cbs')``.
- Both :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset` support set to set comparisons. Two
- sets are equal if and only if every element of each set is contained in the
- other (each is a subset of the other). A set is less than another set if and
- only if the first set is a proper subset of the second set (is a subset, but
- is not equal). A set is greater than another set if and only if the first set
- is a proper superset of the second set (is a superset, but is not equal).
+Both :class:`set` and :class:`frozenset` support set to set comparisons. Two
+sets are equal if and only if every element of each set is contained in the
+other (each is a subset of the other). A set is less than another set if and
+only if the first set is a proper subset of the second set (is a subset, but
+is not equal). A set is greater than another set if and only if the first set
+is a proper superset of the second set (is a superset, but is not equal).
- Instances of :class:`set` are compared to instances of :class:`frozenset`
- based on their members. For example, ``set('abc') == frozenset('abc')``
- returns ``True`` and so does ``set('abc') in set([frozenset('abc')])``.
+Instances of :class:`set` are compared to instances of :class:`frozenset`
+based on their members. For example, ``set('abc') == frozenset('abc')``
+returns ``True`` and so does ``set('abc') in set([frozenset('abc')])``.
- The subset and equality comparisons do not generalize to a total ordering
- function. For example, any two nonempty disjoint sets are not equal and are not
- subsets of each other, so *all* of the following return ``False``: ``a<b``,
- ``a==b``, or ``a>b``.
+The subset and equality comparisons do not generalize to a total ordering
+function. For example, any two nonempty disjoint sets are not equal and are not
+subsets of each other, so *all* of the following return ``False``: ``a<b``,
+``a==b``, or ``a>b``.
- Since sets only define partial ordering (subset relationships), the output of
- the :meth:`list.sort` method is undefined for lists of sets.
+Since sets only define partial ordering (subset relationships), the output of
+the :meth:`list.sort` method is undefined for lists of sets.
- Set elements, like dictionary keys, must be :term:`hashable`.
+Set elements, like dictionary keys, must be :term:`hashable`.
- Binary operations that mix :class:`set` instances with :class:`frozenset`
- return the type of the first operand. For example: ``frozenset('ab') |
- set('bc')`` returns an instance of :class:`frozenset`.
+Binary operations that mix :class:`set` instances with :class:`frozenset`
+return the type of the first operand. For example: ``frozenset('ab') |
+set('bc')`` returns an instance of :class:`frozenset`.
- The following table lists operations available for :class:`set` that do not
- apply to immutable instances of :class:`frozenset`:
+The following table lists operations available for :class:`set` that do not
+apply to immutable instances of :class:`frozenset`:
- .. method:: update(*others)
- set |= other | ...
+.. method:: set.update(*others)
+.. describe:: set |= other | ...
- Update the set, adding elements from all others.
+ Update the set, adding elements from all others.
- .. method:: intersection_update(*others)
- set &= other & ...
+.. method:: set.intersection_update(*others)
+.. describe:: set &= other & ...
- Update the set, keeping only elements found in it and all others.
+ Update the set, keeping only elements found in it and all others.
- .. method:: difference_update(*others)
- set -= other | ...
+.. method:: set.difference_update(*others)
+.. describe:: set -= other | ...
- Update the set, removing elements found in others.
+ Update the set, removing elements found in others.
- .. method:: symmetric_difference_update(other)
- set ^= other
+.. method:: set.symmetric_difference_update(other, /)
+.. describe:: set ^= other
- Update the set, keeping only elements found in either set, but not in both.
+ Update the set, keeping only elements found in either set, but not in both.
- .. method:: add(elem)
+.. method:: set.add(elem, /)
- Add element *elem* to the set.
+ Add element *elem* to the set.
- .. method:: remove(elem)
+.. method:: set.remove(elem, /)
- Remove element *elem* from the set. Raises :exc:`KeyError` if *elem* is
- not contained in the set.
+ Remove element *elem* from the set. Raises :exc:`KeyError` if *elem* is
+ not contained in the set.
- .. method:: discard(elem)
+.. method:: set.discard(elem, /)
- Remove element *elem* from the set if it is present.
+ Remove element *elem* from the set if it is present.
- .. method:: pop()
+.. method:: set.pop()
- Remove and return an arbitrary element from the set. Raises
- :exc:`KeyError` if the set is empty.
+ Remove and return an arbitrary element from the set. Raises
+ :exc:`KeyError` if the set is empty.
- .. method:: clear()
+.. method:: set.clear()
- Remove all elements from the set.
+ Remove all elements from the set.
- Note, the non-operator versions of the :meth:`update`,
- :meth:`intersection_update`, :meth:`difference_update`, and
- :meth:`symmetric_difference_update` methods will accept any iterable as an
- argument.
+Note, the non-operator versions of the :meth:`~set.update`,
+:meth:`~set.intersection_update`, :meth:`~set.difference_update`, and
+:meth:`~set.symmetric_difference_update` methods will accept any iterable as an
+argument.
- Note, the *elem* argument to the :meth:`~object.__contains__`,
- :meth:`remove`, and
- :meth:`discard` methods may be a set. To support searching for an equivalent
- frozenset, a temporary one is created from *elem*.
+Note, the *elem* argument to the :meth:`~object.__contains__`,
+:meth:`~set.remove`, and
+:meth:`~set.discard` methods may be a set. To support searching for an equivalent
+frozenset, a temporary one is created from *elem*.
+Sets and frozensets are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the type of their elements.
.. _typesmapping:
@@ -4449,8 +5057,8 @@ Values that compare equal (such as ``1``, ``1.0``, and ``True``)
can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.
.. class:: dict(**kwargs)
- dict(mapping, **kwargs)
- dict(iterable, **kwargs)
+ dict(mapping, /, **kwargs)
+ dict(iterable, /, **kwargs)
Return a new dictionary initialized from an optional positional argument
and a possibly empty set of keyword arguments.
@@ -4464,21 +5072,24 @@ can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.
``dict([('foo', 100), ('bar', 200)])``, ``dict(foo=100, bar=200)``
If no positional argument is given, an empty dictionary is created.
- If a positional argument is given and it is a mapping object, a dictionary
- is created with the same key-value pairs as the mapping object. Otherwise,
- the positional argument must be an :term:`iterable` object. Each item in
- the iterable must itself be an iterable with exactly two objects. The
- first object of each item becomes a key in the new dictionary, and the
- second object the corresponding value. If a key occurs more than once, the
- last value for that key becomes the corresponding value in the new
- dictionary.
+ If a positional argument is given and it defines a ``keys()`` method, a
+ dictionary is created by calling :meth:`~object.__getitem__` on the argument with
+ each returned key from the method. Otherwise, the positional argument must be an
+ :term:`iterable` object. Each item in the iterable must itself be an iterable
+ with exactly two elements. The first element of each item becomes a key in the
+ new dictionary, and the second element the corresponding value. If a key occurs
+ more than once, the last value for that key becomes the corresponding value in
+ the new dictionary.
If keyword arguments are given, the keyword arguments and their values are
added to the dictionary created from the positional argument. If a key
being added is already present, the value from the keyword argument
replaces the value from the positional argument.
- To illustrate, the following examples all return a dictionary equal to
+ Dictionaries compare equal if and only if they have the same ``(key,
+ value)`` pairs (regardless of ordering). Order comparisons ('<', '<=', '>=', '>') raise
+ :exc:`TypeError`. To illustrate dictionary creation and equality,
+ the following examples all return a dictionary equal to
``{"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}``::
>>> a = dict(one=1, two=2, three=3)
@@ -4493,6 +5104,30 @@ can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.
Providing keyword arguments as in the first example only works for keys that
are valid Python identifiers. Otherwise, any valid keys can be used.
+ Dictionaries preserve insertion order. Note that updating a key does not
+ affect the order. Keys added after deletion are inserted at the end. ::
+
+ >>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
+ >>> d
+ {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
+ >>> list(d)
+ ['one', 'two', 'three', 'four']
+ >>> list(d.values())
+ [1, 2, 3, 4]
+ >>> d["one"] = 42
+ >>> d
+ {'one': 42, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
+ >>> del d["two"]
+ >>> d["two"] = None
+ >>> d
+ {'one': 42, 'three': 3, 'four': 4, 'two': None}
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+ Dictionary order is guaranteed to be insertion order. This behavior was
+ an implementation detail of CPython from 3.6.
+
+ Dictionaries are :ref:`generic <generics>` over two types, signifying
+ (respectively) the types of the dictionary's keys and values.
These are the operations that dictionaries support (and therefore, custom
mapping types should support too):
@@ -4512,13 +5147,13 @@ can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.
.. index:: __missing__()
- If a subclass of dict defines a method :meth:`__missing__` and *key*
+ If a subclass of dict defines a method :meth:`~object.__missing__` and *key*
is not present, the ``d[key]`` operation calls that method with the key *key*
as argument. The ``d[key]`` operation then returns or raises whatever is
returned or raised by the ``__missing__(key)`` call.
- No other operations or methods invoke :meth:`__missing__`. If
- :meth:`__missing__` is not defined, :exc:`KeyError` is raised.
- :meth:`__missing__` must be a method; it cannot be an instance variable::
+ No other operations or methods invoke :meth:`~object.__missing__`. If
+ :meth:`~object.__missing__` is not defined, :exc:`KeyError` is raised.
+ :meth:`~object.__missing__` must be a method; it cannot be an instance variable::
>>> class Counter(dict):
... def __missing__(self, key):
@@ -4532,7 +5167,8 @@ can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.
1
The example above shows part of the implementation of
- :class:`collections.Counter`. A different ``__missing__`` method is used
+ :class:`collections.Counter`.
+ A different :meth:`!__missing__` method is used
by :class:`collections.defaultdict`.
.. describe:: d[key] = value
@@ -4565,7 +5201,7 @@ can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.
Return a shallow copy of the dictionary.
- .. classmethod:: fromkeys(iterable[, value])
+ .. classmethod:: fromkeys(iterable, value=None, /)
Create a new dictionary with keys from *iterable* and values set to *value*.
@@ -4575,7 +5211,7 @@ can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.
such as an empty list. To get distinct values, use a :ref:`dict
comprehension <dict>` instead.
- .. method:: get(key[, default])
+ .. method:: get(key, default=None, /)
Return the value for *key* if *key* is in the dictionary, else *default*.
If *default* is not given, it defaults to ``None``, so that this method
@@ -4591,7 +5227,8 @@ can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.
Return a new view of the dictionary's keys. See the :ref:`documentation
of view objects <dict-views>`.
- .. method:: pop(key[, default])
+ .. method:: pop(key, /)
+ pop(key, default, /)
If *key* is in the dictionary, remove it and return its value, else return
*default*. If *default* is not given and *key* is not in the dictionary,
@@ -4617,21 +5254,24 @@ can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
- .. method:: setdefault(key[, default])
+ .. method:: setdefault(key, default=None, /)
If *key* is in the dictionary, return its value. If not, insert *key*
with a value of *default* and return *default*. *default* defaults to
``None``.
- .. method:: update([other])
+ .. method:: update(**kwargs)
+ update(mapping, /, **kwargs)
+ update(iterable, /, **kwargs)
- Update the dictionary with the key/value pairs from *other*, overwriting
+ Update the dictionary with the key/value pairs from *mapping* or *iterable* and *kwargs*, overwriting
existing keys. Return ``None``.
- :meth:`update` accepts either another dictionary object or an iterable of
- key/value pairs (as tuples or other iterables of length two). If keyword
- arguments are specified, the dictionary is then updated with those
- key/value pairs: ``d.update(red=1, blue=2)``.
+ :meth:`update` accepts either another object with a ``keys()`` method (in
+ which case :meth:`~object.__getitem__` is called with every key returned from
+ the method) or an iterable of key/value pairs (as tuples or other iterables
+ of length two). If keyword arguments are specified, the dictionary is then
+ updated with those key/value pairs: ``d.update(red=1, blue=2)``.
.. method:: values()
@@ -4662,32 +5302,6 @@ can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.
.. versionadded:: 3.9
- Dictionaries compare equal if and only if they have the same ``(key,
- value)`` pairs (regardless of ordering). Order comparisons ('<', '<=', '>=', '>') raise
- :exc:`TypeError`.
-
- Dictionaries preserve insertion order. Note that updating a key does not
- affect the order. Keys added after deletion are inserted at the end. ::
-
- >>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
- >>> d
- {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
- >>> list(d)
- ['one', 'two', 'three', 'four']
- >>> list(d.values())
- [1, 2, 3, 4]
- >>> d["one"] = 42
- >>> d
- {'one': 42, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
- >>> del d["two"]
- >>> d["two"] = None
- >>> d
- {'one': 42, 'three': 3, 'four': 4, 'two': None}
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.7
- Dictionary order is guaranteed to be insertion order. This behavior was
- an implementation detail of CPython from 3.6.
-
Dictionaries and dictionary views are reversible. ::
>>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
@@ -4860,9 +5474,11 @@ before the statement body is executed and exited when the statement ends:
Returning a true value from this method will cause the :keyword:`with` statement
to suppress the exception and continue execution with the statement immediately
following the :keyword:`!with` statement. Otherwise the exception continues
- propagating after this method has finished executing. Exceptions that occur
- during execution of this method will replace any exception that occurred in the
- body of the :keyword:`!with` statement.
+ propagating after this method has finished executing.
+
+ If this method raises an exception while handling an earlier exception from the
+ :keyword:`with` block, the new exception is raised, and the original exception
+ is stored in its :attr:`~BaseException.__context__` attribute.
The exception passed in should never be reraised explicitly - instead, this
method should return a false value to indicate that the method completed
@@ -4951,7 +5567,8 @@ type and the :class:`bytes` data type:
``GenericAlias`` objects are instances of the class
:class:`types.GenericAlias`, which can also be used to create ``GenericAlias``
-objects directly.
+objects directly. Specializations of user-defined :ref:`generic classes <generic-classes>`
+may not be instances of :class:`types.GenericAlias`, but they provide similar functionality.
.. describe:: T[X, Y, ...]
@@ -5000,6 +5617,15 @@ creation::
>>> type(l)
<class 'list'>
+
+Instances of ``GenericAlias`` are not classes at runtime, even though they behave like classes (they can be instantiated and subclassed)::
+
+ >>> import inspect
+ >>> inspect.isclass(list[int])
+ False
+
+This is true for :ref:`user-defined generics <user-defined-generics>` also.
+
Calling :func:`repr` or :func:`str` on a generic shows the parameterized type::
>>> repr(list[int])
@@ -5038,6 +5664,8 @@ list is non-exhaustive.
* :class:`set`
* :class:`frozenset`
* :class:`type`
+* :class:`asyncio.Future`
+* :class:`asyncio.Task`
* :class:`collections.deque`
* :class:`collections.defaultdict`
* :class:`collections.OrderedDict`
@@ -5181,7 +5809,7 @@ enables cleaner type hinting syntax compared to :data:`typing.Union`.
.. note::
- The ``|`` operand cannot be used at runtime to define unions where one or
+ The ``|`` operator cannot be used at runtime to define unions where one or
more members is a forward reference. For example, ``int | "Foo"``, where
``"Foo"`` is a reference to a class not yet defined, will fail at
runtime. For unions which include forward references, present the
@@ -5332,9 +5960,10 @@ Methods
.. index:: pair: object; method
-Methods are functions that are called using the attribute notation. There are
-two flavors: :ref:`built-in methods <builtin-methods>` (such as :meth:`append`
-on lists) and :ref:`class instance method <instance-methods>`.
+Methods are functions that are called using the attribute notation.
+There are two flavors: :ref:`built-in methods <builtin-methods>`
+(such as :meth:`~list.append` on lists)
+and :ref:`class instance methods <instance-methods>`.
Built-in methods are described with the types that support them.
If you access a method (a function defined in a class namespace) through an
@@ -5440,13 +6069,34 @@ It is written as ``None``.
The Ellipsis Object
-------------------
-This object is commonly used by slicing (see :ref:`slicings`). It supports no
-special operations. There is exactly one ellipsis object, named
+This object is commonly used to indicate that something is omitted.
+It supports no special operations. There is exactly one ellipsis object, named
:const:`Ellipsis` (a built-in name). ``type(Ellipsis)()`` produces the
:const:`Ellipsis` singleton.
It is written as ``Ellipsis`` or ``...``.
+In typical use, ``...`` as the ``Ellipsis`` object appears in a few different
+places, for instance:
+
+- In type annotations, such as :ref:`callable arguments <annotating-callables>`
+ or :ref:`tuple elements <annotating-tuples>`.
+
+- As the body of a function instead of a :ref:`pass statement <tut-pass>`.
+
+- In third-party libraries, such as `Numpy's slicing and striding
+ <https://numpy.org/doc/stable/user/basics.indexing.html#slicing-and-striding>`_.
+
+Python also uses three dots in ways that are not ``Ellipsis`` objects, for instance:
+
+- Doctest's :const:`ELLIPSIS <doctest.ELLIPSIS>`, as a pattern for missing content.
+
+- The default Python prompt of the :term:`interactive` shell when partial input is incomplete.
+
+Lastly, the Python documentation often uses three dots in conventional English
+usage to mean omitted content, even in code examples that also use them as the
+``Ellipsis``.
+
.. _bltin-notimplemented-object:
@@ -5481,22 +6131,6 @@ types, where they are relevant. Some of these are not reported by the
:func:`dir` built-in function.
-.. attribute:: object.__dict__
-
- A dictionary or other mapping object used to store an object's (writable)
- attributes.
-
-
-.. attribute:: instance.__class__
-
- The class to which a class instance belongs.
-
-
-.. attribute:: class.__bases__
-
- The tuple of base classes of a class object.
-
-
.. attribute:: definition.__name__
The name of the class, function, method, descriptor, or
@@ -5511,43 +6145,24 @@ types, where they are relevant. Some of these are not reported by the
.. versionadded:: 3.3
-.. attribute:: definition.__type_params__
-
- The :ref:`type parameters <type-params>` of generic classes, functions,
- and :ref:`type aliases <type-aliases>`.
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.12
-
-
-.. attribute:: class.__mro__
-
- This attribute is a tuple of classes that are considered when looking for
- base classes during method resolution.
+.. attribute:: definition.__module__
+ The name of the module in which a class or function was defined.
-.. method:: class.mro()
- This method can be overridden by a metaclass to customize the method
- resolution order for its instances. It is called at class instantiation, and
- its result is stored in :attr:`~class.__mro__`.
+.. attribute:: definition.__doc__
+ The documentation string of a class or function, or ``None`` if undefined.
-.. method:: class.__subclasses__
-
- Each class keeps a list of weak references to its immediate subclasses. This
- method returns a list of all those references still alive. The list is in
- definition order. Example::
-
- >>> int.__subclasses__()
- [<class 'bool'>, <enum 'IntEnum'>, <flag 'IntFlag'>, <class 're._constants._NamedIntConstant'>]
+.. attribute:: definition.__type_params__
-.. attribute:: class.__static_attributes__
+ The :ref:`type parameters <type-params>` of generic classes, functions,
+ and :ref:`type aliases <type-aliases>`. For classes and functions that
+ are not generic, this will be an empty tuple.
- A tuple containing names of attributes of this class which are accessed
- through ``self.X`` from any function in its body.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.12
- .. versionadded:: 3.13
.. _int_max_str_digits:
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/allocation.rst b/Doc/c-api/allocation.rst
index b3609c233156b6e..40e1ffe3ed09952 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/allocation.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/allocation.rst
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
.. _allocating-objects:
-Allocating Objects on the Heap
+Allocating objects on the heap
==============================
@@ -15,10 +15,8 @@ Allocating Objects on the Heap
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_Init(PyObject *op, PyTypeObject *type)
Initialize a newly allocated object *op* with its type and initial
- reference. Returns the initialized object. If *type* indicates that the
- object participates in the cyclic garbage detector, it is added to the
- detector's set of observed objects. Other fields of the object are not
- affected.
+ reference. Returns the initialized object. Other fields of the object are
+ not affected.
.. c:function:: PyVarObject* PyObject_InitVar(PyVarObject *op, PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size)
@@ -37,6 +35,10 @@ Allocating Objects on the Heap
The size of the memory allocation is determined from the
:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize` field of the type object.
+ Note that this function is unsuitable if *typeobj* has
+ :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` set. For such objects,
+ use :c:func:`PyObject_GC_New` instead.
+
.. c:macro:: PyObject_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size)
@@ -51,14 +53,9 @@ Allocating Objects on the Heap
fields into the same allocation decreases the number of allocations,
improving the memory management efficiency.
-
-.. c:function:: void PyObject_Del(void *op)
-
- Releases memory allocated to an object using :c:macro:`PyObject_New` or
- :c:macro:`PyObject_NewVar`. This is normally called from the
- :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc` handler specified in the object's type. The fields of
- the object should not be accessed after this call as the memory is no
- longer a valid Python object.
+ Note that this function is unsuitable if *typeobj* has
+ :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` set. For such objects,
+ use :c:func:`PyObject_GC_NewVar` instead.
.. c:var:: PyObject _Py_NoneStruct
@@ -70,6 +67,40 @@ Allocating Objects on the Heap
.. seealso::
- :c:func:`PyModule_Create`
+ :ref:`moduleobjects`
To allocate and create extension modules.
+
+Soft-deprecated aliases
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. soft-deprecated:: 3.10
+
+These are aliases to existing functions and macros.
+They exist solely for backwards compatibility.
+
+
+.. list-table::
+ :widths: auto
+ :header-rows: 1
+
+ * * Soft-deprecated alias
+ * Function
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyObject_NEW(type, typeobj)
+ * :c:macro:`PyObject_New`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyObject_NEW_VAR(type, typeobj, n)
+ * :c:macro:`PyObject_NewVar`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyObject_INIT(op, typeobj)
+ * :c:func:`PyObject_Init`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyObject_INIT_VAR(op, typeobj, n)
+ * :c:func:`PyObject_InitVar`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyObject_MALLOC(n)
+ * :c:func:`PyObject_Malloc`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyObject_REALLOC(p, n)
+ * :c:func:`PyObject_Realloc`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyObject_FREE(p)
+ * :c:func:`PyObject_Free`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyObject_DEL(p)
+ * :c:func:`PyObject_Free`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyObject_Del(p)
+ * :c:func:`PyObject_Free`
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/arg.rst b/Doc/c-api/arg.rst
index 834aae9372fe3bd..a3e76cadf5671c3 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/arg.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/arg.rst
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
Parsing arguments and building values
=====================================
-These functions are useful when creating your own extensions functions and
+These functions are useful when creating your own extension functions and
methods. Additional information and examples are available in
:ref:`extending-index`.
@@ -160,7 +160,7 @@ There are three ways strings and buffers can be converted to C:
``w*`` (read-write :term:`bytes-like object`) [Py_buffer]
This format accepts any object which implements the read-write buffer
interface. It fills a :c:type:`Py_buffer` structure provided by the caller.
- The buffer may contain embedded null bytes. The caller have to call
+ The buffer may contain embedded null bytes. The caller has to call
:c:func:`PyBuffer_Release` when it is done with the buffer.
``es`` (:class:`str`) [const char \*encoding, char \*\*buffer]
@@ -229,12 +229,24 @@ There are three ways strings and buffers can be converted to C:
Numbers
-------
+These formats allow representing Python numbers or single characters as C numbers.
+Formats that require :class:`int`, :class:`float` or :class:`complex` can
+also use the corresponding special methods :meth:`~object.__index__`,
+:meth:`~object.__float__` or :meth:`~object.__complex__` to convert
+the Python object to the required type.
+
+For signed integer formats, :exc:`OverflowError` is raised if the value
+is out of range for the C type.
+For unsigned integer formats, no range checking is done --- the
+most significant bits are silently truncated when the receiving field is too
+small to receive the value.
+
``b`` (:class:`int`) [unsigned char]
- Convert a nonnegative Python integer to an unsigned tiny int, stored in a C
+ Convert a nonnegative Python integer to an unsigned tiny integer, stored in a C
:c:expr:`unsigned char`.
``B`` (:class:`int`) [unsigned char]
- Convert a Python integer to a tiny int without overflow checking, stored in a C
+ Convert a Python integer to a tiny integer without overflow checking, stored in a C
:c:expr:`unsigned char`.
``h`` (:class:`int`) [short int]
@@ -280,10 +292,10 @@ Numbers
length 1, to a C :c:expr:`int`.
``f`` (:class:`float`) [float]
- Convert a Python floating point number to a C :c:expr:`float`.
+ Convert a Python floating-point number to a C :c:expr:`float`.
``d`` (:class:`float`) [double]
- Convert a Python floating point number to a C :c:expr:`double`.
+ Convert a Python floating-point number to a C :c:expr:`double`.
``D`` (:class:`complex`) [Py_complex]
Convert a Python complex number to a C :c:type:`Py_complex` structure.
@@ -307,7 +319,7 @@ Other objects
.. _o_ampersand:
-``O&`` (object) [*converter*, *anything*]
+``O&`` (object) [*converter*, *address*]
Convert a Python object to a C variable through a *converter* function. This
takes two arguments: the first is a function, the second is the address of a C
variable (of arbitrary type), converted to :c:expr:`void *`. The *converter*
@@ -321,14 +333,20 @@ Other objects
the conversion has failed. When the conversion fails, the *converter* function
should raise an exception and leave the content of *address* unmodified.
- If the *converter* returns ``Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED``, it may get called a
+ .. c:macro:: Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ If the *converter* returns :c:macro:`!Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED`, it may get called a
second time if the argument parsing eventually fails, giving the converter a
chance to release any memory that it had already allocated. In this second
call, the *object* parameter will be ``NULL``; *address* will have the same value
as in the original call.
+ Examples of converters: :c:func:`PyUnicode_FSConverter` and
+ :c:func:`PyUnicode_FSDecoder`.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.1
- ``Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED`` was added.
+ :c:macro:`!Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED` was added.
``p`` (:class:`bool`) [int]
Tests the value passed in for truth (a boolean **p**\ redicate) and converts
@@ -344,12 +362,6 @@ Other objects
in *items*. The C arguments must correspond to the individual format units in
*items*. Format units for sequences may be nested.
-It is possible to pass "long" integers (integers whose value exceeds the
-platform's :c:macro:`LONG_MAX`) however no proper range checking is done --- the
-most significant bits are silently truncated when the receiving field is too
-small to receive the value (actually, the semantics are inherited from downcasts
-in C --- your mileage may vary).
-
A few other characters have a meaning in a format string. These may not occur
inside nested parentheses. They are:
@@ -359,13 +371,18 @@ inside nested parentheses. They are:
their default value --- when an optional argument is not specified,
:c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` does not touch the contents of the corresponding C
variable(s).
+ For example, the format string ``"OO|OO"`` corresponds to the Python
+ signature ``f(a, b, c=None, d=None)``.
``$``
:c:func:`PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords` only:
Indicates that the remaining arguments in the Python argument list are
- keyword-only. Currently, all keyword-only arguments must also be optional
- arguments, so ``|`` must always be specified before ``$`` in the format
- string.
+ keyword-only.
+ They are optional if ``|`` was specified before ``$``, and required otherwise.
+ ``|`` cannot be specified after ``$``.
+ For example, the format string ``"O|O$O"`` corresponds to the Python
+ signature ``f(a, b=None, *, c=None)``,
+ and the format string ``"OO$OO"`` corresponds to ``f(a, b, *, c, d)``.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -627,6 +644,8 @@ Building values
``L`` (:class:`int`) [long long]
Convert a C :c:expr:`long long` to a Python integer object.
+ .. _capi-py-buildvalue-format-K:
+
``K`` (:class:`int`) [unsigned long long]
Convert a C :c:expr:`unsigned long long` to a Python integer object.
@@ -642,10 +661,10 @@ Building values
object of length 1.
``d`` (:class:`float`) [double]
- Convert a C :c:expr:`double` to a Python floating point number.
+ Convert a C :c:expr:`double` to a Python floating-point number.
``f`` (:class:`float`) [float]
- Convert a C :c:expr:`float` to a Python floating point number.
+ Convert a C :c:expr:`float` to a Python floating-point number.
``D`` (:class:`complex`) [Py_complex \*]
Convert a C :c:type:`Py_complex` structure to a Python complex number.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/buffer.rst b/Doc/c-api/buffer.rst
index 1e1cabdf242bd13..6bb72a2312be3bb 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/buffer.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/buffer.rst
@@ -26,17 +26,19 @@ characteristic of being backed by a possibly large memory buffer. It is
then desirable, in some situations, to access that buffer directly and
without intermediate copying.
-Python provides such a facility at the C level in the form of the :ref:`buffer
-protocol <bufferobjects>`. This protocol has two sides:
+Python provides such a facility at the C and Python level in the form of the
+:ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>`. This protocol has two sides:
.. index:: single: PyBufferProcs (C type)
- on the producer side, a type can export a "buffer interface" which allows
objects of that type to expose information about their underlying buffer.
- This interface is described in the section :ref:`buffer-structs`;
+ This interface is described in the section :ref:`buffer-structs`; for
+ Python see :ref:`python-buffer-protocol`.
- on the consumer side, several means are available to obtain a pointer to
- the raw underlying data of an object (for example a method parameter).
+ the raw underlying data of an object (for example a method parameter). For
+ Python see :class:`memoryview`.
Simple objects such as :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray` expose their
underlying buffer in byte-oriented form. Other forms are possible; for example,
@@ -62,6 +64,10 @@ In both cases, :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release` must be called when the buffer
isn't needed anymore. Failure to do so could lead to various issues such as
resource leaks.
+.. versionadded:: 3.12
+
+ The buffer protocol is now accessible in Python, see
+ :ref:`python-buffer-protocol` and :class:`memoryview`.
.. _buffer-structure:
@@ -147,9 +153,9 @@ a buffer, see :c:func:`PyObject_GetBuffer`.
or a :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE` request, the consumer must disregard
:c:member:`~Py_buffer.itemsize` and assume ``itemsize == 1``.
- .. c:member:: const char *format
+ .. c:member:: char *format
- A *NUL* terminated string in :mod:`struct` module style syntax describing
+ A *NULL* terminated string in :mod:`struct` module style syntax describing
the contents of a single item. If this is ``NULL``, ``"B"`` (unsigned bytes)
is assumed.
@@ -244,7 +250,6 @@ The following fields are not influenced by *flags* and must always be filled in
with the correct values: :c:member:`~Py_buffer.obj`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.buf`,
:c:member:`~Py_buffer.len`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.itemsize`, :c:member:`~Py_buffer.ndim`.
-
readonly, format
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
@@ -253,7 +258,12 @@ readonly, format
Controls the :c:member:`~Py_buffer.readonly` field. If set, the exporter
MUST provide a writable buffer or else report failure. Otherwise, the
exporter MAY provide either a read-only or writable buffer, but the choice
- MUST be consistent for all consumers.
+ MUST be consistent for all consumers. For example, :c:expr:`PyBUF_SIMPLE | PyBUF_WRITABLE`
+ can be used to request a simple writable buffer.
+
+ .. c:macro:: PyBUF_WRITEABLE
+
+ This is a :term:`soft deprecated` alias to :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE`.
.. c:macro:: PyBUF_FORMAT
@@ -265,8 +275,9 @@ readonly, format
Since :c:macro:`PyBUF_SIMPLE` is defined as 0, :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE`
can be used as a stand-alone flag to request a simple writable buffer.
-:c:macro:`PyBUF_FORMAT` can be \|'d to any of the flags except :c:macro:`PyBUF_SIMPLE`.
-The latter already implies format ``B`` (unsigned bytes).
+:c:macro:`PyBUF_FORMAT` must be \|'d to any of the flags except :c:macro:`PyBUF_SIMPLE`, because
+the latter already implies format ``B`` (unsigned bytes). :c:macro:`!PyBUF_FORMAT` cannot be
+used on its own.
shape, strides, suboffsets
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/bytearray.rst b/Doc/c-api/bytearray.rst
index 456f7d89bca03cd..ad7f97ddddb32a7 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/bytearray.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/bytearray.rst
@@ -12,6 +12,12 @@ Byte Array Objects
This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents a Python bytearray object.
+ .. impl-detail::
+
+ The internal buffer of :c:type:`PyByteArrayObject` always includes an
+ extra trailing null byte for compatibility with null terminated C
+ strings. This extra byte is not counted in :c:func:`PyByteArray_Size`
+ nor in the *len* arguments of the functions below.
.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyByteArray_Type
@@ -42,17 +48,22 @@ Direct API functions
Return a new bytearray object from any object, *o*, that implements the
:ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>`.
+ On failure, return ``NULL`` with an exception set.
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(const char *string, Py_ssize_t len)
- Create a new bytearray object from *string* and its length, *len*. On
- failure, ``NULL`` is returned.
+ Create a new bytearray object from *string* and its length, *len*.
+
+ On failure, return ``NULL`` with an exception set.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyByteArray_Concat(PyObject *a, PyObject *b)
Concat bytearrays *a* and *b* and return a new bytearray with the result.
+ On failure, return ``NULL`` with an exception set.
+
.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyByteArray_Size(PyObject *bytearray)
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/bytes.rst b/Doc/c-api/bytes.rst
index bca78a9c369385a..d0aa04cd4f02581 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/bytes.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/bytes.rst
@@ -8,6 +8,13 @@ Bytes Objects
These functions raise :exc:`TypeError` when expecting a bytes parameter and
called with a non-bytes parameter.
+.. impl-detail::
+
+ The internal buffer of :c:type:`PyBytesObject` always includes an extra
+ trailing null byte for compatibility with null terminated C strings.
+ This extra byte is not counted in :c:func:`PyBytes_Size` nor in the
+ various *length* and *size* arguments of the functions below.
+
.. index:: pair: object; bytes
@@ -176,10 +183,11 @@ called with a non-bytes parameter.
.. c:function:: void PyBytes_Concat(PyObject **bytes, PyObject *newpart)
Create a new bytes object in *\*bytes* containing the contents of *newpart*
- appended to *bytes*; the caller will own the new reference. The reference to
- the old value of *bytes* will be stolen. If the new object cannot be
- created, the old reference to *bytes* will still be discarded and the value
- of *\*bytes* will be set to ``NULL``; the appropriate exception will be set.
+ appended to *bytes*; the caller will own the new reference.
+ The reference to the old value of *bytes* will be ":term:`stolen <steal>`".
+ If the new object cannot be created, the old reference to *bytes* will still
+ be "stolen", the value of *\*bytes* will be set to ``NULL``, and
+ the appropriate exception will be set.
.. c:function:: void PyBytes_ConcatAndDel(PyObject **bytes, PyObject *newpart)
@@ -201,3 +209,38 @@ called with a non-bytes parameter.
reallocation fails, the original bytes object at *\*bytes* is deallocated,
*\*bytes* is set to ``NULL``, :exc:`MemoryError` is set, and ``-1`` is
returned.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyBytes_Repr(PyObject *bytes, int smartquotes)
+
+ Get the string representation of *bytes*. This function is currently used to
+ implement :meth:`!bytes.__repr__` in Python.
+
+ This function does not do type checking; it is undefined behavior to pass
+ *bytes* as a non-bytes object or ``NULL``.
+
+ If *smartquotes* is true, the representation will use a double-quoted string
+ instead of single-quoted string when single-quotes are present in *bytes*.
+ For example, the byte string ``'Python'`` would be represented as
+ ``b"'Python'"`` when *smartquotes* is true, or ``b'\'Python\''`` when it is
+ false.
+
+ On success, this function returns a :term:`strong reference` to a
+ :class:`str` object containing the representation. On failure, this
+ returns ``NULL`` with an exception set.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyBytes_DecodeEscape(const char *s, Py_ssize_t len, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t unicode, const char *recode_encoding)
+
+ Unescape a backslash-escaped string *s*. *s* must not be ``NULL``.
+ *len* must be the size of *s*.
+
+ *errors* must be one of ``"strict"``, ``"replace"``, or ``"ignore"``. If
+ *errors* is ``NULL``, then ``"strict"`` is used by default.
+
+ On success, this function returns a :term:`strong reference` to a Python
+ :class:`bytes` object containing the unescaped string. On failure, this
+ function returns ``NULL`` with an exception set.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.9
+ *unicode* and *recode_encoding* are now unused.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/call.rst b/Doc/c-api/call.rst
index 7198d6bc056eb43..9838879a528934a 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/call.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/call.rst
@@ -347,6 +347,8 @@ please see individual documentation for details.
.. versionadded:: 3.9
+.. c:function:: PyObject* _PyObject_Vectorcall(PyObject *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject *kwnames)
+ :no-typesetting:
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_Vectorcall(PyObject *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject *kwnames)
@@ -358,7 +360,12 @@ please see individual documentation for details.
Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return
*NULL* on failure.
- .. versionadded:: 3.9
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8 as ``_PyObject_Vectorcall``
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.9
+
+ Renamed to the current name, without the leading underscore.
+ The old provisional name is :term:`soft deprecated`.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_VectorcallDict(PyObject *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject *kwdict)
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/capsule.rst b/Doc/c-api/capsule.rst
index cdb8aa33e9fd325..03a848d68ed7aba 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/capsule.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/capsule.rst
@@ -15,13 +15,19 @@ Refer to :ref:`using-capsules` for more information on using these objects.
.. c:type:: PyCapsule
This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents an opaque value, useful for C
- extension modules who need to pass an opaque value (as a :c:expr:`void*`
+ extension modules which need to pass an opaque value (as a :c:expr:`void*`
pointer) through Python code to other C code. It is often used to make a C
function pointer defined in one module available to other modules, so the
regular import mechanism can be used to access C APIs defined in dynamically
loaded modules.
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyCapsule_Type
+
+ The type object corresponding to capsule objects. This is the same object
+ as :class:`types.CapsuleType` in the Python layer.
+
+
.. c:type:: PyCapsule_Destructor
The type of a destructor callback for a capsule. Defined as::
@@ -105,9 +111,19 @@ Refer to :ref:`using-capsules` for more information on using these objects.
``module.attribute``. The *name* stored in the capsule must match this
string exactly.
+ This function splits *name* on the ``.`` character, and imports the first
+ element. It then processes further elements using attribute lookups.
+
Return the capsule's internal *pointer* on success. On failure, set an
exception and return ``NULL``.
+ .. note::
+
+ If *name* points to an attribute of some submodule or subpackage, this
+ submodule or subpackage must be previously imported using other means
+ (for example, by using :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule`) for the
+ attribute lookups to succeed.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
*no_block* has no effect anymore.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/cell.rst b/Doc/c-api/cell.rst
index f8cd0344fdd1c0c..2501ed9580df898 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/cell.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/cell.rst
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ Cell Objects
"Cell" objects are used to implement variables referenced by multiple scopes.
For each such variable, a cell object is created to store the value; the local
-variables of each stack frame that references the value contains a reference to
+variables of each stack frame that references the value contain a reference to
the cells from outer scopes which also use that variable. When the value is
accessed, the value contained in the cell is used instead of the cell object
itself. This de-referencing of the cell object requires support from the
@@ -39,7 +39,8 @@ Cell objects are not likely to be useful elsewhere.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCell_Get(PyObject *cell)
- Return the contents of the cell *cell*.
+ Return the contents of the cell *cell*, which can be ``NULL``.
+ If *cell* is not a cell object, returns ``NULL`` with an exception set.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyCell_GET(PyObject *cell)
@@ -52,8 +53,10 @@ Cell objects are not likely to be useful elsewhere.
Set the contents of the cell object *cell* to *value*. This releases the
reference to any current content of the cell. *value* may be ``NULL``. *cell*
- must be non-``NULL``; if it is not a cell object, ``-1`` will be returned. On
- success, ``0`` will be returned.
+ must be non-``NULL``.
+
+ On success, return ``0``.
+ If *cell* is not a cell object, set an exception and return ``-1``.
.. c:function:: void PyCell_SET(PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/code.rst b/Doc/c-api/code.rst
index 968c472219c6431..c461ab936f6e69c 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/code.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/code.rst
@@ -32,11 +32,13 @@ bound into a function.
.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyCode_GetNumFree(PyCodeObject *co)
- Return the number of free variables in a code object.
+ Return the number of :term:`free (closure) variables <closure variable>`
+ in a code object.
.. c:function:: int PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree(PyCodeObject *co)
- Return the position of the first free variable in a code object.
+ Return the position of the first :term:`free (closure) variable <closure variable>`
+ in a code object.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
@@ -67,13 +69,14 @@ bound into a function.
The old name is deprecated, but will remain available until the
signature changes again.
+.. c:function:: PyCodeObject* PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs(...)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
.. c:function:: PyCodeObject* PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs(int argcount, int posonlyargcount, int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int stacksize, int flags, PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject *varnames, PyObject *freevars, PyObject *cellvars, PyObject *filename, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname, int firstlineno, PyObject *linetable, PyObject *exceptiontable)
Similar to :c:func:`PyUnstable_Code_New`, but with an extra "posonlyargcount" for positional-only arguments.
The same caveats that apply to ``PyUnstable_Code_New`` also apply to this function.
- .. index:: single: PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (C function)
-
.. versionadded:: 3.8 as ``PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs``
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
@@ -96,8 +99,8 @@ bound into a function.
Return the line number of the instruction that occurs on or before ``byte_offset`` and ends after it.
If you just need the line number of a frame, use :c:func:`PyFrame_GetLineNumber` instead.
- For efficiently iterating over the line numbers in a code object, use `the API described in PEP 626
- <https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers>`_.
+ For efficiently iterating over the line numbers in a code object, use :pep:`the API described in PEP 626
+ <0626#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers>`.
.. c:function:: int PyCode_Addr2Location(PyObject *co, int byte_offset, int *start_line, int *start_column, int *end_line, int *end_column)
@@ -144,7 +147,8 @@ bound into a function.
Equivalent to the Python code ``getattr(co, 'co_freevars')``.
Returns a new reference to a :c:type:`PyTupleObject` containing the names of
- the free variables. On error, ``NULL`` is returned and an exception is raised.
+ the :term:`free (closure) variables <closure variable>`. On error, ``NULL`` is returned
+ and an exception is raised.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
@@ -179,7 +183,7 @@ bound into a function.
Type of a code object watcher callback function.
If *event* is ``PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE``, then the callback is invoked
- after `co` has been fully initialized. Otherwise, the callback is invoked
+ after *co* has been fully initialized. Otherwise, the callback is invoked
before the destruction of *co* takes place, so the prior state of *co*
can be inspected.
@@ -208,6 +212,78 @@ bound into a function.
.. versionadded:: 3.12
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyCode_Optimize(PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject *lnotab_obj)
+
+ This is a :term:`soft deprecated` function that does nothing.
+
+ Prior to Python 3.10, this function would perform basic optimizations to a
+ code object.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ This function now does nothing.
+
+
+.. _c_codeobject_flags:
+
+Code Object Flags
+-----------------
+
+Code objects contain a bit-field of flags, which can be retrieved as the
+:attr:`~codeobject.co_flags` Python attribute (for example using
+:c:func:`PyObject_GetAttrString`), and set using a *flags* argument to
+:c:func:`PyUnstable_Code_New` and similar functions.
+
+Flags whose names start with ``CO_FUTURE_`` correspond to features normally
+selectable by :ref:`future statements <future>`. These flags can be used in
+:c:member:`PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags`.
+Note that many ``CO_FUTURE_`` flags are mandatory in current versions of
+Python, and setting them has no effect.
+
+The following flags are available.
+For their meaning, see the linked documentation of their Python equivalents.
+
+
+.. list-table::
+ :widths: auto
+ :header-rows: 1
+
+ * * Flag
+ * Meaning
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_OPTIMIZED
+ * :py:data:`inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED`
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_NEWLOCALS
+ * :py:data:`inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS`
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_VARARGS
+ * :py:data:`inspect.CO_VARARGS`
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_VARKEYWORDS
+ * :py:data:`inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS`
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_NESTED
+ * :py:data:`inspect.CO_NESTED`
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_GENERATOR
+ * :py:data:`inspect.CO_GENERATOR`
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_COROUTINE
+ * :py:data:`inspect.CO_COROUTINE`
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE
+ * :py:data:`inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE`
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR
+ * :py:data:`inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR`
+
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_FUTURE_DIVISION
+ * no effect (:py:data:`__future__.division`)
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_FUTURE_ABSOLUTE_IMPORT
+ * no effect (:py:data:`__future__.absolute_import`)
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_FUTURE_WITH_STATEMENT
+ * no effect (:py:data:`__future__.with_statement`)
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_FUTURE_PRINT_FUNCTION
+ * no effect (:py:data:`__future__.print_function`)
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_FUTURE_UNICODE_LITERALS
+ * no effect (:py:data:`__future__.unicode_literals`)
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_FUTURE_GENERATOR_STOP
+ * no effect (:py:data:`__future__.generator_stop`)
+ * * .. c:macro:: CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS
+ * :py:data:`__future__.annotations`
+
+
Extra information
-----------------
@@ -219,9 +295,12 @@ These functions are part of the unstable C API tier:
this functionality is a CPython implementation detail, and the API
may change without deprecation warnings.
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t _PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex(freefunc free)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex(freefunc free)
- Return a new an opaque index value used to adding data to code objects.
+ Return a new opaque index value used to adding data to code objects.
You generally call this function once (per interpreter) and use the result
with ``PyCode_GetExtra`` and ``PyCode_SetExtra`` to manipulate
@@ -231,8 +310,6 @@ may change without deprecation warnings.
*free* will be called on non-``NULL`` data stored under the new index.
Use :c:func:`Py_DecRef` when storing :c:type:`PyObject`.
- .. index:: single: _PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (C function)
-
.. versionadded:: 3.6 as ``_PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex``
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
@@ -241,6 +318,9 @@ may change without deprecation warnings.
The old private name is deprecated, but will be available until the API
changes.
+.. c:function:: int _PyCode_GetExtra(PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t index, void **extra)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
.. c:function:: int PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra(PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t index, void **extra)
Set *extra* to the extra data stored under the given index.
@@ -249,8 +329,6 @@ may change without deprecation warnings.
If no data was set under the index, set *extra* to ``NULL`` and return
0 without setting an exception.
- .. index:: single: _PyCode_GetExtra (C function)
-
.. versionadded:: 3.6 as ``_PyCode_GetExtra``
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
@@ -259,13 +337,14 @@ may change without deprecation warnings.
The old private name is deprecated, but will be available until the API
changes.
+.. c:function:: int _PyCode_SetExtra(PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t index, void *extra)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
.. c:function:: int PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra(PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t index, void *extra)
Set the extra data stored under the given index to *extra*.
Return 0 on success. Set an exception and return -1 on failure.
- .. index:: single: _PyCode_SetExtra (C function)
-
.. versionadded:: 3.6 as ``_PyCode_SetExtra``
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/codec.rst b/Doc/c-api/codec.rst
index 8ae5c4fecd6248f..35ee048bd5fa9f5 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/codec.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/codec.rst
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ Codec registry and support functions
Register a new codec search function.
- As side effect, this tries to load the :mod:`!encodings` package, if not yet
+ As a side effect, this tries to load the :mod:`!encodings` package, if not yet
done, to make sure that it is always first in the list of search functions.
.. c:function:: int PyCodec_Unregister(PyObject *search_function)
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ Codec registry and support functions
*object* is passed through the decoder function found for the given
*encoding* using the error handling method defined by *errors*. *errors* may
be ``NULL`` to use the default method defined for the codec. Raises a
- :exc:`LookupError` if no encoder can be found.
+ :exc:`LookupError` if no decoder can be found.
Codec lookup API
@@ -129,3 +129,13 @@ Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers
Replace the unicode encode error with ``\N{...}`` escapes.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+Codec utility variables
+-----------------------
+
+.. c:var:: const char *Py_hexdigits
+
+ A string constant containing the lowercase hexadecimal digits: ``"0123456789abcdef"``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/complex.rst b/Doc/c-api/complex.rst
index 5a0474869071d94..67d0c5f144e0753 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/complex.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/complex.rst
@@ -25,12 +25,16 @@ pointers. This is consistent throughout the API.
The C structure which corresponds to the value portion of a Python complex
number object. Most of the functions for dealing with complex number objects
- use structures of this type as input or output values, as appropriate. It is
- defined as::
+ use structures of this type as input or output values, as appropriate.
+
+ .. c:member:: double real
+ double imag
+
+ The structure is defined as::
typedef struct {
- double real;
- double imag;
+ double real;
+ double imag;
} Py_complex;
@@ -106,11 +110,13 @@ Complex Numbers as Python Objects
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyComplex_FromCComplex(Py_complex v)
Create a new Python complex number object from a C :c:type:`Py_complex` value.
+ Return ``NULL`` with an exception set on error.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyComplex_FromDoubles(double real, double imag)
Return a new :c:type:`PyComplexObject` object from *real* and *imag*.
+ Return ``NULL`` with an exception set on error.
.. c:function:: double PyComplex_RealAsDouble(PyObject *op)
@@ -121,7 +127,9 @@ Complex Numbers as Python Objects
:meth:`~object.__complex__` method, this method will first be called to
convert *op* to a Python complex number object. If :meth:`!__complex__` is
not defined then it falls back to call :c:func:`PyFloat_AsDouble` and
- returns its result. Upon failure, this method returns ``-1.0``, so one
+ returns its result.
+
+ Upon failure, this method returns ``-1.0`` with an exception set, so one
should call :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to check for errors.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
@@ -135,8 +143,10 @@ Complex Numbers as Python Objects
:meth:`~object.__complex__` method, this method will first be called to
convert *op* to a Python complex number object. If :meth:`!__complex__` is
not defined then it falls back to call :c:func:`PyFloat_AsDouble` and
- returns ``0.0`` on success. Upon failure, this method returns ``-1.0``, so
- one should call :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to check for errors.
+ returns ``0.0`` on success.
+
+ Upon failure, this method returns ``-1.0`` with an exception set, so one
+ should call :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to check for errors.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
Use :meth:`~object.__complex__` if available.
@@ -149,8 +159,11 @@ Complex Numbers as Python Objects
method, this method will first be called to convert *op* to a Python complex
number object. If :meth:`!__complex__` is not defined then it falls back to
:meth:`~object.__float__`. If :meth:`!__float__` is not defined then it falls back
- to :meth:`~object.__index__`. Upon failure, this method returns ``-1.0`` as a real
- value.
+ to :meth:`~object.__index__`.
+
+ Upon failure, this method returns :c:type:`Py_complex`
+ with :c:member:`~Py_complex.real` set to ``-1.0`` and with an exception set, so one
+ should call :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to check for errors.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
Use :meth:`~object.__index__` if available.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/concrete.rst b/Doc/c-api/concrete.rst
index 880f7b15ce68e82..1746fe95eaaca93 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/concrete.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/concrete.rst
@@ -109,11 +109,20 @@ Other Objects
descriptor.rst
slice.rst
memoryview.rst
+ picklebuffer.rst
weakref.rst
capsule.rst
frame.rst
gen.rst
coro.rst
contextvars.rst
- datetime.rst
typehints.rst
+
+
+C API for extension modules
+===========================
+
+.. toctree::
+
+ curses.rst
+ datetime.rst
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/conversion.rst b/Doc/c-api/conversion.rst
index 4aaf3905e81c8a6..f91ca221090febb 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/conversion.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/conversion.rst
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ The return value (*rv*) for these functions should be interpreted as follows:
``rv + 1`` bytes would have been needed to succeed. ``str[size-1]`` is ``'\0'``
in this case.
-* When ``rv < 0``, "something bad happened." ``str[size-1]`` is ``'\0'`` in
+* When ``rv < 0``, the output conversion failed and ``str[size-1]`` is ``'\0'`` in
this case too, but the rest of *str* is undefined. The exact cause of the error
depends on the underlying platform.
@@ -128,22 +128,46 @@ The following functions provide locale-independent string to number conversions.
must be 0 and is ignored. The ``'r'`` format code specifies the
standard :func:`repr` format.
- *flags* can be zero or more of the values ``Py_DTSF_SIGN``,
- ``Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0``, or ``Py_DTSF_ALT``, or-ed together:
+ *flags* can be zero or more of the following values or-ed together:
- * ``Py_DTSF_SIGN`` means to always precede the returned string with a sign
- character, even if *val* is non-negative.
+ .. c:namespace:: NULL
- * ``Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0`` means to ensure that the returned string will not look
- like an integer.
+ .. c:macro:: Py_DTSF_SIGN
- * ``Py_DTSF_ALT`` means to apply "alternate" formatting rules. See the
- documentation for the :c:func:`PyOS_snprintf` ``'#'`` specifier for
- details.
+ Always precede the returned string with a sign
+ character, even if *val* is non-negative.
- If *ptype* is non-``NULL``, then the value it points to will be set to one of
- ``Py_DTST_FINITE``, ``Py_DTST_INFINITE``, or ``Py_DTST_NAN``, signifying that
- *val* is a finite number, an infinite number, or not a number, respectively.
+ .. c:macro:: Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0
+
+ Ensure that the returned string will not look like an integer.
+
+ .. c:macro:: Py_DTSF_ALT
+
+ Apply "alternate" formatting rules.
+ See the documentation for the :c:func:`PyOS_snprintf` ``'#'`` specifier for
+ details.
+
+ .. c:macro:: Py_DTSF_NO_NEG_0
+
+ Negative zero is converted to positive zero.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.11
+
+ If *ptype* is non-``NULL``, then the value it points to will be set to one
+ of the following constants depending on the type of *val*:
+
+ .. list-table::
+ :header-rows: 1
+ :align: left
+
+ * - *\*ptype*
+ - type of *val*
+ * - .. c:macro:: Py_DTST_FINITE
+ - finite number
+ * - .. c:macro:: Py_DTST_INFINITE
+ - infinite number
+ * - .. c:macro:: Py_DTST_NAN
+ - not a number
The return value is a pointer to *buffer* with the converted string or
``NULL`` if the conversion failed. The caller is responsible for freeing the
@@ -152,13 +176,85 @@ The following functions provide locale-independent string to number conversions.
.. versionadded:: 3.1
-.. c:function:: int PyOS_stricmp(const char *s1, const char *s2)
+.. c:function:: int PyOS_mystricmp(const char *str1, const char *str2)
+ int PyOS_mystrnicmp(const char *str1, const char *str2, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+ Case insensitive comparison of strings. These functions work almost
+ identically to :c:func:`!strcmp` and :c:func:`!strncmp` (respectively),
+ except that they ignore the case of ASCII characters.
+
+ Return ``0`` if the strings are equal, a negative value if *str1* sorts
+ lexicographically before *str2*, or a positive value if it sorts after.
+
+ In the *str1* or *str2* arguments, a NUL byte marks the end of the string.
+ For :c:func:`!PyOS_mystrnicmp`, the *size* argument gives the maximum size
+ of the string, as if NUL was present at the index given by *size*.
+
+ These functions do not use the locale.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyOS_stricmp(const char *str1, const char *str2)
+ int PyOS_strnicmp(const char *str1, const char *str2, Py_ssize_t size)
+
+ Case insensitive comparison of strings.
+
+ On Windows, these are aliases of :c:func:`!stricmp` and :c:func:`!strnicmp`,
+ respectively.
+
+ On other platforms, they are aliases of :c:func:`PyOS_mystricmp` and
+ :c:func:`PyOS_mystrnicmp`, respectively.
+
+
+Character classification and conversion
+=======================================
+
+The following macros provide locale-independent (unlike the C standard library
+``ctype.h``) character classification and conversion.
+The argument must be a signed or unsigned :c:expr:`char`.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_ISALNUM(c)
+
+ Return true if the character *c* is an alphanumeric character.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_ISALPHA(c)
+
+ Return true if the character *c* is an alphabetic character (``a-z`` and ``A-Z``).
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_ISDIGIT(c)
+
+ Return true if the character *c* is a decimal digit (``0-9``).
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_ISLOWER(c)
+
+ Return true if the character *c* is a lowercase ASCII letter (``a-z``).
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_ISUPPER(c)
+
+ Return true if the character *c* is an uppercase ASCII letter (``A-Z``).
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_ISSPACE(c)
+
+ Return true if the character *c* is a whitespace character (space, tab,
+ carriage return, newline, vertical tab, or form feed).
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_ISXDIGIT(c)
+
+ Return true if the character *c* is a hexadecimal digit (``0-9``, ``a-f``, and
+ ``A-F``).
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_TOLOWER(c)
- Case insensitive comparison of strings. The function works almost
- identically to :c:func:`!strcmp` except that it ignores the case.
+ Return the lowercase equivalent of the character *c*.
-.. c:function:: int PyOS_strnicmp(const char *s1, const char *s2, Py_ssize_t size)
+.. c:macro:: Py_TOUPPER(c)
- Case insensitive comparison of strings. The function works almost
- identically to :c:func:`!strncmp` except that it ignores the case.
+ Return the uppercase equivalent of the character *c*.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/curses.rst b/Doc/c-api/curses.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..5a1697c43cc969d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/c-api/curses.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+.. highlight:: c
+
+Curses C API
+------------
+
+:mod:`curses` exposes a small C interface for extension modules.
+Consumers must include the header file :file:`py_curses.h` (which is not
+included by default by :file:`Python.h`) and :c:func:`import_curses` must
+be invoked, usually as part of the module initialisation function, to populate
+:c:var:`PyCurses_API`.
+
+.. warning::
+
+ Neither the C API nor the pure Python :mod:`curses` module are compatible
+ with subinterpreters.
+
+.. c:macro:: import_curses()
+
+ Import the curses C API. The macro does not need a semi-colon to be called.
+
+ On success, populate the :c:var:`PyCurses_API` pointer.
+
+ On failure, set :c:var:`PyCurses_API` to NULL and set an exception.
+ The caller must check if an error occurred via :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred`:
+
+ .. code-block::
+
+ import_curses(); // semi-colon is optional but recommended
+ if (PyErr_Occurred()) { /* cleanup */ }
+
+
+.. c:var:: void **PyCurses_API
+
+ Dynamically allocated object containing the curses C API.
+ This variable is only available once :c:macro:`import_curses` succeeds.
+
+ ``PyCurses_API[0]`` corresponds to :c:data:`PyCursesWindow_Type`.
+
+ ``PyCurses_API[1]``, ``PyCurses_API[2]``, and ``PyCurses_API[3]``
+ are pointers to predicate functions of type ``int (*)(void)``.
+
+ When called, these predicates return whether :func:`curses.setupterm`,
+ :func:`curses.initscr`, and :func:`curses.start_color` have been called
+ respectively.
+
+ See also the convenience macros :c:macro:`PyCursesSetupTermCalled`,
+ :c:macro:`PyCursesInitialised`, and :c:macro:`PyCursesInitialisedColor`.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ The number of entries in this structure is subject to changes.
+ Consider using :c:macro:`PyCurses_API_pointers` to check if
+ new fields are available or not.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: PyCurses_API_pointers
+
+ The number of accessible fields (``4``) in :c:var:`PyCurses_API`.
+ This number is incremented whenever new fields are added.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyCursesWindow_Type
+
+ The :ref:`heap type <heap-types>` corresponding to :class:`curses.window`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCursesWindow_Check(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return true if *op* is a :class:`curses.window` instance, false otherwise.
+
+
+The following macros are convenience macros expanding into C statements.
+In particular, they can only be used as ``macro;`` or ``macro``, but not
+``macro()`` or ``macro();``.
+
+.. c:macro:: PyCursesSetupTermCalled
+
+ Macro checking if :func:`curses.setupterm` has been called.
+
+ The macro expansion is roughly equivalent to:
+
+ .. code-block::
+
+ {
+ typedef int (*predicate_t)(void);
+ predicate_t was_setupterm_called = (predicate_t)PyCurses_API[1];
+ if (!was_setupterm_called()) {
+ return NULL;
+ }
+ }
+
+
+.. c:macro:: PyCursesInitialised
+
+ Macro checking if :func:`curses.initscr` has been called.
+
+ The macro expansion is roughly equivalent to:
+
+ .. code-block::
+
+ {
+ typedef int (*predicate_t)(void);
+ predicate_t was_initscr_called = (predicate_t)PyCurses_API[2];
+ if (!was_initscr_called()) {
+ return NULL;
+ }
+ }
+
+
+.. c:macro:: PyCursesInitialisedColor
+
+ Macro checking if :func:`curses.start_color` has been called.
+
+ The macro expansion is roughly equivalent to:
+
+ .. code-block::
+
+ {
+ typedef int (*predicate_t)(void);
+ predicate_t was_start_color_called = (predicate_t)PyCurses_API[3];
+ if (!was_start_color_called()) {
+ return NULL;
+ }
+ }
+
+
+Internal data
+-------------
+
+The following objects are exposed by the C API but should be considered
+internal-only.
+
+.. c:macro:: PyCurses_CAPSULE_NAME
+
+ Name of the curses capsule to pass to :c:func:`PyCapsule_Import`.
+
+ Internal usage only. Use :c:macro:`import_curses` instead.
+
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/datetime.rst b/Doc/c-api/datetime.rst
index 97522da773477e8..127d7c9c91a3d5f 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/datetime.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/datetime.rst
@@ -8,11 +8,42 @@ DateTime Objects
Various date and time objects are supplied by the :mod:`datetime` module.
Before using any of these functions, the header file :file:`datetime.h` must be
included in your source (note that this is not included by :file:`Python.h`),
-and the macro :c:macro:`!PyDateTime_IMPORT` must be invoked, usually as part of
+and the macro :c:macro:`PyDateTime_IMPORT` must be invoked, usually as part of
the module initialisation function. The macro puts a pointer to a C structure
-into a static variable, :c:data:`!PyDateTimeAPI`, that is used by the following
+into a static variable, :c:data:`PyDateTimeAPI`, that is used by the following
macros.
+.. c:macro:: PyDateTime_IMPORT()
+
+ Import the datetime C API.
+
+ On success, populate the :c:var:`PyDateTimeAPI` pointer.
+ On failure, set :c:var:`PyDateTimeAPI` to ``NULL`` and set an exception.
+ The caller must check if an error occurred via :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred`:
+
+ .. code-block::
+
+ PyDateTime_IMPORT;
+ if (PyErr_Occurred()) { /* cleanup */ }
+
+ .. warning::
+
+ This is not compatible with subinterpreters.
+
+.. c:type:: PyDateTime_CAPI
+
+ Structure containing the fields for the datetime C API.
+
+ The fields of this structure are private and subject to change.
+
+ Do not use this directly; prefer ``PyDateTime_*`` APIs instead.
+
+.. c:var:: PyDateTime_CAPI *PyDateTimeAPI
+
+ Dynamically allocated object containing the datetime C API.
+
+ This variable is only available once :c:macro:`PyDateTime_IMPORT` succeeds.
+
.. c:type:: PyDateTime_Date
This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents a Python date object.
@@ -46,7 +77,7 @@ macros.
.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyDateTime_DeltaType
- This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents Python type for
+ This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python type for
the difference between two datetime values;
it is the same object as :class:`datetime.timedelta` in the Python layer.
@@ -318,10 +349,23 @@ Macros for the convenience of modules implementing the DB API:
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDateTime_FromTimestamp(PyObject *args)
Create and return a new :class:`datetime.datetime` object given an argument
- tuple suitable for passing to :meth:`datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp()`.
+ tuple suitable for passing to :meth:`datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp`.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDate_FromTimestamp(PyObject *args)
Create and return a new :class:`datetime.date` object given an argument
- tuple suitable for passing to :meth:`datetime.date.fromtimestamp()`.
+ tuple suitable for passing to :meth:`datetime.date.fromtimestamp`.
+
+
+Internal data
+-------------
+
+The following symbols are exposed by the C API but should be considered
+internal-only.
+
+.. c:macro:: PyDateTime_CAPSULE_NAME
+
+ Name of the datetime capsule to pass to :c:func:`PyCapsule_Import`.
+
+ Internal usage only. Use :c:macro:`PyDateTime_IMPORT` instead.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/descriptor.rst b/Doc/c-api/descriptor.rst
index b32c113e5f04573..813741f3eda51a5 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/descriptor.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/descriptor.rst
@@ -8,8 +8,6 @@ Descriptor Objects
"Descriptors" are objects that describe some attribute of an object. They are
found in the dictionary of type objects.
-.. XXX document these!
-
.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyProperty_Type
The type object for the built-in descriptor types.
@@ -17,24 +15,178 @@ found in the dictionary of type objects.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewGetSet(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyGetSetDef *getset)
+ Create a new get-set descriptor for extension type *type* from the
+ :c:type:`PyGetSetDef` structure *getset*.
+
+ Get-set descriptors expose attributes implemented by C getter and setter
+ functions rather than stored directly in the instance. This is the same kind
+ of descriptor created for entries in :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_getset`, and
+ it appears in Python as a :class:`types.GetSetDescriptorType` object.
+
+ On success, return a :term:`strong reference` to the descriptor. Return
+ ``NULL`` with an exception set on failure.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewMember(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyMemberDef *member)
+
+ Create a new member descriptor for extension type *type* from the
+ :c:type:`PyMemberDef` structure *member*.
+
+ Member descriptors expose fields in the type's C struct as Python
+ attributes. This is the same kind of descriptor created for entries in
+ :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_members`, and it appears in Python as a
+ :class:`types.MemberDescriptorType` object.
+
+ On success, return a :term:`strong reference` to the descriptor. Return
+ ``NULL`` with an exception set on failure.
-.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewMember(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyMemberDef *meth)
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyMemberDescr_Type
+
+ The type object for member descriptor objects created from
+ :c:type:`PyMemberDef` structures. These descriptors expose fields of a
+ C struct as attributes on a type, and correspond
+ to :class:`types.MemberDescriptorType` objects in Python.
+
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyGetSetDescr_Type
+
+ The type object for get/set descriptor objects created from
+ :c:type:`PyGetSetDef` structures. These descriptors implement attributes
+ whose value is computed by C getter and setter functions, and are used
+ for many built-in type attributes. They correspond to
+ :class:`types.GetSetDescriptorType` objects in Python.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewMethod(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyMethodDef *meth)
+ Create a new method descriptor for extension type *type* from the
+ :c:type:`PyMethodDef` structure *meth*.
+
+ Method descriptors expose C functions as methods on a type. This is the same
+ kind of descriptor created for entries in
+ :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_methods`, and it appears in Python as a
+ :class:`types.MethodDescriptorType` object.
+
+ On success, return a :term:`strong reference` to the descriptor. Return
+ ``NULL`` with an exception set on failure.
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyMethodDescr_Type
+
+ The type object for method descriptor objects created from
+ :c:type:`PyMethodDef` structures. These descriptors expose C functions as
+ methods on a type, and correspond to :class:`types.MethodDescriptorType`
+ objects in Python.
+
+
+.. c:struct:: wrapperbase
+
+ Describes a slot wrapper used by :c:func:`PyDescr_NewWrapper`.
+
+ Each ``wrapperbase`` record stores the Python-visible name and metadata for a
+ special method implemented by a type slot, together with the wrapper
+ function used to adapt that slot to Python's calling convention.
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewWrapper(PyTypeObject *type, struct wrapperbase *base, void *wrapped)
+
+ Create a new wrapper descriptor for extension type *type* from the
+ :c:struct:`wrapperbase` structure *base* and the wrapped slot function
+ pointer
+ *wrapped*.
+
+ Wrapper descriptors expose special methods implemented by type slots. This
+ is the same kind of descriptor that CPython creates for slot-based special
+ methods such as ``__repr__`` or ``__add__``, and it appears in Python as a
+ :class:`types.WrapperDescriptorType` object.
+
+ On success, return a :term:`strong reference` to the descriptor. Return
+ ``NULL`` with an exception set on failure.
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyWrapperDescr_Type
-.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewWrapper(PyTypeObject *type, struct wrapperbase *wrapper, void *wrapped)
+ The type object for wrapper descriptor objects created by
+ :c:func:`PyDescr_NewWrapper` and :c:func:`PyWrapper_New`. Wrapper
+ descriptors are used internally to expose special methods implemented
+ via wrapper structures, and appear in Python as
+ :class:`types.WrapperDescriptorType` objects.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyDescr_NewClassMethod(PyTypeObject *type, PyMethodDef *method)
+ Create a new class method descriptor for extension type *type* from the
+ :c:type:`PyMethodDef` structure *method*.
+
+ Class method descriptors expose C methods that receive the class rather than
+ an instance when accessed. This is the same kind of descriptor created for
+ ``METH_CLASS`` entries in :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_methods`, and it
+ appears in Python as a :class:`types.ClassMethodDescriptorType` object.
+
+ On success, return a :term:`strong reference` to the descriptor. Return
+ ``NULL`` with an exception set on failure.
.. c:function:: int PyDescr_IsData(PyObject *descr)
- Return non-zero if the descriptor objects *descr* describes a data attribute, or
+ Return non-zero if the descriptor object *descr* describes a data attribute, or
``0`` if it describes a method. *descr* must be a descriptor object; there is
no error checking.
-.. c:function:: PyObject* PyWrapper_New(PyObject *, PyObject *)
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyWrapper_New(PyObject *d, PyObject *self)
+
+ Create a new bound wrapper object from the wrapper descriptor *d* and the
+ instance *self*.
+
+ This is the bound form of a wrapper descriptor created by
+ :c:func:`PyDescr_NewWrapper`. CPython creates these objects when a slot
+ wrapper is accessed through an instance, and they appear in Python as
+ :class:`types.MethodWrapperType` objects.
+
+ On success, return a :term:`strong reference` to the wrapper object. Return
+ ``NULL`` with an exception set on failure.
+
+Built-in descriptors
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PySuper_Type
+
+ The type object for super objects. This is the same object as
+ :class:`super` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyClassMethod_Type
+
+ The type of class method objects. This is the same object as
+ :class:`classmethod` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyClassMethodDescr_Type
+
+ The type object for C-level class method descriptor objects.
+ This is the type of the descriptors created for :func:`classmethod` defined
+ in C extension types, and corresponds to
+ :class:`types.ClassMethodDescriptorType` objects in Python.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyClassMethod_New(PyObject *callable)
+
+ Create a new :class:`classmethod` object wrapping *callable*.
+ *callable* must be a callable object and must not be ``NULL``.
+
+ On success, this function returns a :term:`strong reference` to a new class
+ method descriptor. On failure, this function returns ``NULL`` with an
+ exception set.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyStaticMethod_Type
+
+ The type of static method objects. This is the same object as
+ :class:`staticmethod` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyStaticMethod_New(PyObject *callable)
+
+ Create a new :class:`staticmethod` object wrapping *callable*.
+ *callable* must be a callable object and must not be ``NULL``.
+
+ On success, this function returns a :term:`strong reference` to a new static
+ method descriptor. On failure, this function returns ``NULL`` with an
+ exception set.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/dict.rst b/Doc/c-api/dict.rst
index 03f3d28187bfe9a..88dcb1225f61788 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/dict.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/dict.rst
@@ -43,6 +43,17 @@ Dictionary Objects
prevent modification of the dictionary for non-dynamic class types.
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyDictProxy_Type
+
+ The type object for mapping proxy objects created by
+ :c:func:`PyDictProxy_New` and for the read-only ``__dict__`` attribute
+ of many built-in types. A :c:type:`PyDictProxy_Type` instance provides a
+ dynamic, read-only view of an underlying dictionary: changes to the
+ underlying dictionary are reflected in the proxy, but the proxy itself
+ does not support mutation operations. This corresponds to
+ :class:`types.MappingProxyType` in Python.
+
+
.. c:function:: void PyDict_Clear(PyObject *p)
Empty an existing dictionary of all key-value pairs.
@@ -50,7 +61,7 @@ Dictionary Objects
.. c:function:: int PyDict_Contains(PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
- Determine if dictionary *p* contains *key*. If an item in *p* is matches
+ Determine if dictionary *p* contains *key*. If an item in *p* matches
*key*, return ``1``, otherwise return ``0``. On error, return ``-1``.
This is equivalent to the Python expression ``key in p``.
@@ -73,8 +84,8 @@ Dictionary Objects
Insert *val* into the dictionary *p* with a key of *key*. *key* must be
:term:`hashable`; if it isn't, :exc:`TypeError` will be raised. Return
- ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on failure. This function *does not* steal a
- reference to *val*.
+ ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on failure.
+ This function *does not* ":term:`steal`" a reference to *val*.
.. c:function:: int PyDict_SetItemString(PyObject *p, const char *key, PyObject *val)
@@ -107,7 +118,7 @@ Dictionary Objects
* If the key is present, set *\*result* to a new :term:`strong reference`
to the value and return ``1``.
* If the key is missing, set *\*result* to ``NULL`` and return ``0``.
- * On error, raise an exception and return ``-1``.
+ * On error, raise an exception, set *\*result* to ``NULL`` and return ``-1``.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
@@ -156,7 +167,7 @@ Dictionary Objects
.. c:function:: int PyDict_GetItemStringRef(PyObject *p, const char *key, PyObject **result)
- Similar than :c:func:`PyDict_GetItemRef`, but *key* is specified as a
+ Similar to :c:func:`PyDict_GetItemRef`, but *key* is specified as a
:c:expr:`const char*` UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a
:c:expr:`PyObject*`.
@@ -191,13 +202,14 @@ Dictionary Objects
to both *default_value* and *\*result* (if it's not ``NULL``).
These may refer to the same object: in that case you hold two separate
references to it.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. c:function:: int PyDict_Pop(PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject **result)
Remove *key* from dictionary *p* and optionally return the removed value.
- Do not raise :exc:`KeyError` if the key missing.
+ Do not raise :exc:`KeyError` if the key is missing.
- If the key is present, set *\*result* to a new reference to the removed
value if *result* is not ``NULL``, and return ``1``.
@@ -205,8 +217,8 @@ Dictionary Objects
``NULL``, and return ``0``.
- On error, raise an exception and return ``-1``.
- This is similar to :meth:`dict.pop`, but without the default value and
- not raising :exc:`KeyError` if the key missing.
+ Similar to :meth:`dict.pop`, but without the default value and
+ not raising :exc:`KeyError` if the key is missing.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
@@ -244,6 +256,11 @@ Dictionary Objects
``len(p)`` on a dictionary.
+.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyDict_GET_SIZE(PyObject *p)
+
+ Similar to :c:func:`PyDict_Size`, but without error checking.
+
+
.. c:function:: int PyDict_Next(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t *ppos, PyObject **pkey, PyObject **pvalue)
Iterate over all key-value pairs in the dictionary *p*. The
@@ -289,6 +306,17 @@ Dictionary Objects
Py_DECREF(o);
}
+ The function is not thread-safe in the :term:`free-threaded <free threading>`
+ build without external synchronization. You can use
+ :c:macro:`Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION` to lock the dictionary while iterating
+ over it::
+
+ Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(self->dict);
+ while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
+ ...
+ }
+ Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();
+
.. c:function:: int PyDict_Merge(PyObject *a, PyObject *b, int override)
@@ -405,3 +433,138 @@ Dictionary Objects
it before returning.
.. versionadded:: 3.12
+
+
+Dictionary View Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDictViewSet_Check(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return true if *op* is a view of a set inside a dictionary. This is currently
+ equivalent to :c:expr:`PyDictKeys_Check(op) || PyDictItems_Check(op)`. This
+ function always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyDictKeys_Type
+
+ Type object for a view of dictionary keys. In Python, this is the type of
+ the object returned by :meth:`dict.keys`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDictKeys_Check(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return true if *op* is an instance of a dictionary keys view. This function
+ always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyDictValues_Type
+
+ Type object for a view of dictionary values. In Python, this is the type of
+ the object returned by :meth:`dict.values`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDictValues_Check(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return true if *op* is an instance of a dictionary values view. This function
+ always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyDictItems_Type
+
+ Type object for a view of dictionary items. In Python, this is the type of
+ the object returned by :meth:`dict.items`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDictItems_Check(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return true if *op* is an instance of a dictionary items view. This function
+ always succeeds.
+
+
+Ordered Dictionaries
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Python's C API provides interface for :class:`collections.OrderedDict` from C.
+Since Python 3.7, dictionaries are ordered by default, so there is usually
+little need for these functions; prefer ``PyDict*`` where possible.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyODict_Type
+
+ Type object for ordered dictionaries. This is the same object as
+ :class:`collections.OrderedDict` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyODict_Check(PyObject *od)
+
+ Return true if *od* is an ordered dictionary object or an instance of a
+ subtype of the :class:`~collections.OrderedDict` type. This function
+ always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyODict_CheckExact(PyObject *od)
+
+ Return true if *od* is an ordered dictionary object, but not an instance of
+ a subtype of the :class:`~collections.OrderedDict` type.
+ This function always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyODictKeys_Type
+
+ Analogous to :c:type:`PyDictKeys_Type` for ordered dictionaries.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyODictValues_Type
+
+ Analogous to :c:type:`PyDictValues_Type` for ordered dictionaries.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyODictItems_Type
+
+ Analogous to :c:type:`PyDictItems_Type` for ordered dictionaries.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyODict_New(void)
+
+ Return a new empty ordered dictionary, or ``NULL`` on failure.
+
+ This is analogous to :c:func:`PyDict_New`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyODict_SetItem(PyObject *od, PyObject *key, PyObject *value)
+
+ Insert *value* into the ordered dictionary *od* with a key of *key*.
+ Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` with an exception set on failure.
+
+ This is analogous to :c:func:`PyDict_SetItem`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyODict_DelItem(PyObject *od, PyObject *key)
+
+ Remove the entry in the ordered dictionary *od* with key *key*.
+ Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` with an exception set on failure.
+
+ This is analogous to :c:func:`PyDict_DelItem`.
+
+
+These are :term:`soft deprecated` aliases to ``PyDict`` APIs:
+
+
+.. list-table::
+ :widths: auto
+ :header-rows: 1
+
+ * * ``PyODict``
+ * ``PyDict``
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyODict_GetItem(od, key)
+ * :c:func:`PyDict_GetItem`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyODict_GetItemWithError(od, key)
+ * :c:func:`PyDict_GetItemWithError`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyODict_GetItemString(od, key)
+ * :c:func:`PyDict_GetItemString`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyODict_Contains(od, key)
+ * :c:func:`PyDict_Contains`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyODict_Size(od)
+ * :c:func:`PyDict_Size`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyODict_SIZE(od)
+ * :c:func:`PyDict_GET_SIZE`
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/exceptions.rst b/Doc/c-api/exceptions.rst
index 499bfb47cc4be54..ee5739b44c78e2d 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/exceptions.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/exceptions.rst
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ propagated, additional calls into the Python/C API may not behave as intended
and may fail in mysterious ways.
.. note::
- The error indicator is **not** the result of :func:`sys.exc_info()`.
+ The error indicator is **not** the result of :func:`sys.exc_info`.
The former corresponds to an exception that is not yet caught (and is
therefore still propagating), while the latter returns an exception after
it is caught (and has therefore stopped propagating).
@@ -119,6 +119,21 @@ Printing and clearing
.. versionadded:: 3.12
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_Display(PyObject *unused, PyObject *value, PyObject *tb)
+
+ Legacy variant of :c:func:`PyErr_DisplayException`.
+
+ Print the exception *value* with its traceback to :data:`sys.stderr`.
+ If *value* has no traceback set, *tb* is used as its traceback.
+ The first argument is ignored.
+
+ If :data:`sys.stderr` is ``None``, nothing is printed.
+ If :data:`sys.stderr` is not set, the exception is dumped to the
+ C ``stderr`` stream instead.
+
+ .. deprecated:: 3.12
+ Use :c:func:`PyErr_DisplayException` instead.
+
Raising exceptions
==================
@@ -309,6 +324,14 @@ For convenience, some of these functions will always return a
.. versionadded:: 3.4
+.. c:function:: void PyErr_RangedSyntaxLocationObject(PyObject *filename, int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset)
+
+ Similar to :c:func:`PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject`, but also sets the
+ *end_lineno* and *end_col_offset* information for the current exception.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.10
+
+
.. c:function:: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(const char *filename, int lineno, int col_offset)
Like :c:func:`PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject`, but *filename* is a byte string
@@ -331,6 +354,23 @@ For convenience, some of these functions will always return a
use.
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyErr_ProgramTextObject(PyObject *filename, int lineno)
+
+ Get the source line in *filename* at line *lineno*. *filename* should be a
+ Python :class:`str` object.
+
+ On success, this function returns a Python string object with the found line.
+ On failure, this function returns ``NULL`` without an exception set.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyErr_ProgramText(const char *filename, int lineno)
+
+ Similar to :c:func:`PyErr_ProgramTextObject`, but *filename* is a
+ :c:expr:`const char *`, which is decoded with the
+ :term:`filesystem encoding and error handler`, instead of a
+ Python object reference.
+
+
Issuing warnings
================
@@ -387,13 +427,22 @@ an error value).
.. c:function:: int PyErr_WarnFormat(PyObject *category, Py_ssize_t stack_level, const char *format, ...)
- Function similar to :c:func:`PyErr_WarnEx`, but use
+ Function similar to :c:func:`PyErr_WarnEx`, but uses
:c:func:`PyUnicode_FromFormat` to format the warning message. *format* is
an ASCII-encoded string.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
+.. c:function:: int PyErr_WarnExplicitFormat(PyObject *category, const char *filename, int lineno, const char *module, PyObject *registry, const char *format, ...)
+
+ Similar to :c:func:`PyErr_WarnExplicit`, but uses
+ :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromFormat` to format the warning message. *format* is
+ an ASCII-encoded string.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
.. c:function:: int PyErr_ResourceWarning(PyObject *source, Py_ssize_t stack_level, const char *format, ...)
Function similar to :c:func:`PyErr_WarnFormat`, but *category* is
@@ -465,11 +514,12 @@ Querying the error indicator
.. c:function:: void PyErr_SetRaisedException(PyObject *exc)
Set *exc* as the exception currently being raised,
- clearing the existing exception if one is set.
+ clearing the existing exception if one is set. If *exc* is ``NULL``,
+ just clear the existing exception.
- .. warning::
+ *exc* must be a valid exception or ``NULL``.
- This call steals a reference to *exc*, which must be a valid exception.
+ This call ":term:`steals <steal>`" a reference to *exc*.
.. versionadded:: 3.12
@@ -607,7 +657,8 @@ Querying the error indicator
Set the exception info, as known from ``sys.exc_info()``. This refers
to an exception that was *already caught*, not to an exception that was
- freshly raised. This function steals the references of the arguments.
+ freshly raised. This function ":term:`steals <steal>`" the references
+ of the arguments.
To clear the exception state, pass ``NULL`` for all three arguments.
This function is kept for backwards compatibility. Prefer using
:c:func:`PyErr_SetHandledException`.
@@ -624,8 +675,8 @@ Querying the error indicator
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
The ``type`` and ``traceback`` arguments are no longer used and
can be NULL. The interpreter now derives them from the exception
- instance (the ``value`` argument). The function still steals
- references of all three arguments.
+ instance (the ``value`` argument). The function still
+ ":term:`steals <steal>`" references of all three arguments.
Signal Handling
@@ -639,28 +690,40 @@ Signal Handling
single: SIGINT (C macro)
single: KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception)
- This function interacts with Python's signal handling.
+ Handle external interruptions, such as signals or activating a debugger,
+ whose processing has been delayed until it is safe
+ to run Python code and/or raise exceptions.
- If the function is called from the main thread and under the main Python
- interpreter, it checks whether a signal has been sent to the processes
- and if so, invokes the corresponding signal handler. If the :mod:`signal`
- module is supported, this can invoke a signal handler written in Python.
+ For example, pressing :kbd:`Ctrl-C` causes a terminal to send the
+ :py:data:`signal.SIGINT` signal.
+ This function executes the corresponding Python signal handler, which,
+ by default, raises the :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` exception.
- The function attempts to handle all pending signals, and then returns ``0``.
- However, if a Python signal handler raises an exception, the error
- indicator is set and the function returns ``-1`` immediately (such that
- other pending signals may not have been handled yet: they will be on the
- next :c:func:`PyErr_CheckSignals()` invocation).
+ :c:func:`!PyErr_CheckSignals` should be called by long-running C code
+ frequently enough so that the response appears immediate to humans.
- If the function is called from a non-main thread, or under a non-main
- Python interpreter, it does nothing and returns ``0``.
+ Handlers invoked by this function currently include:
- This function can be called by long-running C code that wants to
- be interruptible by user requests (such as by pressing Ctrl-C).
+ - Signal handlers, including Python functions registered using
+ the :mod:`signal` module.
- .. note::
- The default Python signal handler for :c:macro:`!SIGINT` raises the
- :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` exception.
+ Signal handlers are only run in the main thread of the main interpreter.
+
+ (This is where the function got the name: originally, signals
+ were the only way to interrupt the interpreter.)
+
+ - Running the garbage collector, if necessary.
+
+ If any handler raises an exception, immediately return ``-1`` with that
+ exception set.
+ Any remaining interruptions are left to be processed on the next
+ :c:func:`PyErr_CheckSignals()` invocation, if appropriate.
+
+ If all handlers finish successfully, or there are no handlers to run,
+ return ``0``.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ This function may now invoke the garbage collector.
.. c:function:: void PyErr_SetInterrupt()
@@ -733,7 +796,7 @@ Exception Classes
This creates a class object derived from :exc:`Exception` (accessible in C as
:c:data:`PyExc_Exception`).
- The :attr:`!__module__` attribute of the new class is set to the first part (up
+ The :attr:`~type.__module__` attribute of the new class is set to the first part (up
to the last dot) of the *name* argument, and the class name is set to the last
part (after the last dot). The *base* argument can be used to specify alternate
base classes; it can either be only one class or a tuple of classes. The *dict*
@@ -749,9 +812,30 @@ Exception Classes
.. versionadded:: 3.2
+.. c:function:: int PyExceptionClass_Check(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Return non-zero if *ob* is an exception class, zero otherwise. This function always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char *PyExceptionClass_Name(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Return :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_name` of the exception class *ob*.
+
+
Exception Objects
=================
+.. c:function:: int PyExceptionInstance_Check(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return true if *op* is an instance of :class:`BaseException`, false
+ otherwise. This function always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: PyExceptionInstance_Class(op)
+
+ Equivalent to :c:func:`Py_TYPE(op) <Py_TYPE>`.
+
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyException_GetTraceback(PyObject *ex)
Return the traceback associated with the exception as a new reference, as
@@ -778,7 +862,7 @@ Exception Objects
Set the context associated with the exception to *ctx*. Use ``NULL`` to clear
it. There is no type check to make sure that *ctx* is an exception instance.
- This steals a reference to *ctx*.
+ This ":term:`steals <steal>`" a reference to *ctx*.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyException_GetCause(PyObject *ex)
@@ -793,7 +877,8 @@ Exception Objects
Set the cause associated with the exception to *cause*. Use ``NULL`` to clear
it. There is no type check to make sure that *cause* is either an exception
- instance or ``None``. This steals a reference to *cause*.
+ instance or ``None``.
+ This ":term:`steals <steal>`" a reference to *cause*.
The :attr:`~BaseException.__suppress_context__` attribute is implicitly set
to ``True`` by this function.
@@ -932,7 +1017,7 @@ Properly implementing :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_repr` for container types requ
special recursion handling. In addition to protecting the stack,
:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_repr` also needs to track objects to prevent cycles. The
following two functions facilitate this functionality. Effectively,
-these are the C equivalent to :func:`reprlib.recursive_repr`.
+these are the C equivalent to :deco:`reprlib.recursive_repr`.
.. c:function:: int Py_ReprEnter(PyObject *object)
@@ -957,181 +1042,159 @@ these are the C equivalent to :func:`reprlib.recursive_repr`.
Ends a :c:func:`Py_ReprEnter`. Must be called once for each
invocation of :c:func:`Py_ReprEnter` that returns zero.
+.. c:function:: int Py_GetRecursionLimit(void)
+
+ Get the recursion limit for the current interpreter. It can be set with
+ :c:func:`Py_SetRecursionLimit`. The recursion limit prevents the
+ Python interpreter stack from growing infinitely.
+
+ This function cannot fail, and the caller must hold the
+ :term:`GIL`.
+
+ .. seealso::
+ :py:func:`sys.getrecursionlimit`
+
+.. c:function:: void Py_SetRecursionLimit(int new_limit)
+
+ Set the recursion limit for the current interpreter.
+
+ This function cannot fail, and the caller must hold the
+ :term:`GIL`.
+
+ .. seealso::
+ :py:func:`sys.setrecursionlimit`
.. _standardexceptions:
-Standard Exceptions
-===================
-
-All standard Python exceptions are available as global variables whose names are
-``PyExc_`` followed by the Python exception name. These have the type
-:c:expr:`PyObject*`; they are all class objects. For completeness, here are all
-the variables:
-
-.. index::
- single: PyExc_BaseException (C var)
- single: PyExc_Exception (C var)
- single: PyExc_ArithmeticError (C var)
- single: PyExc_AssertionError (C var)
- single: PyExc_AttributeError (C var)
- single: PyExc_BlockingIOError (C var)
- single: PyExc_BrokenPipeError (C var)
- single: PyExc_BufferError (C var)
- single: PyExc_ChildProcessError (C var)
- single: PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError (C var)
- single: PyExc_ConnectionError (C var)
- single: PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError (C var)
- single: PyExc_ConnectionResetError (C var)
- single: PyExc_EOFError (C var)
- single: PyExc_FileExistsError (C var)
- single: PyExc_FileNotFoundError (C var)
- single: PyExc_FloatingPointError (C var)
- single: PyExc_GeneratorExit (C var)
- single: PyExc_ImportError (C var)
- single: PyExc_IndentationError (C var)
- single: PyExc_IndexError (C var)
- single: PyExc_InterruptedError (C var)
- single: PyExc_IsADirectoryError (C var)
- single: PyExc_KeyError (C var)
- single: PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt (C var)
- single: PyExc_LookupError (C var)
- single: PyExc_MemoryError (C var)
- single: PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError (C var)
- single: PyExc_NameError (C var)
- single: PyExc_NotADirectoryError (C var)
- single: PyExc_NotImplementedError (C var)
- single: PyExc_OSError (C var)
- single: PyExc_OverflowError (C var)
- single: PyExc_PermissionError (C var)
- single: PyExc_ProcessLookupError (C var)
- single: PyExc_RecursionError (C var)
- single: PyExc_ReferenceError (C var)
- single: PyExc_RuntimeError (C var)
- single: PyExc_StopAsyncIteration (C var)
- single: PyExc_StopIteration (C var)
- single: PyExc_SyntaxError (C var)
- single: PyExc_SystemError (C var)
- single: PyExc_SystemExit (C var)
- single: PyExc_TabError (C var)
- single: PyExc_TimeoutError (C var)
- single: PyExc_TypeError (C var)
- single: PyExc_UnboundLocalError (C var)
- single: PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError (C var)
- single: PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError (C var)
- single: PyExc_UnicodeError (C var)
- single: PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError (C var)
- single: PyExc_ValueError (C var)
- single: PyExc_ZeroDivisionError (C var)
-
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| C Name | Python Name | Notes |
-+=========================================+=================================+==========+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_BaseException` | :exc:`BaseException` | [1]_ |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_Exception` | :exc:`Exception` | [1]_ |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_ArithmeticError` | :exc:`ArithmeticError` | [1]_ |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_AssertionError` | :exc:`AssertionError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_AttributeError` | :exc:`AttributeError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_BlockingIOError` | :exc:`BlockingIOError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_BrokenPipeError` | :exc:`BrokenPipeError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_BufferError` | :exc:`BufferError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_ChildProcessError` | :exc:`ChildProcessError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError` | :exc:`ConnectionAbortedError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionError` | :exc:`ConnectionError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError` | :exc:`ConnectionRefusedError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_ConnectionResetError` | :exc:`ConnectionResetError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_EOFError` | :exc:`EOFError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_FileExistsError` | :exc:`FileExistsError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_FileNotFoundError` | :exc:`FileNotFoundError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_FloatingPointError` | :exc:`FloatingPointError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_GeneratorExit` | :exc:`GeneratorExit` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_ImportError` | :exc:`ImportError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_IndentationError` | :exc:`IndentationError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_IndexError` | :exc:`IndexError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_InterruptedError` | :exc:`InterruptedError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_IsADirectoryError` | :exc:`IsADirectoryError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_KeyError` | :exc:`KeyError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt` | :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_LookupError` | :exc:`LookupError` | [1]_ |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_MemoryError` | :exc:`MemoryError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError` | :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_NameError` | :exc:`NameError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_NotADirectoryError` | :exc:`NotADirectoryError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_NotImplementedError` | :exc:`NotImplementedError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_OSError` | :exc:`OSError` | [1]_ |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_OverflowError` | :exc:`OverflowError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_PermissionError` | :exc:`PermissionError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_ProcessLookupError` | :exc:`ProcessLookupError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_RecursionError` | :exc:`RecursionError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_ReferenceError` | :exc:`ReferenceError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_RuntimeError` | :exc:`RuntimeError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_StopAsyncIteration` | :exc:`StopAsyncIteration` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_StopIteration` | :exc:`StopIteration` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_SyntaxError` | :exc:`SyntaxError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_SystemError` | :exc:`SystemError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_SystemExit` | :exc:`SystemExit` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_TabError` | :exc:`TabError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_TimeoutError` | :exc:`TimeoutError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_TypeError` | :exc:`TypeError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_UnboundLocalError` | :exc:`UnboundLocalError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError` | :exc:`UnicodeDecodeError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError` | :exc:`UnicodeEncodeError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_UnicodeError` | :exc:`UnicodeError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError` | :exc:`UnicodeTranslateError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_ValueError` | :exc:`ValueError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_ZeroDivisionError` | :exc:`ZeroDivisionError` | |
-+-----------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+Exception and warning types
+===========================
+
+All standard Python exceptions and warning categories are available as global
+variables whose names are ``PyExc_`` followed by the Python exception name.
+These have the type :c:expr:`PyObject*`; they are all class objects.
+
+For completeness, here are all the variables:
+
+Exception types
+---------------
+
+.. list-table::
+ :align: left
+ :widths: auto
+ :header-rows: 1
+
+ * * C name
+ * Python name
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_BaseException
+ * :exc:`BaseException`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup
+ * :exc:`BaseExceptionGroup`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_Exception
+ * :exc:`Exception`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_ArithmeticError
+ * :exc:`ArithmeticError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_AssertionError
+ * :exc:`AssertionError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_AttributeError
+ * :exc:`AttributeError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_BlockingIOError
+ * :exc:`BlockingIOError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_BrokenPipeError
+ * :exc:`BrokenPipeError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_BufferError
+ * :exc:`BufferError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_ChildProcessError
+ * :exc:`ChildProcessError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError
+ * :exc:`ConnectionAbortedError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_ConnectionError
+ * :exc:`ConnectionError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError
+ * :exc:`ConnectionRefusedError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_ConnectionResetError
+ * :exc:`ConnectionResetError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_EOFError
+ * :exc:`EOFError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_FileExistsError
+ * :exc:`FileExistsError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_FileNotFoundError
+ * :exc:`FileNotFoundError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_FloatingPointError
+ * :exc:`FloatingPointError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_GeneratorExit
+ * :exc:`GeneratorExit`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_ImportError
+ * :exc:`ImportError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_IndentationError
+ * :exc:`IndentationError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_IndexError
+ * :exc:`IndexError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_InterruptedError
+ * :exc:`InterruptedError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_IsADirectoryError
+ * :exc:`IsADirectoryError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_KeyError
+ * :exc:`KeyError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt
+ * :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_LookupError
+ * :exc:`LookupError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_MemoryError
+ * :exc:`MemoryError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError
+ * :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_NameError
+ * :exc:`NameError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_NotADirectoryError
+ * :exc:`NotADirectoryError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_NotImplementedError
+ * :exc:`NotImplementedError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_OSError
+ * :exc:`OSError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_OverflowError
+ * :exc:`OverflowError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_PermissionError
+ * :exc:`PermissionError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_ProcessLookupError
+ * :exc:`ProcessLookupError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_PythonFinalizationError
+ * :exc:`PythonFinalizationError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_RecursionError
+ * :exc:`RecursionError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_ReferenceError
+ * :exc:`ReferenceError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_RuntimeError
+ * :exc:`RuntimeError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_StopAsyncIteration
+ * :exc:`StopAsyncIteration`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_StopIteration
+ * :exc:`StopIteration`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_SyntaxError
+ * :exc:`SyntaxError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_SystemError
+ * :exc:`SystemError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_SystemExit
+ * :exc:`SystemExit`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_TabError
+ * :exc:`TabError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_TimeoutError
+ * :exc:`TimeoutError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_TypeError
+ * :exc:`TypeError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_UnboundLocalError
+ * :exc:`UnboundLocalError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError
+ * :exc:`UnicodeDecodeError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError
+ * :exc:`UnicodeEncodeError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_UnicodeError
+ * :exc:`UnicodeError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError
+ * :exc:`UnicodeTranslateError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_ValueError
+ * :exc:`ValueError`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_ZeroDivisionError
+ * :exc:`ZeroDivisionError`
.. versionadded:: 3.3
:c:data:`PyExc_BlockingIOError`, :c:data:`PyExc_BrokenPipeError`,
@@ -1149,88 +1212,116 @@ the variables:
.. versionadded:: 3.6
:c:data:`PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError`.
-These are compatibility aliases to :c:data:`PyExc_OSError`:
+.. versionadded:: 3.11
+ :c:data:`PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup`.
-.. index::
- single: PyExc_EnvironmentError (C var)
- single: PyExc_IOError (C var)
- single: PyExc_WindowsError (C var)
-+-------------------------------------+----------+
-| C Name | Notes |
-+=====================================+==========+
-| :c:data:`!PyExc_EnvironmentError` | |
-+-------------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`!PyExc_IOError` | |
-+-------------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`!PyExc_WindowsError` | [2]_ |
-+-------------------------------------+----------+
+OSError aliases
+---------------
+
+The following are a compatibility aliases to :c:data:`PyExc_OSError`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
These aliases used to be separate exception types.
+.. list-table::
+ :align: left
+ :widths: auto
+ :header-rows: 1
+
+ * * C name
+ * Python name
+ * Notes
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_EnvironmentError
+ * :exc:`OSError`
+ *
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_IOError
+ * :exc:`OSError`
+ *
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_WindowsError
+ * :exc:`OSError`
+ * [win]_
+
Notes:
-.. [1]
- This is a base class for other standard exceptions.
+.. [win]
+ :c:var:`!PyExc_WindowsError` is only defined on Windows; protect code that
+ uses this by testing that the preprocessor macro ``MS_WINDOWS`` is defined.
-.. [2]
- Only defined on Windows; protect code that uses this by testing that the
- preprocessor macro ``MS_WINDOWS`` is defined.
.. _standardwarningcategories:
-Standard Warning Categories
-===========================
-
-All standard Python warning categories are available as global variables whose
-names are ``PyExc_`` followed by the Python exception name. These have the type
-:c:expr:`PyObject*`; they are all class objects. For completeness, here are all
-the variables:
-
-.. index::
- single: PyExc_Warning (C var)
- single: PyExc_BytesWarning (C var)
- single: PyExc_DeprecationWarning (C var)
- single: PyExc_FutureWarning (C var)
- single: PyExc_ImportWarning (C var)
- single: PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning (C var)
- single: PyExc_ResourceWarning (C var)
- single: PyExc_RuntimeWarning (C var)
- single: PyExc_SyntaxWarning (C var)
- single: PyExc_UnicodeWarning (C var)
- single: PyExc_UserWarning (C var)
-
-+------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| C Name | Python Name | Notes |
-+==========================================+=================================+==========+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_Warning` | :exc:`Warning` | [3]_ |
-+------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_BytesWarning` | :exc:`BytesWarning` | |
-+------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_DeprecationWarning` | :exc:`DeprecationWarning` | |
-+------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_FutureWarning` | :exc:`FutureWarning` | |
-+------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_ImportWarning` | :exc:`ImportWarning` | |
-+------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning`| :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning`| |
-+------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_ResourceWarning` | :exc:`ResourceWarning` | |
-+------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_RuntimeWarning` | :exc:`RuntimeWarning` | |
-+------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_SyntaxWarning` | :exc:`SyntaxWarning` | |
-+------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_UnicodeWarning` | :exc:`UnicodeWarning` | |
-+------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
-| :c:data:`PyExc_UserWarning` | :exc:`UserWarning` | |
-+------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------+
+Warning types
+-------------
+
+.. list-table::
+ :align: left
+ :widths: auto
+ :header-rows: 1
+
+ * * C name
+ * Python name
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_Warning
+ * :exc:`Warning`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_BytesWarning
+ * :exc:`BytesWarning`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_DeprecationWarning
+ * :exc:`DeprecationWarning`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_EncodingWarning
+ * :exc:`EncodingWarning`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_FutureWarning
+ * :exc:`FutureWarning`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_ImportWarning
+ * :exc:`ImportWarning`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning
+ * :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_ResourceWarning
+ * :exc:`ResourceWarning`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_RuntimeWarning
+ * :exc:`RuntimeWarning`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_SyntaxWarning
+ * :exc:`SyntaxWarning`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_UnicodeWarning
+ * :exc:`UnicodeWarning`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyObject *PyExc_UserWarning
+ * :exc:`UserWarning`
.. versionadded:: 3.2
:c:data:`PyExc_ResourceWarning`.
-Notes:
+.. versionadded:: 3.10
+ :c:data:`PyExc_EncodingWarning`.
+
+
+Tracebacks
+==========
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyTraceBack_Type
+
+ Type object for traceback objects. This is available as
+ :class:`types.TracebackType` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyTraceBack_Check(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return true if *op* is a traceback object, false otherwise. This function
+ does not account for subtypes.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyTraceBack_Here(PyFrameObject *f)
+
+ Replace the :attr:`~BaseException.__traceback__` attribute on the current
+ exception with a new traceback prepending *f* to the existing chain.
+
+ Calling this function without an exception set is undefined behavior.
+
+ This function returns ``0`` on success, and returns ``-1`` with an
+ exception set on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyTraceBack_Print(PyObject *tb, PyObject *f)
+
+ Write the traceback *tb* into the file *f*.
-.. [3]
- This is a base class for other standard warning categories.
+ This function returns ``0`` on success, and returns ``-1`` with an
+ exception set on failure.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/file.rst b/Doc/c-api/file.rst
index e9019a0d500f7e5..1bb5c1b768510f4 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/file.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/file.rst
@@ -93,6 +93,29 @@ the :mod:`io` APIs instead.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyFile_OpenCodeObject(PyObject *path)
+
+ Open *path* with the mode ``'rb'``. *path* must be a Python :class:`str`
+ object. The behavior of this function may be overridden by
+ :c:func:`PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook` to allow for some preprocessing of the
+ text.
+
+ This is analogous to :func:`io.open_code` in Python.
+
+ On success, this function returns a :term:`strong reference` to a Python
+ file object. On failure, this function returns ``NULL`` with an exception
+ set.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyFile_OpenCode(const char *path)
+
+ Similar to :c:func:`PyFile_OpenCodeObject`, but *path* is a
+ UTF-8 encoded :c:expr:`const char*`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
.. c:function:: int PyFile_WriteObject(PyObject *obj, PyObject *p, int flags)
@@ -100,9 +123,12 @@ the :mod:`io` APIs instead.
Write object *obj* to file object *p*. The only supported flag for *flags* is
:c:macro:`Py_PRINT_RAW`; if given, the :func:`str` of the object is written
- instead of the :func:`repr`. Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on failure; the
- appropriate exception will be set.
+ instead of the :func:`repr`.
+
+ If *obj* is ``NULL``, write the string ``"<NULL>"``.
+ Return ``0`` on success or ``-1`` on failure; the
+ appropriate exception will be set.
.. c:function:: int PyFile_WriteString(const char *s, PyObject *p)
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/float.rst b/Doc/c-api/float.rst
index 4f6ac0d8175c6b2..5a2dc7ecc07db57 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/float.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/float.rst
@@ -2,20 +2,20 @@
.. _floatobjects:
-Floating Point Objects
+Floating-Point Objects
======================
-.. index:: pair: object; floating point
+.. index:: pair: object; floating-point
.. c:type:: PyFloatObject
- This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents a Python floating point object.
+ This subtype of :c:type:`PyObject` represents a Python floating-point object.
.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyFloat_Type
- This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python floating point
+ This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python floating-point
type. This is the same object as :class:`float` in the Python layer.
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ Floating Point Objects
.. c:function:: double PyFloat_AsDouble(PyObject *pyfloat)
Return a C :c:expr:`double` representation of the contents of *pyfloat*. If
- *pyfloat* is not a Python floating point object but has a :meth:`~object.__float__`
+ *pyfloat* is not a Python floating-point object but has a :meth:`~object.__float__`
method, this method will first be called to convert *pyfloat* into a float.
If :meth:`!__float__` is not defined then it falls back to :meth:`~object.__index__`.
This method returns ``-1.0`` upon failure, so one should call
@@ -78,6 +78,104 @@ Floating Point Objects
Return the minimum normalized positive float *DBL_MIN* as C :c:expr:`double`.
+.. c:macro:: Py_INFINITY
+
+ This macro expands to a constant expression of type :c:expr:`double`, that
+ represents the positive infinity.
+
+ On most platforms, this is equivalent to the :c:macro:`!INFINITY` macro from
+ the C11 standard ``<math.h>`` header.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_NAN
+
+ This macro expands to a constant expression of type :c:expr:`double`, that
+ represents a quiet not-a-number (qNaN) value.
+
+ On most platforms, this is equivalent to the :c:macro:`!NAN` macro from
+ the C11 standard ``<math.h>`` header.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_HUGE_VAL
+
+ Equivalent to :c:macro:`!INFINITY`.
+
+ .. deprecated:: 3.14
+ The macro is :term:`soft deprecated`.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_MATH_E
+
+ The definition (accurate for a :c:expr:`double` type) of the :data:`math.e` constant.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_MATH_El
+
+ High precision (long double) definition of :data:`~math.e` constant.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_MATH_PI
+
+ The definition (accurate for a :c:expr:`double` type) of the :data:`math.pi` constant.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_MATH_PIl
+
+ High precision (long double) definition of :data:`~math.pi` constant.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_MATH_TAU
+
+ The definition (accurate for a :c:expr:`double` type) of the :data:`math.tau` constant.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_RETURN_NAN
+
+ Return :data:`math.nan` from a function.
+
+ On most platforms, this is equivalent to ``return PyFloat_FromDouble(NAN)``.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_RETURN_INF(sign)
+
+ Return :data:`math.inf` or :data:`-math.inf <math.inf>` from a function,
+ depending on the sign of *sign*.
+
+ On most platforms, this is equivalent to the following::
+
+ return PyFloat_FromDouble(copysign(INFINITY, sign));
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_IS_FINITE(X)
+
+ Return ``1`` if the given floating-point number *X* is finite,
+ that is, it is normal, subnormal or zero, but not infinite or NaN.
+ Return ``0`` otherwise.
+
+ .. deprecated:: 3.14
+ The macro is :term:`soft deprecated`. Use :c:macro:`!isfinite` instead.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_IS_INFINITY(X)
+
+ Return ``1`` if the given floating-point number *X* is positive or negative
+ infinity. Return ``0`` otherwise.
+
+ .. deprecated:: 3.14
+ The macro is :term:`soft deprecated`. Use :c:macro:`!isinf` instead.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_IS_NAN(X)
+
+ Return ``1`` if the given floating-point number *X* is a not-a-number (NaN)
+ value. Return ``0`` otherwise.
+
+ .. deprecated:: 3.14
+ The macro is :term:`soft deprecated`. Use :c:macro:`!isnan` instead.
+
+
Pack and Unpack functions
-------------------------
@@ -121,15 +219,15 @@ There are two problems on non-IEEE platforms:
* What this does is undefined if *x* is a NaN or infinity.
* ``-0.0`` and ``+0.0`` produce the same bytes string.
-.. c:function:: int PyFloat_Pack2(double x, unsigned char *p, int le)
+.. c:function:: int PyFloat_Pack2(double x, char *p, int le)
Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format.
-.. c:function:: int PyFloat_Pack4(double x, unsigned char *p, int le)
+.. c:function:: int PyFloat_Pack4(double x, char *p, int le)
Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format.
-.. c:function:: int PyFloat_Pack8(double x, unsigned char *p, int le)
+.. c:function:: int PyFloat_Pack8(double x, char *p, int le)
Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format.
@@ -151,14 +249,14 @@ Return value: The unpacked double. On error, this is ``-1.0`` and
Note that on a non-IEEE platform this will refuse to unpack a bytes string that
represents a NaN or infinity.
-.. c:function:: double PyFloat_Unpack2(const unsigned char *p, int le)
+.. c:function:: double PyFloat_Unpack2(const char *p, int le)
Unpack the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format as a C double.
-.. c:function:: double PyFloat_Unpack4(const unsigned char *p, int le)
+.. c:function:: double PyFloat_Unpack4(const char *p, int le)
Unpack the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format as a C double.
-.. c:function:: double PyFloat_Unpack8(const unsigned char *p, int le)
+.. c:function:: double PyFloat_Unpack8(const char *p, int le)
Unpack the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format as a C double.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/frame.rst b/Doc/c-api/frame.rst
index 82e0980ad753d00..70a610cea82d06a 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/frame.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/frame.rst
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
.. highlight:: c
-Frame Objects
+Frame objects
-------------
.. c:type:: PyFrameObject
@@ -29,6 +29,12 @@ See also :ref:`Reflection <reflection>`.
Previously, this type was only available after including
``<frameobject.h>``.
+.. c:function:: PyFrameObject *PyFrame_New(PyThreadState *tstate, PyCodeObject *code, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
+
+ Create a new frame object. This function returns a :term:`strong reference`
+ to the new frame object on success, and returns ``NULL`` with an exception
+ set on failure.
+
.. c:function:: int PyFrame_Check(PyObject *obj)
Return non-zero if *obj* is a frame object.
@@ -44,6 +50,7 @@ See also :ref:`Reflection <reflection>`.
Return a :term:`strong reference`, or ``NULL`` if *frame* has no outer
frame.
+ This raises no exceptions.
.. versionadded:: 3.9
@@ -121,17 +128,18 @@ See also :ref:`Reflection <reflection>`.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFrame_GetLocals(PyFrameObject *frame)
Get the *frame*'s :attr:`~frame.f_locals` attribute.
- If the frame refers to a function or comprehension, this returns
- a write-through proxy object that allows modifying the locals.
- In all other cases (classes, modules) it returns the :class:`dict`
- representing the frame locals directly.
+ If the frame refers to an :term:`optimized scope`, this returns a
+ write-through proxy object that allows modifying the locals.
+ In all other cases (classes, modules, :func:`exec`, :func:`eval`) it returns
+ the mapping representing the frame locals directly (as described for
+ :func:`locals`).
Return a :term:`strong reference`.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
- Return a proxy object for functions and comprehensions.
+ As part of :pep:`667`, return an instance of :c:var:`PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type`.
.. c:function:: int PyFrame_GetLineNumber(PyFrameObject *frame)
@@ -139,8 +147,73 @@ See also :ref:`Reflection <reflection>`.
Return the line number that *frame* is currently executing.
+Frame locals proxies
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+The :attr:`~frame.f_locals` attribute on a :ref:`frame object <frame-objects>`
+is an instance of a "frame-locals proxy". The proxy object exposes a
+write-through view of the underlying locals dictionary for the frame. This
+ensures that the variables exposed by ``f_locals`` are always up to date with
+the live local variables in the frame itself.
+
+See :pep:`667` for more information.
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type
+
+ The type of frame :func:`locals` proxy objects.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFrameLocalsProxy_Check(PyObject *obj)
+
+ Return non-zero if *obj* is a frame :func:`locals` proxy.
+
+
+Legacy local variable APIs
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+These APIs are :term:`soft deprecated`. As of Python 3.13, they do nothing.
+They exist solely for backwards compatibility.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyFrame_LocalsToFast(PyFrameObject *f, int clear)
+
+ Prior to Python 3.13, this function would copy the :attr:`~frame.f_locals`
+ attribute of *f* to the internal "fast" array of local variables, allowing
+ changes in frame objects to be visible to the interpreter. If *clear* was
+ true, this function would process variables that were unset in the locals
+ dictionary.
+
+ .. soft-deprecated:: 3.13
+ This function now does nothing.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyFrame_FastToLocals(PyFrameObject *f)
+
+ Prior to Python 3.13, this function would copy the internal "fast" array
+ of local variables (which is used by the interpreter) to the
+ :attr:`~frame.f_locals` attribute of *f*, allowing changes in local
+ variables to be visible to frame objects.
-Internal Frames
+ .. soft-deprecated:: 3.13
+ This function now does nothing.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError(PyFrameObject *f)
+
+ Prior to Python 3.13, this function was similar to
+ :c:func:`PyFrame_FastToLocals`, but would return ``0`` on success, and
+ ``-1`` with an exception set on failure.
+
+ .. soft-deprecated:: 3.13
+ This function now does nothing.
+
+
+.. seealso::
+ :pep:`667`
+
+
+Internal frames
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Unless using :pep:`523`, you will not need this.
@@ -172,3 +245,39 @@ Unless using :pep:`523`, you will not need this.
.. versionadded:: 3.12
+.. c:var:: const PyTypeObject *PyUnstable_ExecutableKinds
+
+ An array of executable kinds (executor types) for frames, used for internal
+ debugging and tracing.
+
+ Tools like debuggers and profilers can use this to identify the type of execution
+ context associated with a frame (such as to filter out internal frames).
+ The entries are indexed by the following constants:
+
+ .. list-table::
+ :header-rows: 1
+ :widths: auto
+
+ * - Constant
+ - Description
+ * - .. c:macro:: PyUnstable_EXECUTABLE_KIND_SKIP
+ - The frame is internal (For example: inlined) and should be skipped by tools.
+ * - .. c:macro:: PyUnstable_EXECUTABLE_KIND_PY_FUNCTION
+ - The frame corresponds to a standard Python function.
+ * - .. c:macro:: PyUnstable_EXECUTABLE_KIND_BUILTIN_FUNCTION
+ - The frame corresponds to a function defined in native code.
+ * - .. c:macro:: PyUnstable_EXECUTABLE_KIND_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR
+ - The frame corresponds to a method on a class instance.
+
+ Note that reading the executable kind from a frame is currently only
+ possible with undocumented internal APIs.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
+.. c:macro:: PyUnstable_EXECUTABLE_KINDS
+
+ The number of entries in :c:data:`PyUnstable_ExecutableKinds`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/function.rst b/Doc/c-api/function.rst
index e7fb5090c099339..7908e4f8561aebe 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/function.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/function.rst
@@ -95,6 +95,22 @@ There are a few functions specific to Python functions.
.. versionadded:: 3.12
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFunction_GetKwDefaults(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return the keyword-only argument default values of the function object *op*. This can be a
+ dictionary of arguments or ``NULL``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyFunction_SetKwDefaults(PyObject *op, PyObject *defaults)
+
+ Set the keyword-only argument default values of the function object *op*.
+ *defaults* must be a dictionary of keyword-only arguments or ``Py_None``.
+
+ This function returns ``0`` on success, and returns ``-1`` with an exception
+ set on failure.
+
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyFunction_GetClosure(PyObject *op)
Return the closure associated with the function object *op*. This can be ``NULL``
@@ -123,6 +139,19 @@ There are a few functions specific to Python functions.
Raises :exc:`SystemError` and returns ``-1`` on failure.
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyFunction_GET_CODE(PyObject *op)
+ PyObject *PyFunction_GET_GLOBALS(PyObject *op)
+ PyObject *PyFunction_GET_MODULE(PyObject *op)
+ PyObject *PyFunction_GET_DEFAULTS(PyObject *op)
+ PyObject *PyFunction_GET_KW_DEFAULTS(PyObject *op)
+ PyObject *PyFunction_GET_CLOSURE(PyObject *op)
+ PyObject *PyFunction_GET_ANNOTATIONS(PyObject *op)
+
+ These functions are similar to their ``PyFunction_Get*`` counterparts, but
+ do not do type checking. Passing anything other than an instance of
+ :c:data:`PyFunction_Type` is undefined behavior.
+
+
.. c:function:: int PyFunction_AddWatcher(PyFunction_WatchCallback callback)
Register *callback* as a function watcher for the current interpreter.
@@ -145,12 +174,13 @@ There are a few functions specific to Python functions.
.. c:type:: PyFunction_WatchEvent
- Enumeration of possible function watcher events:
- - ``PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE``
- - ``PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY``
- - ``PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_CODE``
- - ``PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_DEFAULTS``
- - ``PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_KWDEFAULTS``
+ Enumeration of possible function watcher events:
+
+ - ``PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE``
+ - ``PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY``
+ - ``PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_CODE``
+ - ``PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_DEFAULTS``
+ - ``PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_KWDEFAULTS``
.. versionadded:: 3.12
@@ -168,7 +198,7 @@ There are a few functions specific to Python functions.
unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion.
If *event* is ``PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE``, then the callback is invoked
- after `func` has been fully initialized. Otherwise, the callback is invoked
+ after *func* has been fully initialized. Otherwise, the callback is invoked
before the modification to *func* takes place, so the prior state of *func*
can be inspected. The runtime is permitted to optimize away the creation of
function objects when possible. In such cases no event will be emitted.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/gcsupport.rst b/Doc/c-api/gcsupport.rst
index 621da3eb069949c..afec8cbea93bccd 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/gcsupport.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/gcsupport.rst
@@ -175,14 +175,18 @@ The :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` handler must have the following type:
object argument. If *visit* returns a non-zero value that value should be
returned immediately.
+ The traversal function must not have any side effects. Implementations
+ may not modify the reference counts of any Python objects nor create or
+ destroy any Python objects.
+
To simplify writing :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` handlers, a :c:func:`Py_VISIT` macro is
provided. In order to use this macro, the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` implementation
must name its arguments exactly *visit* and *arg*:
-.. c:function:: void Py_VISIT(PyObject *o)
+.. c:macro:: Py_VISIT(o)
- If *o* is not ``NULL``, call the *visit* callback, with arguments *o*
+ If the :c:expr:`PyObject *` *o* is not ``NULL``, call the *visit* callback, with arguments *o*
and *arg*. If *visit* returns a non-zero value, then return it.
Using this macro, :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` handlers
look like::
@@ -277,7 +281,7 @@ the garbage collector.
Type of the visitor function to be passed to :c:func:`PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects`.
*arg* is the same as the *arg* passed to ``PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects``.
- Return ``0`` to continue iteration, return ``1`` to stop iteration. Other return
+ Return ``1`` to continue iteration, return ``0`` to stop iteration. Other return
values are reserved for now so behavior on returning anything else is undefined.
.. versionadded:: 3.12
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/gen.rst b/Doc/c-api/gen.rst
index 0eb5922f6da75f2..ae7bf7c94aa5ea9 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/gen.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/gen.rst
@@ -35,12 +35,51 @@ than explicitly calling :c:func:`PyGen_New` or :c:func:`PyGen_NewWithQualName`.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyGen_New(PyFrameObject *frame)
Create and return a new generator object based on the *frame* object.
- A reference to *frame* is stolen by this function. The argument must not be
- ``NULL``.
+ A reference to *frame* is ":term:`stolen <steal>`" by this function (even
+ on error). The argument must not be ``NULL``.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyGen_NewWithQualName(PyFrameObject *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)
Create and return a new generator object based on the *frame* object,
with ``__name__`` and ``__qualname__`` set to *name* and *qualname*.
- A reference to *frame* is stolen by this function. The *frame* argument
+ A reference to *frame* is ":term:`stolen <steal>`" by this function (even
+ on error). The *frame* argument must not be ``NULL``.
+
+.. c:function:: PyCodeObject* PyGen_GetCode(PyGenObject *gen)
+
+ Return a new :term:`strong reference` to the code object wrapped by *gen*.
+ This function always succeeds.
+
+
+Asynchronous Generator Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. seealso::
+ :pep:`525`
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyAsyncGen_Type
+
+ The type object corresponding to asynchronous generator objects. This is
+ available as :class:`types.AsyncGeneratorType` in the Python layer.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyAsyncGen_New(PyFrameObject *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)
+
+ Create a new asynchronous generator wrapping *frame*, with ``__name__`` and
+ ``__qualname__`` set to *name* and *qualname*.
+ *frame* is ":term:`stolen <steal>`" by this function (even on error) and
must not be ``NULL``.
+
+ On success, this function returns a :term:`strong reference` to the
+ new asynchronous generator. On failure, this function returns ``NULL``
+ with an exception set.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+.. c:function:: int PyAsyncGen_CheckExact(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return true if *op* is an asynchronous generator object, false otherwise.
+ This function always succeeds.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/hash.rst b/Doc/c-api/hash.rst
index ddf0b3e15dbdbe2..bfbd737c031340e 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/hash.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/hash.rst
@@ -11,41 +11,103 @@ See also the :c:member:`PyTypeObject.tp_hash` member and :ref:`numeric-hash`.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
.. c:type:: Py_uhash_t
Hash value type: unsigned integer.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_HASH_ALGORITHM
+
+ A numerical value indicating the algorithm for hashing of :class:`str`,
+ :class:`bytes`, and :class:`memoryview`.
+
+ The algorithm name is exposed by :data:`sys.hash_info.algorithm`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_HASH_FNV
+ Py_HASH_SIPHASH24
+ Py_HASH_SIPHASH13
+
+ Numerical values to compare to :c:macro:`Py_HASH_ALGORITHM` to determine
+ which algorithm is used for hashing. The hash algorithm can be configured
+ via the configure :option:`--with-hash-algorithm` option.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+ Add :c:macro:`!Py_HASH_FNV` and :c:macro:`!Py_HASH_SIPHASH24`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.11
+ Add :c:macro:`!Py_HASH_SIPHASH13`.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_HASH_CUTOFF
+
+ Buffers of length in range ``[1, Py_HASH_CUTOFF)`` are hashed using DJBX33A
+ instead of the algorithm described by :c:macro:`Py_HASH_ALGORITHM`.
+
+ - A :c:macro:`!Py_HASH_CUTOFF` of 0 disables the optimization.
+ - :c:macro:`!Py_HASH_CUTOFF` must be non-negative and less or equal than 7.
+
+ 32-bit platforms should use a cutoff smaller than 64-bit platforms because
+ it is easier to create colliding strings. A cutoff of 7 on 64-bit platforms
+ and 5 on 32-bit platforms should provide a decent safety margin.
+
+ This corresponds to the :data:`sys.hash_info.cutoff` constant.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
.. c:macro:: PyHASH_MODULUS
- The `Mersenne prime <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersenne_prime>`_ ``P = 2**n -1``, used for numeric hash scheme.
+ The `Mersenne prime <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersenne_prime>`_ ``P = 2**n -1``,
+ used for numeric hash scheme.
+
+ This corresponds to the :data:`sys.hash_info.modulus` constant.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
+
.. c:macro:: PyHASH_BITS
The exponent ``n`` of ``P`` in :c:macro:`PyHASH_MODULUS`.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+.. c:macro:: PyHASH_MULTIPLIER
+
+ Prime multiplier used in string and various other hashes.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
.. c:macro:: PyHASH_INF
The hash value returned for a positive infinity.
+ This corresponds to the :data:`sys.hash_info.inf` constant.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.13
+
.. c:macro:: PyHASH_IMAG
The multiplier used for the imaginary part of a complex number.
+ This corresponds to the :data:`sys.hash_info.imag` constant.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.13
+
.. c:type:: PyHash_FuncDef
Hash function definition used by :c:func:`PyHash_GetFuncDef`.
- .. c::member:: Py_hash_t (*const hash)(const void *, Py_ssize_t)
+ .. c:member:: Py_hash_t (*const hash)(const void *, Py_ssize_t)
Hash function.
@@ -53,14 +115,20 @@ See also the :c:member:`PyTypeObject.tp_hash` member and :ref:`numeric-hash`.
Hash function name (UTF-8 encoded string).
+ This corresponds to the :data:`sys.hash_info.algorithm` constant.
+
.. c:member:: const int hash_bits
Internal size of the hash value in bits.
+ This corresponds to the :data:`sys.hash_info.hash_bits` constant.
+
.. c:member:: const int seed_bits
Size of seed input in bits.
+ This corresponds to the :data:`sys.hash_info.seed_bits` constant.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.4
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/import.rst b/Doc/c-api/import.rst
index 1054b38cb92f7d0..56cf3ec3c129a4e 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/import.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/import.rst
@@ -136,14 +136,14 @@ Importing Modules
such modules have no way to know that the module object is an unknown (and
probably damaged with respect to the module author's intents) state.
- The module's :attr:`__spec__` and :attr:`__loader__` will be set, if
- not set already, with the appropriate values. The spec's loader will
- be set to the module's ``__loader__`` (if set) and to an instance of
- :class:`~importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader` otherwise.
+ The module's :attr:`~module.__spec__` and :attr:`~module.__loader__` will be
+ set, if not set already, with the appropriate values. The spec's loader
+ will be set to the module's :attr:`!__loader__` (if set) and to an instance
+ of :class:`~importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader` otherwise.
- The module's :attr:`__file__` attribute will be set to the code object's
- :attr:`~codeobject.co_filename`. If applicable, :attr:`__cached__` will also
- be set.
+ The module's :attr:`~module.__file__` attribute will be set to the code
+ object's :attr:`~codeobject.co_filename`. If applicable,
+ :attr:`~module.__cached__` will also be set.
This function will reload the module if it was already imported. See
:c:func:`PyImport_ReloadModule` for the intended way to reload a module.
@@ -155,29 +155,29 @@ Importing Modules
:c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
- The setting of :attr:`__cached__` and :attr:`__loader__` is
- deprecated. See :class:`~importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec` for
+ The setting of :attr:`~module.__cached__` and :attr:`~module.__loader__`
+ is deprecated. See :class:`~importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec` for
alternatives.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(const char *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname)
- Like :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModule`, but the :attr:`__file__` attribute of
- the module object is set to *pathname* if it is non-``NULL``.
+ Like :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModule`, but the :attr:`~module.__file__`
+ attribute of the module object is set to *pathname* if it is non-``NULL``.
See also :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames`.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(PyObject *name, PyObject *co, PyObject *pathname, PyObject *cpathname)
- Like :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx`, but the :attr:`__cached__`
+ Like :c:func:`PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx`, but the :attr:`~module.__cached__`
attribute of the module object is set to *cpathname* if it is
non-``NULL``. Of the three functions, this is the preferred one to use.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
- Setting :attr:`__cached__` is deprecated. See
+ Setting :attr:`~module.__cached__` is deprecated. See
:class:`~importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec` for alternatives.
@@ -190,7 +190,7 @@ Importing Modules
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
- Uses :func:`!imp.source_from_cache()` in calculating the source path if
+ Uses :func:`!imp.source_from_cache` in calculating the source path if
only the bytecode path is provided.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
No longer uses the removed :mod:`!imp` module.
@@ -325,3 +325,10 @@ Importing Modules
If Python is initialized multiple times, :c:func:`PyImport_AppendInittab` or
:c:func:`PyImport_ExtendInittab` must be called before each Python
initialization.
+
+
+.. c:var:: struct _inittab *PyImport_Inittab
+
+ The table of built-in modules used by Python initialization. Do not use this directly;
+ use :c:func:`PyImport_AppendInittab` and :c:func:`PyImport_ExtendInittab`
+ instead.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/init.rst b/Doc/c-api/init.rst
index 9e118d4f36145f8..8e0c2ce6444da82 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/init.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/init.rst
@@ -7,7 +7,8 @@
Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
*****************************************
-See also :ref:`Python Initialization Configuration <init-config>`.
+See :ref:`Python Initialization Configuration <init-config>` for details
+on how to configure the interpreter prior to initialization.
.. _pre-init-safe:
@@ -21,6 +22,15 @@ a few functions and the :ref:`global configuration variables
The following functions can be safely called before Python is initialized:
+* Functions that initialize the interpreter:
+
+ * :c:func:`Py_Initialize`
+ * :c:func:`Py_InitializeEx`
+ * :c:func:`Py_InitializeFromConfig`
+ * :c:func:`Py_BytesMain`
+ * :c:func:`Py_Main`
+ * the runtime pre-initialization functions covered in :ref:`init-config`
+
* Configuration functions:
* :c:func:`PyImport_AppendInittab`
@@ -32,6 +42,7 @@ The following functions can be safely called before Python is initialized:
* :c:func:`Py_SetProgramName`
* :c:func:`Py_SetPythonHome`
* :c:func:`PySys_ResetWarnOptions`
+ * the configuration functions covered in :ref:`init-config`
* Informative functions:
@@ -43,10 +54,12 @@ The following functions can be safely called before Python is initialized:
* :c:func:`Py_GetCopyright`
* :c:func:`Py_GetPlatform`
* :c:func:`Py_GetVersion`
+ * :c:func:`Py_IsInitialized`
* Utilities:
* :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale`
+ * the status reporting and utility functions covered in :ref:`init-config`
* Memory allocators:
@@ -55,13 +68,20 @@ The following functions can be safely called before Python is initialized:
* :c:func:`PyMem_RawCalloc`
* :c:func:`PyMem_RawFree`
+* Synchronization:
+
+ * :c:func:`PyMutex_Lock`
+ * :c:func:`PyMutex_Unlock`
+
.. note::
- The following functions **should not be called** before
- :c:func:`Py_Initialize`: :c:func:`Py_EncodeLocale`, :c:func:`Py_GetPath`,
+ Despite their apparent similarity to some of the functions listed above,
+ the following functions **should not be called** before the interpreter has
+ been initialized: :c:func:`Py_EncodeLocale`, :c:func:`Py_GetPath`,
:c:func:`Py_GetPrefix`, :c:func:`Py_GetExecPrefix`,
:c:func:`Py_GetProgramFullPath`, :c:func:`Py_GetPythonHome`,
- :c:func:`Py_GetProgramName` and :c:func:`PyEval_InitThreads`.
+ :c:func:`Py_GetProgramName`, :c:func:`PyEval_InitThreads`, and
+ :c:func:`Py_RunMain`.
.. _global-conf-vars:
@@ -183,7 +203,7 @@ to 1 and ``-bb`` sets :c:data:`Py_BytesWarningFlag` to 2.
Set by the :option:`-i` option.
- .. deprecated:: 3.12
+ .. deprecated-removed:: 3.12 3.15
.. c:var:: int Py_IsolatedFlag
@@ -341,34 +361,42 @@ Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
this should be called before using any other Python/C API functions; see
:ref:`Before Python Initialization <pre-init-safe>` for the few exceptions.
- This initializes
- the table of loaded modules (``sys.modules``), and creates the fundamental
- modules :mod:`builtins`, :mod:`__main__` and :mod:`sys`. It also initializes
- the module search path (``sys.path``). It does not set ``sys.argv``; use
- the new :c:type:`PyConfig` API of the :ref:`Python Initialization
- Configuration <init-config>` for that. This is a no-op when called for a
- second time
- (without calling :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` first). There is no return value; it is a
- fatal error if the initialization fails.
-
- Use the :c:func:`Py_InitializeFromConfig` function to customize the
+ This initializes the table of loaded modules (``sys.modules``), and creates
+ the fundamental modules :mod:`builtins`, :mod:`__main__` and :mod:`sys`.
+ It also initializes the module search path (``sys.path``). It does not set
+ ``sys.argv``; use the :ref:`Python Initialization Configuration <init-config>`
+ API for that. This is a no-op when called for a second time (without calling
+ :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` first). There is no return value; it is a fatal
+ error if the initialization fails.
+
+ Use :c:func:`Py_InitializeFromConfig` to customize the
:ref:`Python Initialization Configuration <init-config>`.
.. note::
- On Windows, changes the console mode from ``O_TEXT`` to ``O_BINARY``, which will
- also affect non-Python uses of the console using the C Runtime.
+ On Windows, changes the console mode from ``O_TEXT`` to ``O_BINARY``,
+ which will also affect non-Python uses of the console using the C Runtime.
.. c:function:: void Py_InitializeEx(int initsigs)
This function works like :c:func:`Py_Initialize` if *initsigs* is ``1``. If
- *initsigs* is ``0``, it skips initialization registration of signal handlers, which
- might be useful when Python is embedded.
+ *initsigs* is ``0``, it skips initialization registration of signal handlers,
+ which may be useful when CPython is embedded as part of a larger application.
- Use the :c:func:`Py_InitializeFromConfig` function to customize the
+ Use :c:func:`Py_InitializeFromConfig` to customize the
:ref:`Python Initialization Configuration <init-config>`.
+.. c:function:: PyStatus Py_InitializeFromConfig(const PyConfig *config)
+
+ Initialize Python from *config* configuration, as described in
+ :ref:`init-from-config`.
+
+ See the :ref:`init-config` section for details on pre-initializing the
+ interpreter, populating the runtime configuration structure, and querying
+ the returned status structure.
+
+
.. c:function:: int Py_IsInitialized()
Return true (nonzero) when the Python interpreter has been initialized, false
@@ -391,9 +419,16 @@ Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
:c:func:`Py_NewInterpreter` below) that were created and not yet destroyed since
the last call to :c:func:`Py_Initialize`. Ideally, this frees all memory
allocated by the Python interpreter. This is a no-op when called for a second
- time (without calling :c:func:`Py_Initialize` again first). Normally the
- return value is ``0``. If there were errors during finalization
- (flushing buffered data), ``-1`` is returned.
+ time (without calling :c:func:`Py_Initialize` again first).
+
+ Since this is the reverse of :c:func:`Py_Initialize`, it should be called
+ in the same thread with the same interpreter active. That means
+ the main thread and the main interpreter.
+ This should never be called while :c:func:`Py_RunMain` is running.
+
+ Normally the return value is ``0``.
+ If there were errors during finalization (flushing buffered data),
+ ``-1`` is returned.
This function is provided for a number of reasons. An embedding application
might want to restart Python without having to restart the application itself.
@@ -412,18 +447,116 @@ Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
freed. Some memory allocated by extension modules may not be freed. Some
extensions may not work properly if their initialization routine is called more
than once; this can happen if an application calls :c:func:`Py_Initialize` and
- :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` more than once.
+ :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` more than once. :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` must not be
+ called recursively from within itself. Therefore, it must not be called by
+ any code that may be run as part of the interpreter shutdown process, such
+ as :py:mod:`atexit` handlers, object finalizers, or any code that may be run
+ while flushing the stdout and stderr files.
.. audit-event:: cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks "" c.Py_FinalizeEx
.. versionadded:: 3.6
+
.. c:function:: void Py_Finalize()
This is a backwards-compatible version of :c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx` that
disregards the return value.
+.. c:function:: int Py_BytesMain(int argc, char **argv)
+
+ Similar to :c:func:`Py_Main` but *argv* is an array of bytes strings,
+ allowing the calling application to delegate the text decoding step to
+ the CPython runtime.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_Main(int argc, wchar_t **argv)
+
+ The main program for the standard interpreter, encapsulating a full
+ initialization/finalization cycle, as well as additional
+ behaviour to implement reading configurations settings from the environment
+ and command line, and then executing ``__main__`` in accordance with
+ :ref:`using-on-cmdline`.
+
+ This is made available for programs which wish to support the full CPython
+ command line interface, rather than just embedding a Python runtime in a
+ larger application.
+
+ The *argc* and *argv* parameters are similar to those which are passed to a
+ C program's :c:func:`main` function, except that the *argv* entries are first
+ converted to ``wchar_t`` using :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale`. It is also
+ important to note that the argument list entries may be modified to point to
+ strings other than those passed in (however, the contents of the strings
+ pointed to by the argument list are not modified).
+
+ The return value is ``2`` if the argument list does not represent a valid
+ Python command line, and otherwise the same as :c:func:`Py_RunMain`.
+
+ In terms of the CPython runtime configuration APIs documented in the
+ :ref:`runtime configuration <init-config>` section (and without accounting
+ for error handling), ``Py_Main`` is approximately equivalent to::
+
+ PyConfig config;
+ PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
+ PyConfig_SetArgv(&config, argc, argv);
+ Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
+ PyConfig_Clear(&config);
+
+ Py_RunMain();
+
+ In normal usage, an embedding application will call this function
+ *instead* of calling :c:func:`Py_Initialize`, :c:func:`Py_InitializeEx` or
+ :c:func:`Py_InitializeFromConfig` directly, and all settings will be applied
+ as described elsewhere in this documentation. If this function is instead
+ called *after* a preceding runtime initialization API call, then exactly
+ which environmental and command line configuration settings will be updated
+ is version dependent (as it depends on which settings correctly support
+ being modified after they have already been set once when the runtime was
+ first initialized).
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_RunMain(void)
+
+ Executes the main module in a fully configured CPython runtime.
+
+ Executes the command (:c:member:`PyConfig.run_command`), the script
+ (:c:member:`PyConfig.run_filename`) or the module
+ (:c:member:`PyConfig.run_module`) specified on the command line or in the
+ configuration. If none of these values are set, runs the interactive Python
+ prompt (REPL) using the ``__main__`` module's global namespace.
+
+ If :c:member:`PyConfig.inspect` is not set (the default), the return value
+ will be ``0`` if the interpreter exits normally (that is, without raising
+ an exception), the exit status of an unhandled :exc:`SystemExit`, or ``1``
+ for any other unhandled exception.
+
+ If :c:member:`PyConfig.inspect` is set (such as when the :option:`-i` option
+ is used), rather than returning when the interpreter exits, execution will
+ instead resume in an interactive Python prompt (REPL) using the ``__main__``
+ module's global namespace. If the interpreter exited with an exception, it
+ is immediately raised in the REPL session. The function return value is
+ then determined by the way the *REPL session* terminates: ``0``, ``1``, or
+ the status of a :exc:`SystemExit`, as specified above.
+
+ This function always finalizes the Python interpreter before it returns.
+
+ See :ref:`Python Configuration <init-python-config>` for an example of a
+ customized Python that always runs in isolated mode using
+ :c:func:`Py_RunMain`.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnstable_AtExit(PyInterpreterState *interp, void (*func)(void *), void *data)
+
+ Register an :mod:`atexit` callback for the target interpreter *interp*.
+ This is similar to :c:func:`Py_AtExit`, but takes an explicit interpreter and
+ data pointer for the callback.
+
+ The :term:`GIL` must be held for *interp*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
Process-wide parameters
=======================
@@ -451,7 +584,7 @@ Process-wide parameters
interpreter will change the contents of this storage.
Use :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale` to decode a bytes string to get a
- :c:expr:`wchar_*` string.
+ :c:expr:`wchar_t*` string.
.. deprecated:: 3.11
@@ -481,7 +614,7 @@ Process-wide parameters
returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its
value. This corresponds to the :makevar:`prefix` variable in the top-level
:file:`Makefile` and the :option:`--prefix` argument to the :program:`configure`
- script at build time. The value is available to Python code as ``sys.prefix``.
+ script at build time. The value is available to Python code as ``sys.base_prefix``.
It is only useful on Unix. See also the next function.
This function should not be called before :c:func:`Py_Initialize`, otherwise
@@ -491,7 +624,8 @@ Process-wide parameters
It now returns ``NULL`` if called before :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
.. deprecated-removed:: 3.13 3.15
- Get :data:`sys.prefix` instead.
+ Get :data:`sys.base_prefix` instead, or :data:`sys.prefix` if
+ :ref:`virtual environments <venv-def>` need to be handled.
.. c:function:: wchar_t* Py_GetExecPrefix()
@@ -504,7 +638,8 @@ Process-wide parameters
should not modify its value. This corresponds to the :makevar:`exec_prefix`
variable in the top-level :file:`Makefile` and the ``--exec-prefix``
argument to the :program:`configure` script at build time. The value is
- available to Python code as ``sys.exec_prefix``. It is only useful on Unix.
+ available to Python code as ``sys.base_exec_prefix``. It is only useful on
+ Unix.
Background: The exec-prefix differs from the prefix when platform dependent
files (such as executables and shared libraries) are installed in a different
@@ -535,7 +670,8 @@ Process-wide parameters
It now returns ``NULL`` if called before :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
.. deprecated-removed:: 3.13 3.15
- Get :data:`sys.exec_prefix` instead.
+ Get :data:`sys.base_exec_prefix` instead, or :data:`sys.exec_prefix` if
+ :ref:`virtual environments <venv-def>` need to be handled.
.. c:function:: wchar_t* Py_GetProgramFullPath()
@@ -690,7 +826,7 @@ Process-wide parameters
directory (``"."``).
Use :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale` to decode a bytes string to get a
- :c:expr:`wchar_*` string.
+ :c:expr:`wchar_t*` string.
See also :c:member:`PyConfig.orig_argv` and :c:member:`PyConfig.argv`
members of the :ref:`Python Initialization Configuration <init-config>`.
@@ -726,7 +862,7 @@ Process-wide parameters
:option:`-I`.
Use :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale` to decode a bytes string to get a
- :c:expr:`wchar_*` string.
+ :c:expr:`wchar_t*` string.
See also :c:member:`PyConfig.orig_argv` and :c:member:`PyConfig.argv`
members of the :ref:`Python Initialization Configuration <init-config>`.
@@ -752,7 +888,7 @@ Process-wide parameters
this storage.
Use :c:func:`Py_DecodeLocale` to decode a bytes string to get a
- :c:expr:`wchar_*` string.
+ :c:expr:`wchar_t*` string.
.. deprecated:: 3.11
@@ -942,6 +1078,37 @@ thread, where the CPython global runtime was originally initialized.
The only exception is if :c:func:`exec` will be called immediately
after.
+.. _cautions-regarding-runtime-finalization:
+
+Cautions regarding runtime finalization
+---------------------------------------
+
+In the late stage of :term:`interpreter shutdown`, after attempting to wait for
+non-daemon threads to exit (though this can be interrupted by
+:class:`KeyboardInterrupt`) and running the :mod:`atexit` functions, the runtime
+is marked as *finalizing*: :c:func:`Py_IsFinalizing` and
+:func:`sys.is_finalizing` return true. At this point, only the *finalization
+thread* that initiated finalization (typically the main thread) is allowed to
+acquire the :term:`GIL`.
+
+If any thread, other than the finalization thread, attempts to acquire the GIL
+during finalization, either explicitly via :c:func:`PyGILState_Ensure`,
+:c:macro:`Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS`, :c:func:`PyEval_AcquireThread`, or
+:c:func:`!PyEval_AcquireLock`, or implicitly when the interpreter attempts to
+reacquire it after having yielded it, the thread enters **a permanently blocked
+state** where it remains until the program exits. In most cases this is
+harmless, but this can result in deadlock if a later stage of finalization
+attempts to acquire a lock owned by the blocked thread, or otherwise waits on
+the blocked thread.
+
+Gross? Yes. This prevents random crashes and/or unexpectedly skipped C++
+finalizations further up the call stack when such threads were forcibly exited
+here in CPython 3.13.7 and earlier. The CPython runtime GIL acquiring C APIs
+have never had any error reporting or handling expectations at GIL acquisition
+time that would've allowed for graceful exit from this situation. Changing that
+would require new stable C APIs and rewriting the majority of C code in the
+CPython ecosystem to use those with error handling.
+
High-level API
--------------
@@ -961,6 +1128,12 @@ code, or when embedding the Python interpreter:
interpreter lock is also shared by all threads, regardless of to which
interpreter they belong.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+
+ :pep:`684` introduced the possibility
+ of a :ref:`per-interpreter GIL <per-interpreter-gil>`.
+ See :c:func:`Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig`.
+
.. c:type:: PyThreadState
@@ -1015,11 +1188,14 @@ code, or when embedding the Python interpreter:
ensues.
.. note::
- Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing
- will terminate the thread, even if the thread was not created by Python.
- You can use :c:func:`Py_IsFinalizing` or :func:`sys.is_finalizing` to
- check if the interpreter is in process of being finalized before calling
- this function to avoid unwanted termination.
+ Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing will
+ hang the thread until the program exits, even if the thread was not
+ created by Python. Refer to
+ :ref:`cautions-regarding-runtime-finalization` for more details.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.8
+ Hangs the current thread, rather than terminating it, if called while the
+ interpreter is finalizing.
.. c:function:: PyThreadState* PyThreadState_Get()
@@ -1044,13 +1220,27 @@ code, or when embedding the Python interpreter:
.. c:function:: PyThreadState* PyThreadState_Swap(PyThreadState *tstate)
Swap the current thread state with the thread state given by the argument
- *tstate*, which may be ``NULL``. The global interpreter lock must be held
- and is not released.
+ *tstate*, which may be ``NULL``.
+ The :term:`GIL` does not need to be held, but will be held upon returning
+ if *tstate* is non-``NULL``.
The following functions use thread-local storage, and are not compatible
with sub-interpreters:
+.. c:type:: PyGILState_STATE
+
+ The type of the value returned by :c:func:`PyGILState_Ensure` and passed to
+ :c:func:`PyGILState_Release`.
+
+ .. c:enumerator:: PyGILState_LOCKED
+
+ The GIL was already held when :c:func:`PyGILState_Ensure` was called.
+
+ .. c:enumerator:: PyGILState_UNLOCKED
+
+ The GIL was not held when :c:func:`PyGILState_Ensure` was called.
+
.. c:function:: PyGILState_STATE PyGILState_Ensure()
Ensure that the current thread is ready to call the Python C API regardless
@@ -1074,11 +1264,14 @@ with sub-interpreters:
to call arbitrary Python code. Failure is a fatal error.
.. note::
- Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing
- will terminate the thread, even if the thread was not created by Python.
- You can use :c:func:`Py_IsFinalizing` or :func:`sys.is_finalizing` to
- check if the interpreter is in process of being finalized before calling
- this function to avoid unwanted termination.
+ Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing will
+ hang the thread until the program exits, even if the thread was not
+ created by Python. Refer to
+ :ref:`cautions-regarding-runtime-finalization` for more details.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.8
+ Hangs the current thread, rather than terminating it, if called while the
+ interpreter is finalizing.
.. c:function:: void PyGILState_Release(PyGILState_STATE)
@@ -1192,9 +1385,12 @@ All of the following functions must be called after :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
must be held.
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
- This function now calls the :c:member:`PyThreadState.on_delete` callback.
+ This function now calls the :c:member:`!PyThreadState.on_delete` callback.
Previously, that happened in :c:func:`PyThreadState_Delete`.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ The :c:member:`!PyThreadState.on_delete` callback was removed.
+
.. c:function:: void PyThreadState_Delete(PyThreadState *tstate)
@@ -1206,7 +1402,7 @@ All of the following functions must be called after :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
.. c:function:: void PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent(void)
Destroy the current thread state and release the global interpreter lock.
- Like :c:func:`PyThreadState_Delete`, the global interpreter lock need not
+ Like :c:func:`PyThreadState_Delete`, the global interpreter lock must
be held. The thread state must have been reset with a previous call
to :c:func:`PyThreadState_Clear`.
@@ -1267,7 +1463,7 @@ All of the following functions must be called after :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
Get the current interpreter.
- Issue a fatal error if there no current Python thread state or no current
+ Issue a fatal error if there is no current Python thread state or no current
interpreter. It cannot return NULL.
The caller must hold the GIL.
@@ -1294,8 +1490,22 @@ All of the following functions must be called after :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
This is not a replacement for :c:func:`PyModule_GetState()`, which
extensions should use to store interpreter-specific state information.
+ The returned dictionary is borrowed from the interpreter and is valid until
+ interpreter shutdown.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnstable_InterpreterState_GetMainModule(PyInterpreterState *interp)
+
+ Return a :term:`strong reference` to the ``__main__`` :ref:`module object <moduleobjects>`
+ for the given interpreter.
+
+ The caller must hold the GIL.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
.. c:type:: PyObject* (*_PyFrameEvalFunction)(PyThreadState *tstate, _PyInterpreterFrame *frame, int throwflag)
Type of a frame evaluation function.
@@ -1356,17 +1566,20 @@ All of the following functions must be called after :c:func:`Py_Initialize`.
If this thread already has the lock, deadlock ensues.
.. note::
- Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing
- will terminate the thread, even if the thread was not created by Python.
- You can use :c:func:`Py_IsFinalizing` or :func:`sys.is_finalizing` to
- check if the interpreter is in process of being finalized before calling
- this function to avoid unwanted termination.
+ Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing will
+ hang the thread until the program exits, even if the thread was not
+ created by Python. Refer to
+ :ref:`cautions-regarding-runtime-finalization` for more details.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
Updated to be consistent with :c:func:`PyEval_RestoreThread`,
:c:func:`Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS`, and :c:func:`PyGILState_Ensure`,
and terminate the current thread if called while the interpreter is finalizing.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.8
+ Hangs the current thread, rather than terminating it, if called while the
+ interpreter is finalizing.
+
:c:func:`PyEval_RestoreThread` is a higher-level function which is always
available (even when threads have not been initialized).
@@ -1548,7 +1761,11 @@ function. You can create and destroy them using the following functions:
.check_multi_interp_extensions = 1,
.gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL,
};
- PyThreadState *tstate = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&config);
+ PyThreadState *tstate = NULL;
+ PyStatus status = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&tstate, &config);
+ if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
+ Py_ExitStatusException(status);
+ }
Note that the config is used only briefly and does not get modified.
During initialization the config's values are converted into various
@@ -1622,6 +1839,8 @@ function. You can create and destroy them using the following functions:
haven't been explicitly destroyed at that point.
+.. _per-interpreter-gil:
+
A Per-Interpreter GIL
---------------------
@@ -1633,7 +1852,7 @@ being blocked by other interpreters or blocking any others. Thus a
single Python process can truly take advantage of multiple CPU cores
when running Python code. The isolation also encourages a different
approach to concurrency than that of just using threads.
-(See :pep:`554`.)
+(See :pep:`554` and :pep:`684`.)
Using an isolated interpreter requires vigilance in preserving that
isolation. That especially means not sharing any objects or mutable
@@ -1741,6 +1960,29 @@ pointer and a void pointer argument.
called from the main interpreter. Each subinterpreter now has its own
list of scheduled calls.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ This function now always schedules *func* to be run in the main
+ interpreter.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int Py_MakePendingCalls(void)
+
+ Execute all pending calls. This is usually executed automatically by the
+ interpreter.
+
+ This function returns ``0`` on success, and returns ``-1`` with an exception
+ set on failure.
+
+ If this is not called in the main thread of the main
+ interpreter, this function does nothing and returns ``0``.
+ The caller must hold the :term:`GIL`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ This function only runs pending calls in the main interpreter.
+
+
.. _profiling:
Profiling and Tracing
@@ -1809,7 +2051,7 @@ Python-level trace functions in previous versions.
*what* when after any bytecode is processed after which the exception becomes
set within the frame being executed. The effect of this is that as exception
propagation causes the Python stack to unwind, the callback is called upon
- return to each frame as the exception propagates. Only trace functions receives
+ return to each frame as the exception propagates. Only trace functions receive
these events; they are not needed by the profiler.
@@ -1937,7 +2179,7 @@ Reference tracing
the tracer function is called. Return ``0`` on success. Set an exception and
return ``-1`` on error.
- Not that tracer functions **must not** create Python objects inside or
+ Note that tracer functions **must not** create Python objects inside or
otherwise the call will be re-entrant. The tracer also **must not** clear
any existing exception or set an exception. The GIL will be held every time
the tracer function is called.
@@ -2152,3 +2394,368 @@ be used in new code.
.. c:function:: void PyThread_delete_key_value(int key)
.. c:function:: void PyThread_ReInitTLS()
+Synchronization Primitives
+==========================
+
+The C-API provides a basic mutual exclusion lock.
+
+.. c:type:: PyMutex
+
+ A mutual exclusion lock. The :c:type:`!PyMutex` should be initialized to
+ zero to represent the unlocked state. For example::
+
+ PyMutex mutex = {0};
+
+ Instances of :c:type:`!PyMutex` should not be copied or moved. Both the
+ contents and address of a :c:type:`!PyMutex` are meaningful, and it must
+ remain at a fixed, writable location in memory.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ A :c:type:`!PyMutex` currently occupies one byte, but the size should be
+ considered unstable. The size may change in future Python releases
+ without a deprecation period.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+.. c:function:: void PyMutex_Lock(PyMutex *m)
+
+ Lock mutex *m*. If another thread has already locked it, the calling
+ thread will block until the mutex is unlocked. While blocked, the thread
+ will temporarily release the :term:`GIL` if it is held.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+.. c:function:: void PyMutex_Unlock(PyMutex *m)
+
+ Unlock mutex *m*. The mutex must be locked --- otherwise, the function will
+ issue a fatal error.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+.. _python-critical-section-api:
+
+Python Critical Section API
+---------------------------
+
+The critical section API provides a deadlock avoidance layer on top of
+per-object locks for :term:`free-threaded <free threading>` CPython. They are
+intended to replace reliance on the :term:`global interpreter lock`, and are
+no-ops in versions of Python with the global interpreter lock.
+
+Critical sections are intended to be used for custom types implemented
+in C-API extensions. They should generally not be used with built-in types like
+:class:`list` and :class:`dict` because their public C-APIs
+already use critical sections internally, with the notable
+exception of :c:func:`PyDict_Next`, which requires critical section
+to be acquired externally.
+
+Critical sections avoid deadlocks by implicitly suspending active critical
+sections, hence, they do not provide exclusive access such as provided by
+traditional locks like :c:type:`PyMutex`. When a critical section is started,
+the per-object lock for the object is acquired. If the code executed inside the
+critical section calls C-API functions then it can suspend the critical section thereby
+releasing the per-object lock, so other threads can acquire the per-object lock
+for the same object.
+
+The functions and structs used by the macros are exposed for cases
+where C macros are not available. They should only be used as in the
+given macro expansions. Note that the sizes and contents of the structures may
+change in future Python versions.
+
+.. note::
+
+ Operations that need to lock two objects at once must use
+ :c:macro:`Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2`. You *cannot* use nested critical
+ sections to lock more than one object at once, because the inner critical
+ section may suspend the outer critical sections. This API does not provide
+ a way to lock more than two objects at once.
+
+Example usage::
+
+ static PyObject *
+ set_field(MyObject *self, PyObject *value)
+ {
+ Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(self);
+ Py_SETREF(self->field, Py_XNewRef(value));
+ Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();
+ Py_RETURN_NONE;
+ }
+
+In the above example, :c:macro:`Py_SETREF` calls :c:macro:`Py_DECREF`, which
+can call arbitrary code through an object's deallocation function. The critical
+section API avoids potential deadlocks due to reentrancy and lock ordering
+by allowing the runtime to temporarily suspend the critical section if the
+code triggered by the finalizer blocks and calls :c:func:`PyEval_SaveThread`.
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(op)
+
+ Acquires the per-object lock for the object *op* and begins a
+ critical section.
+
+ In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to::
+
+ {
+ PyCriticalSection _py_cs;
+ PyCriticalSection_Begin(&_py_cs, (PyObject*)(op))
+
+ In the default build, this macro expands to ``{``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION()
+
+ Ends the critical section and releases the per-object lock.
+
+ In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to::
+
+ PyCriticalSection_End(&_py_cs);
+ }
+
+ In the default build, this macro expands to ``}``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2(a, b)
+
+ Acquires the per-objects locks for the objects *a* and *b* and begins a
+ critical section. The locks are acquired in a consistent order (lowest
+ address first) to avoid lock ordering deadlocks.
+
+ In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to::
+
+ {
+ PyCriticalSection2 _py_cs2;
+ PyCriticalSection2_Begin(&_py_cs2, (PyObject*)(a), (PyObject*)(b))
+
+ In the default build, this macro expands to ``{``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION2()
+
+ Ends the critical section and releases the per-object locks.
+
+ In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to::
+
+ PyCriticalSection2_End(&_py_cs2);
+ }
+
+ In the default build, this macro expands to ``}``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
+Legacy Locking APIs
+-------------------
+
+These APIs are obsolete since Python 3.13 with the introduction of
+:c:type:`PyMutex`.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.15
+ These APIs are now a simple wrapper around ``PyMutex``.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyThread_type_lock
+
+ A pointer to a mutual exclusion lock.
+
+
+.. c:type:: PyLockStatus
+
+ The result of acquiring a lock with a timeout.
+
+ .. c:namespace:: NULL
+
+ .. c:enumerator:: PY_LOCK_FAILURE
+
+ Failed to acquire the lock.
+
+ .. c:enumerator:: PY_LOCK_ACQUIRED
+
+ The lock was successfully acquired.
+
+ .. c:enumerator:: PY_LOCK_INTR
+
+ The lock was interrupted by a signal.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyThread_type_lock PyThread_allocate_lock(void)
+
+ Allocate a new lock.
+
+ On success, this function returns a lock; on failure, this
+ function returns ``0`` without an exception set.
+
+ The caller does not need to hold the :term:`GIL`.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.15
+ This function now always uses :c:type:`PyMutex`. In prior versions, this
+ would use a lock provided by the operating system.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyThread_free_lock(PyThread_type_lock lock)
+
+ Destroy *lock*. The lock should not be held by any thread when calling
+ this.
+
+ The caller does not need to hold the :term:`GIL`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyLockStatus PyThread_acquire_lock_timed(PyThread_type_lock lock, long long microseconds, int intr_flag)
+
+ Acquire *lock* with a timeout.
+
+ This will wait for *microseconds* microseconds to acquire the lock. If the
+ timeout expires, this function returns :c:enumerator:`PY_LOCK_FAILURE`.
+ If *microseconds* is ``-1``, this will wait indefinitely until the lock has
+ been released.
+
+ If *intr_flag* is ``1``, acquiring the lock may be interrupted by a signal,
+ in which case this function returns :c:enumerator:`PY_LOCK_INTR`. Upon
+ interruption, it's generally expected that the caller makes a call to
+ :c:func:`Py_MakePendingCalls` to propagate an exception to Python code.
+
+ If the lock is successfully acquired, this function returns
+ :c:enumerator:`PY_LOCK_ACQUIRED`.
+
+ The caller does not need to hold the :term:`GIL`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyThread_acquire_lock(PyThread_type_lock lock, int waitflag)
+
+ Acquire *lock*.
+
+ If *waitflag* is ``1`` and another thread currently holds the lock, this
+ function will wait until the lock can be acquired and will always return
+ ``1``.
+
+ If *waitflag* is ``0`` and another thread holds the lock, this function will
+ not wait and instead return ``0``. If the lock is not held by any other
+ thread, then this function will acquire it and return ``1``.
+
+ Unlike :c:func:`PyThread_acquire_lock_timed`, acquiring the lock cannot be
+ interrupted by a signal.
+
+ The caller does not need to hold the :term:`GIL`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyThread_release_lock(PyThread_type_lock lock)
+
+ Release *lock*. If *lock* is not held, then this function issues a
+ fatal error.
+
+ The caller does not need to hold the :term:`GIL`.
+
+
+Operating System Thread APIs
+============================
+
+.. c:macro:: PYTHREAD_INVALID_THREAD_ID
+
+ Sentinel value for an invalid thread ID.
+
+ This is currently equivalent to ``(unsigned long)-1``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: unsigned long PyThread_start_new_thread(void (*func)(void *), void *arg)
+
+ Start function *func* in a new thread with argument *arg*.
+ The resulting thread is not intended to be joined.
+
+ *func* must not be ``NULL``, but *arg* may be ``NULL``.
+
+ On success, this function returns the identifier of the new thread; on failure,
+ this returns :c:macro:`PYTHREAD_INVALID_THREAD_ID`.
+
+ The caller does not need to hold the :term:`GIL`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: unsigned long PyThread_get_thread_ident(void)
+
+ Return the identifier of the current thread, which will never be zero.
+
+ This function cannot fail, and the caller does not need to hold the
+ :term:`GIL`.
+
+ .. seealso::
+ :py:func:`threading.get_ident`
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyThread_GetInfo(void)
+
+ Get general information about the current thread in the form of a
+ :ref:`struct sequence <struct-sequence-objects>` object. This information is
+ accessible as :py:attr:`sys.thread_info` in Python.
+
+ On success, this returns a new :term:`strong reference` to the thread
+ information; on failure, this returns ``NULL`` with an exception set.
+
+ The caller must hold the :term:`GIL`.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: PY_HAVE_THREAD_NATIVE_ID
+
+ This macro is defined when the system supports native thread IDs.
+
+
+.. c:function:: unsigned long PyThread_get_thread_native_id(void)
+
+ Get the native identifier of the current thread as it was assigned by the operating
+ system's kernel, which will never be less than zero.
+
+ This function is only available when :c:macro:`PY_HAVE_THREAD_NATIVE_ID` is
+ defined.
+
+ This function cannot fail, and the caller does not need to hold the
+ :term:`GIL`.
+
+ .. seealso::
+ :py:func:`threading.get_native_id`
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyThread_exit_thread(void)
+
+ Terminate the current thread. This function is generally considered unsafe
+ and should be avoided. It is kept solely for backwards compatibility.
+
+ This function is only safe to call if all functions in the full call
+ stack are written to safely allow it.
+
+ .. warning::
+
+ If the current system uses POSIX threads (also known as "pthreads"),
+ this calls :manpage:`pthread_exit(3)`, which attempts to unwind the stack
+ and call C++ destructors on some libc implementations. However, if a
+ ``noexcept`` function is reached, it may terminate the process.
+ Other systems, such as macOS, do unwinding.
+
+ On Windows, this function calls ``_endthreadex()``, which kills the thread
+ without calling C++ destructors.
+
+ In any case, there is a risk of corruption on the thread's stack.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyThread_init_thread(void)
+
+ Initialize ``PyThread*`` APIs. Python executes this function automatically,
+ so there's little need to call it from an extension module.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyThread_set_stacksize(size_t size)
+
+ Set the stack size of the current thread to *size* bytes.
+
+ This function returns ``0`` on success, ``-1`` if *size* is invalid, or
+ ``-2`` if the system does not support changing the stack size. This function
+ does not set exceptions.
+
+ The caller does not need to hold the :term:`GIL`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: size_t PyThread_get_stacksize(void)
+
+ Return the stack size of the current thread in bytes, or ``0`` if the system's
+ default stack size is in use.
+
+ The caller does not need to hold the :term:`GIL`.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/init_config.rst b/Doc/c-api/init_config.rst
index 5195f6cccfe9dfd..7053b53537c5552 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/init_config.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/init_config.rst
@@ -321,7 +321,7 @@ PyPreConfig
* Set :c:member:`PyConfig.filesystem_encoding` to ``"mbcs"``,
* Set :c:member:`PyConfig.filesystem_errors` to ``"replace"``.
- Initialized the from :envvar:`PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING` environment
+ Initialized from the :envvar:`PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING` environment
variable value.
Only available on Windows. ``#ifdef MS_WINDOWS`` macro can be used for
@@ -509,7 +509,7 @@ PyConfig
The :c:func:`PyConfig_Read` function only parses
:c:member:`PyConfig.argv` arguments once: :c:member:`PyConfig.parse_argv`
is set to ``2`` after arguments are parsed. Since Python arguments are
- strippped from :c:member:`PyConfig.argv`, parsing arguments twice would
+ stripped from :c:member:`PyConfig.argv`, parsing arguments twice would
parse the application options as Python options.
:ref:`Preinitialize Python <c-preinit>` if needed.
@@ -532,7 +532,7 @@ PyConfig
Most ``PyConfig`` methods :ref:`preinitialize Python <c-preinit>` if needed.
In that case, the Python preinitialization configuration
- (:c:type:`PyPreConfig`) in based on the :c:type:`PyConfig`. If configuration
+ (:c:type:`PyPreConfig`) is based on the :c:type:`PyConfig`. If configuration
fields which are in common with :c:type:`PyPreConfig` are tuned, they must
be set before calling a :c:type:`PyConfig` method:
@@ -610,9 +610,9 @@ PyConfig
.. c:member:: wchar_t* base_executable
- Python base executable: :data:`sys._base_executable`.
+ Python base executable: ``sys._base_executable``.
- Set by the :envvar:`__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__` environment variable.
+ Set by the ``__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__`` environment variable.
Set from :c:member:`PyConfig.executable` if ``NULL``.
@@ -1041,7 +1041,7 @@ PyConfig
The :c:func:`PyConfig_Read` function only parses
:c:member:`PyConfig.argv` arguments once: :c:member:`PyConfig.parse_argv`
is set to ``2`` after arguments are parsed. Since Python arguments are
- strippped from :c:member:`PyConfig.argv`, parsing arguments twice would
+ stripped from :c:member:`PyConfig.argv`, parsing arguments twice would
parse the application options as Python options.
Default: ``1`` in Python mode, ``0`` in isolated mode.
@@ -1093,7 +1093,7 @@ PyConfig
* On macOS, use :envvar:`PYTHONEXECUTABLE` environment variable if set.
* If the ``WITH_NEXT_FRAMEWORK`` macro is defined, use
- :envvar:`__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__` environment variable if set.
+ ``__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__`` environment variable if set.
* Use ``argv[0]`` of :c:member:`~PyConfig.argv` if available and
non-empty.
* Otherwise, use ``L"python"`` on Windows, or ``L"python3"`` on other
@@ -1304,8 +1304,7 @@ PyConfig
The :mod:`warnings` module adds :data:`sys.warnoptions` in the reverse
order: the last :c:member:`PyConfig.warnoptions` item becomes the first
- item of :data:`warnings.filters` which is checked first (highest
- priority).
+ item of ``warnings.filters`` which is checked first (highest priority).
The :option:`-W` command line options adds its value to
:c:member:`~PyConfig.warnoptions`, it can be used multiple times.
@@ -1348,14 +1347,13 @@ the :option:`-X` command line option.
The ``show_alloc_count`` field has been removed.
+.. _init-from-config:
+
Initialization with PyConfig
============================
-Function to initialize Python:
-
-.. c:function:: PyStatus Py_InitializeFromConfig(const PyConfig *config)
-
- Initialize Python from *config* configuration.
+Initializing the interpreter from a populated configuration struct is handled
+by calling :c:func:`Py_InitializeFromConfig`.
The caller is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using
:c:func:`PyStatus_Exception` and :c:func:`Py_ExitStatusException`.
@@ -1585,26 +1583,6 @@ The ``__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__`` environment variable is used to set
:c:member:`PyConfig.base_executable`.
-Py_RunMain()
-============
-
-.. c:function:: int Py_RunMain(void)
-
- Execute the command (:c:member:`PyConfig.run_command`), the script
- (:c:member:`PyConfig.run_filename`) or the module
- (:c:member:`PyConfig.run_module`) specified on the command line or in the
- configuration.
-
- By default and when if :option:`-i` option is used, run the REPL.
-
- Finally, finalizes Python and returns an exit status that can be passed to
- the ``exit()`` function.
-
-See :ref:`Python Configuration <init-python-config>` for an example of
-customized Python always running in isolated mode using
-:c:func:`Py_RunMain`.
-
-
Py_GetArgcArgv()
================
@@ -1642,7 +1620,7 @@ initialization, the core feature of :pep:`432`:
Private provisional API:
-* :c:member:`PyConfig._init_main`: if set to ``0``,
+* ``PyConfig._init_main``: if set to ``0``,
:c:func:`Py_InitializeFromConfig` stops at the "Core" initialization phase.
.. c:function:: PyStatus _Py_InitializeMain(void)
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/intro.rst b/Doc/c-api/intro.rst
index 8ef463e3f88ca8f..0259d809c6cbe73 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/intro.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/intro.rst
@@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ complete listing.
item defined in the module file. Example::
static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = {
- PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
+ .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
.m_name = "spam",
...
};
@@ -125,7 +125,7 @@ complete listing.
PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_spam(void)
{
- return PyModule_Create(&spam_module);
+ return PyModuleDef_Init(&spam_module);
}
@@ -133,12 +133,45 @@ complete listing.
Return the absolute value of ``x``.
+ If the result cannot be represented (for example, if ``x`` has
+ :c:macro:`!INT_MIN` value for :c:expr:`int` type), the behavior is
+ undefined.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.3
+.. c:macro:: Py_ALIGNED(num)
+
+ Specify alignment to *num* bytes on compilers that support it.
+
+ Consider using the C11 standard ``_Alignas`` specifier over this macro.
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_ARITHMETIC_RIGHT_SHIFT(type, integer, positions)
+
+ Similar to ``integer >> positions``, but forces sign extension, as the C
+ standard does not define whether a right-shift of a signed integer will
+ perform sign extension or a zero-fill.
+
+ *integer* should be any signed integer type.
+ *positions* is the number of positions to shift to the right.
+
+ Both *integer* and *positions* can be evaluated more than once;
+ consequently, avoid directly passing a function call or some other
+ operation with side-effects to this macro. Instead, store the result as a
+ variable and then pass it.
+
+ *type* is unused and only kept for backwards compatibility. Historically,
+ *type* was used to cast *integer*.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.1
+
+ This macro is now valid for all signed integer types, not just those for
+ which ``unsigned type`` is legal. As a result, *type* is no longer
+ used.
+
.. c:macro:: Py_ALWAYS_INLINE
Ask the compiler to always inline a static inline function. The compiler can
- ignore it and decides to not inline the function.
+ ignore it and decide to not inline the function.
It can be used to inline performance critical static inline functions when
building Python in debug mode with function inlining disabled. For example,
@@ -157,6 +190,15 @@ complete listing.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
+.. c:macro:: Py_CAN_START_THREADS
+
+ If this macro is defined, then the current system is able to start threads.
+
+ Currently, all systems supported by CPython (per :pep:`11`), with the
+ exception of some WebAssembly platforms, support starting threads.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
.. c:macro:: Py_CHARMASK(c)
Argument must be a character or an integer in the range [-128, 127] or [0,
@@ -174,11 +216,54 @@ complete listing.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
MSVC support was added.
+.. c:macro:: Py_FORCE_EXPANSION(X)
+
+ This is equivalent to ``X``, which is useful for token-pasting in
+ macros, as macro expansions in *X* are forcefully evaluated by the
+ preprocessor.
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_GCC_ATTRIBUTE(name)
+
+ Use a GCC attribute *name*, hiding it from compilers that don't support GCC
+ attributes (such as MSVC).
+
+ This expands to ``__attribute__((name))`` on a GCC compiler, and expands
+ to nothing on compilers that don't support GCC attributes.
+
.. c:macro:: Py_GETENV(s)
Like ``getenv(s)``, but returns ``NULL`` if :option:`-E` was passed on the
command line (see :c:member:`PyConfig.use_environment`).
+.. c:macro:: Py_LL(number)
+
+ Use *number* as a ``long long`` integer literal.
+
+ This usally expands to *number* followed by ``LL``, but will expand to some
+ compiler-specific suffixes (such as ``I64``) on older compilers.
+
+ In modern versions of Python, this macro is not very useful, as C99 and
+ later require the ``LL`` suffix to be valid for an integer.
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_LOCAL(type)
+
+ Declare a function returning the specified *type* using a fast-calling
+ qualifier for functions that are local to the current file.
+ Semantically, this is equivalent to ``static type``.
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_LOCAL_INLINE(type)
+
+ Equivalent to :c:macro:`Py_LOCAL` but additionally requests the function
+ be inlined.
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_LOCAL_SYMBOL
+
+ Macro used to declare a symbol as local to the shared library (hidden).
+ On supported platforms, it ensures the symbol is not exported.
+
+ On compatible versions of GCC/Clang, it
+ expands to ``__attribute__((visibility("hidden")))``.
+
.. c:macro:: Py_MAX(x, y)
Return the maximum value between ``x`` and ``y``.
@@ -209,6 +294,22 @@ complete listing.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
+.. c:macro:: Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST(value, larger, smaller)
+
+ Cast *value* to type *smaller* from type *larger*, validating that no
+ information was lost.
+
+ On release builds of Python, this is roughly equivalent to
+ ``(smaller) value`` (in C++, ``static_cast<smaller>(value)`` will be
+ used instead).
+
+ On debug builds (implying that :c:macro:`Py_DEBUG` is defined), this asserts
+ that no information was lost with the cast from *larger* to *smaller*.
+
+ *value*, *larger*, and *smaller* may all be evaluated more than once in the
+ expression; consequently, do not pass an expression with side-effects directly to
+ this macro.
+
.. c:macro:: Py_STRINGIFY(x)
Convert ``x`` to a C string. E.g. ``Py_STRINGIFY(123)`` returns
@@ -216,6 +317,14 @@ complete listing.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
+.. c:macro:: Py_ULL(number)
+
+ Similar to :c:macro:`Py_LL`, but *number* will be an ``unsigned long long``
+ literal instead. This is done by appending ``U`` to the result of ``Py_LL``.
+
+ In modern versions of Python, this macro is not very useful, as C99 and
+ later require the ``ULL``/``LLU`` suffixes to be valid for an integer.
+
.. c:macro:: Py_UNREACHABLE()
Use this when you have a code path that cannot be reached by design.
@@ -227,8 +336,8 @@ complete listing.
avoids a warning about unreachable code. For example, the macro is
implemented with ``__builtin_unreachable()`` on GCC in release mode.
- A use for ``Py_UNREACHABLE()`` is following a call a function that
- never returns but that is not declared :c:macro:`_Py_NO_RETURN`.
+ A use for ``Py_UNREACHABLE()`` is following a call to a function that
+ never returns but that is not declared ``_Py_NO_RETURN``.
If a code path is very unlikely code but can be reached under exceptional
case, this macro must not be used. For example, under low memory condition
@@ -245,9 +354,32 @@ complete listing.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
+.. c:macro:: Py_BUILD_ASSERT(cond)
+
+ Asserts a compile-time condition *cond*, as a statement.
+ The build will fail if the condition is false or cannot be evaluated at compile time.
+
+ For example::
+
+ Py_BUILD_ASSERT(sizeof(PyTime_t) == sizeof(int64_t));
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_BUILD_ASSERT_EXPR(cond)
+
+ Asserts a compile-time condition *cond*, as an expression that evaluates to ``0``.
+ The build will fail if the condition is false or cannot be evaluated at compile time.
+
+ For example::
+
+ #define foo_to_char(foo) \
+ ((char *)(foo) + Py_BUILD_ASSERT_EXPR(offsetof(struct foo, string) == 0))
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
.. c:macro:: PyDoc_STRVAR(name, str)
- Creates a variable with name ``name`` that can be used in docstrings.
+ Creates a variable with name *name* that can be used in docstrings.
If Python is built without docstrings, the value will be empty.
Use :c:macro:`PyDoc_STRVAR` for docstrings to support building
@@ -279,6 +411,70 @@ complete listing.
{NULL, NULL}
};
+.. c:macro:: PyDoc_VAR(name)
+
+ Declares a static character array variable with the given name *name*.
+
+ For example::
+
+ PyDoc_VAR(python_doc) = PyDoc_STR("A genus of constricting snakes in the Pythonidae family native "
+ "to the tropics and subtropics of the Eastern Hemisphere.");
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_ARRAY_LENGTH(array)
+
+ Compute the length of a statically allocated C array at compile time.
+
+ The *array* argument must be a C array with a size known at compile time.
+ Passing an array with an unknown size, such as a heap-allocated array,
+ will result in a compilation error on some compilers, or otherwise produce
+ incorrect results.
+
+ This is roughly equivalent to::
+
+ sizeof(array) / sizeof((array)[0])
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_EXPORTED_SYMBOL
+
+ Macro used to declare a symbol (function or data) as exported.
+ On Windows, this expands to ``__declspec(dllexport)``.
+ On compatible versions of GCC/Clang, it
+ expands to ``__attribute__((visibility("default")))``.
+ This macro is for defining the C API itself; extension modules should not use it.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_IMPORTED_SYMBOL
+
+ Macro used to declare a symbol as imported.
+ On Windows, this expands to ``__declspec(dllimport)``.
+ This macro is for defining the C API itself; extension modules should not use it.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: PyAPI_FUNC(type)
+
+ Macro used by CPython to declare a function as part of the C API.
+ Its expansion depends on the platform and build configuration.
+ This macro is intended for defining CPython's C API itself;
+ extension modules should not use it for their own symbols.
+
+
+.. c:macro:: PyAPI_DATA(type)
+
+ Macro used by CPython to declare a public global variable as part of the C API.
+ Its expansion depends on the platform and build configuration.
+ This macro is intended for defining CPython's C API itself;
+ extension modules should not use it for their own symbols.
+
+.. c:macro:: Py_VA_COPY
+
+ This is a :term:`soft deprecated` alias to the C99-standard ``va_copy``
+ function.
+
+ Historically, this would use a compiler-specific method to copy a ``va_list``.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+ This is now an alias to ``va_copy``.
+
.. _api-objects:
@@ -396,9 +592,12 @@ the caller is said to *borrow* the reference. Nothing needs to be done for a
Conversely, when a calling function passes in a reference to an object, there
are two possibilities: the function *steals* a reference to the object, or it
-does not. *Stealing a reference* means that when you pass a reference to a
-function, that function assumes that it now owns that reference, and you are not
-responsible for it any longer.
+does not.
+
+*Stealing a reference* means that when you pass a reference to a
+function, that function assumes that it now owns that reference.
+Since the new owner can use :c:func:`!Py_DECREF` at its discretion,
+you (the caller) must not use that reference after the call.
.. index::
single: PyList_SetItem (C function)
@@ -825,7 +1024,7 @@ in the Unix build, compiler optimization is disabled.
In addition to the reference count debugging described below, extra checks are
performed, see :ref:`Python Debug Build <debug-build>`.
-Defining :c:macro:`Py_TRACE_REFS` enables reference tracing
+Defining ``Py_TRACE_REFS`` enables reference tracing
(see the :option:`configure --with-trace-refs option <--with-trace-refs>`).
When defined, a circular doubly linked list of active objects is maintained by adding two extra
fields to every :c:type:`PyObject`. Total allocations are tracked as well. Upon
@@ -834,3 +1033,41 @@ after every statement run by the interpreter.)
Please refer to :file:`Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt` in the Python source distribution
for more detailed information.
+
+
+.. _c-api-tools:
+
+Recommended third party tools
+=============================
+
+The following third party tools offer both simpler and more sophisticated
+approaches to creating C, C++ and Rust extensions for Python:
+
+* `Cython <https://cython.org/>`_
+* `cffi <https://cffi.readthedocs.io>`_
+* `HPy <https://hpyproject.org/>`_
+* `nanobind <https://github.com/wjakob/nanobind>`_ (C++)
+* `Numba <https://numba.pydata.org/>`_
+* `pybind11 <https://pybind11.readthedocs.io/>`_ (C++)
+* `PyO3 <https://pyo3.rs/>`_ (Rust)
+* `SWIG <https://www.swig.org>`_
+
+Using tools such as these can help avoid writing code that is tightly bound to
+a particular version of CPython, avoid reference counting errors, and focus
+more on your own code than on using the CPython API. In general, new versions
+of Python can be supported by updating the tool, and your code will often use
+newer and more efficient APIs automatically. Some tools also support compiling
+for other implementations of Python from a single set of sources.
+
+These projects are not supported by the same people who maintain Python, and
+issues need to be raised with the projects directly. Remember to check that the
+project is still maintained and supported, as the list above may become
+outdated.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+ `Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions <https://packaging.python.org/guides/packaging-binary-extensions/>`_
+ The Python Packaging User Guide not only covers several available
+ tools that simplify the creation of binary extensions, but also
+ discusses the various reasons why creating an extension module may be
+ desirable in the first place.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/iterator.rst b/Doc/c-api/iterator.rst
index 6b7ba8c99791634..bfbfe3c92799809 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/iterator.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/iterator.rst
@@ -50,3 +50,72 @@ sentinel value is returned.
callable object that can be called with no parameters; each call to it should
return the next item in the iteration. When *callable* returns a value equal to
*sentinel*, the iteration will be terminated.
+
+
+Range Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyRange_Type
+
+ The type object for :class:`range` objects.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRange_Check(PyObject *o)
+
+ Return true if the object *o* is an instance of a :class:`range` object.
+ This function always succeeds.
+
+
+Builtin Iterator Types
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+These are built-in iteration types that are included in Python's C API, but
+provide no additional functions. They are here for completeness.
+
+
+.. list-table::
+ :widths: auto
+ :header-rows: 1
+
+ * * C type
+ * Python type
+ * * .. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyEnum_Type
+ * :py:class:`enumerate`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyFilter_Type
+ * :py:class:`filter`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyMap_Type
+ * :py:class:`map`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyReversed_Type
+ * :py:class:`reversed`
+ * * .. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyZip_Type
+ * :py:class:`zip`
+
+
+Other Iterator Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyByteArrayIter_Type
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyBytesIter_Type
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyListIter_Type
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyListRevIter_Type
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PySetIter_Type
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyTupleIter_Type
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyRangeIter_Type
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyLongRangeIter_Type
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyDictIterKey_Type
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyDictRevIterKey_Type
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyDictIterValue_Type
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyDictRevIterValue_Type
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyDictIterItem_Type
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyDictRevIterItem_Type
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyODictIter_Type
+
+ Type objects for iterators of various built-in objects.
+
+ Do not create instances of these directly; prefer calling
+ :c:func:`PyObject_GetIter` instead.
+
+ Note that there is no guarantee that a given built-in type uses a given iterator
+ type. For example, iterating over :class:`range` will use one of two iterator
+ types depending on the size of the range. Other types may start using a
+ similar scheme in the future, without warning.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/list.rst b/Doc/c-api/list.rst
index 53eb54d3e1021a3..1d1c6e8658de385 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/list.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/list.rst
@@ -38,9 +38,12 @@ List Objects
.. note::
If *len* is greater than zero, the returned list object's items are
- set to ``NULL``. Thus you cannot use abstract API functions such as
- :c:func:`PySequence_SetItem` or expose the object to Python code before
- setting all items to a real object with :c:func:`PyList_SetItem`.
+ set to ``NULL``. Thus you cannot use abstract API functions such as
+ :c:func:`PySequence_SetItem` or expose the object to Python code before
+ setting all items to a real object with :c:func:`PyList_SetItem` or
+ :c:func:`PyList_SET_ITEM()`. The following APIs are safe APIs before
+ the list is fully initialized: :c:func:`PyList_SetItem()` and :c:func:`PyList_SET_ITEM()`.
+
.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyList_Size(PyObject *list)
@@ -85,8 +88,10 @@ List Objects
.. note::
- This function "steals" a reference to *item* and discards a reference to
- an item already in the list at the affected position.
+ This function ":term:`steals <steal>`" a reference to *item*,
+ even on error.
+ On success, it discards a reference to an item already in the list
+ at the affected position (unless it was ``NULL``).
.. c:function:: void PyList_SET_ITEM(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t i, PyObject *o)
@@ -100,7 +105,7 @@ List Objects
.. note::
- This macro "steals" a reference to *item*, and, unlike
+ This macro ":term:`steals <steal>`" a reference to *item*, and, unlike
:c:func:`PyList_SetItem`, does *not* discard a reference to any item that
is being replaced; any reference in *list* at position *i* will be
leaked.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/long.rst b/Doc/c-api/long.rst
index 522c028cfb8d406..0e71d5f0055b189 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/long.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/long.rst
@@ -40,9 +40,11 @@ distinguished from a number. Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
Return a new :c:type:`PyLongObject` object from *v*, or ``NULL`` on failure.
- The current implementation keeps an array of integer objects for all integers
- between ``-5`` and ``256``. When you create an int in that range you actually
- just get back a reference to the existing object.
+ .. impl-detail::
+
+ CPython keeps an array of integer objects for all integers
+ between ``-5`` and ``256``. When you create an int in that range
+ you actually just get back a reference to the existing object.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(unsigned long v)
@@ -139,7 +141,17 @@ distinguished from a number. Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
-.. XXX alias PyLong_AS_LONG (for now)
+.. c:macro:: PyLong_FromPid(pid)
+
+ Macro for creating a Python integer from a process identifier.
+
+ This can be defined as an alias to :c:func:`PyLong_FromLong` or
+ :c:func:`PyLong_FromLongLong`, depending on the size of the system's
+ PID type.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
.. c:function:: long PyLong_AsLong(PyObject *obj)
.. index::
@@ -161,6 +173,14 @@ distinguished from a number. Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
This function will no longer use :meth:`~object.__int__`.
+ .. c:namespace:: NULL
+
+ .. c:function:: long PyLong_AS_LONG(PyObject *obj)
+
+ Exactly equivalent to the preferred ``PyLong_AsLong``. In particular,
+ it can fail with :exc:`OverflowError` or another exception.
+
+ .. soft-deprecated:: 3.14
.. c:function:: int PyLong_AsInt(PyObject *obj)
@@ -358,6 +378,17 @@ distinguished from a number. Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
Returns ``NULL`` on error. Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
+.. c:macro:: PyLong_AsPid(pid)
+
+ Macro for converting a Python integer into a process identifier.
+
+ This can be defined as an alias to :c:func:`PyLong_AsLong`,
+ :c:func:`PyLong_FromLongLong`, or :c:func:`PyLong_AsInt`, depending on the
+ size of the system's PID type.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyLong_AsNativeBytes(PyObject *pylong, void* buffer, Py_ssize_t n_bytes, int flags)
Copy the Python integer value *pylong* to a native *buffer* of size
@@ -370,10 +401,10 @@ distinguished from a number. Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
Otherwise, returns the number of bytes required to store the value.
If this is equal to or less than *n_bytes*, the entire value was copied.
- All *n_bytes* of the buffer are written: large buffers are padded with
- zeroes.
+ All *n_bytes* of the buffer are written: remaining bytes filled by
+ copies of the sign bit.
- If the returned value is greater than than *n_bytes*, the value was
+ If the returned value is greater than *n_bytes*, the value was
truncated: as many of the lowest bits of the value as could fit are written,
and the higher bits are ignored. This matches the typical behavior
of a C-style downcast.
@@ -405,14 +436,13 @@ distinguished from a number. Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
Passing zero to *n_bytes* will return the size of a buffer that would
be large enough to hold the value. This may be larger than technically
- necessary, but not unreasonably so.
+ necessary, but not unreasonably so. If *n_bytes=0*, *buffer* may be
+ ``NULL``.
.. note::
Passing *n_bytes=0* to this function is not an accurate way to determine
- the bit length of a value.
-
- If *n_bytes=0*, *buffer* may be ``NULL``.
+ the bit length of the value.
To get at the entire Python value of an unknown size, the function can be
called twice: first to determine the buffer size, then to fill it::
@@ -446,13 +476,15 @@ distinguished from a number. Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
free(bignum);
*flags* is either ``-1`` (``Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS``) to select defaults
- that behave most like a C cast, or a combintation of the other flags in
+ that behave most like a C cast, or a combination of the other flags in
the table below.
Note that ``-1`` cannot be combined with other flags.
Currently, ``-1`` corresponds to
``Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN | Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER``.
+ .. c:namespace:: NULL
+
============================================= ======
Flag Value
============================================= ======
@@ -462,6 +494,7 @@ distinguished from a number. Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
.. c:macro:: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN ``3``
.. c:macro:: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER ``4``
.. c:macro:: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE ``8``
+ .. c:macro:: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX ``16``
============================================= ======
Specifying ``Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN`` will override any other endian
@@ -483,6 +516,13 @@ distinguished from a number. Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
provided there is enough space for at least one sign bit, regardless of
whether ``Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER`` was specified.
+ If ``Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX`` is specified and a non-integer value is
+ passed, its :meth:`~object.__index__` method will be called first. This may
+ result in Python code executing and other threads being allowed to run, which
+ could cause changes to other objects or values in use. When *flags* is
+ ``-1``, this option is not set, and non-integer values will raise
+ :exc:`TypeError`.
+
.. note::
With the default *flags* (``-1``, or *UNSIGNED_BUFFER* without
@@ -494,6 +534,17 @@ distinguished from a number. Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyLong_GetInfo(void)
+
+ On success, return a read only :term:`named tuple`, that holds
+ information about Python's internal representation of integers.
+ See :data:`sys.int_info` for description of individual fields.
+
+ On failure, return ``NULL`` with an exception set.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.1
+
+
.. c:function:: int PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(const PyLongObject* op)
Return 1 if *op* is compact, 0 otherwise.
@@ -509,6 +560,9 @@ distinguished from a number. Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
Exactly what values are considered compact is an implementation detail
and is subject to change.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.12
+
+
.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(const PyLongObject* op)
If *op* is compact, as determined by :c:func:`PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact`,
@@ -516,3 +570,5 @@ distinguished from a number. Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to disambiguate.
Otherwise, the return value is undefined.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.12
+
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/mapping.rst b/Doc/c-api/mapping.rst
index 1f55c0aa955c75b..2476ebb9b69dce0 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/mapping.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/mapping.rst
@@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ See also :c:func:`PyObject_GetItem`, :c:func:`PyObject_SetItem` and
.. note::
- Exceptions which occur when this calls :meth:`~object.__getitem__`
+ Exceptions which occur when this calls the :meth:`~object.__getitem__`
method are silently ignored.
For proper error handling, use :c:func:`PyMapping_HasKeyWithError`,
:c:func:`PyMapping_GetOptionalItem` or :c:func:`PyObject_GetItem()` instead.
@@ -116,7 +116,7 @@ See also :c:func:`PyObject_GetItem`, :c:func:`PyObject_SetItem` and
.. note::
- Exceptions that occur when this calls :meth:`~object.__getitem__`
+ Exceptions that occur when this calls the :meth:`~object.__getitem__`
method or while creating the temporary :class:`str`
object are silently ignored.
For proper error handling, use :c:func:`PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError`,
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/marshal.rst b/Doc/c-api/marshal.rst
index 489f1580a414b2d..85145190457fc67 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/marshal.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/marshal.rst
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ Numeric values are stored with the least significant byte first.
The module supports two versions of the data format: version 0 is the
historical version, version 1 shares interned strings in the file, and upon
-unmarshalling. Version 2 uses a binary format for floating point numbers.
+unmarshalling. Version 2 uses a binary format for floating-point numbers.
``Py_MARSHAL_VERSION`` indicates the current file format (currently 2).
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ The following functions allow marshalled values to be read back in.
assumes that no further objects will be read from the file, allowing it to
aggressively load file data into memory so that the de-serialization can
operate from data in memory rather than reading a byte at a time from the
- file. Only use these variant if you are certain that you won't be reading
+ file. Only use this variant if you are certain that you won't be reading
anything else from the file.
On error, sets the appropriate exception (:exc:`EOFError`, :exc:`ValueError`
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/memory.rst b/Doc/c-api/memory.rst
index 9da09a21607f617..a4fb24b0353a1a5 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/memory.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/memory.rst
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ memory footprint as a whole. Consequently, under certain circumstances, the
Python memory manager may or may not trigger appropriate actions, like garbage
collection, memory compaction or other preventive procedures. Note that by using
the C library allocator as shown in the previous example, the allocated memory
-for the I/O buffer escapes completely the Python memory manager.
+for the I/O buffer completely escapes the Python memory manager.
.. seealso::
@@ -102,30 +102,38 @@ All allocating functions belong to one of three different "domains" (see also
strategies and are optimized for different purposes. The specific details on
how every domain allocates memory or what internal functions each domain calls
is considered an implementation detail, but for debugging purposes a simplified
-table can be found at :ref:`here <default-memory-allocators>`. There is no hard
-requirement to use the memory returned by the allocation functions belonging to
-a given domain for only the purposes hinted by that domain (although this is the
-recommended practice). For example, one could use the memory returned by
-:c:func:`PyMem_RawMalloc` for allocating Python objects or the memory returned
-by :c:func:`PyObject_Malloc` for allocating memory for buffers.
+table can be found at :ref:`default-memory-allocators`.
+The APIs used to allocate and free a block of memory must be from the same domain.
+For example, :c:func:`PyMem_Free` must be used to free memory allocated using :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`.
The three allocation domains are:
* Raw domain: intended for allocating memory for general-purpose memory
buffers where the allocation *must* go to the system allocator or where the
allocator can operate without the :term:`GIL`. The memory is requested directly
- to the system.
+ from the system. See :ref:`Raw Memory Interface <raw-memoryinterface>`.
* "Mem" domain: intended for allocating memory for Python buffers and
general-purpose memory buffers where the allocation must be performed with
the :term:`GIL` held. The memory is taken from the Python private heap.
+ See :ref:`Memory Interface <memoryinterface>`.
-* Object domain: intended for allocating memory belonging to Python objects. The
- memory is taken from the Python private heap.
+* Object domain: intended for allocating memory for Python objects. The
+ memory is taken from the Python private heap. See :ref:`Object allocators <objectinterface>`.
-When freeing memory previously allocated by the allocating functions belonging to a
-given domain,the matching specific deallocating functions must be used. For example,
-:c:func:`PyMem_Free` must be used to free memory allocated using :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`.
+.. note::
+
+ The :term:`free-threaded <free threading>` build requires that only Python objects are allocated using the "object" domain
+ and that all Python objects are allocated using that domain. This differs from the prior Python versions,
+ where this was only a best practice and not a hard requirement.
+
+ For example, buffers (non-Python objects) should be allocated using :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`,
+ :c:func:`PyMem_RawMalloc`, or :c:func:`malloc`, but not :c:func:`PyObject_Malloc`.
+
+ See :ref:`Memory Allocation APIs <free-threaded-memory-allocation>`.
+
+
+.. _raw-memoryinterface:
Raw Memory Interface
====================
@@ -153,7 +161,7 @@ zero bytes.
.. c:function:: void* PyMem_RawCalloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
- Allocates *nelem* elements each whose size in bytes is *elsize* and returns
+ Allocates *nelem* elements each of size *elsize* bytes and returns
a pointer of type :c:expr:`void*` to the allocated memory, or ``NULL`` if the
request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.
@@ -224,7 +232,7 @@ The :ref:`default memory allocator <default-memory-allocators>` uses the
.. c:function:: void* PyMem_Calloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
- Allocates *nelem* elements each whose size in bytes is *elsize* and returns
+ Allocates *nelem* elements each of size *elsize* bytes and returns
a pointer of type :c:expr:`void*` to the allocated memory, or ``NULL`` if the
request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.
@@ -286,18 +294,42 @@ The following type-oriented macros are provided for convenience. Note that
Same as :c:func:`PyMem_Free`.
-In addition, the following macro sets are provided for calling the Python memory
-allocator directly, without involving the C API functions listed above. However,
-note that their use does not preserve binary compatibility across Python
-versions and is therefore deprecated in extension modules.
-* ``PyMem_MALLOC(size)``
-* ``PyMem_NEW(type, size)``
-* ``PyMem_REALLOC(ptr, size)``
-* ``PyMem_RESIZE(ptr, type, size)``
-* ``PyMem_FREE(ptr)``
-* ``PyMem_DEL(ptr)``
+Deprecated aliases
+------------------
+
+These are :term:`soft deprecated` aliases to existing functions and macros.
+They exist solely for backwards compatibility.
+.. list-table::
+ :widths: auto
+ :header-rows: 1
+
+ * * Deprecated alias
+ * Corresponding function or macro
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyMem_MALLOC(size)
+ * :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyMem_NEW(type, size)
+ * :c:macro:`PyMem_New`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyMem_REALLOC(ptr, size)
+ * :c:func:`PyMem_Realloc`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyMem_RESIZE(ptr, type, size)
+ * :c:macro:`PyMem_Resize`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyMem_FREE(ptr)
+ * :c:func:`PyMem_Free`
+ * * .. c:macro:: PyMem_DEL(ptr)
+ * :c:func:`PyMem_Free`
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+
+ The macros are now aliases of the corresponding functions and macros.
+ Previously, their behavior was the same, but their use did not necessarily
+ preserve binary compatibility across Python versions.
+
+.. deprecated:: 2.0
+
+
+.. _objectinterface:
Object allocators
=================
@@ -332,7 +364,7 @@ The :ref:`default object allocator <default-memory-allocators>` uses the
.. c:function:: void* PyObject_Calloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
- Allocates *nelem* elements each whose size in bytes is *elsize* and returns
+ Allocates *nelem* elements each of size *elsize* bytes and returns
a pointer of type :c:expr:`void*` to the allocated memory, or ``NULL`` if the
request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.
@@ -646,6 +678,10 @@ This allocator is disabled if Python is configured with the
:option:`--without-pymalloc` option. It can also be disabled at runtime using
the :envvar:`PYTHONMALLOC` environment variable (ex: ``PYTHONMALLOC=malloc``).
+Typically, it makes sense to disable the pymalloc allocator when building
+Python with AddressSanitizer (:option:`--with-address-sanitizer`) which helps
+uncover low level bugs within the C code.
+
Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator
----------------------------------
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/memoryview.rst b/Doc/c-api/memoryview.rst
index f6038032805259f..e4ac8b57673407c 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/memoryview.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/memoryview.rst
@@ -13,6 +13,12 @@ A :class:`memoryview` object exposes the C level :ref:`buffer interface
any other object.
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyMemoryView_Type
+
+ This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python memoryview
+ type. This is the same object as :class:`memoryview` in the Python layer.
+
+
.. c:function:: PyObject *PyMemoryView_FromObject(PyObject *obj)
Create a memoryview object from an object that provides the buffer interface.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/module.rst b/Doc/c-api/module.rst
index 6fe1ce9e9948320..419865180383a56 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/module.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/module.rst
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ Module Objects
.. index:: single: ModuleType (in module types)
This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python module type. This
- is exposed to Python programs as ``types.ModuleType``.
+ is exposed to Python programs as :py:class:`types.ModuleType`.
.. c:function:: int PyModule_Check(PyObject *p)
@@ -37,16 +37,19 @@ Module Objects
single: __package__ (module attribute)
single: __loader__ (module attribute)
- Return a new module object with the :attr:`__name__` attribute set to *name*.
- The module's :attr:`__name__`, :attr:`__doc__`, :attr:`__package__`, and
- :attr:`__loader__` attributes are filled in (all but :attr:`__name__` are set
- to ``None``); the caller is responsible for providing a :attr:`__file__`
- attribute.
+ Return a new module object with :attr:`module.__name__` set to *name*.
+ The module's :attr:`!__name__`, :attr:`~module.__doc__`,
+ :attr:`~module.__package__` and :attr:`~module.__loader__` attributes are
+ filled in (all but :attr:`!__name__` are set to ``None``). The caller is
+ responsible for setting a :attr:`~module.__file__` attribute.
+
+ Return ``NULL`` with an exception set on error.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
- :attr:`__package__` and :attr:`__loader__` are set to ``None``.
+ :attr:`~module.__package__` and :attr:`~module.__loader__` are now set to
+ ``None``.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_New(const char *name)
@@ -68,6 +71,9 @@ Module Objects
``PyObject_*`` functions rather than directly manipulate a module's
:attr:`~object.__dict__`.
+ The returned reference is borrowed from the module; it is valid until
+ the module is destroyed.
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_GetNameObject(PyObject *module)
@@ -75,8 +81,9 @@ Module Objects
single: __name__ (module attribute)
single: SystemError (built-in exception)
- Return *module*'s :attr:`__name__` value. If the module does not provide one,
- or if it is not a string, :exc:`SystemError` is raised and ``NULL`` is returned.
+ Return *module*'s :attr:`~module.__name__` value. If the module does not
+ provide one, or if it is not a string, :exc:`SystemError` is raised and
+ ``NULL`` is returned.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -86,6 +93,10 @@ Module Objects
Similar to :c:func:`PyModule_GetNameObject` but return the name encoded to
``'utf-8'``.
+ The returned buffer is only valid until the module is renamed or destroyed.
+ Note that Python code may rename a module by setting its :py:attr:`~module.__name__`
+ attribute.
+
.. c:function:: void* PyModule_GetState(PyObject *module)
Return the "state" of the module, that is, a pointer to the block of memory
@@ -98,6 +109,10 @@ Module Objects
Return a pointer to the :c:type:`PyModuleDef` struct from which the module was
created, or ``NULL`` if the module wasn't created from a definition.
+ On error, return ``NULL`` with an exception set.
+ Use :c:func:`PyErr_Occurred` to tell this case apart from a missing
+ :c:type:`!PyModuleDef`.
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyModule_GetFilenameObject(PyObject *module)
@@ -106,8 +121,8 @@ Module Objects
single: SystemError (built-in exception)
Return the name of the file from which *module* was loaded using *module*'s
- :attr:`__file__` attribute. If this is not defined, or if it is not a
- unicode string, raise :exc:`SystemError` and return ``NULL``; otherwise return
+ :attr:`~module.__file__` attribute. If this is not defined, or if it is not a
+ string, raise :exc:`SystemError` and return ``NULL``; otherwise return
a reference to a Unicode object.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
@@ -118,6 +133,9 @@ Module Objects
Similar to :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilenameObject` but return the filename
encoded to 'utf-8'.
+ The returned buffer is only valid until the module's :py:attr:`~module.__file__` attribute
+ is reassigned or the module is destroyed.
+
.. deprecated:: 3.2
:c:func:`PyModule_GetFilename` raises :exc:`UnicodeEncodeError` on
unencodable filenames, use :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilenameObject` instead.
@@ -245,6 +263,12 @@ or request "multi-phase initialization" by returning the definition struct itsel
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
No longer called before the module state is allocated.
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyModuleDef_Type
+
+ The type of ``PyModuleDef`` objects.
+
+
Single-phase initialization
...........................
@@ -265,6 +289,8 @@ of the following two module creation functions:
API version *module_api_version*. If that version does not match the version
of the running interpreter, a :exc:`RuntimeWarning` is emitted.
+ Return ``NULL`` with an exception set on error.
+
.. note::
Most uses of this function should be using :c:func:`PyModule_Create`
@@ -282,22 +308,40 @@ An alternate way to specify extensions is to request "multi-phase initialization
Extension modules created this way behave more like Python modules: the
initialization is split between the *creation phase*, when the module object
is created, and the *execution phase*, when it is populated.
-The distinction is similar to the :py:meth:`!__new__` and :py:meth:`!__init__` methods
-of classes.
+The distinction is similar to the :py:meth:`~object.__new__` and
+:py:meth:`~object.__init__` methods of classes.
Unlike modules created using single-phase initialization, these modules are not
-singletons: if the *sys.modules* entry is removed and the module is re-imported,
-a new module object is created, and the old module is subject to normal garbage
-collection -- as with Python modules.
-By default, multiple modules created from the same definition should be
-independent: changes to one should not affect the others.
-This means that all state should be specific to the module object (using e.g.
-using :c:func:`PyModule_GetState`), or its contents (such as the module's
-:attr:`~object.__dict__` or individual classes created with :c:func:`PyType_FromSpec`).
+singletons.
+For example, if the :py:attr:`sys.modules` entry is removed and the module
+is re-imported, a new module object is created, and typically populated with
+fresh method and type objects.
+The old module is subject to normal garbage collection.
+This mirrors the behavior of pure-Python modules.
+
+Additional module instances may be created in
+:ref:`sub-interpreters <sub-interpreter-support>`
+or after after Python runtime reinitialization
+(:c:func:`Py_Finalize` and :c:func:`Py_Initialize`).
+In these cases, sharing Python objects between module instances would likely
+cause crashes or undefined behavior.
+
+To avoid such issues, each instance of an extension module should
+be *isolated*: changes to one instance should not implicitly affect the others,
+and all state, including references to Python objects, should be specific to
+a particular module instance.
+See :ref:`isolating-extensions-howto` for more details and a practical guide.
+
+A simpler way to avoid these issues is
+:ref:`raising an error on repeated initialization <isolating-extensions-optout>`.
All modules created using multi-phase initialization are expected to support
-:ref:`sub-interpreters <sub-interpreter-support>`. Making sure multiple modules
-are independent is typically enough to achieve this.
+:ref:`sub-interpreters <sub-interpreter-support>`, or otherwise explicitly
+signal a lack of support.
+This is usually achieved by isolation or blocking repeated initialization,
+as above.
+A module may also be limited to the main interpreter using
+the :c:data:`Py_mod_multiple_interpreters` slot.
To request multi-phase initialization, the initialization function
(PyInit_modulename) returns a :c:type:`PyModuleDef` instance with non-empty
@@ -338,7 +382,8 @@ The available slot types are:
The *value* pointer of this slot must point to a function of the signature:
.. c:function:: PyObject* create_module(PyObject *spec, PyModuleDef *def)
- :noindex:
+ :no-index-entry:
+ :no-contents-entry:
The function receives a :py:class:`~importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec`
instance, as defined in :PEP:`451`, and the module definition.
@@ -365,6 +410,8 @@ The available slot types are:
``PyModuleDef`` has non-``NULL`` ``m_traverse``, ``m_clear``,
``m_free``; non-zero ``m_size``; or slots other than ``Py_mod_create``.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
.. c:macro:: Py_mod_exec
Specifies a function that is called to *execute* the module.
@@ -373,11 +420,14 @@ The available slot types are:
The signature of the function is:
.. c:function:: int exec_module(PyObject* module)
- :noindex:
+ :no-index-entry:
+ :no-contents-entry:
If multiple ``Py_mod_exec`` slots are specified, they are processed in the
order they appear in the *m_slots* array.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
.. c:macro:: Py_mod_multiple_interpreters
Specifies one of the following values:
@@ -407,7 +457,7 @@ The available slot types are:
in one module definition.
If ``Py_mod_multiple_interpreters`` is not specified, the import
- machinery defaults to ``Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED``.
+ machinery defaults to ``Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED``.
.. versionadded:: 3.12
@@ -415,6 +465,8 @@ The available slot types are:
Specifies one of the following values:
+ .. c:namespace:: NULL
+
.. c:macro:: Py_MOD_GIL_USED
The module depends on the presence of the global interpreter lock (GIL),
@@ -427,14 +479,14 @@ The available slot types are:
This slot is ignored by Python builds not configured with
:option:`--disable-gil`. Otherwise, it determines whether or not importing
this module will cause the GIL to be automatically enabled. See
- :envvar:`PYTHON_GIL` and :option:`-X gil <-X>` for more detail.
+ :ref:`whatsnew313-free-threaded-cpython` for more detail.
Multiple ``Py_mod_gil`` slots may not be specified in one module definition.
If ``Py_mod_gil`` is not specified, the import machinery defaults to
``Py_MOD_GIL_USED``.
- .. versionadded: 3.13
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
See :PEP:`489` for more details on multi-phase initialization.
@@ -461,6 +513,8 @@ objects dynamically. Note that both ``PyModule_FromDefAndSpec`` and
If that version does not match the version of the running interpreter,
a :exc:`RuntimeWarning` is emitted.
+ Return ``NULL`` with an exception set on error.
+
.. note::
Most uses of this function should be using :c:func:`PyModule_FromDefAndSpec`
@@ -481,6 +535,9 @@ objects dynamically. Note that both ``PyModule_FromDefAndSpec`` and
``PyModuleDef``, using either ``PyModule_Create`` or
``PyModule_FromDefAndSpec``.
+ Return ``0`` on success.
+ Return ``-1`` with an exception set on error.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. c:function:: int PyModule_AddFunctions(PyObject *module, PyMethodDef *functions)
@@ -494,6 +551,9 @@ objects dynamically. Note that both ``PyModule_FromDefAndSpec`` and
``PyModuleDef``, using either ``PyModule_Create`` or
``PyModule_FromDefAndSpec``.
+ The *functions* array must be statically allocated (or otherwise guaranteed
+ to outlive the module object).
+
.. versionadded:: 3.5
Support functions
@@ -511,9 +571,6 @@ state:
On success, return ``0``. On error, raise an exception and return ``-1``.
- Return ``NULL`` if *value* is ``NULL``. It must be called with an exception
- raised in this case.
-
Example usage::
static int
@@ -528,6 +585,10 @@ state:
return res;
}
+ To be convenient, the function accepts ``NULL`` *value* with an exception
+ set. In this case, return ``-1`` and just leave the raised exception
+ unchanged.
+
The example can also be written without checking explicitly if *obj* is
``NULL``::
@@ -543,13 +604,21 @@ state:
Note that ``Py_XDECREF()`` should be used instead of ``Py_DECREF()`` in
this case, since *obj* can be ``NULL``.
+ The number of different *name* strings passed to this function
+ should be kept small, usually by only using statically allocated strings
+ as *name*.
+ For names that aren't known at compile time, prefer calling
+ :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromString` and :c:func:`PyObject_SetAttr` directly.
+ For more details, see :c:func:`PyUnicode_InternFromString`, which may be
+ used internally to create a key object.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.10
.. c:function:: int PyModule_Add(PyObject *module, const char *name, PyObject *value)
- Similar to :c:func:`PyModule_AddObjectRef`, but "steals" a reference
- to *value*.
+ Similar to :c:func:`PyModule_AddObjectRef`, but ":term:`steals <steal>`"
+ a reference to *value* (even on error).
It can be called with a result of function that returns a new reference
without bothering to check its result or even saving it to a variable.
@@ -564,8 +633,8 @@ state:
.. c:function:: int PyModule_AddObject(PyObject *module, const char *name, PyObject *value)
- Similar to :c:func:`PyModule_AddObjectRef`, but steals a reference to
- *value* on success (if it returns ``0``).
+ Similar to :c:func:`PyModule_AddObjectRef`, but :term:`steals <steal>`
+ a reference to *value* on success (if it returns ``0``).
The new :c:func:`PyModule_Add` or :c:func:`PyModule_AddObjectRef`
functions are recommended, since it is
@@ -593,23 +662,29 @@ state:
// PyModule_AddObject() stole a reference to obj:
// Py_XDECREF(obj) is not needed here.
- .. deprecated:: 3.13
-
- :c:func:`PyModule_AddObject` is :term:`soft deprecated`.
+ .. soft-deprecated:: 3.13
.. c:function:: int PyModule_AddIntConstant(PyObject *module, const char *name, long value)
Add an integer constant to *module* as *name*. This convenience function can be
- used from the module's initialization function. Return ``-1`` on error, ``0`` on
- success.
+ used from the module's initialization function.
+ Return ``-1`` with an exception set on error, ``0`` on success.
+
+ This is a convenience function that calls :c:func:`PyLong_FromLong` and
+ :c:func:`PyModule_AddObjectRef`; see their documentation for details.
.. c:function:: int PyModule_AddStringConstant(PyObject *module, const char *name, const char *value)
Add a string constant to *module* as *name*. This convenience function can be
used from the module's initialization function. The string *value* must be
- ``NULL``-terminated. Return ``-1`` on error, ``0`` on success.
+ ``NULL``-terminated.
+ Return ``-1`` with an exception set on error, ``0`` on success.
+
+ This is a convenience function that calls
+ :c:func:`PyUnicode_InternFromString` and :c:func:`PyModule_AddObjectRef`;
+ see their documentation for details.
.. c:macro:: PyModule_AddIntMacro(module, macro)
@@ -617,7 +692,7 @@ state:
Add an int constant to *module*. The name and the value are taken from
*macro*. For example ``PyModule_AddIntMacro(module, AF_INET)`` adds the int
constant *AF_INET* with the value of *AF_INET* to *module*.
- Return ``-1`` on error, ``0`` on success.
+ Return ``-1`` with an exception set on error, ``0`` on success.
.. c:macro:: PyModule_AddStringMacro(module, macro)
@@ -630,7 +705,7 @@ state:
The type object is finalized by calling internally :c:func:`PyType_Ready`.
The name of the type object is taken from the last component of
:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_name` after dot.
- Return ``-1`` on error, ``0`` on success.
+ Return ``-1`` with an exception set on error, ``0`` on success.
.. versionadded:: 3.9
@@ -643,7 +718,7 @@ state:
import machinery assumes the module does not support running without the
GIL. This function is only available in Python builds configured with
:option:`--disable-gil`.
- Return ``-1`` on error, ``0`` on success.
+ Return ``-1`` with an exception set on error, ``0`` on success.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
@@ -682,14 +757,14 @@ since multiple such modules can be created from a single definition.
The caller must hold the GIL.
- Return 0 on success or -1 on failure.
+ Return ``-1`` with an exception set on error, ``0`` on success.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. c:function:: int PyState_RemoveModule(PyModuleDef *def)
Removes the module object created from *def* from the interpreter state.
- Return 0 on success or -1 on failure.
+ Return ``-1`` with an exception set on error, ``0`` on success.
The caller must hold the GIL.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/monitoring.rst b/Doc/c-api/monitoring.rst
index 763ec8ef761e4eb..c68c32192ad0033 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/monitoring.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/monitoring.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
.. highlight:: c
-.. _monitoring:
+.. _c-api-monitoring:
-Monitorong C API
+Monitoring C API
================
Added in version 3.13.
@@ -121,19 +121,19 @@ See :mod:`sys.monitoring` for descriptions of the events.
:c:func:`PyErr_GetRaisedException`).
-.. c:function:: int PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)
+.. c:function:: int PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *value)
- Fire a ``STOP_ITERATION`` event with the current exception (as returned by
- :c:func:`PyErr_GetRaisedException`).
+ Fire a ``STOP_ITERATION`` event. If ``value`` is an instance of :exc:`StopIteration`, it is used. Otherwise,
+ a new :exc:`StopIteration` instance is created with ``value`` as its argument.
Managing the Monitoring State
-----------------------------
Monitoring states can be managed with the help of monitoring scopes. A scope
-would typically correspond to a python function.
+would typically correspond to a Python function.
-.. :c:function:: int PyMonitoring_EnterScope(PyMonitoringState *state_array, uint64_t *version, const uint8_t *event_types, Py_ssize_t length)
+.. c:function:: int PyMonitoring_EnterScope(PyMonitoringState *state_array, uint64_t *version, const uint8_t *event_types, Py_ssize_t length)
Enter a monitored scope. ``event_types`` is an array of the event IDs for
events that may be fired from the scope. For example, the ID of a ``PY_START``
@@ -141,24 +141,62 @@ would typically correspond to a python function.
to the base-2 logarithm of ``sys.monitoring.events.PY_START``.
``state_array`` is an array with a monitoring state entry for each event in
``event_types``, it is allocated by the user but populated by
- ``PyMonitoring_EnterScope`` with information about the activation state of
+ :c:func:`!PyMonitoring_EnterScope` with information about the activation state of
the event. The size of ``event_types`` (and hence also of ``state_array``)
is given in ``length``.
The ``version`` argument is a pointer to a value which should be allocated
by the user together with ``state_array`` and initialized to 0,
- and then set only by ``PyMonitoring_EnterScope`` itelf. It allows this
+ and then set only by :c:func:`!PyMonitoring_EnterScope` itself. It allows this
function to determine whether event states have changed since the previous call,
and to return quickly if they have not.
The scopes referred to here are lexical scopes: a function, class or method.
- ``PyMonitoring_EnterScope`` should be called whenever the lexical scope is
+ :c:func:`!PyMonitoring_EnterScope` should be called whenever the lexical scope is
entered. Scopes can be reentered, reusing the same *state_array* and *version*,
in situations like when emulating a recursive Python function. When a code-like's
execution is paused, such as when emulating a generator, the scope needs to
be exited and re-entered.
+ The macros for *event_types* are:
+
+ .. c:namespace:: NULL
+
+ .. The table is here to make the docs searchable, and to allow automatic
+ links to the identifiers.
+
+ ================================================== =====================================
+ Macro Event
+ ================================================== =====================================
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH :monitoring-event:`BRANCH`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_CALL :monitoring-event:`CALL`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RAISE :monitoring-event:`C_RAISE`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RETURN :monitoring-event:`C_RETURN`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED :monitoring-event:`EXCEPTION_HANDLED`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_INSTRUCTION :monitoring-event:`INSTRUCTION`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_JUMP :monitoring-event:`JUMP`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_LINE :monitoring-event:`LINE`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RESUME :monitoring-event:`PY_RESUME`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RETURN :monitoring-event:`PY_RETURN`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START :monitoring-event:`PY_START`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_THROW :monitoring-event:`PY_THROW`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_UNWIND :monitoring-event:`PY_UNWIND`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_YIELD :monitoring-event:`PY_YIELD`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RAISE :monitoring-event:`RAISE`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RERAISE :monitoring-event:`RERAISE`
+ .. c:macro:: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_STOP_ITERATION :monitoring-event:`STOP_ITERATION`
+ ================================================== =====================================
+
+.. c:function:: int PyMonitoring_ExitScope(void)
+
+ Exit the last scope that was entered with :c:func:`!PyMonitoring_EnterScope`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PY_MONITORING_IS_INSTRUMENTED_EVENT(uint8_t ev)
+
+ Return true if the event corresponding to the event ID *ev* is
+ a :ref:`local event <monitoring-event-local>`.
-.. :c:function:: int PyMonitoring_ExitScope(void)
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
- Exit the last scope that was entered with ``PyMonitoring_EnterScope``.
+ .. soft-deprecated:: 3.13.3
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/number.rst b/Doc/c-api/number.rst
index 13d3c5af956905a..ad8b5935258fa7b 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/number.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/number.rst
@@ -51,8 +51,8 @@ Number Protocol
Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical value of *o1* divided by
*o2*, or ``NULL`` on failure. The return value is "approximate" because binary
- floating point numbers are approximate; it is not possible to represent all real
- numbers in base two. This function can return a floating point value when
+ floating-point numbers are approximate; it is not possible to represent all real
+ numbers in base two. This function can return a floating-point value when
passed two integers. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``o1 / o2``.
@@ -177,8 +177,8 @@ Number Protocol
Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical value of *o1* divided by
*o2*, or ``NULL`` on failure. The return value is "approximate" because binary
- floating point numbers are approximate; it is not possible to represent all real
- numbers in base two. This function can return a floating point value when
+ floating-point numbers are approximate; it is not possible to represent all real
+ numbers in base two. This function can return a floating-point value when
passed two integers. The operation is done *in-place* when *o1* supports it.
This is the equivalent of the Python statement ``o1 /= o2``.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/object.rst b/Doc/c-api/object.rst
index ba454db91175042..be4e5847022f33b 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/object.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/object.rst
@@ -52,6 +52,7 @@ Object Protocol
The reference is borrowed from the interpreter, and is valid until the
interpreter finalization.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.13
@@ -65,14 +66,14 @@ Object Protocol
Properly handle returning :c:data:`Py_NotImplemented` from within a C
function (that is, create a new :term:`strong reference`
- to NotImplemented and return it).
+ to :const:`NotImplemented` and return it).
.. c:macro:: Py_PRINT_RAW
Flag to be used with multiple functions that print the object (like
:c:func:`PyObject_Print` and :c:func:`PyFile_WriteObject`).
- If passed, these function would use the :func:`str` of the object
+ If passed, these functions use the :func:`str` of the object
instead of the :func:`repr`.
@@ -84,7 +85,7 @@ Object Protocol
instead of the :func:`repr`.
-.. c:function:: int PyObject_HasAttrWithError(PyObject *o, const char *attr_name)
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_HasAttrWithError(PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)
Returns ``1`` if *o* has the attribute *attr_name*, and ``0`` otherwise.
This is equivalent to the Python expression ``hasattr(o, attr_name)``.
@@ -110,7 +111,8 @@ Object Protocol
.. note::
Exceptions that occur when this calls :meth:`~object.__getattr__` and
- :meth:`~object.__getattribute__` methods are silently ignored.
+ :meth:`~object.__getattribute__` methods aren't propagated,
+ but instead given to :func:`sys.unraisablehook`.
For proper error handling, use :c:func:`PyObject_HasAttrWithError`,
:c:func:`PyObject_GetOptionalAttr` or :c:func:`PyObject_GetAttr` instead.
@@ -205,6 +207,13 @@ Object Protocol
If *v* is ``NULL``, the attribute is deleted, but this feature is
deprecated in favour of using :c:func:`PyObject_DelAttrString`.
+ The number of different attribute names passed to this function
+ should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated string
+ as *attr_name*.
+ For attribute names that aren't known at compile time, prefer calling
+ :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromString` and :c:func:`PyObject_SetAttr` directly.
+ For more details, see :c:func:`PyUnicode_InternFromString`, which may be
+ used internally to create a key object.
.. c:function:: int PyObject_GenericSetAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *name, PyObject *value)
@@ -230,6 +239,14 @@ Object Protocol
specified as a :c:expr:`const char*` UTF-8 encoded bytes string,
rather than a :c:expr:`PyObject*`.
+ The number of different attribute names passed to this function
+ should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated string
+ as *attr_name*.
+ For attribute names that aren't known at compile time, prefer calling
+ :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromString` and :c:func:`PyObject_DelAttr` directly.
+ For more details, see :c:func:`PyUnicode_InternFromString`, which may be
+ used internally to create a key object for lookup.
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_GenericGetDict(PyObject *o, void *context)
@@ -302,6 +319,8 @@ Object Protocol
representation on success, ``NULL`` on failure. This is the equivalent of the
Python expression ``repr(o)``. Called by the :func:`repr` built-in function.
+ If argument is ``NULL``, return the string ``'<NULL>'``.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
This function now includes a debug assertion to help ensure that it
does not silently discard an active exception.
@@ -316,6 +335,8 @@ Object Protocol
a string similar to that returned by :c:func:`PyObject_Repr` in Python 2.
Called by the :func:`ascii` built-in function.
+ If argument is ``NULL``, return the string ``'<NULL>'``.
+
.. index:: string; PyObject_Str (C function)
@@ -326,6 +347,8 @@ Object Protocol
Python expression ``str(o)``. Called by the :func:`str` built-in function
and, therefore, by the :func:`print` function.
+ If argument is ``NULL``, return the string ``'<NULL>'``.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
This function now includes a debug assertion to help ensure that it
does not silently discard an active exception.
@@ -341,6 +364,8 @@ Object Protocol
a TypeError is raised when *o* is an integer instead of a zero-initialized
bytes object.
+ If argument is ``NULL``, return the :class:`bytes` object ``b'<NULL>'``.
+
.. c:function:: int PyObject_IsSubclass(PyObject *derived, PyObject *cls)
@@ -351,14 +376,14 @@ Object Protocol
The result will be ``1`` when at least one of the checks returns ``1``,
otherwise it will be ``0``.
- If *cls* has a :meth:`~class.__subclasscheck__` method, it will be called to
+ If *cls* has a :meth:`~type.__subclasscheck__` method, it will be called to
determine the subclass status as described in :pep:`3119`. Otherwise,
*derived* is a subclass of *cls* if it is a direct or indirect subclass,
- i.e. contained in ``cls.__mro__``.
+ i.e. contained in :attr:`cls.__mro__ <type.__mro__>`.
Normally only class objects, i.e. instances of :class:`type` or a derived
class, are considered classes. However, objects can override this by having
- a :attr:`~class.__bases__` attribute (which must be a tuple of base classes).
+ a :attr:`~type.__bases__` attribute (which must be a tuple of base classes).
.. c:function:: int PyObject_IsInstance(PyObject *inst, PyObject *cls)
@@ -370,15 +395,15 @@ Object Protocol
The result will be ``1`` when at least one of the checks returns ``1``,
otherwise it will be ``0``.
- If *cls* has a :meth:`~class.__instancecheck__` method, it will be called to
+ If *cls* has a :meth:`~type.__instancecheck__` method, it will be called to
determine the subclass status as described in :pep:`3119`. Otherwise, *inst*
is an instance of *cls* if its class is a subclass of *cls*.
An instance *inst* can override what is considered its class by having a
- :attr:`~instance.__class__` attribute.
+ :attr:`~object.__class__` attribute.
An object *cls* can override if it is considered a class, and what its base
- classes are, by having a :attr:`~class.__bases__` attribute (which must be a tuple
+ classes are, by having a :attr:`~type.__bases__` attribute (which must be a tuple
of base classes).
@@ -476,6 +501,13 @@ Object Protocol
on failure. This is equivalent to the Python statement ``del o[key]``.
+.. c:function:: int PyObject_DelItemString(PyObject *o, const char *key)
+
+ This is the same as :c:func:`PyObject_DelItem`, but *key* is
+ specified as a :c:expr:`const char*` UTF-8 encoded bytes string,
+ rather than a :c:expr:`PyObject*`.
+
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_Dir(PyObject *o)
This is equivalent to the Python expression ``dir(o)``, returning a (possibly
@@ -493,6 +525,12 @@ Object Protocol
iterated.
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_SelfIter(PyObject *obj)
+
+ This is equivalent to the Python ``__iter__(self): return self`` method.
+ It is intended for :term:`iterator` types, to be used in the :c:member:`PyTypeObject.tp_iter` slot.
+
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyObject_GetAIter(PyObject *o)
This is the equivalent to the Python expression ``aiter(o)``. Takes an
@@ -555,7 +593,7 @@ Object Protocol
Clear the managed dictionary of *obj*.
- This function must only be called in a traverse function of the type which
+ This function must only be called in a clear function of the type which
has the :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT` flag set.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/perfmaps.rst b/Doc/c-api/perfmaps.rst
index 3d44d2eb6bf41d6..11a00917dfa8c2b 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/perfmaps.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/perfmaps.rst
@@ -48,3 +48,43 @@ Note that holding the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) is not required for these AP
This is called by the runtime itself during interpreter shut-down. In
general, there shouldn't be a reason to explicitly call this, except to
handle specific scenarios such as forking.
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnstable_CopyPerfMapFile(const char *parent_filename)
+
+ Open the ``/tmp/perf-$pid.map`` file and append the content of *parent_filename*
+ to it.
+
+ This function is available on all platforms but only generates output on platforms
+ that support perf maps (currently only Linux). On other platforms, it does nothing.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnstable_PerfTrampoline_CompileCode(PyCodeObject *code)
+
+ Compile the given code object using the current perf trampoline.
+
+ The "current" trampoline is the one set by the runtime or the most recent
+ :c:func:`PyUnstable_PerfTrampoline_SetPersistAfterFork` call.
+
+ If no trampoline is set, falls back to normal compilation (no perf map entry).
+
+ :param code: The code object to compile.
+ :return: 0 on success, -1 on failure.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+.. c:function:: int PyUnstable_PerfTrampoline_SetPersistAfterFork(int enable)
+
+ Set whether the perf trampoline should persist after a fork.
+
+ * If ``enable`` is true (non-zero): perf map file remains open/valid post-fork.
+ Child process inherits all existing perf map entries.
+ * If ``enable`` is false (zero): perf map closes post-fork.
+ Child process gets empty perf map.
+
+ Default: false (clears on fork).
+
+ :param enable: 1 to enable, 0 to disable.
+ :return: 0 on success, -1 on failure.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/picklebuffer.rst b/Doc/c-api/picklebuffer.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..9e2d92341b0f93e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/c-api/picklebuffer.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+.. highlight:: c
+
+.. _picklebuffer-objects:
+
+.. index::
+ pair: object; PickleBuffer
+
+Pickle buffer objects
+---------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+A :class:`pickle.PickleBuffer` object wraps a :ref:`buffer-providing object
+<bufferobjects>` for out-of-band data transfer with the :mod:`pickle` module.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyPickleBuffer_Type
+
+ This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python pickle buffer type.
+ This is the same object as :class:`pickle.PickleBuffer` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyPickleBuffer_Check(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return true if *op* is a pickle buffer instance.
+ This function always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyPickleBuffer_FromObject(PyObject *obj)
+
+ Create a pickle buffer from the object *obj*.
+
+ This function will fail if *obj* doesn't support the :ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>`.
+
+ On success, return a new pickle buffer instance.
+ On failure, set an exception and return ``NULL``.
+
+ Analogous to calling :class:`pickle.PickleBuffer` with *obj* in Python.
+
+
+.. c:function:: const Py_buffer *PyPickleBuffer_GetBuffer(PyObject *picklebuf)
+
+ Get a pointer to the underlying :c:type:`Py_buffer` that the pickle buffer wraps.
+
+ The returned pointer is valid as long as *picklebuf* is alive and has not been
+ released. The caller must not modify or free the returned :c:type:`Py_buffer`.
+ If the pickle buffer has been released, raise :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+ On success, return a pointer to the buffer view.
+ On failure, set an exception and return ``NULL``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyPickleBuffer_Release(PyObject *picklebuf)
+
+ Release the underlying buffer held by the pickle buffer.
+
+ Return ``0`` on success. On failure, set an exception and return ``-1``.
+
+ Analogous to calling :meth:`pickle.PickleBuffer.release` in Python.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/refcounting.rst b/Doc/c-api/refcounting.rst
index bf50107347e0e78..524341794d241db 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/refcounting.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/refcounting.rst
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ of Python objects.
``NULL``, use :c:func:`Py_XINCREF`.
Do not expect this function to actually modify *o* in any way.
- For at least `some objects <https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/>`_,
+ For at least :pep:`some objects <0683>`,
this function has no effect.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
@@ -130,7 +130,7 @@ of Python objects.
use :c:func:`Py_XDECREF`.
Do not expect this function to actually modify *o* in any way.
- For at least `some objects <https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/>`_,
+ For at least :pep:`some objects <683>`,
this function has no effect.
.. warning::
@@ -201,7 +201,7 @@ of Python objects.
Py_SETREF(dst, src);
- That arranges to set *dst* to *src* _before_ releasing the reference
+ That arranges to set *dst* to *src* *before* releasing the reference
to the old value of *dst*, so that any code triggered as a side-effect
of *dst* getting torn down no longer believes *dst* points
to a valid object.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/reflection.rst b/Doc/c-api/reflection.rst
index 4b1c4770848a306..038e69771045606 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/reflection.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/reflection.rst
@@ -7,18 +7,48 @@ Reflection
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyEval_GetBuiltins(void)
+ .. deprecated:: 3.13
+
+ Use :c:func:`PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins` instead.
+
Return a dictionary of the builtins in the current execution frame,
or the interpreter of the thread state if no frame is currently executing.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyEval_GetLocals(void)
- Return a dictionary of the local variables in the current execution frame,
+ .. deprecated:: 3.13
+
+ Use either :c:func:`PyEval_GetFrameLocals` to obtain the same behaviour as calling
+ :func:`locals` in Python code, or else call :c:func:`PyFrame_GetLocals` on the result
+ of :c:func:`PyEval_GetFrame` to access the :attr:`~frame.f_locals` attribute of the
+ currently executing frame.
+
+ Return a mapping providing access to the local variables in the current execution frame,
or ``NULL`` if no frame is currently executing.
+ Refer to :func:`locals` for details of the mapping returned at different scopes.
+
+ As this function returns a :term:`borrowed reference`, the dictionary returned for
+ :term:`optimized scopes <optimized scope>` is cached on the frame object and will remain
+ alive as long as the frame object does. Unlike :c:func:`PyEval_GetFrameLocals` and
+ :func:`locals`, subsequent calls to this function in the same frame will update the
+ contents of the cached dictionary to reflect changes in the state of the local variables
+ rather than returning a new snapshot.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ As part of :pep:`667`, :c:func:`PyFrame_GetLocals`, :func:`locals`, and
+ :attr:`FrameType.f_locals <frame.f_locals>` no longer make use of the shared cache
+ dictionary. Refer to the :ref:`What's New entry <whatsnew313-locals-semantics>` for
+ additional details.
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyEval_GetGlobals(void)
+ .. deprecated:: 3.13
+
+ Use :c:func:`PyEval_GetFrameGlobals` instead.
+
Return a dictionary of the global variables in the current execution frame,
or ``NULL`` if no frame is currently executing.
@@ -31,6 +61,36 @@ Reflection
See also :c:func:`PyThreadState_GetFrame`.
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins(void)
+
+ Return a dictionary of the builtins in the current execution frame,
+ or the interpreter of the thread state if no frame is currently executing.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyEval_GetFrameLocals(void)
+
+ Return a dictionary of the local variables in the current execution frame,
+ or ``NULL`` if no frame is currently executing. Equivalent to calling
+ :func:`locals` in Python code.
+
+ To access :attr:`~frame.f_locals` on the current frame without making an independent
+ snapshot in :term:`optimized scopes <optimized scope>`, call :c:func:`PyFrame_GetLocals`
+ on the result of :c:func:`PyEval_GetFrame`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyEval_GetFrameGlobals(void)
+
+ Return a dictionary of the global variables in the current execution frame,
+ or ``NULL`` if no frame is currently executing. Equivalent to calling
+ :func:`globals` in Python code.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
.. c:function:: const char* PyEval_GetFuncName(PyObject *func)
Return the name of *func* if it is a function, class or instance object, else the
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/sequence.rst b/Doc/c-api/sequence.rst
index ce28839f5ba739d..465c55b5352d6c3 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/sequence.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/sequence.rst
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ Sequence Protocol
Assign object *v* to the *i*\ th element of *o*. Raise an exception
and return ``-1`` on failure; return ``0`` on success. This
is the equivalent of the Python statement ``o[i] = v``. This function *does
- not* steal a reference to *v*.
+ not* ":term:`steal`" a reference to *v*.
If *v* is ``NULL``, the element is deleted, but this feature is
deprecated in favour of using :c:func:`PySequence_DelItem`.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/set.rst b/Doc/c-api/set.rst
index cba823aa027bd6d..09c0fb6b9c5f233 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/set.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/set.rst
@@ -147,7 +147,7 @@ subtypes but not for instances of :class:`frozenset` or its subtypes.
Return ``1`` if found and removed, ``0`` if not found (no action taken), and ``-1`` if an
error is encountered. Does not raise :exc:`KeyError` for missing keys. Raise a
- :exc:`TypeError` if the *key* is unhashable. Unlike the Python :meth:`~frozenset.discard`
+ :exc:`TypeError` if the *key* is unhashable. Unlike the Python :meth:`~set.discard`
method, this function does not automatically convert unhashable sets into
temporary frozensets. Raise :exc:`SystemError` if *set* is not an
instance of :class:`set` or its subtype.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/slice.rst b/Doc/c-api/slice.rst
index 27a1757c745d8bf..c6d761fe7fd1c96 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/slice.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/slice.rst
@@ -23,7 +23,9 @@ Slice Objects
Return a new slice object with the given values. The *start*, *stop*, and
*step* parameters are used as the values of the slice object attributes of
the same names. Any of the values may be ``NULL``, in which case the
- ``None`` will be used for the corresponding attribute. Return ``NULL`` if
+ ``None`` will be used for the corresponding attribute.
+
+ Return ``NULL`` with an exception set if
the new object could not be allocated.
@@ -52,7 +54,7 @@ Slice Objects
of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent with the handling of
normal slices.
- Returns ``0`` on success and ``-1`` on error with exception set.
+ Return ``0`` on success and ``-1`` on error with an exception set.
.. note::
This function is considered not safe for resizable sequences.
@@ -95,7 +97,7 @@ Slice Objects
``PY_SSIZE_T_MIN`` to ``PY_SSIZE_T_MIN``, and silently boost the step
values less than ``-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX`` to ``-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX``.
- Return ``-1`` on error, ``0`` on success.
+ Return ``-1`` with an exception set on error, ``0`` on success.
.. versionadded:: 3.6.1
@@ -116,6 +118,12 @@ Ellipsis Object
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyEllipsis_Type
+
+ The type of Python :const:`Ellipsis` object. Same as :class:`types.EllipsisType`
+ in the Python layer.
+
+
.. c:var:: PyObject *Py_Ellipsis
The Python ``Ellipsis`` object. This object has no methods. Like
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/stable.rst b/Doc/c-api/stable.rst
index 5b9e43874c7f2ba..124e58cf950b7a7 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/stable.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/stable.rst
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ Limited C API
Python 3.2 introduced the *Limited API*, a subset of Python's C API.
Extensions that only use the Limited API can be
-compiled once and work with multiple versions of Python.
+compiled once and be loaded on multiple versions of Python.
Contents of the Limited API are :ref:`listed below <limited-api-list>`.
.. c:macro:: Py_LIMITED_API
@@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ Contents of the Limited API are :ref:`listed below <limited-api-list>`.
Define ``Py_LIMITED_API`` to the value of :c:macro:`PY_VERSION_HEX`
corresponding to the lowest Python version your extension supports.
- The extension will work without recompilation with all Python 3 releases
+ The extension will be ABI-compatible with all Python 3 releases
from the specified one onward, and can use Limited API introduced up to that
version.
@@ -94,7 +94,15 @@ Stable ABI
----------
To enable this, Python provides a *Stable ABI*: a set of symbols that will
-remain compatible across Python 3.x versions.
+remain ABI-compatible across Python 3.x versions.
+
+.. note::
+
+ The Stable ABI prevents ABI issues, like linker errors due to missing
+ symbols or data corruption due to changes in structure layouts or function
+ signatures.
+ However, other changes in Python can change the *behavior* of extensions.
+ See Python's Backwards Compatibility Policy (:pep:`387`) for details.
The Stable ABI contains symbols exposed in the :ref:`Limited API
<limited-c-api>`, but also other ones – for example, functions necessary to
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/structures.rst b/Doc/c-api/structures.rst
index f9461ab01f60492..76cf16e2cb083a5 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/structures.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/structures.rst
@@ -63,6 +63,11 @@ under :ref:`reference counting <countingrefs>`.
See documentation of :c:type:`PyVarObject` above.
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyBaseObject_Type
+
+ The base class of all other objects, the same as :class:`object` in Python.
+
+
.. c:function:: int Py_Is(PyObject *x, PyObject *y)
Test if the *x* object is the *y* object, the same as ``x is y`` in Python.
@@ -360,7 +365,7 @@ There are these calling conventions:
These two constants are not used to indicate the calling convention but the
-binding when use with methods of classes. These may not be used for functions
+binding when used with methods of classes. These may not be used for functions
defined for modules. At most one of these flags may be set for any given
method.
@@ -371,8 +376,8 @@ method.
The method will be passed the type object as the first parameter rather
than an instance of the type. This is used to create *class methods*,
- similar to what is created when using the :func:`classmethod` built-in
- function.
+ similar to what is created when using the :deco:`classmethod` built-in
+ decorator.
.. c:macro:: METH_STATIC
@@ -381,7 +386,7 @@ method.
The method will be passed ``NULL`` as the first parameter rather than an
instance of the type. This is used to create *static methods*, similar to
- what is created when using the :func:`staticmethod` built-in function.
+ what is created when using the :deco:`staticmethod` built-in decorator.
One other constant controls whether a method is loaded in place of another
definition with the same method name.
@@ -399,6 +404,25 @@ definition with the same method name.
slot. This is helpful because calls to PyCFunctions are optimized more
than wrapper object calls.
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyCMethod_Type
+
+ The type object corresponding to Python C method objects. This is
+ available as :class:`types.BuiltinMethodType` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCMethod_Check(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return true if *op* is an instance of the :c:type:`PyCMethod_Type` type
+ or a subtype of it. This function always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCMethod_CheckExact(PyObject *op)
+
+ This is the same as :c:func:`PyCMethod_Check`, but does not account for
+ subtypes.
+
+
.. c:function:: PyObject * PyCMethod_New(PyMethodDef *ml, PyObject *self, PyObject *module, PyTypeObject *cls)
Turn *ml* into a Python :term:`callable` object.
@@ -424,6 +448,24 @@ definition with the same method name.
.. versionadded:: 3.9
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyCFunction_Type
+
+ The type object corresponding to Python C function objects. This is
+ available as :class:`types.BuiltinFunctionType` in the Python layer.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCFunction_Check(PyObject *op)
+
+ Return true if *op* is an instance of the :c:type:`PyCFunction_Type` type
+ or a subtype of it. This function always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCFunction_CheckExact(PyObject *op)
+
+ This is the same as :c:func:`PyCFunction_Check`, but does not account for
+ subtypes.
+
+
.. c:function:: PyObject * PyCFunction_NewEx(PyMethodDef *ml, PyObject *self, PyObject *module)
Equivalent to ``PyCMethod_New(ml, self, module, NULL)``.
@@ -434,6 +476,62 @@ definition with the same method name.
Equivalent to ``PyCMethod_New(ml, self, NULL, NULL)``.
+.. c:function:: int PyCFunction_GetFlags(PyObject *func)
+
+ Get the function's flags on *func* as they were passed to
+ :c:member:`~PyMethodDef.ml_flags`.
+
+ If *func* is not a C function object, this fails with an exception.
+ *func* must not be ``NULL``.
+
+ This function returns the function's flags on success, and ``-1`` with an
+ exception set on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCFunction_GET_FLAGS(PyObject *func)
+
+ This is the same as :c:func:`PyCFunction_GetFlags`, but without error
+ or type checking.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyCFunction PyCFunction_GetFunction(PyObject *func)
+
+ Get the function pointer on *func* as it was passed to
+ :c:member:`~PyMethodDef.ml_meth`.
+
+ If *func* is not a C function object, this fails with an exception.
+ *func* must not be ``NULL``.
+
+ This function returns the function pointer on success, and ``NULL`` with an
+ exception set on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCFunction_GET_FUNCTION(PyObject *func)
+
+ This is the same as :c:func:`PyCFunction_GetFunction`, but without error
+ or type checking.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyCFunction_GetSelf(PyObject *func)
+
+ Get the "self" object on *func*. This is the object that would be passed
+ to the first argument of a :c:type:`PyCFunction`. For C function objects
+ created through a :c:type:`PyMethodDef` on a :c:type:`PyModuleDef`, this
+ is the resulting module object.
+
+ If *func* is not a C function object, this fails with an exception.
+ *func* must not be ``NULL``.
+
+ This function returns a :term:`borrowed reference` to the "self" object
+ on success, and ``NULL`` with an exception set on failure.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject *PyCFunction_GET_SELF(PyObject *func)
+
+ This is the same as :c:func:`PyCFunction_GetSelf`, but without error or
+ type checking.
+
+
Accessing attributes of extension types
---------------------------------------
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/sys.rst b/Doc/c-api/sys.rst
index d6fca1a0b0a219c..8fb30a7826d84a5 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/sys.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/sys.rst
@@ -123,6 +123,24 @@ Operating System Utilities
This is a thin wrapper around either :c:func:`!sigaction` or :c:func:`!signal`. Do
not call those functions directly!
+
+.. c:function:: int PyOS_InterruptOccurred(void)
+
+ Check if a :c:macro:`!SIGINT` signal has been received.
+
+ Returns ``1`` if a :c:macro:`!SIGINT` has occurred and clears the signal flag,
+ or ``0`` otherwise.
+
+ In most cases, you should prefer :c:func:`PyErr_CheckSignals` over this function.
+ :c:func:`!PyErr_CheckSignals` invokes the appropriate signal handlers
+ for all pending signals, allowing Python code to handle the signal properly.
+ This function only detects :c:macro:`!SIGINT` and does not invoke any Python
+ signal handlers.
+
+ This function is async-signal-safe and this function cannot fail.
+ The caller must hold an attached thread state.
+
+
.. c:function:: wchar_t* Py_DecodeLocale(const char* arg, size_t *size)
.. warning::
@@ -426,3 +444,7 @@ Process Control
function registered last is called first. Each cleanup function will be called
at most once. Since Python's internal finalization will have completed before
the cleanup function, no Python APIs should be called by *func*.
+
+ .. seealso::
+
+ :c:func:`PyUnstable_AtExit` for passing a ``void *data`` argument.
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/time.rst b/Doc/c-api/time.rst
index 5cfdef71b3e191e..7032cc48aa69139 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/time.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/time.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
.. highlight:: c
+.. _c-api-time:
+
PyTime C API
============
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/tuple.rst b/Doc/c-api/tuple.rst
index 0d68a360f347f85..6b4d08e6bff223b 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/tuple.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/tuple.rst
@@ -33,12 +33,14 @@ Tuple Objects
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyTuple_New(Py_ssize_t len)
- Return a new tuple object of size *len*, or ``NULL`` on failure.
+ Return a new tuple object of size *len*,
+ or ``NULL`` with an exception set on failure.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyTuple_Pack(Py_ssize_t n, ...)
- Return a new tuple object of size *n*, or ``NULL`` on failure. The tuple values
+ Return a new tuple object of size *n*,
+ or ``NULL`` with an exception set on failure. The tuple values
are initialized to the subsequent *n* C arguments pointing to Python objects.
``PyTuple_Pack(2, a, b)`` is equivalent to ``Py_BuildValue("(OO)", a, b)``.
@@ -46,12 +48,12 @@ Tuple Objects
.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyTuple_Size(PyObject *p)
Take a pointer to a tuple object, and return the size of that tuple.
+ On error, return ``-1`` with an exception set.
.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyTuple_GET_SIZE(PyObject *p)
- Return the size of the tuple *p*, which must be non-``NULL`` and point to a tuple;
- no error checking is performed.
+ Like :c:func:`PyTuple_Size`, but without error checking.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyTuple_GetItem(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
@@ -74,8 +76,10 @@ Tuple Objects
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyTuple_GetSlice(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
Return the slice of the tuple pointed to by *p* between *low* and *high*,
- or ``NULL`` on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression
- ``p[low:high]``. Indexing from the end of the tuple is not supported.
+ or ``NULL`` with an exception set on failure.
+
+ This is the equivalent of the Python expression ``p[low:high]``.
+ Indexing from the end of the tuple is not supported.
.. c:function:: int PyTuple_SetItem(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject *o)
@@ -86,8 +90,9 @@ Tuple Objects
.. note::
- This function "steals" a reference to *o* and discards a reference to
- an item already in the tuple at the affected position.
+ This function ":term:`steals <steal>`" a reference to *o* and discards
+ a reference to an item already in the tuple at the affected position
+ (unless it was NULL).
.. c:function:: void PyTuple_SET_ITEM(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject *o)
@@ -100,7 +105,7 @@ Tuple Objects
.. note::
- This function "steals" a reference to *o*, and, unlike
+ This function ":term:`steals <steal>`" a reference to *o*, and, unlike
:c:func:`PyTuple_SetItem`, does *not* discard a reference to any item that
is being replaced; any reference in the tuple at position *pos* will be
leaked.
@@ -135,6 +140,8 @@ type.
Create a new struct sequence type from the data in *desc*, described below. Instances
of the resulting type can be created with :c:func:`PyStructSequence_New`.
+ Return ``NULL`` with an exception set on failure.
+
.. c:function:: void PyStructSequence_InitType(PyTypeObject *type, PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)
@@ -143,8 +150,8 @@ type.
.. c:function:: int PyStructSequence_InitType2(PyTypeObject *type, PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)
- The same as ``PyStructSequence_InitType``, but returns ``0`` on success and ``-1`` on
- failure.
+ Like :c:func:`PyStructSequence_InitType`, but returns ``0`` on success
+ and ``-1`` with an exception set on failure.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
@@ -155,7 +162,8 @@ type.
.. c:member:: const char *name
- Name of the struct sequence type.
+ Fully qualified name of the type; null-terminated UTF-8 encoded.
+ The name must contain the module name.
.. c:member:: const char *doc
@@ -201,6 +209,8 @@ type.
Creates an instance of *type*, which must have been created with
:c:func:`PyStructSequence_NewType`.
+ Return ``NULL`` with an exception set on failure.
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyStructSequence_GetItem(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
@@ -229,7 +239,7 @@ type.
.. note::
- This function "steals" a reference to *o*.
+ This function ":term:`steals <steal>`" a reference to *o*.
.. c:function:: void PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t *pos, PyObject *o)
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/type.rst b/Doc/c-api/type.rst
index 0cae5c09505ebe1..065625a4fe51066 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/type.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/type.rst
@@ -53,7 +53,8 @@ Type Objects
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_GetDict(PyTypeObject* type)
Return the type object's internal namespace, which is otherwise only
- exposed via a read-only proxy (``cls.__dict__``). This is a
+ exposed via a read-only proxy (:attr:`cls.__dict__ <type.__dict__>`).
+ This is a
replacement for accessing :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dict` directly.
The returned dictionary must be treated as read-only.
@@ -81,6 +82,9 @@ Type Objects
error (e.g. no more watcher IDs available), return ``-1`` and set an
exception.
+ In free-threaded builds, :c:func:`PyType_AddWatcher` is not thread-safe,
+ so it must be called at start up (before spawning the first thread).
+
.. versionadded:: 3.12
@@ -112,6 +116,20 @@ Type Objects
.. versionadded:: 3.12
+.. c:function:: int PyType_Unwatch(int watcher_id, PyObject *type)
+
+ Mark *type* as not watched. This undoes a previous call to
+ :c:func:`PyType_Watch`. *type* must not be ``NULL``.
+
+ An extension should never call this function with a *watcher_id* that was
+ not returned to it by a previous call to :c:func:`PyType_AddWatcher`.
+
+ On success, this function returns ``0``. On failure, this function returns
+ ``-1`` with an exception set.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.12
+
+
.. c:type:: int (*PyType_WatchCallback)(PyObject *type)
Type of a type-watcher callback function.
@@ -129,6 +147,18 @@ Type Objects
Type features are denoted by single bit flags.
+.. c:function:: int PyType_FastSubclass(PyTypeObject *type, int flag)
+
+ Return non-zero if the type object *type* sets the subclass flag *flag*.
+ Subclass flags are denoted by
+ :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_*_SUBCLASS <Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS>`.
+ This function is used by many ``_Check`` functions for common types.
+
+ .. seealso::
+ :c:func:`PyObject_TypeCheck`, which is used as a slower alternative in
+ ``_Check`` functions for types that don't come with subclass flags.
+
+
.. c:function:: int PyType_IS_GC(PyTypeObject *o)
Return true if the type object includes support for the cycle detector; this
@@ -140,7 +170,7 @@ Type Objects
Return true if *a* is a subtype of *b*.
This function only checks for actual subtypes, which means that
- :meth:`~class.__subclasscheck__` is not called on *b*. Call
+ :meth:`~type.__subclasscheck__` is not called on *b*. Call
:c:func:`PyObject_IsSubclass` to do the same check that :func:`issubclass`
would do.
@@ -151,11 +181,13 @@ Type Objects
Python's default memory allocation mechanism to allocate a new instance and
initialize all its contents to ``NULL``.
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_GenericNew(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
Generic handler for the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` slot of a type object. Create a
new instance using the type's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_alloc` slot.
+
.. c:function:: int PyType_Ready(PyTypeObject *type)
Finalize a type object. This should be called on all type objects to finish
@@ -172,34 +204,39 @@ Type Objects
GC protocol itself by at least implementing the
:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse` handle.
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_GetName(PyTypeObject *type)
- Return the type's name. Equivalent to getting the type's ``__name__`` attribute.
+ Return the type's name. Equivalent to getting the type's
+ :attr:`~type.__name__` attribute.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_GetQualName(PyTypeObject *type)
Return the type's qualified name. Equivalent to getting the
- type's ``__qualname__`` attribute.
+ type's :attr:`~type.__qualname__` attribute.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(PyTypeObject *type)
Return the type's fully qualified name. Equivalent to
- ``f"{type.__module__}.{type.__qualname__}"``, or ``type.__qualname__`` if
- ``type.__module__`` is not a string or is equal to ``"builtins"``.
+ ``f"{type.__module__}.{type.__qualname__}"``, or :attr:`type.__qualname__`
+ if :attr:`type.__module__` is not a string or is equal to ``"builtins"``.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_GetModuleName(PyTypeObject *type)
- Return the type's module name. Equivalent to getting the ``type.__module__``
- attribute.
+ Return the type's module name. Equivalent to getting the
+ :attr:`type.__module__` attribute.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
+
.. c:function:: void* PyType_GetSlot(PyTypeObject *type, int slot)
Return the function pointer stored in the given slot. If the
@@ -216,11 +253,16 @@ Type Objects
:c:func:`PyType_GetSlot` can now accept all types.
Previously, it was limited to :ref:`heap types <heap-types>`.
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_GetModule(PyTypeObject *type)
Return the module object associated with the given type when the type was
created using :c:func:`PyType_FromModuleAndSpec`.
+ The returned reference is :term:`borrowed <borrowed reference>` from *type*,
+ and will be valid as long as you hold a reference to *type*.
+ Do not release it with :c:func:`Py_DECREF` or similar.
+
If no module is associated with the given type, sets :py:class:`TypeError`
and returns ``NULL``.
@@ -235,6 +277,7 @@ Type Objects
.. versionadded:: 3.9
+
.. c:function:: void* PyType_GetModuleState(PyTypeObject *type)
Return the state of the module object associated with the given type.
@@ -249,6 +292,7 @@ Type Objects
.. versionadded:: 3.9
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_GetModuleByDef(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyModuleDef *def)
Find the first superclass whose module was created from
@@ -262,8 +306,13 @@ Type Objects
and other places where a method's defining class cannot be passed using the
:c:type:`PyCMethod` calling convention.
+ The returned reference is :term:`borrowed <borrowed reference>` from *type*,
+ and will be valid as long as you hold a reference to *type*.
+ Do not release it with :c:func:`Py_DECREF` or similar.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.11
+
.. c:function:: int PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag(PyTypeObject *type)
Attempt to assign a version tag to the given type.
@@ -274,6 +323,16 @@ Type Objects
.. versionadded:: 3.12
+.. c:function:: int PyType_SUPPORTS_WEAKREFS(PyTypeObject *type)
+
+ Return true if instances of *type* support creating weak references, false
+ otherwise. This function always succeeds. *type* must not be ``NULL``.
+
+ .. seealso::
+ * :ref:`weakrefobjects`
+ * :py:mod:`weakref`
+
+
Creating Heap-Allocated Types
.............................
@@ -326,6 +385,7 @@ The following functions and structs are used to create
.. versionadded:: 3.12
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(PyObject *module, PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases)
Equivalent to ``PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, module, spec, bases)``.
@@ -348,6 +408,7 @@ The following functions and structs are used to create
:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` is deprecated and in Python 3.14+ it
will be no longer allowed.
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_FromSpecWithBases(PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases)
Equivalent to ``PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec, bases)``.
@@ -365,6 +426,7 @@ The following functions and structs are used to create
:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` is deprecated and in Python 3.14+ it
will be no longer allowed.
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyType_FromSpec(PyType_Spec *spec)
Equivalent to ``PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec, NULL)``.
@@ -410,6 +472,9 @@ The following functions and structs are used to create
class need *in addition* to the superclass.
Use :c:func:`PyObject_GetTypeData` to get a pointer to subclass-specific
memory reserved this way.
+ For negative :c:member:`!basicsize`, Python will insert padding when
+ needed to meet :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize`'s alignment
+ requirements.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
@@ -429,7 +494,7 @@ The following functions and structs are used to create
in the following situations:
- The base is not variable-sized (its
- :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize`).
+ :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize` is zero).
- The requested :c:member:`PyType_Spec.basicsize` is positive,
suggesting that the memory layout of the base class is known.
- The requested :c:member:`PyType_Spec.basicsize` is zero,
@@ -478,19 +543,19 @@ The following functions and structs are used to create
The following “offset” fields cannot be set using :c:type:`PyType_Slot`:
- * :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset`
- (use :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF` instead if possible)
- * :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset`
- (use :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT` instead if possible)
- * :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall_offset`
- (use ``"__vectorcalloffset__"`` in
- :ref:`PyMemberDef <pymemberdef-offsets>`)
+ * :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset`
+ (use :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF` instead if possible)
+ * :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset`
+ (use :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT` instead if possible)
+ * :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall_offset`
+ (use ``"__vectorcalloffset__"`` in
+ :ref:`PyMemberDef <pymemberdef-offsets>`)
- If it is not possible to switch to a ``MANAGED`` flag (for example,
- for vectorcall or to support Python older than 3.12), specify the
- offset in :c:member:`Py_tp_members <PyTypeObject.tp_members>`.
- See :ref:`PyMemberDef documentation <pymemberdef-offsets>`
- for details.
+ If it is not possible to switch to a ``MANAGED`` flag (for example,
+ for vectorcall or to support Python older than 3.12), specify the
+ offset in :c:member:`Py_tp_members <PyTypeObject.tp_members>`.
+ See :ref:`PyMemberDef documentation <pymemberdef-offsets>`
+ for details.
The following fields cannot be set at all when creating a heap type:
@@ -510,14 +575,13 @@ The following functions and structs are used to create
To avoid issues, use the *bases* argument of
:c:func:`PyType_FromSpecWithBases` instead.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.9
-
- Slots in :c:type:`PyBufferProcs` may be set in the unlimited API.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.9
+ Slots in :c:type:`PyBufferProcs` may be set in the unlimited API.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.11
- :c:member:`~PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer` and
- :c:member:`~PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer` are now available
- under the :ref:`limited API <limited-c-api>`.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.11
+ :c:member:`~PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer` and
+ :c:member:`~PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer` are now available
+ under the :ref:`limited API <limited-c-api>`.
.. c:member:: void *pfunc
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/typehints.rst b/Doc/c-api/typehints.rst
index 98fe68737deb81c..ec2fba6da8b0438 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/typehints.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/typehints.rst
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ two types exist -- :ref:`GenericAlias <types-genericalias>` and
static PyMethodDef my_obj_methods[] = {
// Other methods.
...
- {"__class_getitem__", Py_GenericAlias, METH_O|METH_CLASS, "See PEP 585"}
+ {"__class_getitem__", Py_GenericAlias, METH_O|METH_CLASS, "my_obj is generic over its contained type"}
...
}
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/typeobj.rst b/Doc/c-api/typeobj.rst
index a6a2c437ea4e16e..561f95cb90a1778 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/typeobj.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/typeobj.rst
@@ -2,8 +2,8 @@
.. _type-structs:
-Type Objects
-============
+Type Object Structures
+======================
Perhaps one of the most important structures of the Python object system is the
structure that defines a new type: the :c:type:`PyTypeObject` structure. Type
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ Quick Reference
| :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_setattro` | :c:type:`setattrofunc` | __setattr__, | X | X | | G |
| | | __delattr__ | | | | |
+------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-------------------+---+---+---+---+
- | :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer` | :c:type:`PyBufferProcs` * | | | | | % |
+ | :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer` | :c:type:`PyBufferProcs` * | :ref:`sub-slots` | | | | % |
+------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-------------------+---+---+---+---+
| :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_flags` | unsigned long | | X | X | | ? |
+------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+-------------------+---+---+---+---+
@@ -325,9 +325,10 @@ sub-slots
+---------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------+
| |
+---------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------+
- | :c:member:`~PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer` | :c:func:`getbufferproc` | |
+ | :c:member:`~PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer` | :c:func:`getbufferproc` | __buffer__ |
+---------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------+
- | :c:member:`~PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer` | :c:func:`releasebufferproc` | |
+ | :c:member:`~PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer` | :c:func:`releasebufferproc` | __release_\ |
+ | | | buffer\__ |
+---------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+---------------+
.. _slot-typedefs-table:
@@ -355,7 +356,7 @@ slot typedefs
+-----------------------------+-----------------------------+----------------------+
| :c:type:`newfunc` | .. line-block:: | :c:type:`PyObject` * |
| | | |
-| | :c:type:`PyObject` * | |
+| | :c:type:`PyTypeObject` * | |
| | :c:type:`PyObject` * | |
| | :c:type:`PyObject` * | |
+-----------------------------+-----------------------------+----------------------+
@@ -473,7 +474,7 @@ PyTypeObject Definition
-----------------------
The structure definition for :c:type:`PyTypeObject` can be found in
-:file:`Include/object.h`. For convenience of reference, this repeats the
+:file:`Include/cpython/object.h`. For convenience of reference, this repeats the
definition found there:
.. XXX Drop this?
@@ -537,6 +538,9 @@ PyVarObject Slots
initialized to zero. For :ref:`dynamically allocated type objects
<heap-types>`, this field has a special internal meaning.
+ This field should be accessed using the :c:func:`Py_SIZE()` and
+ :c:func:`Py_SET_SIZE()` macros.
+
**Inheritance:**
This field is not inherited by subtypes.
@@ -567,12 +571,12 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
For :ref:`statically allocated type objects <static-types>`,
the *tp_name* field should contain a dot.
- Everything before the last dot is made accessible as the :attr:`__module__`
+ Everything before the last dot is made accessible as the :attr:`~type.__module__`
attribute, and everything after the last dot is made accessible as the
- :attr:`~definition.__name__` attribute.
+ :attr:`~type.__name__` attribute.
If no dot is present, the entire :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_name` field is made accessible as the
- :attr:`~definition.__name__` attribute, and the :attr:`__module__` attribute is undefined
+ :attr:`~type.__name__` attribute, and the :attr:`~type.__module__` attribute is undefined
(unless explicitly set in the dictionary, as explained above). This means your
type will be impossible to pickle. Additionally, it will not be listed in
module documentations created with pydoc.
@@ -587,53 +591,92 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize
- Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize
+ Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize
These fields allow calculating the size in bytes of instances of the type.
There are two kinds of types: types with fixed-length instances have a zero
- :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize` field, types with variable-length instances have a non-zero
- :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize` field. For a type with fixed-length instances, all
- instances have the same size, given in :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize`.
+ :c:member:`!tp_itemsize` field, types with variable-length instances have a non-zero
+ :c:member:`!tp_itemsize` field. For a type with fixed-length instances, all
+ instances have the same size, given in :c:member:`!tp_basicsize`.
+ (Exceptions to this rule can be made using
+ :c:func:`PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData`.)
For a type with variable-length instances, the instances must have an
- :c:member:`~PyVarObject.ob_size` field, and the instance size is :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize` plus N
- times :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize`, where N is the "length" of the object. The value of
- N is typically stored in the instance's :c:member:`~PyVarObject.ob_size` field. There are
- exceptions: for example, ints use a negative :c:member:`~PyVarObject.ob_size` to indicate a
- negative number, and N is ``abs(ob_size)`` there. Also, the presence of an
- :c:member:`~PyVarObject.ob_size` field in the instance layout doesn't mean that the instance
- structure is variable-length (for example, the structure for the list type has
- fixed-length instances, yet those instances have a meaningful :c:member:`~PyVarObject.ob_size`
- field).
-
- The basic size includes the fields in the instance declared by the macro
- :c:macro:`PyObject_HEAD` or :c:macro:`PyObject_VAR_HEAD` (whichever is used to
- declare the instance struct) and this in turn includes the :c:member:`~PyObject._ob_prev` and
- :c:member:`~PyObject._ob_next` fields if they are present. This means that the only correct
- way to get an initializer for the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize` is to use the
- ``sizeof`` operator on the struct used to declare the instance layout.
- The basic size does not include the GC header size.
+ :c:member:`~PyVarObject.ob_size` field, and the instance size is
+ :c:member:`!tp_basicsize` plus N times :c:member:`!tp_itemsize`,
+ where N is the "length" of the object.
+
+ Functions like :c:func:`PyObject_NewVar` will take the value of N as an
+ argument, and store in the instance's :c:member:`~PyVarObject.ob_size` field.
+ Note that the :c:member:`~PyVarObject.ob_size` field may later be used for
+ other purposes. For example, :py:type:`int` instances use the bits of
+ :c:member:`~PyVarObject.ob_size` in an implementation-defined way.
- A note about alignment: if the variable items require a particular alignment,
- this should be taken care of by the value of :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize`. Example:
- suppose a type implements an array of ``double``. :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize` is
- ``sizeof(double)``. It is the programmer's responsibility that
- :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize` is a multiple of ``sizeof(double)`` (assuming this is the
- alignment requirement for ``double``).
+ .. note::
- For any type with variable-length instances, this field must not be ``NULL``.
+ The :c:member:`~PyVarObject.ob_size` field should be accessed using
+ the :c:func:`Py_SIZE()` and :c:func:`Py_SET_SIZE()` macros.
+
+ Also, the presence of an :c:member:`~PyVarObject.ob_size` field in the
+ instance layout doesn't mean that the instance structure is variable-length.
+ For example, the :py:type:`list` type has fixed-length instances, yet those
+ instances have a :c:member:`~PyVarObject.ob_size` field.
+ (As with :py:type:`int`, avoid reading lists' :c:member:`!ob_size` directly.
+ Call :c:func:`PyList_Size` instead.)
+
+ The :c:member:`!tp_basicsize` includes size needed for data of the type's
+ :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_base`, plus any extra data needed
+ by each instance.
+
+ The correct way to set :c:member:`!tp_basicsize` is to use the
+ ``sizeof`` operator on the struct used to declare the instance layout.
+ This struct must include the struct used to declare the base type.
+ In other words, :c:member:`!tp_basicsize` must be greater than or equal
+ to the base's :c:member:`!tp_basicsize`.
+
+ Since every type is a subtype of :py:type:`object`, this struct must
+ include :c:type:`PyObject` or :c:type:`PyVarObject` (depending on
+ whether :c:member:`~PyVarObject.ob_size` should be included). These are
+ usually defined by the macro :c:macro:`PyObject_HEAD` or
+ :c:macro:`PyObject_VAR_HEAD`, respectively.
+
+ The basic size does not include the GC header size, as that header is not
+ part of :c:macro:`PyObject_HEAD`.
+
+ For cases where struct used to declare the base type is unknown,
+ see :c:member:`PyType_Spec.basicsize` and :c:func:`PyType_FromMetaclass`.
+
+ Notes about alignment:
+
+ - :c:member:`!tp_basicsize` must be a multiple of ``_Alignof(PyObject)``.
+ When using ``sizeof`` on a ``struct`` that includes
+ :c:macro:`PyObject_HEAD`, as recommended, the compiler ensures this.
+ When not using a C ``struct``, or when using compiler
+ extensions like ``__attribute__((packed))``, it is up to you.
+ - If the variable items require a particular alignment,
+ :c:member:`!tp_basicsize` and :c:member:`!tp_itemsize` must each be a
+ multiple of that alignment.
+ For example, if a type's variable part stores a ``double``, it is
+ your responsibility that both fields are a multiple of
+ ``_Alignof(double)``.
**Inheritance:**
- These fields are inherited separately by subtypes. If the base type has a
- non-zero :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize`, it is generally not safe to set
+ These fields are inherited separately by subtypes.
+ (That is, if the field is set to zero, :c:func:`PyType_Ready` will copy
+ the value from the base type, indicating that the instances do not
+ need additional storage.)
+
+ If the base type has a non-zero :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize`, it is generally not safe to set
:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize` to a different non-zero value in a subtype (though this
depends on the implementation of the base type).
.. c:member:: destructor PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_dealloc
+
A pointer to the instance destructor function. This function must be defined
unless the type guarantees that its instances will never be deallocated (as is
the case for the singletons ``None`` and ``Ellipsis``). The function signature is::
@@ -682,6 +725,19 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
Py_DECREF(tp);
}
+ .. warning::
+
+ In a garbage collected Python, :c:member:`!tp_dealloc` may be called from
+ any Python thread, not just the thread which created the object (if the
+ object becomes part of a refcount cycle, that cycle might be collected by
+ a garbage collection on any thread). This is not a problem for Python
+ API calls, since the thread on which :c:member:`!tp_dealloc` is called
+ will own the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL). However, if the object being
+ destroyed in turn destroys objects from some other C or C++ library, care
+ should be taken to ensure that destroying those objects on the thread
+ which called :c:member:`!tp_dealloc` will not violate any assumptions of
+ the library.
+
**Inheritance:**
@@ -735,6 +791,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: getattrfunc PyTypeObject.tp_getattr
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_getattr
+
An optional pointer to the get-attribute-string function.
This field is deprecated. When it is defined, it should point to a function
@@ -752,6 +810,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: setattrfunc PyTypeObject.tp_setattr
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_setattr
+
An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting attributes.
This field is deprecated. When it is defined, it should point to a function
@@ -784,6 +844,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: reprfunc PyTypeObject.tp_repr
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_repr
+
.. index:: pair: built-in function; repr
An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in function
@@ -849,6 +911,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: hashfunc PyTypeObject.tp_hash
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_hash
+
.. index:: pair: built-in function; hash
An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in function
@@ -890,6 +954,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: ternaryfunc PyTypeObject.tp_call
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_call
+
An optional pointer to a function that implements calling the object. This
should be ``NULL`` if the object is not callable. The signature is the same as
for :c:func:`PyObject_Call`::
@@ -903,6 +969,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: reprfunc PyTypeObject.tp_str
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_str
+
An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in operation
:func:`str`. (Note that :class:`str` is a type now, and :func:`str` calls the
constructor for that type. This constructor calls :c:func:`PyObject_Str` to do
@@ -928,6 +996,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: getattrofunc PyTypeObject.tp_getattro
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_getattro
+
An optional pointer to the get-attribute function.
The signature is the same as for :c:func:`PyObject_GetAttr`::
@@ -952,6 +1022,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: setattrofunc PyTypeObject.tp_setattro
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_setattro
+
An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting attributes.
The signature is the same as for :c:func:`PyObject_SetAttr`::
@@ -1131,7 +1203,7 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:macro:: Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT
- This bit indicates that instances of the class have a ``__dict__``
+ This bit indicates that instances of the class have a :attr:`~object.__dict__`
attribute, and that the space for the dictionary is managed by the VM.
If this flag is set, :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` should also be set.
@@ -1192,8 +1264,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:macro:: Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS
.. c:macro:: Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS
- These flags are used by functions such as
- :c:func:`PyLong_Check` to quickly determine if a type is a subclass
+ Functions such as :c:func:`PyLong_Check` will call :c:func:`PyType_FastSubclass`
+ with one of these flags to quickly determine if a type is a subclass
of a built-in type; such specific checks are faster than a generic
check, like :c:func:`PyObject_IsInstance`. Custom types that inherit
from built-ins should have their :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_flags`
@@ -1214,6 +1286,9 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
type structure.
+ .. c:macro:: _Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL
+ :no-typesetting:
+
.. c:macro:: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL
This bit is set when the class implements
@@ -1225,7 +1300,12 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
This bit is inherited if :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_call` is also
inherited.
- .. versionadded:: 3.9
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8 as ``_Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL``
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.9
+
+ Renamed to the current name, without the leading underscore.
+ The old provisional name is :term:`soft deprecated`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
@@ -1328,15 +1408,63 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
To indicate that a class has changed call :c:func:`PyType_Modified`
.. warning::
- This flag is present in header files, but is an internal feature and should
- not be used. It will be removed in a future version of CPython
+ This flag is present in header files, but is not be used.
+ It will be removed in a future version of CPython
+
+
+ .. c:macro:: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG
+
+ This is a :term:`soft deprecated` macro that does nothing.
+ Historically, this would indicate that the
+ :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_version_tag` field was available and
+ initialized.
+
+
+ .. c:macro:: Py_TPFLAGS_INLINE_VALUES
+
+ This bit indicates that instances of this type will have an "inline values"
+ array (containing the object's attributes) placed directly after the end
+ of the object.
+
+ This requires that :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` is set.
+
+ **Inheritance:**
+
+ This flag is not inherited.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
+ .. c:macro:: Py_TPFLAGS_IS_ABSTRACT
+
+ This bit indicates that this is an abstract type and therefore cannot
+ be instantiated.
+
+ **Inheritance:**
+
+ This flag is not inherited.
+
+ .. seealso::
+ :mod:`abc`
+
+
+ .. c:macro:: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_STACKLESS_EXTENSION
+
+ Internal. Do not set or unset this flag.
+ Historically, this was a reserved flag for use in Stackless Python.
+
+ .. warning::
+ This flag is present in header files, but is not be used.
+ This may be removed in a future version of CPython.
.. c:member:: const char* PyTypeObject.tp_doc
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_doc
+
An optional pointer to a NUL-terminated C string giving the docstring for this
- type object. This is exposed as the :attr:`__doc__` attribute on the type and
- instances of the type.
+ type object. This is exposed as the :attr:`~type.__doc__` attribute on the
+ type and instances of the type.
**Inheritance:**
@@ -1345,6 +1473,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: traverseproc PyTypeObject.tp_traverse
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_traverse
+
An optional pointer to a traversal function for the garbage collector. This is
only used if the :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` flag bit is set. The signature is::
@@ -1405,6 +1535,11 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
but the instance has no strong reference to the elements inside it, as they
are allowed to be removed even if the instance is still alive).
+ .. warning::
+ The traversal function must not have any side effects. It must not
+ modify the reference counts of any Python objects nor create or destroy
+ any Python objects.
+
Note that :c:func:`Py_VISIT` requires the *visit* and *arg* parameters to
:c:func:`!local_traverse` to have these specific names; don't name them just
anything.
@@ -1435,6 +1570,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: inquiry PyTypeObject.tp_clear
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_clear
+
An optional pointer to a clear function for the garbage collector. This is only
used if the :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` flag bit is set. The signature is::
@@ -1477,7 +1614,7 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
:c:func:`Py_CLEAR` macro performs the operations in a safe order.
If the :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT` bit is set in the
- :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_flags` field, the traverse function must call
+ :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_flags` field, the clear function must call
:c:func:`PyObject_ClearManagedDict` like this::
PyObject_ClearManagedDict((PyObject*)self);
@@ -1509,6 +1646,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: richcmpfunc PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_richcompare
+
An optional pointer to the rich comparison function, whose signature is::
PyObject *tp_richcompare(PyObject *self, PyObject *other, int op);
@@ -1592,7 +1731,7 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
weak references to the type object itself.
It is an error to set both the :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF` bit and
- :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist`.
+ :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset`.
**Inheritance:**
@@ -1604,13 +1743,15 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
**Default:**
If the :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF` bit is set in the
- :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dict` field, then
+ :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_flags` field, then
:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset` will be set to a negative value,
to indicate that it is unsafe to use this field.
.. c:member:: getiterfunc PyTypeObject.tp_iter
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_iter
+
An optional pointer to a function that returns an :term:`iterator` for the
object. Its presence normally signals that the instances of this type are
:term:`iterable` (although sequences may be iterable without this function).
@@ -1626,6 +1767,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: iternextfunc PyTypeObject.tp_iternext
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_iternext
+
An optional pointer to a function that returns the next item in an
:term:`iterator`. The signature is::
@@ -1649,6 +1792,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: struct PyMethodDef* PyTypeObject.tp_methods
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_methods
+
An optional pointer to a static ``NULL``-terminated array of :c:type:`PyMethodDef`
structures, declaring regular methods of this type.
@@ -1663,6 +1808,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: struct PyMemberDef* PyTypeObject.tp_members
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_members
+
An optional pointer to a static ``NULL``-terminated array of :c:type:`PyMemberDef`
structures, declaring regular data members (fields or slots) of instances of
this type.
@@ -1678,6 +1825,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: struct PyGetSetDef* PyTypeObject.tp_getset
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_getset
+
An optional pointer to a static ``NULL``-terminated array of :c:type:`PyGetSetDef`
structures, declaring computed attributes of instances of this type.
@@ -1692,6 +1841,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: PyTypeObject* PyTypeObject.tp_base
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_base
+
An optional pointer to a base type from which type properties are inherited. At
this level, only single inheritance is supported; multiple inheritance require
dynamically creating a type object by calling the metatype.
@@ -1764,6 +1915,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: descrgetfunc PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_descr_get
+
An optional pointer to a "descriptor get" function.
The function signature is::
@@ -1779,6 +1932,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: descrsetfunc PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_descr_set
+
An optional pointer to a function for setting and deleting
a descriptor's value.
@@ -1816,7 +1971,7 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
dictionary, so it is may be more efficient to call :c:func:`PyObject_GetAttr`
when accessing an attribute on the object.
- It is an error to set both the :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF` bit and
+ It is an error to set both the :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT` bit and
:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset`.
**Inheritance:**
@@ -1839,6 +1994,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: initproc PyTypeObject.tp_init
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_init
+
An optional pointer to an instance initialization function.
This function corresponds to the :meth:`~object.__init__` method of classes. Like
@@ -1874,6 +2031,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: allocfunc PyTypeObject.tp_alloc
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_alloc
+
An optional pointer to an instance allocation function.
The function signature is::
@@ -1898,6 +2057,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: newfunc PyTypeObject.tp_new
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_new
+
An optional pointer to an instance creation function.
The function signature is::
@@ -1937,6 +2098,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: freefunc PyTypeObject.tp_free
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_free
+
An optional pointer to an instance deallocation function. Its signature is::
void tp_free(void *self);
@@ -1959,6 +2122,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: inquiry PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_is_gc
+
An optional pointer to a function called by the garbage collector.
The garbage collector needs to know whether a particular object is collectible
@@ -1987,6 +2152,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: PyObject* PyTypeObject.tp_bases
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_bases
+
Tuple of base types.
This field should be set to ``NULL`` and treated as read-only.
@@ -2036,7 +2203,7 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
A collection of subclasses. Internal use only. May be an invalid pointer.
To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method
- :py:meth:`~class.__subclasses__`.
+ :py:meth:`~type.__subclasses__`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
@@ -2067,6 +2234,8 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: destructor PyTypeObject.tp_del
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_del
+
This field is deprecated. Use :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_finalize` instead.
@@ -2081,7 +2250,11 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
.. c:member:: destructor PyTypeObject.tp_finalize
- An optional pointer to an instance finalization function. Its signature is::
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_tp_finalize
+
+ An optional pointer to an instance finalization function. This is the C
+ implementation of the :meth:`~object.__del__` special method. Its signature
+ is::
void tp_finalize(PyObject *self);
@@ -2098,28 +2271,15 @@ and :c:data:`PyType_Type` effectively act as defaults.)
static void
local_finalize(PyObject *self)
{
- PyObject *error_type, *error_value, *error_traceback;
-
/* Save the current exception, if any. */
- PyErr_Fetch(&error_type, &error_value, &error_traceback);
+ PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();
/* ... */
/* Restore the saved exception. */
- PyErr_Restore(error_type, error_value, error_traceback);
+ PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
}
- Also, note that, in a garbage collected Python,
- :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc` may be called from
- any Python thread, not just the thread which created the object (if the object
- becomes part of a refcount cycle, that cycle might be collected by a garbage
- collection on any thread). This is not a problem for Python API calls, since
- the thread on which tp_dealloc is called will own the Global Interpreter Lock
- (GIL). However, if the object being destroyed in turn destroys objects from some
- other C or C++ library, care should be taken to ensure that destroying those
- objects on the thread which called tp_dealloc will not violate any assumptions
- of the library.
-
**Inheritance:**
This field is inherited by subtypes.
@@ -2199,7 +2359,7 @@ This is done by filling a :c:type:`PyType_Spec` structure and calling
.. _number-structs:
Number Object Structures
-========================
+------------------------
.. sectionauthor:: Amaury Forgeot d'Arc
@@ -2273,47 +2433,153 @@ Number Object Structures
Python 3.0.1.
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_add
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_add
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_subtract
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_subtract
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_multiply
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_multiply
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_remainder
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_remainder
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_divmod
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_divmod
+
.. c:member:: ternaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_power
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_power
+
.. c:member:: unaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_negative
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_negative
+
.. c:member:: unaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_positive
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_positive
+
.. c:member:: unaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_absolute
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_absolute
+
.. c:member:: inquiry PyNumberMethods.nb_bool
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_bool
+
.. c:member:: unaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_invert
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_invert
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_lshift
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_lshift
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_rshift
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_rshift
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_and
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_and
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_xor
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_xor
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_or
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_or
+
.. c:member:: unaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_int
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_int
+
.. c:member:: void *PyNumberMethods.nb_reserved
+
.. c:member:: unaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_float
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_float
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_add
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_inplace_add
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_subtract
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_inplace_subtract
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_multiply
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_inplace_multiply
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_remainder
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_inplace_remainder
+
.. c:member:: ternaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_power
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_inplace_power
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_lshift
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_inplace_lshift
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_rshift
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_inplace_rshift
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_and
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_inplace_and
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_xor
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_inplace_xor
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_or
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_inplace_or
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_floor_divide
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_floor_divide
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_true_divide
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_true_divide
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_floor_divide
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_inplace_floor_divide
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_true_divide
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_inplace_true_divide
+
.. c:member:: unaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_index
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_index
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_matrix_multiply
+
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_matrix_multiply
+
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_matrix_multiply
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_nb_inplace_matrix_multiply
+
+
.. _mapping-structs:
Mapping Object Structures
-=========================
+-------------------------
.. sectionauthor:: Amaury Forgeot d'Arc
@@ -2325,12 +2591,16 @@ Mapping Object Structures
.. c:member:: lenfunc PyMappingMethods.mp_length
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_mp_length
+
This function is used by :c:func:`PyMapping_Size` and
:c:func:`PyObject_Size`, and has the same signature. This slot may be set to
``NULL`` if the object has no defined length.
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_mp_subscript
+
This function is used by :c:func:`PyObject_GetItem` and
:c:func:`PySequence_GetSlice`, and has the same signature as
:c:func:`!PyObject_GetItem`. This slot must be filled for the
@@ -2339,6 +2609,8 @@ Mapping Object Structures
.. c:member:: objobjargproc PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_mp_ass_subscript
+
This function is used by :c:func:`PyObject_SetItem`,
:c:func:`PyObject_DelItem`, :c:func:`PySequence_SetSlice` and
:c:func:`PySequence_DelSlice`. It has the same signature as
@@ -2350,7 +2622,7 @@ Mapping Object Structures
.. _sequence-structs:
Sequence Object Structures
-==========================
+--------------------------
.. sectionauthor:: Amaury Forgeot d'Arc
@@ -2362,6 +2634,8 @@ Sequence Object Structures
.. c:member:: lenfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_length
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_sq_length
+
This function is used by :c:func:`PySequence_Size` and
:c:func:`PyObject_Size`, and has the same signature. It is also used for
handling negative indices via the :c:member:`~PySequenceMethods.sq_item`
@@ -2369,18 +2643,24 @@ Sequence Object Structures
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_concat
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_sq_concat
+
This function is used by :c:func:`PySequence_Concat` and has the same
signature. It is also used by the ``+`` operator, after trying the numeric
addition via the :c:member:`~PyNumberMethods.nb_add` slot.
.. c:member:: ssizeargfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_sq_repeat
+
This function is used by :c:func:`PySequence_Repeat` and has the same
signature. It is also used by the ``*`` operator, after trying numeric
multiplication via the :c:member:`~PyNumberMethods.nb_multiply` slot.
.. c:member:: ssizeargfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_item
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_sq_item
+
This function is used by :c:func:`PySequence_GetItem` and has the same
signature. It is also used by :c:func:`PyObject_GetItem`, after trying
the subscription via the :c:member:`~PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript` slot.
@@ -2394,6 +2674,8 @@ Sequence Object Structures
.. c:member:: ssizeobjargproc PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_sq_ass_item
+
This function is used by :c:func:`PySequence_SetItem` and has the same
signature. It is also used by :c:func:`PyObject_SetItem` and
:c:func:`PyObject_DelItem`, after trying the item assignment and deletion
@@ -2403,6 +2685,8 @@ Sequence Object Structures
.. c:member:: objobjproc PySequenceMethods.sq_contains
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_sq_contains
+
This function may be used by :c:func:`PySequence_Contains` and has the same
signature. This slot may be left to ``NULL``, in this case
:c:func:`!PySequence_Contains` simply traverses the sequence until it
@@ -2410,6 +2694,8 @@ Sequence Object Structures
.. c:member:: binaryfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_sq_inplace_concat
+
This function is used by :c:func:`PySequence_InPlaceConcat` and has the same
signature. It should modify its first operand, and return it. This slot
may be left to ``NULL``, in this case :c:func:`!PySequence_InPlaceConcat`
@@ -2419,6 +2705,8 @@ Sequence Object Structures
.. c:member:: ssizeargfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_sq_inplace_repeat
+
This function is used by :c:func:`PySequence_InPlaceRepeat` and has the same
signature. It should modify its first operand, and return it. This slot
may be left to ``NULL``, in this case :c:func:`!PySequence_InPlaceRepeat`
@@ -2430,7 +2718,7 @@ Sequence Object Structures
.. _buffer-structs:
Buffer Object Structures
-========================
+------------------------
.. sectionauthor:: Greg J. Stein <greg@lyra.org>
.. sectionauthor:: Benjamin Peterson
@@ -2444,6 +2732,8 @@ Buffer Object Structures
.. c:member:: getbufferproc PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_bf_getbuffer
+
The signature of this function is::
int (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view, int flags);
@@ -2453,13 +2743,13 @@ Buffer Object Structures
steps:
(1) Check if the request can be met. If not, raise :exc:`BufferError`,
- set :c:expr:`view->obj` to ``NULL`` and return ``-1``.
+ set ``view->obj`` to ``NULL`` and return ``-1``.
(2) Fill in the requested fields.
(3) Increment an internal counter for the number of exports.
- (4) Set :c:expr:`view->obj` to *exporter* and increment :c:expr:`view->obj`.
+ (4) Set ``view->obj`` to *exporter* and increment ``view->obj``.
(5) Return ``0``.
@@ -2467,10 +2757,10 @@ Buffer Object Structures
schemes can be used:
* Re-export: Each member of the tree acts as the exporting object and
- sets :c:expr:`view->obj` to a new reference to itself.
+ sets ``view->obj`` to a new reference to itself.
* Redirect: The buffer request is redirected to the root object of the
- tree. Here, :c:expr:`view->obj` will be a new reference to the root
+ tree. Here, ``view->obj`` will be a new reference to the root
object.
The individual fields of *view* are described in section
@@ -2493,6 +2783,8 @@ Buffer Object Structures
.. c:member:: releasebufferproc PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_bf_releasebuffer
+
The signature of this function is::
void (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view);
@@ -2512,7 +2804,7 @@ Buffer Object Structures
*view* argument.
- This function MUST NOT decrement :c:expr:`view->obj`, since that is
+ This function MUST NOT decrement ``view->obj``, since that is
done automatically in :c:func:`PyBuffer_Release` (this scheme is
useful for breaking reference cycles).
@@ -2525,7 +2817,7 @@ Buffer Object Structures
Async Object Structures
-=======================
+-----------------------
.. sectionauthor:: Yury Selivanov <yselivanov@sprymix.com>
@@ -2547,6 +2839,8 @@ Async Object Structures
.. c:member:: unaryfunc PyAsyncMethods.am_await
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_am_await
+
The signature of this function is::
PyObject *am_await(PyObject *self);
@@ -2558,6 +2852,8 @@ Async Object Structures
.. c:member:: unaryfunc PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_am_aiter
+
The signature of this function is::
PyObject *am_aiter(PyObject *self);
@@ -2570,6 +2866,8 @@ Async Object Structures
.. c:member:: unaryfunc PyAsyncMethods.am_anext
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_am_anext
+
The signature of this function is::
PyObject *am_anext(PyObject *self);
@@ -2580,6 +2878,8 @@ Async Object Structures
.. c:member:: sendfunc PyAsyncMethods.am_send
+ .. corresponding-type-slot:: Py_am_send
+
The signature of this function is::
PySendResult am_send(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg, PyObject **result);
@@ -2593,7 +2893,7 @@ Async Object Structures
.. _slot-typedefs:
Slot Type typedefs
-==================
+------------------
.. c:type:: PyObject *(*allocfunc)(PyTypeObject *cls, Py_ssize_t nitems)
@@ -2616,7 +2916,7 @@ Slot Type typedefs
See :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_free`.
-.. c:type:: PyObject *(*newfunc)(PyObject *, PyObject *, PyObject *)
+.. c:type:: PyObject *(*newfunc)(PyTypeObject *, PyObject *, PyObject *)
See :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new`.
@@ -2702,7 +3002,7 @@ Slot Type typedefs
.. _typedef-examples:
Examples
-========
+--------
The following are simple examples of Python type definitions. They
include common usage you may encounter. Some demonstrate tricky corner
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/unicode.rst b/Doc/c-api/unicode.rst
index 7320d035bab513e..feca7a92e271658 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/unicode.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/unicode.rst
@@ -68,8 +68,14 @@ Python:
.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyUnicode_Type
- This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python Unicode type. It
- is exposed to Python code as ``str``.
+ This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python Unicode type.
+ It is exposed to Python code as ``str``.
+
+
+.. c:var:: PyTypeObject PyUnicodeIter_Type
+
+ This instance of :c:type:`PyTypeObject` represents the Python Unicode
+ iterator type. It is used to iterate over Unicode string objects.
The following APIs are C macros and static inlined functions for fast checks and
@@ -256,13 +262,8 @@ the Python configuration.
.. c:function:: int Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE(Py_UCS4 ch)
- Return ``1`` or ``0`` depending on whether *ch* is a printable character.
- Nonprintable characters are those characters defined in the Unicode character
- database as "Other" or "Separator", excepting the ASCII space (0x20) which is
- considered printable. (Note that printable characters in this context are
- those which should not be escaped when :func:`repr` is invoked on a string.
- It has no bearing on the handling of strings written to :data:`sys.stdout` or
- :data:`sys.stderr`.)
+ Return ``1`` or ``0`` depending on whether *ch* is a printable character,
+ in the sense of :meth:`str.isprintable`.
These APIs can be used for fast direct character conversions:
@@ -315,12 +316,22 @@ These APIs can be used to work with surrogates:
Check if *ch* is a low surrogate (``0xDC00 <= ch <= 0xDFFF``).
+.. c:function:: Py_UCS4 Py_UNICODE_HIGH_SURROGATE(Py_UCS4 ch)
+
+ Return the high UTF-16 surrogate (``0xD800`` to ``0xDBFF``) for a Unicode
+ code point in the range ``[0x10000; 0x10FFFF]``.
+
+.. c:function:: Py_UCS4 Py_UNICODE_LOW_SURROGATE(Py_UCS4 ch)
+
+ Return the low UTF-16 surrogate (``0xDC00`` to ``0xDFFF``) for a Unicode
+ code point in the range ``[0x10000; 0x10FFFF]``.
+
.. c:function:: Py_UCS4 Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES(Py_UCS4 high, Py_UCS4 low)
- Join two surrogate characters and return a single :c:type:`Py_UCS4` value.
+ Join two surrogate code points and return a single :c:type:`Py_UCS4` value.
*high* and *low* are respectively the leading and trailing surrogates in a
- surrogate pair. *high* must be in the range [0xD800; 0xDBFF] and *low* must
- be in the range [0xDC00; 0xDFFF].
+ surrogate pair. *high* must be in the range ``[0xD800; 0xDBFF]`` and *low* must
+ be in the range ``[0xDC00; 0xDFFF]``.
Creating and accessing Unicode strings
@@ -338,6 +349,8 @@ APIs:
This is the recommended way to allocate a new Unicode object. Objects
created using this function are not resizable.
+ On error, set an exception and return ``NULL``.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -592,6 +605,14 @@ APIs:
Objects other than Unicode or its subtypes will cause a :exc:`TypeError`.
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromOrdinal(int ordinal)
+
+ Create a Unicode Object from the given Unicode code point *ordinal*.
+
+ The ordinal must be in ``range(0x110000)``. A :exc:`ValueError` is
+ raised in the case it is not.
+
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(PyObject *obj, \
const char *encoding, const char *errors)
@@ -610,10 +631,31 @@ APIs:
decref'ing the returned objects.
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap(PyObject* string)
+
+ Return a mapping suitable for decoding a custom single-byte encoding.
+ Given a Unicode string *string* of up to 256 characters representing an encoding
+ table, returns either a compact internal mapping object or a dictionary
+ mapping character ordinals to byte values. Raises a :exc:`TypeError` and
+ return ``NULL`` on invalid input.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. c:function:: const char* PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding(void)
+
+ Return the name of the default string encoding, ``"utf-8"``.
+ See :func:`sys.getdefaultencoding`.
+
+ The returned string does not need to be freed, and is valid
+ until interpreter shutdown.
+
+
.. c:function:: Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GetLength(PyObject *unicode)
Return the length of the Unicode object, in code points.
+ On error, set an exception and return ``-1``.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -640,7 +682,7 @@ APIs:
Fail if *fill_char* is bigger than the string maximum character, or if the
string has more than 1 reference.
- Return the number of written character, or return ``-1`` and raise an
+ Return the number of written characters, or return ``-1`` and raise an
exception on error.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -657,6 +699,8 @@ APIs:
not out of bounds, and that the object can be modified safely (i.e. that it
its reference count is one).
+ Return ``0`` on success, ``-1`` on error with an exception set.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -666,6 +710,8 @@ APIs:
Unicode object and the index is not out of bounds, in contrast to
:c:func:`PyUnicode_READ_CHAR`, which performs no error checking.
+ Return character on success, ``-1`` on error with an exception set.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -674,6 +720,7 @@ APIs:
Return a substring of *unicode*, from character index *start* (included) to
character index *end* (excluded). Negative indices are not supported.
+ On error, set an exception and return ``NULL``.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -777,16 +824,25 @@ Functions encoding to and decoding from the :term:`filesystem encoding and
error handler` (:pep:`383` and :pep:`529`).
To encode file names to :class:`bytes` during argument parsing, the ``"O&"``
-converter should be used, passing :c:func:`PyUnicode_FSConverter` as the
+converter should be used, passing :c:func:`!PyUnicode_FSConverter` as the
conversion function:
.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_FSConverter(PyObject* obj, void* result)
- ParseTuple converter: encode :class:`str` objects -- obtained directly or
+ :ref:`PyArg_Parse\* converter <arg-parsing>`: encode :class:`str` objects -- obtained directly or
through the :class:`os.PathLike` interface -- to :class:`bytes` using
:c:func:`PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault`; :class:`bytes` objects are output as-is.
- *result* must be a :c:expr:`PyBytesObject*` which must be released when it is
- no longer used.
+ *result* must be an address of a C variable of type :c:expr:`PyObject*`
+ (or :c:expr:`PyBytesObject*`).
+ On success, set the variable to a new :term:`strong reference` to
+ a :ref:`bytes object <bytesobjects>` which must be released
+ when it is no longer used and return a non-zero value
+ (:c:macro:`Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED`).
+ Embedded null bytes are not allowed in the result.
+ On failure, return ``0`` with an exception set.
+
+ If *obj* is ``NULL``, the function releases a strong reference
+ stored in the variable referred by *result* and returns ``1``.
.. versionadded:: 3.1
@@ -794,16 +850,26 @@ conversion function:
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
To decode file names to :class:`str` during argument parsing, the ``"O&"``
-converter should be used, passing :c:func:`PyUnicode_FSDecoder` as the
+converter should be used, passing :c:func:`!PyUnicode_FSDecoder` as the
conversion function:
.. c:function:: int PyUnicode_FSDecoder(PyObject* obj, void* result)
- ParseTuple converter: decode :class:`bytes` objects -- obtained either
+ :ref:`PyArg_Parse\* converter <arg-parsing>`: decode :class:`bytes` objects -- obtained either
directly or indirectly through the :class:`os.PathLike` interface -- to
:class:`str` using :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize`; :class:`str`
- objects are output as-is. *result* must be a :c:expr:`PyUnicodeObject*` which
- must be released when it is no longer used.
+ objects are output as-is.
+ *result* must be an address of a C variable of type :c:expr:`PyObject*`
+ (or :c:expr:`PyUnicodeObject*`).
+ On success, set the variable to a new :term:`strong reference` to
+ a :ref:`Unicode object <unicodeobjects>` which must be released
+ when it is no longer used and return a non-zero value
+ (:c:macro:`Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED`).
+ Embedded null characters are not allowed in the result.
+ On failure, return ``0`` with an exception set.
+
+ If *obj* is ``NULL``, release the strong reference
+ to the object referred to by *result* and return ``1``.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
@@ -990,6 +1056,9 @@ These are the UTF-8 codec APIs:
object. Error handling is "strict". Return ``NULL`` if an exception was
raised by the codec.
+ The function fails if the string contains surrogate code points
+ (``U+D800`` - ``U+DFFF``).
+
.. c:function:: const char* PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t *size)
@@ -1002,6 +1071,9 @@ These are the UTF-8 codec APIs:
On error, set an exception, set *size* to ``-1`` (if it's not NULL) and
return ``NULL``.
+ The function fails if the string contains surrogate code points
+ (``U+D800`` - ``U+DFFF``).
+
This caches the UTF-8 representation of the string in the Unicode object, and
subsequent calls will return a pointer to the same buffer. The caller is not
responsible for deallocating the buffer. The buffer is deallocated and
@@ -1010,7 +1082,7 @@ These are the UTF-8 codec APIs:
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- The return type is now ``const char *`` rather of ``char *``.
+ The return type is now ``const char *`` rather than ``char *``.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
This function is a part of the :ref:`limited API <limited-c-api>`.
@@ -1020,10 +1092,19 @@ These are the UTF-8 codec APIs:
As :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize`, but does not store the size.
+ .. warning::
+
+ This function does not have any special behavior for
+ `null characters <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_character>`_ embedded within
+ *unicode*. As a result, strings containing null characters will remain in the returned
+ string, which some C functions might interpret as the end of the string, leading to
+ truncation. If truncation is an issue, it is recommended to use :c:func:`PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize`
+ instead.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- The return type is now ``const char *`` rather of ``char *``.
+ The return type is now ``const char *`` rather than ``char *``.
UTF-32 Codecs
@@ -1309,6 +1390,13 @@ the user settings on the machine running the codec.
in *consumed*.
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful(int code_page, const char *str, \
+ Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
+
+ Similar to :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful`, except uses the code page
+ specified by *code_page*.
+
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(PyObject *unicode)
Encode a Unicode object using MBCS and return the result as Python bytes
@@ -1325,10 +1413,6 @@ the user settings on the machine running the codec.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
-Methods & Slots
-"""""""""""""""
-
-
.. _unicodemethodsandslots:
Methods and Slot Functions
@@ -1353,6 +1437,20 @@ They all return ``NULL`` or ``-1`` if an exception occurs.
separator. At most *maxsplit* splits will be done. If negative, no limit is
set. Separators are not included in the resulting list.
+ On error, return ``NULL`` with an exception set.
+
+ Equivalent to :py:meth:`str.split`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_RSplit(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)
+
+ Similar to :c:func:`PyUnicode_Split`, but splitting will be done beginning
+ at the end of the string.
+
+ On error, return ``NULL`` with an exception set.
+
+ Equivalent to :py:meth:`str.rsplit`.
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Splitlines(PyObject *unicode, int keepends)
@@ -1361,6 +1459,33 @@ They all return ``NULL`` or ``-1`` if an exception occurs.
characters are not included in the resulting strings.
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Partition(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *sep)
+
+ Split a Unicode string at the first occurrence of *sep*, and return
+ a 3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator itself,
+ and the part after the separator. If the separator is not found,
+ return a 3-tuple containing the string itself, followed by two empty strings.
+
+ *sep* must not be empty.
+
+ On error, return ``NULL`` with an exception set.
+
+ Equivalent to :py:meth:`str.partition`.
+
+
+.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_RPartition(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *sep)
+
+ Similar to :c:func:`PyUnicode_Partition`, but split a Unicode string at the
+ last occurrence of *sep*. If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple
+ containing two empty strings, followed by the string itself.
+
+ *sep* must not be empty.
+
+ On error, return ``NULL`` with an exception set.
+
+ Equivalent to :py:meth:`str.rpartition`.
+
+
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_Join(PyObject *separator, PyObject *seq)
Join a sequence of strings using the given *separator* and return the resulting
@@ -1429,8 +1554,9 @@ They all return ``NULL`` or ``-1`` if an exception occurs.
Compare a Unicode object with a char buffer which is interpreted as
being UTF-8 or ASCII encoded and return true (``1``) if they are equal,
or false (``0``) otherwise.
- If the Unicode object contains surrogate characters or
- the C string is not valid UTF-8, false (``0``) is returned.
+ If the Unicode object contains surrogate code points
+ (``U+D800`` - ``U+DFFF``) or the C string is not valid UTF-8,
+ false (``0``) is returned.
This function does not raise exceptions.
@@ -1490,15 +1616,37 @@ They all return ``NULL`` or ``-1`` if an exception occurs.
existing interned string that is the same as :c:expr:`*p_unicode`, it sets :c:expr:`*p_unicode` to
it (releasing the reference to the old string object and creating a new
:term:`strong reference` to the interned string object), otherwise it leaves
- :c:expr:`*p_unicode` alone and interns it (creating a new :term:`strong reference`).
+ :c:expr:`*p_unicode` alone and interns it.
+
(Clarification: even though there is a lot of talk about references, think
- of this function as reference-neutral; you own the object after the call
- if and only if you owned it before the call.)
+ of this function as reference-neutral. You must own the object you pass in;
+ after the call you no longer own the passed-in reference, but you newly own
+ the result.)
+
+ This function never raises an exception.
+ On error, it leaves its argument unchanged without interning it.
+
+ Instances of subclasses of :py:class:`str` may not be interned, that is,
+ :c:expr:`PyUnicode_CheckExact(*p_unicode)` must be true. If it is not,
+ then -- as with any other error -- the argument is left unchanged.
+
+ Note that interned strings are not “immortal”.
+ You must keep a reference to the result to benefit from interning.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyUnicode_InternFromString(const char *str)
A combination of :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromString` and
- :c:func:`PyUnicode_InternInPlace`, returning either a new Unicode string
- object that has been interned, or a new ("owned") reference to an earlier
- interned string object with the same value.
+ :c:func:`PyUnicode_InternInPlace`, meant for statically allocated strings.
+
+ Return a new ("owned") reference to either a new Unicode string object
+ that has been interned, or an earlier interned string object with the
+ same value.
+
+ Python may keep a reference to the result, or make it :term:`immortal`,
+ preventing it from being garbage-collected promptly.
+ For interning an unbounded number of different strings, such as ones coming
+ from user input, prefer calling :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromString` and
+ :c:func:`PyUnicode_InternInPlace` directly.
+
+
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/veryhigh.rst b/Doc/c-api/veryhigh.rst
index 67167444d0a6852..bba5c7f8ecf7751 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/veryhigh.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/veryhigh.rst
@@ -13,8 +13,9 @@ the interpreter.
Several of these functions accept a start symbol from the grammar as a
parameter. The available start symbols are :c:data:`Py_eval_input`,
-:c:data:`Py_file_input`, and :c:data:`Py_single_input`. These are described
-following the functions which accept them as parameters.
+:c:data:`Py_file_input`, :c:data:`Py_single_input`, and
+:c:data:`Py_func_type_input`. These are described following the functions
+which accept them as parameters.
Note also that several of these functions take :c:expr:`FILE*` parameters. One
particular issue which needs to be handled carefully is that the :c:type:`FILE`
@@ -25,30 +26,6 @@ are only passed to these functions if it is certain that they were created by
the same library that the Python runtime is using.
-.. c:function:: int Py_Main(int argc, wchar_t **argv)
-
- The main program for the standard interpreter. This is made available for
- programs which embed Python. The *argc* and *argv* parameters should be
- prepared exactly as those which are passed to a C program's :c:func:`main`
- function (converted to wchar_t according to the user's locale). It is
- important to note that the argument list may be modified (but the contents of
- the strings pointed to by the argument list are not). The return value will
- be ``0`` if the interpreter exits normally (i.e., without an exception),
- ``1`` if the interpreter exits due to an exception, or ``2`` if the parameter
- list does not represent a valid Python command line.
-
- Note that if an otherwise unhandled :exc:`SystemExit` is raised, this
- function will not return ``1``, but exit the process, as long as
- :c:member:`PyConfig.inspect` is zero.
-
-
-.. c:function:: int Py_BytesMain(int argc, char **argv)
-
- Similar to :c:func:`Py_Main` but *argv* is an array of bytes strings.
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.8
-
-
.. c:function:: int PyRun_AnyFile(FILE *fp, const char *filename)
This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_AnyFileExFlags` below, leaving
@@ -123,18 +100,12 @@ the same library that the Python runtime is using.
Otherwise, Python may not handle script file with LF line ending correctly.
-.. c:function:: int PyRun_InteractiveOne(FILE *fp, const char *filename)
-
- This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags` below,
- leaving *flags* set to ``NULL``.
-
-
-.. c:function:: int PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_InteractiveOneObject(FILE *fp, PyObject *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
Read and execute a single statement from a file associated with an
interactive device according to the *flags* argument. The user will be
- prompted using ``sys.ps1`` and ``sys.ps2``. *filename* is decoded from the
- :term:`filesystem encoding and error handler`.
+ prompted using ``sys.ps1`` and ``sys.ps2``. *filename* must be a Python
+ :class:`str` object.
Returns ``0`` when the input was
executed successfully, ``-1`` if there was an exception, or an error code
@@ -143,6 +114,19 @@ the same library that the Python runtime is using.
:file:`Python.h`, so must be included specifically if needed.)
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_InteractiveOne(FILE *fp, const char *filename)
+
+ This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags` below,
+ leaving *flags* set to ``NULL``.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
+
+ Similar to :c:func:`PyRun_InteractiveOneObject`, but *filename* is a
+ :c:expr:`const char*`, which is decoded from the
+ :term:`filesystem encoding and error handler`.
+
+
.. c:function:: int PyRun_InteractiveLoop(FILE *fp, const char *filename)
This is a simplified interface to :c:func:`PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags` below,
@@ -164,7 +148,7 @@ the same library that the Python runtime is using.
interpreter prompt is about to become idle and wait for user input
from the terminal. The return value is ignored. Overriding this
hook can be used to integrate the interpreter's prompt with other
- event loops, as done in the :file:`Modules/_tkinter.c` in the
+ event loops, as done in :file:`Modules/_tkinter.c` in the
Python source code.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
@@ -207,7 +191,7 @@ the same library that the Python runtime is using.
objects *globals* and *locals* with the compiler flags specified by
*flags*. *globals* must be a dictionary; *locals* can be any object
that implements the mapping protocol. The parameter *start* specifies
- the start token that should be used to parse the source code.
+ the start symbol and must be one of the :ref:`available start symbols <start-symbols>`.
Returns the result of executing the code as a Python object, or ``NULL`` if an
exception was raised.
@@ -255,9 +239,9 @@ the same library that the Python runtime is using.
.. c:function:: PyObject* Py_CompileStringObject(const char *str, PyObject *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags, int optimize)
Parse and compile the Python source code in *str*, returning the resulting code
- object. The start token is given by *start*; this can be used to constrain the
- code which can be compiled and should be :c:data:`Py_eval_input`,
- :c:data:`Py_file_input`, or :c:data:`Py_single_input`. The filename specified by
+ object. The start symbol is given by *start*; this can be used to constrain the
+ code which can be compiled and should be :ref:`available start symbols
+ <start-symbols>`. The filename specified by
*filename* is used to construct the code object and may appear in tracebacks or
:exc:`SyntaxError` exception messages. This returns ``NULL`` if the code
cannot be parsed or compiled.
@@ -320,6 +304,171 @@ the same library that the Python runtime is using.
true on success, false on failure.
+.. c:struct:: PyCompilerFlags
+
+ This is the structure used to hold compiler flags. In cases where code is only
+ being compiled, it is passed as ``int flags``, and in cases where code is being
+ executed, it is passed as ``PyCompilerFlags *flags``. In this case, ``from
+ __future__ import`` can modify *flags*.
+
+ Whenever ``PyCompilerFlags *flags`` is ``NULL``, :c:member:`~PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags` is treated as
+ equal to ``0``, and any modification due to ``from __future__ import`` is
+ discarded.
+
+ .. c:member:: int cf_flags
+
+ Compiler flags.
+
+ .. c:member:: int cf_feature_version
+
+ *cf_feature_version* is the minor Python version. It should be
+ initialized to ``PY_MINOR_VERSION``.
+
+ The field is ignored by default, it is used if and only if
+ ``PyCF_ONLY_AST`` flag is set in :c:member:`~PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags`.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.8
+ Added *cf_feature_version* field.
+
+ The available compiler flags are accessible as macros:
+
+ .. c:namespace:: NULL
+
+ .. c:macro:: PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT
+ PyCF_ONLY_AST
+ PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST
+ PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS
+
+ See :ref:`compiler flags <ast-compiler-flags>` in documentation of the
+ :py:mod:`!ast` Python module, which exports these constants under
+ the same names.
+
+ .. rubric:: Low-level flags
+
+ The following flags and masks serve narrow needs of the standard
+ library and interactive interpreters. Code outside the standard
+ library rarely has a reason to use them. They are considered
+ implementation details and may change at any time.
+
+ .. c:macro:: PyCF_ALLOW_INCOMPLETE_INPUT
+
+ This flag is a private interface between the compiler and the
+ :mod:`codeop` module. Do not use it; its behavior is unsupported
+ and may change without warning.
+
+ With this flag set, when compilation fails because the source text
+ ends where more input is expected, for example in the middle of an
+ indented block or an unterminated string literal, the error raised
+ is the undocumented ``_IncompleteInputError``, a subclass of
+ :exc:`SyntaxError`. The :mod:`codeop` module sets this flag,
+ together with :c:macro:`PyCF_DONT_IMPLY_DEDENT`, to tell input
+ that is incomplete apart from input with a real syntax error, so
+ that interactive interpreters know when to prompt for another
+ line instead of reporting an error.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.11
+
+ .. c:macro:: PyCF_DONT_IMPLY_DEDENT
+
+ By default, when compiling with the :c:var:`Py_single_input` start
+ symbol, reaching the end of the source text implicitly closes any
+ open indented blocks. With this flag set, open blocks are only
+ closed if the last line of the source ends with a newline; otherwise,
+ compilation fails with a :exc:`SyntaxError`:
+
+ .. code-block:: c
+
+ PyCompilerFlags flags = {
+ .cf_flags = 0,
+ .cf_feature_version = PY_MINOR_VERSION,
+ };
+ const char *source = "if a:\n pass";
+
+ /* The "if" block is closed implicitly;
+ this returns a code object: */
+ Py_CompileStringFlags(source, "<input>", Py_single_input, &flags);
+
+ /* With the flag, this fails with a SyntaxError,
+ because the last line does not end with a newline: */
+ flags.cf_flags = PyCF_DONT_IMPLY_DEDENT;
+ Py_CompileStringFlags(source, "<input>", Py_single_input, &flags);
+
+ The :mod:`codeop` module uses this flag to detect incomplete
+ interactive input. While the user is still typing inside an
+ indented block, the source does not yet end with a newline, so it
+ fails to compile and the user is prompted for another line.
+
+ .. c:macro:: PyCF_IGNORE_COOKIE
+
+ Read the source text as UTF-8, ignoring its :pep:`263` encoding
+ declaration ("coding cookie"), if any:
+
+ .. code-block:: c
+
+ PyCompilerFlags flags = {
+ .cf_flags = 0,
+ .cf_feature_version = PY_MINOR_VERSION,
+ };
+ const char *source = "# coding: latin-1\ns = '\xe9'\n";
+
+ /* The coding cookie is honored: byte 0xE9 is decoded as
+ Latin-1, and this returns a code object that sets s to "é": */
+ Py_CompileStringFlags(source, "<input>", Py_file_input, &flags);
+
+ /* With the flag, the cookie is ignored and compilation fails
+ with a SyntaxError, because 0xE9 is not valid UTF-8: */
+ flags.cf_flags = PyCF_IGNORE_COOKIE;
+ Py_CompileStringFlags(source, "<input>", Py_file_input, &flags);
+
+ The :func:`compile`, :func:`eval` and :func:`exec` built-in functions
+ set this flag when the source is a :class:`str` object, because they
+ pass the text to the parser encoded as UTF-8.
+
+ .. c:macro:: PyCF_SOURCE_IS_UTF8
+
+ Mark the source text as known to be UTF-8 encoded.
+ The :func:`compile`, :func:`eval` and :func:`exec` built-in functions
+ set this flag, but it currently has no effect.
+
+ The "``PyCF``" flags above can be combined with "``CO_FUTURE``" flags such
+ as :c:macro:`CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS` to enable features normally
+ selectable using :ref:`future statements <future>`.
+ See :ref:`c_codeobject_flags` for a complete list.
+
+ The following masks combine several flags:
+
+ .. c:macro:: PyCF_MASK
+
+ Bitmask of all ``CO_FUTURE`` flags (see :ref:`c_codeobject_flags`),
+ which select features normally enabled by
+ :ref:`future statements <future>`.
+ When code compiled with a ``PyCompilerFlags *flags`` argument
+ contains a ``from __future__ import`` statement, the flag for the
+ imported feature is added to *flags*, so that code executed later
+ in the same context inherits it.
+
+ .. c:macro:: PyCF_MASK_OBSOLETE
+
+ Do not use this mask in new code. It is kept only so that old
+ code passing its flags to :func:`compile` keeps working.
+
+ Bitmask of flags for obsolete future features that no longer
+ have any effect.
+
+ .. c:macro:: PyCF_COMPILE_MASK
+
+ Bitmask of all ``PyCF`` flags that change how the source is
+ compiled, such as :c:macro:`PyCF_ONLY_AST`.
+ The :func:`compile` built-in function uses this mask to validate
+ its *flags* argument.
+
+
+.. _start-symbols:
+
+Available start symbols
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
.. c:var:: int Py_eval_input
.. index:: single: Py_CompileString (C function)
@@ -346,34 +495,58 @@ the same library that the Python runtime is using.
interpreter loop.
-.. c:struct:: PyCompilerFlags
+.. c:var:: int Py_func_type_input
- This is the structure used to hold compiler flags. In cases where code is only
- being compiled, it is passed as ``int flags``, and in cases where code is being
- executed, it is passed as ``PyCompilerFlags *flags``. In this case, ``from
- __future__ import`` can modify *flags*.
+ .. index:: single: Py_CompileString (C function)
- Whenever ``PyCompilerFlags *flags`` is ``NULL``, :c:member:`~PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags` is treated as
- equal to ``0``, and any modification due to ``from __future__ import`` is
- discarded.
+ The start symbol from the Python grammar for a function type; for use with
+ :c:func:`Py_CompileString`. This is used to parse "signature type comments"
+ from :pep:`484`.
- .. c:member:: int cf_flags
+ This requires the :c:macro:`PyCF_ONLY_AST` flag to be set.
- Compiler flags.
+ .. seealso::
+ * :py:class:`ast.FunctionType`
+ * :pep:`484`
- .. c:member:: int cf_feature_version
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
- *cf_feature_version* is the minor Python version. It should be
- initialized to ``PY_MINOR_VERSION``.
- The field is ignored by default, it is used if and only if
- ``PyCF_ONLY_AST`` flag is set in :c:member:`~PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags`.
+Stack Effects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
- .. versionchanged:: 3.8
- Added *cf_feature_version* field.
+.. seealso::
+ :py:func:`dis.stack_effect`
-.. c:var:: int CO_FUTURE_DIVISION
+.. c:macro:: PY_INVALID_STACK_EFFECT
- This bit can be set in *flags* to cause division operator ``/`` to be
- interpreted as "true division" according to :pep:`238`.
+ Sentinel value representing an invalid stack effect.
+
+ This is currently equivalent to ``INT_MAX``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffect(int opcode, int oparg)
+
+ Compute the stack effect of *opcode* with argument *oparg*.
+
+ On success, this function returns the stack effect; on failure, this
+ returns :c:macro:`PY_INVALID_STACK_EFFECT`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffectWithJump(int opcode, int oparg, int jump)
+
+ Similar to :c:func:`PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffect`, but don't include the
+ stack effect of jumping if *jump* is zero.
+
+ If *jump* is ``0``, this will not include the stack effect of jumping, but
+ if *jump* is ``1`` or ``-1``, this will include it.
+
+ On success, this function returns the stack effect; on failure, this
+ returns :c:macro:`PY_INVALID_STACK_EFFECT`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
diff --git a/Doc/c-api/weakref.rst b/Doc/c-api/weakref.rst
index 038f54a9751fd13..ae19d5feea1a991 100644
--- a/Doc/c-api/weakref.rst
+++ b/Doc/c-api/weakref.rst
@@ -19,7 +19,14 @@ as much as it can.
.. c:function:: int PyWeakref_CheckRef(PyObject *ob)
- Return non-zero if *ob* is a reference object. This function always succeeds.
+ Return non-zero if *ob* is a reference object or a subclass of the reference
+ type. This function always succeeds.
+
+
+.. c:function:: int PyWeakref_CheckRefExact(PyObject *ob)
+
+ Return non-zero if *ob* is a reference object, but not a subclass of the
+ reference type. This function always succeeds.
.. c:function:: int PyWeakref_CheckProxy(PyObject *ob)
@@ -35,8 +42,12 @@ as much as it can.
callable object that receives notification when *ob* is garbage collected; it
should accept a single parameter, which will be the weak reference object
itself. *callback* may also be ``None`` or ``NULL``. If *ob* is not a
- weakly referencable object, or if *callback* is not callable, ``None``, or
- ``NULL``, this will return ``NULL`` and raise :exc:`TypeError`.
+ weakly referenceable object, this will raise :exc:`TypeError` and return
+ ``NULL``.
+
+ .. seealso::
+ :c:func:`PyType_SUPPORTS_WEAKREFS` for checking if *ob* is weakly
+ referenceable.
.. c:function:: PyObject* PyWeakref_NewProxy(PyObject *ob, PyObject *callback)
@@ -47,8 +58,12 @@ as much as it can.
be a callable object that receives notification when *ob* is garbage
collected; it should accept a single parameter, which will be the weak
reference object itself. *callback* may also be ``None`` or ``NULL``. If *ob*
- is not a weakly referencable object, or if *callback* is not callable,
- ``None``, or ``NULL``, this will return ``NULL`` and raise :exc:`TypeError`.
+ weakly referenceable object, this will raise :exc:`TypeError` and return
+ ``NULL``.
+
+ .. seealso::
+ :c:func:`PyType_SUPPORTS_WEAKREFS` for checking if *ob* is weakly
+ referenceable.
.. c:function:: int PyWeakref_GetRef(PyObject *ref, PyObject **pobj)
@@ -96,3 +111,19 @@ as much as it can.
This iterates through the weak references for *object* and calls callbacks
for those references which have one. It returns when all callbacks have
been attempted.
+
+
+.. c:function:: void PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks(PyObject *object)
+
+ Clears the weakrefs for *object* without calling the callbacks.
+
+ This function is called by the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc` handler
+ for types with finalizers (i.e., :meth:`~object.__del__`). The handler for
+ those objects first calls :c:func:`PyObject_ClearWeakRefs` to clear weakrefs
+ and call their callbacks, then the finalizer, and finally this function to
+ clear any weakrefs that may have been created by the finalizer.
+
+ In most circumstances, it's more appropriate to use
+ :c:func:`PyObject_ClearWeakRefs` to clear weakrefs instead of this function.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
diff --git a/Doc/conf.py b/Doc/conf.py
index 86371d17ae742a3..677f948efa51045 100644
--- a/Doc/conf.py
+++ b/Doc/conf.py
@@ -8,21 +8,29 @@
import os
import sys
-import time
+from importlib.util import find_spec
+
+# Make our custom extensions available to Sphinx
sys.path.append(os.path.abspath('tools/extensions'))
sys.path.append(os.path.abspath('includes'))
-from pyspecific import SOURCE_URI
+from patchlevel import get_header_version_info, get_version_info
# General configuration
# ---------------------
+# Our custom Sphinx extensions are found in Doc/Tools/extensions/
extensions = [
- 'asdl_highlight',
+ 'audit_events',
+ 'availability',
'c_annotations',
- 'escape4chm',
+ 'changes',
'glossary_search',
- 'peg_highlight',
+ 'implementation_detail',
+ 'issue_role',
+ 'lexers',
+ 'misc_news',
+ 'pydoc_topics',
'pyspecific',
'sphinx.ext.coverage',
'sphinx.ext.doctest',
@@ -30,19 +38,20 @@
]
# Skip if downstream redistributors haven't installed them
-try:
- import notfound.extension
-except ImportError:
- pass
-else:
- extensions.append('notfound.extension')
-try:
- import sphinxext.opengraph
-except ImportError:
- pass
-else:
- extensions.append('sphinxext.opengraph')
-
+_OPTIONAL_EXTENSIONS = (
+ 'sphinx_linklint.ext',
+ 'notfound.extension',
+ 'sphinxext.opengraph',
+ 'sphinxext.rediraffe',
+ 'sphinxcontrib.rsvgconverter',
+)
+for optional_ext in _OPTIONAL_EXTENSIONS:
+ try:
+ if find_spec(optional_ext) is not None:
+ extensions.append(optional_ext)
+ except (ImportError, ValueError):
+ pass
+del _OPTIONAL_EXTENSIONS
doctest_global_setup = '''
try:
@@ -50,7 +59,7 @@
except ImportError:
_tkinter = None
# Treat warnings as errors, done here to prevent warnings in Sphinx code from
-# causing spurious test failures.
+# causing spurious CPython test failures.
import warnings
warnings.simplefilter('error')
del warnings
@@ -60,37 +69,45 @@
# General substitutions.
project = 'Python'
-copyright = f"2001-{time.strftime('%Y')}, Python Software Foundation"
+copyright = "2001-%Y, Python Software Foundation"
+_doc_authors = 'Python documentation authors'
# We look for the Include/patchlevel.h file in the current Python source tree
# and replace the values accordingly.
-import patchlevel
-version, release = patchlevel.get_version_info()
+# See Doc/tools/extensions/patchlevel.py
+version, release = get_version_info()
+v = get_header_version_info()
+branch = "main" if v.releaselevel == "alpha" else f"{v.major}.{v.minor}"
rst_epilog = f"""
.. |python_version_literal| replace:: ``Python {version}``
.. |python_x_dot_y_literal| replace:: ``python{version}``
+.. |python_x_dot_y_t_literal| replace:: ``python{version}t``
+.. |python_x_dot_y_t_literal_config| replace:: ``python{version}t-config``
+.. |x_dot_y_b2_literal| replace:: ``{version}.0b2``
+.. |applications_python_version_literal| replace:: ``/Applications/Python {version}/``
.. |usr_local_bin_python_x_dot_y_literal| replace:: ``/usr/local/bin/python{version}``
"""
-# There are two options for replacing |today|: either, you set today to some
-# non-false value, then it is used:
+# There are two options for replacing |today|. Either, you set today to some
+# non-false value and use it.
today = ''
-# Else, today_fmt is used as the format for a strftime call.
+# Or else, today_fmt is used as the format for a strftime call.
today_fmt = '%B %d, %Y'
# By default, highlight as Python 3.
highlight_language = 'python3'
# Minimum version of sphinx required
-needs_sphinx = '4.2'
+# Keep this version in sync with ``Doc/requirements.txt``.
+needs_sphinx = '8.2.0'
# Create table of contents entries for domain objects (e.g. functions, classes,
# attributes, etc.). Default is True.
toc_object_entries = False
# Ignore any .rst files in the includes/ directory;
-# they're embedded in pages but not rendered individually.
+# they're embedded in pages but not rendered as individual pages.
# Ignore any .rst files in the venv/ directory.
exclude_patterns = ['includes/*.rst', 'venv/*', 'README.rst']
venvdir = os.getenv('VENVDIR')
@@ -131,6 +148,8 @@
('c:func', 'vsnprintf'),
# Standard C types
('c:type', 'FILE'),
+ ('c:type', 'int8_t'),
+ ('c:type', 'int16_t'),
('c:type', 'int32_t'),
('c:type', 'int64_t'),
('c:type', 'intmax_t'),
@@ -140,6 +159,9 @@
('c:type', 'size_t'),
('c:type', 'ssize_t'),
('c:type', 'time_t'),
+ ('c:type', 'uint8_t'),
+ ('c:type', 'uint16_t'),
+ ('c:type', 'uint32_t'),
('c:type', 'uint64_t'),
('c:type', 'uintmax_t'),
('c:type', 'uintptr_t'),
@@ -148,6 +170,7 @@
('c:type', '__int64'),
('c:type', 'unsigned __int64'),
('c:type', 'double'),
+ ('c:type', '_Float16'),
# Standard C structures
('c:struct', 'in6_addr'),
('c:struct', 'in_addr'),
@@ -182,6 +205,7 @@
('envvar', 'LC_TIME'),
('envvar', 'LINES'),
('envvar', 'LOGNAME'),
+ ('envvar', 'MANPAGER'),
('envvar', 'PAGER'),
('envvar', 'PATH'),
('envvar', 'PATHEXT'),
@@ -194,84 +218,11 @@
('envvar', 'USER'),
('envvar', 'USERNAME'),
('envvar', 'USERPROFILE'),
- # Deprecated function that was never documented:
- ('py:func', 'getargspec'),
- ('py:func', 'inspect.getargspec'),
- # Undocumented modules that users shouldn't have to worry about
- # (implementation details of `os.path`):
- ('py:mod', 'ntpath'),
- ('py:mod', 'posixpath'),
]
# Temporary undocumented names.
# In future this list must be empty.
nitpick_ignore += [
- # C API: Standard Python exception classes
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_ArithmeticError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_AssertionError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_AttributeError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_BaseException'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_BlockingIOError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_BrokenPipeError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_BufferError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_ChildProcessError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_ConnectionError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_ConnectionResetError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_EOFError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_Exception'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_FileExistsError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_FileNotFoundError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_FloatingPointError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_GeneratorExit'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_ImportError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_IndentationError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_IndexError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_InterruptedError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_IsADirectoryError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_KeyError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_LookupError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_MemoryError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_NameError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_NotADirectoryError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_NotImplementedError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_OSError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_OverflowError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_PermissionError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_ProcessLookupError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_RecursionError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_ReferenceError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_RuntimeError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_StopAsyncIteration'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_StopIteration'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_SyntaxError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_SystemError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_SystemExit'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_TabError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_TimeoutError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_TypeError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_UnboundLocalError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_UnicodeError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_ValueError'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_ZeroDivisionError'),
- # C API: Standard Python warning classes
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_BytesWarning'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_DeprecationWarning'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_FutureWarning'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_ImportWarning'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_ResourceWarning'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_RuntimeWarning'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_SyntaxWarning'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_UnicodeWarning'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_UserWarning'),
- ('c:data', 'PyExc_Warning'),
# Do not error nit-picky mode builds when _SubParsersAction.add_parser cannot
# be resolved, as the method is currently undocumented. For context, see
# https://github.com/python/cpython/pull/103289.
@@ -279,10 +230,7 @@
# Attributes/methods/etc. that definitely should be documented better,
# but are deferred for now:
('py:attr', '__annotations__'),
- ('py:meth', '__missing__'),
('py:attr', '__wrapped__'),
- ('py:attr', 'decimal.Context.clamp'),
- ('py:meth', 'index'), # list.index, tuple.index, etc.
]
# gh-106948: Copy standard C types declared in the "c:type" domain and C
@@ -296,7 +244,8 @@
# Disable Docutils smartquotes for several translations
smartquotes_excludes = {
- 'languages': ['ja', 'fr', 'zh_TW', 'zh_CN'], 'builders': ['man', 'text'],
+ 'languages': ['ja', 'fr', 'zh_TW', 'zh_CN'],
+ 'builders': ['man', 'text'],
}
# Avoid a warning with Sphinx >= 4.0
@@ -305,23 +254,27 @@
# Allow translation of index directives
gettext_additional_targets = [
'index',
+ 'literal-block',
]
# Options for HTML output
# -----------------------
-# Use our custom theme.
+# Use our custom theme: https://github.com/python/python-docs-theme
html_theme = 'python_docs_theme'
+# Location of overrides for theme templates and static files
html_theme_path = ['tools']
html_theme_options = {
'collapsiblesidebar': True,
'issues_url': '/bugs.html',
'license_url': '/license.html',
- 'root_include_title': False # We use the version switcher instead.
+ 'root_include_title': False, # We use the version switcher instead.
}
if os.getenv("READTHEDOCS"):
- html_theme_options["hosted_on"] = '<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://about.readthedocs.com/">Read the Docs</a>'
+ html_theme_options["hosted_on"] = (
+ '<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://about.readthedocs.com/">Read the Docs</a>'
+ )
# Override stylesheet fingerprinting for Windows CHM htmlhelp to fix GH-91207
# https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91207
@@ -335,19 +288,27 @@
# Deployment preview information
# (See .readthedocs.yml and https://docs.readthedocs.io/en/stable/reference/environment-variables.html)
-repository_url = os.getenv("READTHEDOCS_GIT_CLONE_URL")
+is_deployment_preview = os.getenv("READTHEDOCS_VERSION_TYPE") == "external"
+repository_url = os.getenv("READTHEDOCS_GIT_CLONE_URL", "")
+repository_url = repository_url.removesuffix(".git")
html_context = {
- "is_deployment_preview": os.getenv("READTHEDOCS_VERSION_TYPE") == "external",
- "repository_url": repository_url.removesuffix(".git") if repository_url else None,
- "pr_id": os.getenv("READTHEDOCS_VERSION")
+ "is_deployment_preview": is_deployment_preview,
+ "repository_url": repository_url or None,
+ "pr_id": os.getenv("READTHEDOCS_VERSION"),
+ "enable_analytics": os.getenv("PYTHON_DOCS_ENABLE_ANALYTICS"),
+ "source_branch": branch,
}
# This 'Last updated on:' timestamp is inserted at the bottom of every page.
-html_last_updated_fmt = time.strftime('%b %d, %Y (%H:%M UTC)', time.gmtime())
+html_last_updated_fmt = '%b %d, %Y (%H:%M UTC)'
+html_last_updated_use_utc = True
-# Path to find HTML templates.
+# Path to find HTML templates to override theme
templates_path = ['tools/templates']
+# We link to sources on GitHub, so don't copy them into the HTML output.
+html_copy_source = False
+
# Custom sidebar templates, filenames relative to this file.
html_sidebars = {
# Defaults taken from https://www.sphinx-doc.org/en/master/usage/configuration.html#confval-html_sidebars
@@ -374,6 +335,8 @@
# Split the index
html_split_index = True
+# Split pot files one per reST file
+gettext_compact = False
# Options for LaTeX output
# ------------------------
@@ -391,40 +354,99 @@
\let\endVerbatim=\endOriginalVerbatim
\setcounter{tocdepth}{2}
''',
- # The paper size ('letter' or 'a4').
- 'papersize': 'a4',
+ # The paper size ('letterpaper' or 'a4paper').
+ 'papersize': 'a4paper',
# The font size ('10pt', '11pt' or '12pt').
'pointsize': '10pt',
+ 'maxlistdepth': '8', # See https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139588
}
# Grouping the document tree into LaTeX files. List of tuples
# (source start file, target name, title, author, document class [howto/manual]).
-_stdauthor = 'Guido van Rossum and the Python development team'
latex_documents = [
- ('c-api/index', 'c-api.tex',
- 'The Python/C API', _stdauthor, 'manual'),
- ('extending/index', 'extending.tex',
- 'Extending and Embedding Python', _stdauthor, 'manual'),
- ('installing/index', 'installing.tex',
- 'Installing Python Modules', _stdauthor, 'manual'),
- ('library/index', 'library.tex',
- 'The Python Library Reference', _stdauthor, 'manual'),
- ('reference/index', 'reference.tex',
- 'The Python Language Reference', _stdauthor, 'manual'),
- ('tutorial/index', 'tutorial.tex',
- 'Python Tutorial', _stdauthor, 'manual'),
- ('using/index', 'using.tex',
- 'Python Setup and Usage', _stdauthor, 'manual'),
- ('faq/index', 'faq.tex',
- 'Python Frequently Asked Questions', _stdauthor, 'manual'),
- ('whatsnew/' + version, 'whatsnew.tex',
- 'What\'s New in Python', 'A. M. Kuchling', 'howto'),
+ (
+ 'c-api/index',
+ 'c-api.tex',
+ 'The Python/C API',
+ _doc_authors,
+ 'manual',
+ ),
+ (
+ 'extending/index',
+ 'extending.tex',
+ 'Extending and Embedding Python',
+ _doc_authors,
+ 'manual',
+ ),
+ (
+ 'installing/index',
+ 'installing.tex',
+ 'Installing Python Modules',
+ _doc_authors,
+ 'manual',
+ ),
+ (
+ 'builtins/index',
+ 'builtins.tex',
+ 'Python Built-ins Reference',
+ _doc_authors,
+ 'manual',
+ ),
+ (
+ 'library/index',
+ 'library.tex',
+ 'The Python Library Reference',
+ _doc_authors,
+ 'manual',
+ ),
+ (
+ 'reference/index',
+ 'reference.tex',
+ 'The Python Language Reference',
+ _doc_authors,
+ 'manual',
+ ),
+ (
+ 'tutorial/index',
+ 'tutorial.tex',
+ 'Python Tutorial',
+ _doc_authors,
+ 'manual',
+ ),
+ (
+ 'using/index',
+ 'using.tex',
+ 'Python Setup and Usage',
+ _doc_authors,
+ 'manual',
+ ),
+ (
+ 'faq/index',
+ 'faq.tex',
+ 'Python Frequently Asked Questions',
+ _doc_authors,
+ 'manual',
+ ),
+ (
+ 'whatsnew/' + version,
+ 'whatsnew.tex',
+ 'What\'s New in Python',
+ _doc_authors,
+ 'howto',
+ ),
]
# Collect all HOWTOs individually
-latex_documents.extend(('howto/' + fn[:-4], 'howto-' + fn[:-4] + '.tex',
- '', _stdauthor, 'howto')
- for fn in os.listdir('howto')
- if fn.endswith('.rst') and fn != 'index.rst')
+latex_documents.extend(
+ (
+ 'howto/' + fn[:-4],
+ 'howto-' + fn[:-4] + '.tex',
+ '',
+ _doc_authors,
+ 'howto',
+ )
+ for fn in os.listdir('howto')
+ if fn.endswith('.rst') and fn != 'index.rst'
+)
# Documents to append as an appendix to all manuals.
latex_appendices = ['glossary', 'about', 'license', 'copyright']
@@ -432,8 +454,32 @@
# Options for Epub output
# -----------------------
-epub_author = 'Python Documentation Authors'
+epub_author = _doc_authors
epub_publisher = 'Python Software Foundation'
+epub_exclude_files = ('index.xhtml', 'download.xhtml')
+
+# index pages are not valid xhtml
+# https://github.com/sphinx-doc/sphinx/issues/12359
+epub_use_index = False
+
+# translation tag
+# ---------------
+
+language_code = None
+for arg in sys.argv:
+ if arg.startswith('language='):
+ language_code = arg.split('=', 1)[1]
+
+if language_code:
+ tags.add('translation') # noqa: F821
+
+ rst_epilog += f"""\
+.. _TRANSLATION_REPO: https://github.com/python/python-docs-{language_code.replace("_", "-").lower()}
+""" # noqa: F821
+else:
+ rst_epilog += """\
+.. _TRANSLATION_REPO: https://github.com/python
+"""
# Options for the coverage checker
# --------------------------------
@@ -448,8 +494,7 @@
'test($|_)',
]
-coverage_ignore_classes = [
-]
+coverage_ignore_classes = []
# Glob patterns for C source files for C API coverage, relative to this directory.
coverage_c_path = [
@@ -466,7 +511,7 @@
# The coverage checker will ignore all C items whose names match these regexes
# (using re.match) -- the keys must be the same as in coverage_c_regexes.
coverage_ignore_c_items = {
-# 'cfunction': [...]
+ # 'cfunction': [...]
}
@@ -482,15 +527,19 @@
r'https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/.*': 'https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/.*',
# Intentional HTTP use at Misc/NEWS.d/3.5.0a1.rst
r'http://www.python.org/$': 'https://www.python.org/$',
- # Used in license page, keep as is
- r'https://www.zope.org/': r'https://www.zope.dev/',
# Microsoft's redirects to learn.microsoft.com
r'https://msdn.microsoft.com/.*': 'https://learn.microsoft.com/.*',
r'https://docs.microsoft.com/.*': 'https://learn.microsoft.com/.*',
r'https://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/\?LinkID=\d+': 'https://learn.microsoft.com/.*',
+ # Debian's man page redirects to its current stable version
+ r'https://manpages.debian.org/\w+\(\d(\w+)?\)': r'https://manpages.debian.org/\w+/[\w/\-\.]*\.\d(\w+)?\.en\.html',
# Language redirects
r'https://toml.io': 'https://toml.io/en/',
r'https://www.redhat.com': 'https://www.redhat.com/en',
+ # pypi.org project name normalization (upper to lowercase, underscore to hyphen)
+ r'https://pypi.org/project/[A-Za-z\d_\-\.]+/': r'https://pypi.org/project/[a-z\d\-\.]+/',
+ # Discourse title name expansion (text changes when title is edited)
+ r'https://discuss\.python\.org/t/\d+': r'https://discuss\.python\.org/t/.*/\d+',
# Other redirects
r'https://www.boost.org/libs/.+': r'https://www.boost.org/doc/libs/\d_\d+_\d/.+',
r'https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/\d+': 'https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/topic/.+',
@@ -517,6 +566,7 @@
r'https://unix.org/version2/whatsnew/lp64_wp.html',
]
+
# Options for sphinx.ext.extlinks
# -------------------------------
@@ -524,26 +574,55 @@
# mapping unique short aliases to a base URL and a prefix.
# https://www.sphinx-doc.org/en/master/usage/extensions/extlinks.html
extlinks = {
- "cve": ("https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-%s", "CVE-%s"),
- "cwe": ("https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/%s.html", "CWE-%s"),
+ "oss-fuzz": ("https://issues.oss-fuzz.com/issues/%s", "#%s"),
"pypi": ("https://pypi.org/project/%s/", "%s"),
- "source": (SOURCE_URI, "%s"),
+ "source": (f"https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/{branch}/%s", "%s"),
}
extlinks_detect_hardcoded_links = True
-# Options for extensions
-# ----------------------
+# Options for c_annotations extension
+# -----------------------------------
# Relative filename of the data files
refcount_file = 'data/refcounts.dat'
stable_abi_file = 'data/stable_abi.dat'
-# sphinxext-opengraph config
-ogp_site_url = 'https://docs.python.org/3/'
+# Options for notfound.extension
+# -------------------------------
+
+if not os.getenv("READTHEDOCS"):
+ if language_code:
+ notfound_urls_prefix = (
+ f'/{language_code.replace("_", "-").lower()}/{version}/'
+ )
+ else:
+ notfound_urls_prefix = f'/{version}/'
+
+# Options for sphinxext-opengraph
+# -------------------------------
+
+ogp_canonical_url = 'https://docs.python.org/3/'
ogp_site_name = 'Python documentation'
-ogp_image = '_static/og-image.png'
-ogp_custom_meta_tags = [
- '<meta property="og:image:width" content="200" />',
- '<meta property="og:image:height" content="200" />',
- '<meta name="theme-color" content="#3776ab" />',
-]
+ogp_social_cards = { # Used when matplotlib is installed
+ 'image': '_static/og-image.png',
+ 'line_color': '#3776ab',
+}
+ogp_custom_meta_tags = ('<meta name="theme-color" content="#3776ab">',)
+if 'create-social-cards' not in tags: # noqa: F821
+ # Define a static preview image when not creating social cards
+ ogp_image = '_static/og-image.png'
+ ogp_custom_meta_tags += (
+ '<meta property="og:image:width" content="200">',
+ '<meta property="og:image:height" content="200">',
+ )
+
+# Options for sphinxext-rediraffe
+# -------------------------------
+
+rediraffe_redirects = {
+ # Splitting builtins from library
+ "library/functions.rst": "builtins/functions.rst",
+ "library/stdtypes.rst": "builtins/stdtypes.rst",
+ "library/constants.rst": "builtins/constants.rst",
+ "library/exceptions.rst": "builtins/exceptions.rst",
+}
diff --git a/Doc/constraints.txt b/Doc/constraints.txt
index 147de1271eb2b7f..29cd4be1d3c8dbe 100644
--- a/Doc/constraints.txt
+++ b/Doc/constraints.txt
@@ -7,18 +7,18 @@
# Direct dependencies of Sphinx
babel<3
colorama<0.5
-imagesize<1.5
-Jinja2<3.2
-packaging<24
-Pygments>=2.16.1,<3
+imagesize<2
+Jinja2<4
+packaging<25
+Pygments<3
requests<3
snowballstemmer<3
-sphinxcontrib-applehelp<1.1
-sphinxcontrib-devhelp<1.1
-sphinxcontrib-htmlhelp<2.1
-sphinxcontrib-jsmath<1.1
-sphinxcontrib-qthelp<1.1
-sphinxcontrib-serializinghtml<1.2
+sphinxcontrib-applehelp<3
+sphinxcontrib-devhelp<3
+sphinxcontrib-htmlhelp<3
+sphinxcontrib-jsmath<2
+sphinxcontrib-qthelp<3
+sphinxcontrib-serializinghtml<3
# Direct dependencies of Jinja2 (Jinja is a dependency of Sphinx, see above)
-MarkupSafe<2.2
+MarkupSafe<3
diff --git a/Doc/contents.rst b/Doc/contents.rst
index 24ceacb0076b5eb..852be4a6d5b6ba7 100644
--- a/Doc/contents.rst
+++ b/Doc/contents.rst
@@ -8,12 +8,14 @@
tutorial/index.rst
using/index.rst
reference/index.rst
+ builtins/index.rst
library/index.rst
extending/index.rst
c-api/index.rst
installing/index.rst
howto/index.rst
faq/index.rst
+ deprecations/index.rst
glossary.rst
about.rst
diff --git a/Doc/data/python3.13.abi b/Doc/data/python3.13.abi
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..e0588167eba04e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/data/python3.13.abi
@@ -0,0 +1,29436 @@
+<abi-corpus version='2.0' path='libpython3.13.so' soname='libpython3.13.so.1.0'>
+ <elf-needed>
+ <dependency name='libm.so.6'/>
+ <dependency name='libc.so.6'/>
+ <dependency name='ld-linux-x86-64.so.2'/>
+ </elf-needed>
+ <elf-function-symbols>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyAIter_Check' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyArg_Parse' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyArg_ParseTuple' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyArg_UnpackTuple' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyArg_VaParse' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyAsyncGen_New' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBool_FromLong' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBuffer_FillInfo' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBuffer_FromContiguous' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBuffer_GetPointer' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBuffer_IsContiguous' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBuffer_Release' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBuffer_ToContiguous' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyByteArray_AsString' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyByteArray_Concat' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyByteArray_FromObject' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyByteArray_Resize' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyByteArray_Size' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBytes_AsString' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBytes_AsStringAndSize' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBytes_Concat' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBytes_ConcatAndDel' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBytes_DecodeEscape' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBytes_FromFormat' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBytes_FromFormatV' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBytes_FromObject' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBytes_FromString' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBytes_FromStringAndSize' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBytes_Repr' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyBytes_Size' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCFunction_Call' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCFunction_GetFlags' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCFunction_GetFunction' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCFunction_GetSelf' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCFunction_New' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCFunction_NewEx' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCMethod_New' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCallIter_New' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCallable_Check' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCapsule_GetContext' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCapsule_GetDestructor' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCapsule_GetName' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCapsule_GetPointer' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCapsule_Import' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCapsule_IsValid' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCapsule_New' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCapsule_SetContext' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCapsule_SetDestructor' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCapsule_SetName' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCapsule_SetPointer' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCell_Get' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCell_New' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCell_Set' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyClassMethod_New' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCode_AddWatcher' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCode_Addr2Line' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCode_Addr2Location' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCode_ClearWatcher' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCode_GetCellvars' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCode_GetCode' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCode_GetFreevars' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCode_GetVarnames' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCode_NewEmpty' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCode_Optimize' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_Decode' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_Decoder' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_Encode' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_Encoder' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_IgnoreErrors' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_KnownEncoding' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_LookupError' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_Register' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_RegisterError' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_ReplaceErrors' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_StreamReader' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_StreamWriter' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_StrictErrors' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_Unregister' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffect' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffectWithJump' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyComplex_AsCComplex' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyComplex_FromCComplex' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyComplex_FromDoubles' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyComplex_ImagAsDouble' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyComplex_RealAsDouble' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyConfig_Clear' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyConfig_InitPythonConfig' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyConfig_Read' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyConfig_SetArgv' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyConfig_SetBytesArgv' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyConfig_SetBytesString' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyConfig_SetString' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyConfig_SetWideStringList' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyContextVar_Get' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyContextVar_New' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyContextVar_Reset' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyContextVar_Set' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyContext_Copy' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyContext_CopyCurrent' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyContext_Enter' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyContext_Exit' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyContext_New' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCoro_New' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCriticalSection2_Begin' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCriticalSection2_End' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCriticalSection_Begin' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyCriticalSection_End' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDescr_IsData' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDescr_NewClassMethod' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDescr_NewGetSet' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDescr_NewMember' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDescr_NewMethod' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDescr_NewWrapper' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDictProxy_New' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_AddWatcher' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_Clear' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_ClearWatcher' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_Contains' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_ContainsString' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_Copy' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_DelItem' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_DelItemString' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_GetItem' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_GetItemRef' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_GetItemString' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_GetItemStringRef' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_GetItemWithError' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_Items' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_Keys' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_Merge' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_MergeFromSeq2' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_New' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_Next' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_Pop' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_PopString' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_SetDefault' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
+ <elf-symbol name='PyDict_SetDefaultRef' type='func-type' binding='global-binding' visibility='default-visibility' is-defined='yes'/>
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+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyOS_AfterFork' mangled-name='PyOS_AfterFork' filepath='./Modules/posixmodule.c' line='724' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyOS_AfterFork'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyLong_FromGid' mangled-name='_PyLong_FromGid' filepath='./Modules/posixmodule.c' line='753' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyLong_FromGid'>
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+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_Py_Uid_Converter' mangled-name='_Py_Uid_Converter' filepath='./Modules/posixmodule.c' line='761' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_Py_Uid_Converter'>
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+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_Py_Gid_Converter' mangled-name='_Py_Gid_Converter' filepath='./Modules/posixmodule.c' line='867' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_Py_Gid_Converter'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='obj' filepath='./Modules/posixmodule.c' line='867' column='1'/>
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+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='opendir' filepath='/usr/include/dirent.h' line='134' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-121'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='fdopendir' filepath='/usr/include/dirent.h' line='141' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-121'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='closedir' filepath='/usr/include/dirent.h' line='149' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-121'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='rewinddir' filepath='/usr/include/dirent.h' line='209' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-121'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='setgroups' filepath='/usr/include/grp.h' line='176' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-128'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='getgrouplist' filepath='/usr/include/grp.h' line='186' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-110'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-122'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-175'/>
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+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='initgroups' filepath='/usr/include/grp.h' line='197' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-110'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='openpty' filepath='/usr/include/pty.h' line='36' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-175'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-148'/>
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+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='forkpty' filepath='/usr/include/pty.h' line='42' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-175'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-17'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-150'/>
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+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='sched_setparam' filepath='/usr/include/sched.h' line='54' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-142'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='sched_getparam' filepath='/usr/include/sched.h' line='58' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-162'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='sched_setscheduler' filepath='/usr/include/sched.h' line='61' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-142'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='sched_getscheduler' filepath='/usr/include/sched.h' line='65' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='sched_get_priority_max' filepath='/usr/include/sched.h' line='71' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='sched_get_priority_min' filepath='/usr/include/sched.h' line='74' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='sched_rr_get_interval' filepath='/usr/include/sched.h' line='78' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-176'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='sched_setaffinity' filepath='/usr/include/sched.h' line='130' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-130'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='sched_getaffinity' filepath='/usr/include/sched.h' line='134' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-151'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='killpg' filepath='/usr/include/signal.h' line='119' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='sigaddset' filepath='/usr/include/signal.h' line='205' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-52'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawn' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='72' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-157'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-177'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-140'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-126'/>
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+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawnp' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='85' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-156'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-139'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-125'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-125'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawnattr_init' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='93' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-160'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawnattr_destroy' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='97' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-160'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawnattr_setsigdefault' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='108' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-161'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-146'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawnattr_setsigmask' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='120' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-161'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-146'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawnattr_setflags' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='131' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-160'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-78'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawnattr_setpgroup' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='141' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-160'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-79'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawnattr_setschedpolicy' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='152' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-160'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawnattr_setschedparam' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='164' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-161'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-143'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawn_file_actions_init' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='170' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-158'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawn_file_actions_destroy' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='175' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-158'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawn_file_actions_addopen' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='181' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-159'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-113'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawn_file_actions_addclose' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='190' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-158'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawn_file_actions_adddup2' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='196' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-158'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np' filepath='/usr/include/spawn.h' line='219' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-158'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='rename' filepath='/usr/include/stdio.h' line='154' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='renameat' filepath='/usr/include/stdio.h' line='158' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
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+ <function-decl name='ctermid' filepath='/usr/include/stdio.h' line='837' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-17'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-17'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='atoi' filepath='/usr/include/stdlib.h' line='105' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='unsetenv' filepath='/usr/include/stdlib.h' line='664' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='system' filepath='/usr/include/stdlib.h' line='791' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='posix_openpt' filepath='/usr/include/stdlib.h' line='978' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='unlockpt' filepath='/usr/include/stdlib.h' line='990' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-17'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='ptsname_r' filepath='/usr/include/stdlib.h' line='1002' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-17'/>
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+ <function-decl name='getloadavg' filepath='/usr/include/stdlib.h' line='1013' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-178'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-175'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
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+ <return type-id='type-id-181'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='getpgrp' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='656' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='getpgid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='661' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='setpgid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='668' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='setpgrp' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='682' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='setsid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='689' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='getsid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='693' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='getuid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='697' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-114'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='geteuid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='700' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-114'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='getgid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='703' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-110'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='getegid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='706' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-110'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='getgroups' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='711' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-122'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='setuid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='722' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-114'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='setreuid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='727' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-114'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-114'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='seteuid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='732' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-114'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='setgid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='739' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-110'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='setregid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='744' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-110'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-110'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='setegid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='749' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-110'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='getresuid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='755' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-124'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-124'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-124'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='getresgid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='760' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-122'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-122'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-122'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='setresuid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='765' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-114'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-114'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-114'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='setresgid' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='770' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-110'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-110'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-110'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='fork' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='778' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='ttyname_r' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='803' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-17'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='link' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='819' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='linkat' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='825' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='symlink' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='832' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='symlinkat' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='847' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='readlinkat' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='851' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-177'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-179'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-182'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='unlink' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='858' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='unlinkat' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='862' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='rmdir' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='867' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='tcgetpgrp' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='871' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='tcsetpgrp' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='874' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-116'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='getlogin_r' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='889' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-17'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='chroot' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='977' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='fsync' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='989' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='sync' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='1005' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='copy_file_range' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='1142' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-123'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-123'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-99'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-182'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='fdatasync' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='1150' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='login_tty' filepath='/usr/include/utmp.h' line='41' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='__sched_cpucount' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/bits/cpu-set.h' line='117' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-130'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='__sched_cpualloc' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/bits/cpu-set.h' line='119' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-151'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='__sched_cpufree' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/bits/cpu-set.h' line='120' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-151'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='splice' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/bits/fcntl-linux.h' line='421' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-123'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-123'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-99'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-183'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='memfd_create' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/bits/mman-shared.h' line='51' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-99'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='unshare' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/bits/sched.h' line='86' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='setns' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/bits/sched.h' line='95' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='eventfd' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/eventfd.h' line='34' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-99'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='eventfd_read' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/eventfd.h' line='37' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-153'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='eventfd_write' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/eventfd.h' line='40' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-107'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='getpriority' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/resource.h' line='105' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-108'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-117'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='setpriority' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/resource.h' line='109' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-108'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-117'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='chmod' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/stat.h' line='352' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-112'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='fchmod' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/stat.h' line='365' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-112'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='fchmodat' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/stat.h' line='371' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-112'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='umask' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/stat.h' line='380' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-112'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-112'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='mkdir' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/stat.h' line='389' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-112'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='mkdirat' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/stat.h' line='396' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-112'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='mknod' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/stat.h' line='404' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-112'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-184'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='mknodat' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/stat.h' line='411' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-112'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-184'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='mkfifo' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/stat.h' line='418' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-112'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='mkfifoat' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/stat.h' line='425' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-112'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='utimensat' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/stat.h' line='433' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-173'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='futimens' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/stat.h' line='452' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-173'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='gnu_dev_major' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/sysmacros.h' line='35' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-184'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-99'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='gnu_dev_minor' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/sysmacros.h' line='36' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-184'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-99'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='gnu_dev_makedev' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/sysmacros.h' line='37' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-99'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-99'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-184'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='timerfd_create' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/timerfd.h' line='41' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-185'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='timerfd_settime' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/timerfd.h' line='46' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-134'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-155'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='timerfd_gettime' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/timerfd.h' line='63' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-155'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='times' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/times.h' line='46' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-165'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-102'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='readv' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/uio.h' line='41' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-132'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-182'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='writev' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/sys/uio.h' line='52' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-132'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-182'/>
+ </function-decl>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1134' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1134' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_Subtract' mangled-name='PyNumber_Subtract' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1135' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_Subtract'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1135' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1135' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_Divmod' mangled-name='PyNumber_Divmod' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1136' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_Divmod'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1136' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1136' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_Add' mangled-name='PyNumber_Add' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1139' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_Add'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1139' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1139' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_Multiply' mangled-name='PyNumber_Multiply' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1177' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_Multiply'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1177' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1177' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_MatrixMultiply' mangled-name='PyNumber_MatrixMultiply' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1195' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_MatrixMultiply'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1195' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1195' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_FloorDivide' mangled-name='PyNumber_FloorDivide' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1196' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_FloorDivide'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1196' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1196' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_TrueDivide' mangled-name='PyNumber_TrueDivide' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1197' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_TrueDivide'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1197' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1197' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_Remainder' mangled-name='PyNumber_Remainder' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1198' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_Remainder'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1198' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1198' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_Power' mangled-name='PyNumber_Power' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1201' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_Power'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1201' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1201' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='z' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1201' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_InPlaceOr' mangled-name='PyNumber_InPlaceOr' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1296' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_InPlaceOr'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1296' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1296' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_InPlaceXor' mangled-name='PyNumber_InPlaceXor' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1297' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_InPlaceXor'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1297' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1297' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_InPlaceAnd' mangled-name='PyNumber_InPlaceAnd' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1298' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_InPlaceAnd'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1298' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1298' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_InPlaceLshift' mangled-name='PyNumber_InPlaceLshift' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1299' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_InPlaceLshift'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1299' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1299' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_InPlaceRshift' mangled-name='PyNumber_InPlaceRshift' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1300' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_InPlaceRshift'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1300' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1300' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract' mangled-name='PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1301' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1301' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1301' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply' mangled-name='PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1302' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1302' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1302' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide' mangled-name='PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1303' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1303' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1303' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide' mangled-name='PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1304' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1304' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1304' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder' mangled-name='PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1305' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1305' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1305' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_InPlaceAdd' mangled-name='PyNumber_InPlaceAdd' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1308' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_InPlaceAdd'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1308' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1308' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply' mangled-name='PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1331' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1331' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1331' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_InPlacePower' mangled-name='PyNumber_InPlacePower' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1360' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_InPlacePower'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1360' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='w' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1360' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='z' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1360' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_Negative' mangled-name='PyNumber_Negative' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1392' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_Negative'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='o' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1392' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_Positive' mangled-name='PyNumber_Positive' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1393' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_Positive'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='o' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1393' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_Invert' mangled-name='PyNumber_Invert' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1394' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_Invert'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='o' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1394' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_Absolute' mangled-name='PyNumber_Absolute' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1395' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_Absolute'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='o' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1395' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyIndex_Check' mangled-name='PyIndex_Check' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1399' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyIndex_Check'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='obj' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1399' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyNumber_Index' mangled-name='_PyNumber_Index' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1411' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyNumber_Index'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='item' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1411' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_Index' mangled-name='PyNumber_Index' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1457' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_Index'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='item' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1457' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_AsSsize_t' mangled-name='PyNumber_AsSsize_t' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1469' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_AsSsize_t'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='item' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1469' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='err' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1469' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-7'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_Long' mangled-name='PyNumber_Long' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1520' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_Long'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='o' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1520' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_Float' mangled-name='PyNumber_Float' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1635' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_Float'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='o' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1635' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyNumber_ToBase' mangled-name='PyNumber_ToBase' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1696' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyNumber_ToBase'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='n' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1696' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='base' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1696' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PySequence_Check' mangled-name='PySequence_Check' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1715' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PySequence_Check'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='s' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1715' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PySequence_Size' mangled-name='PySequence_Size' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1724' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PySequence_Size'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='s' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1724' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-7'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PySequence_Length' mangled-name='PySequence_Length' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1748' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PySequence_Length'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='s' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1748' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-7'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PySequence_Concat' mangled-name='PySequence_Concat' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1755' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PySequence_Concat'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='s' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1755' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='o' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1755' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PySequence_Repeat' mangled-name='PySequence_Repeat' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1781' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PySequence_Repeat'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='o' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1781' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='count' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1781' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PySequence_InPlaceConcat' mangled-name='PySequence_InPlaceConcat' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1812' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PySequence_InPlaceConcat'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='s' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1812' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='o' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1812' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PySequence_InPlaceRepeat' mangled-name='PySequence_InPlaceRepeat' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1841' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PySequence_InPlaceRepeat'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='o' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1841' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='count' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1841' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PySequence_GetItem' mangled-name='PySequence_GetItem' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1875' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PySequence_GetItem'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='s' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1875' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='i' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1875' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PySequence_GetSlice' mangled-name='PySequence_GetSlice' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1905' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PySequence_GetSlice'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='s' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1905' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='i1' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1905' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='i2' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1905' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PySequence_SetItem' mangled-name='PySequence_SetItem' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1927' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PySequence_SetItem'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='s' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1927' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='i' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1927' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='o' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1927' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PySequence_DelItem' mangled-name='PySequence_DelItem' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1960' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PySequence_DelItem'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='s' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1960' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='i' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1960' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PySequence_SetSlice' mangled-name='PySequence_SetSlice' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1993' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PySequence_SetSlice'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='s' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1993' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='i1' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1993' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='i2' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1993' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='o' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='1993' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PySequence_DelSlice' mangled-name='PySequence_DelSlice' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='2016' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PySequence_DelSlice'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='s' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='2016' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='i1' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='2016' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='i2' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='2016' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PySequence_Tuple' mangled-name='PySequence_Tuple' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='2039' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PySequence_Tuple'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Objects/abstract.c' line='2039' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
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+ <var-decl name='PyExc_Exception' type-id='type-id-4' mangled-name='PyExc_Exception' visibility='default' filepath='./Include/pyerrors.h' line='77' column='1' elf-symbol-id='PyExc_Exception'/>
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+ <var-decl name='PyExc_StopAsyncIteration' type-id='type-id-4' mangled-name='PyExc_StopAsyncIteration' visibility='default' filepath='./Include/pyerrors.h' line='80' column='1' elf-symbol-id='PyExc_StopAsyncIteration'/>
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+ <var-decl name='PyExc_GeneratorExit' type-id='type-id-4' mangled-name='PyExc_GeneratorExit' visibility='default' filepath='./Include/pyerrors.h' line='83' column='1' elf-symbol-id='PyExc_GeneratorExit'/>
+ <var-decl name='PyExc_ArithmeticError' type-id='type-id-4' mangled-name='PyExc_ArithmeticError' visibility='default' filepath='./Include/pyerrors.h' line='84' column='1' elf-symbol-id='PyExc_ArithmeticError'/>
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+ <var-decl name='PyExc_FloatingPointError' type-id='type-id-4' mangled-name='PyExc_FloatingPointError' visibility='default' filepath='./Include/pyerrors.h' line='91' column='1' elf-symbol-id='PyExc_FloatingPointError'/>
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+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyUnicode_AsUTF8NoNUL' mangled-name='_PyUnicode_AsUTF8NoNUL' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4145' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyUnicode_AsUTF8NoNUL'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='unicode' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4145' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_GetSize' mangled-name='PyUnicode_GetSize' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4165' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_GetSize'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='unicode' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4165' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-7'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_GetLength' mangled-name='PyUnicode_GetLength' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4173' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_GetLength'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='unicode' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4173' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-7'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_WriteChar' mangled-name='PyUnicode_WriteChar' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4202' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_WriteChar'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='unicode' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4202' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='index' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4202' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-256' name='ch' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4202' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7' mangled-name='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4564' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='s' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4564' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='size' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4565' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='errors' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4566' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful' mangled-name='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4579' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='s' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4579' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='size' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4580' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='errors' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4581' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-8' name='consumed' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='4582' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32' mangled-name='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5527' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='s' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5527' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='size' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5528' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='errors' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5529' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-175' name='byteorder' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5530' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful' mangled-name='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5536' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='s' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5536' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='size' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5537' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='errors' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5538' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-175' name='byteorder' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5539' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-8' name='consumed' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5540' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32' mangled-name='_PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5681' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='str' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5681' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='errors' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5682' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='byteorder' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5683' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_AsUTF32String' mangled-name='PyUnicode_AsUTF32String' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5826' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_AsUTF32String'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='unicode' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5826' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16' mangled-name='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5834' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='s' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5834' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='size' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5835' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='errors' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5836' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-175' name='byteorder' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5837' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful' mangled-name='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5843' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='s' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5843' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='size' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5844' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='errors' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5845' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-175' name='byteorder' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5846' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-8' name='consumed' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5847' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16' mangled-name='_PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5998' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='str' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5998' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='errors' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='5999' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='byteorder' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6000' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_AsUTF16String' mangled-name='PyUnicode_AsUTF16String' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6162' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_AsUTF16String'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='unicode' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6162' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscapeInternal' mangled-name='_PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscapeInternal' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6438' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscapeInternal'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='s' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6438' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='size' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6439' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='errors' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6440' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-8' name='consumed' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6441' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-258' name='first_invalid_escape' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6442' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape' mangled-name='PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6489' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='s' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6489' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='size' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6490' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='errors' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6491' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString' mangled-name='PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6499' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='unicode' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6499' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape' mangled-name='PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6752' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='s' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6752' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='size' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6753' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='errors' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6754' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString' mangled-name='PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6761' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='unicode' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='6761' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_AsLatin1String' mangled-name='PyUnicode_AsLatin1String' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='7142' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_AsLatin1String'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='unicode' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='7142' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap' mangled-name='PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='8187' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='s' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='8187' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='size' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='8188' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='mapping' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='8189' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='errors' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='8190' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap' mangled-name='PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='8263' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='string' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='8263' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_AsCharmapString' mangled-name='PyUnicode_AsCharmapString' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='8744' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_AsCharmapString'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='unicode' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='8744' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='mapping' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='8745' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_Translate' mangled-name='PyUnicode_Translate' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9160' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_Translate'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='str' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9160' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='mapping' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9161' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='errors' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9162' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_Count' mangled-name='PyUnicode_Count' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9452' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_Count'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='str' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9452' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='substr' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9453' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='start' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9454' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='end' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9455' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-7'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_Find' mangled-name='PyUnicode_Find' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9464' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_Find'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='str' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9464' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='substr' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9465' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='start' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9466' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='end' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9467' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='direction' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9468' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-7'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_FindChar' mangled-name='PyUnicode_FindChar' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9477' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_FindChar'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='str' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9477' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-256' name='ch' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9477' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='start' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9478' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='end' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9478' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='direction' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9479' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-7'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_Tailmatch' mangled-name='PyUnicode_Tailmatch' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9560' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_Tailmatch'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='str' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9560' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='substr' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9561' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='start' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9562' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='end' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9563' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='direction' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9564' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-7'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyUnicode_JoinArray' mangled-name='_PyUnicode_JoinArray' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9830' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyUnicode_JoinArray'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='separator' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9830' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-255' name='items' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9830' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='seqlen' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='9830' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_Fill' mangled-name='PyUnicode_Fill' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10010' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_Fill'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='unicode' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10010' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='start' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10010' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='length' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10010' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-256' name='fill_char' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10011' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-7'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_Splitlines' mangled-name='PyUnicode_Splitlines' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10084' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_Splitlines'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='string' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10084' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='keepends' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10084' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8' mangled-name='PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10954' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='unicode' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10954' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='str' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10954' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize' mangled-name='PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10960' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='unicode' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10960' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='str' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10960' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='size' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='10960' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_RichCompare' mangled-name='PyUnicode_RichCompare' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11089' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_RichCompare'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='left' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11089' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='right' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11089' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='op' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11089' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_Contains' mangled-name='PyUnicode_Contains' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11130' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_Contains'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='str' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11130' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='substr' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11130' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_Concat' mangled-name='PyUnicode_Concat' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11191' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_Concat'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='left' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11191' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='right' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11191' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_Append' mangled-name='PyUnicode_Append' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11240' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_Append'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-235' name='p_left' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11240' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='right' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11240' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyUnicode_AppendAndDel' mangled-name='PyUnicode_AppendAndDel' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11317' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyUnicode_AppendAndDel'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-235' name='pleft' filepath='Objects/unicodeobject.c' line='11317' column='1'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-658'/>
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+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyAST_TypeVarTuple' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_ast.h' line='904' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_update_memo' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='132' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
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+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_is_memoized' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='133' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
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+ </function-decl>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
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+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_lookahead_with_int' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='138' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_expect_forced_token' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='143' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-607'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_soft_keyword_token' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='145' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-607'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_get_last_nonnwhitespace_token' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='147' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-675'/>
+ </function-decl>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-607'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_number_token' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='150' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-607'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_string_token' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='151' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-30'/>
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+ <function-decl name='_Pypegen_stack_overflow' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='172' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_get_invalid_target' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='223' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-607'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-607'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-6'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter is-variadic='yes'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-697'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-30'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-697'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-30'/>
+ </function-decl>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_seq_flatten' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='301' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-697'/>
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+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_join_names_with_dot' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='302' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-607'/>
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+ <return type-id='type-id-607'/>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_seq_count_dots' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='303' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-697'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_alias_for_star' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='304' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_map_names_to_ids' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='305' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-608'/>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='306' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-686'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-607'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-709'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_get_cmpops' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='307' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-697'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-670'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_get_exprs' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='308' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-697'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-608'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_set_expr_context' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='309' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-607'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-672'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-607'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_key_value_pair' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='310' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-607'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-607'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-711'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_get_keys' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='311' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-697'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-608'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_get_values' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='312' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-697'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-608'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_key_pattern_pair' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='313' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-607'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-555'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-710'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_get_pattern_keys' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='314' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-697'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-608'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_get_patterns' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='315' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-697'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-658'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_name_default_pair' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='316' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
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+ <return type-id='type-id-713'/>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_slash_with_default' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='317' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-671'/>
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+ <return type-id='type-id-715'/>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_star_etc' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='318' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-673'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-716'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_make_arguments' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='319' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
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+ <return type-id='type-id-631'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_empty_arguments' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='321' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-631'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_formatted_value' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='322' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
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+ <return type-id='type-id-607'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_augoperator' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='324' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-635'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-708'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_function_def_decorators' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='325' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-608'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-557'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-557'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_class_def_decorators' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='326' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-608'/>
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+ <return type-id='type-id-557'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_keyword_or_starred' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='327' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-30'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-712'/>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_seq_extract_starred_exprs' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='328' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-697'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-608'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_seq_delete_starred_exprs' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='329' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-697'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-634'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_collect_call_seqs' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='330' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
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+ <return type-id='type-id-607'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_constant_from_token' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='333' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-675'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-607'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_decoded_constant_from_token' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='334' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-675'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-607'/>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_constant_from_string' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='335' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-675'/>
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+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyPegen_concatenate_strings' filepath='Parser/pegen.h' line='336' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-674'/>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyThreadState_PopFrame' mangled-name='_PyThreadState_PopFrame' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_frame.h' line='313' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyThreadState_PopFrame'>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-365'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyImport_IsDefaultImportFunc' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_import.h' line='144' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
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+ </function-decl>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1151'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_Py_call_instrumentation_line' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_instruments.h' line='42' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-365'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1151'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_Py_call_instrumentation_instruction' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_instruments.h' line='46' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-365'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1151'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_Py_call_instrumentation_jump' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_instruments.h' line='50' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1151'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-1151'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_Py_call_instrumentation_arg' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_instruments.h' line='55' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1151'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_Py_call_instrumentation_2args' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_instruments.h' line='59' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_Py_call_instrumentation_exc2' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_instruments.h' line='63' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyModuleSpec_IsInitializing' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_moduleobject.h' line='13' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyModuleSpec_GetFileOrigin' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_moduleobject.h' line='14' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-235'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyModule_IsPossiblyShadowing' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_moduleobject.h' line='15' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyType_NewManagedObject' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_object.h' line='770' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyErr_GetTopmostException' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_pyerrors.h' line='14' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-236'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyErr_SetImportErrorWithNameFrom' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_pyerrors.h' line='58' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyErr_SetObject' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_pyerrors.h' line='110' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyExc_CreateExceptionGroup' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_pyerrors.h' line='158' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_Py_CalculateSuggestions' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_pyerrors.h' line='169' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyEval_StopTheWorld' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_pystate.h' line='181' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyEval_StartTheWorld' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_pystate.h' line='182' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyBuildSlice_ConsumeRefs' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_sliceobject.h' line='15' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PySys_Audit' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_sysmodule.h' line='20' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter is-variadic='yes'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyTraceBack_FromFrame' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_traceback.h' line='89' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-348'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyErr_SetHandledException' mangled-name='PyErr_SetHandledException' filepath='./Include/pyerrors.h' line='23' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyErr_SetHandledException'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyTraceBack_Here' mangled-name='PyTraceBack_Here' filepath='./Include/traceback.h' line='9' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyTraceBack_Here'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-348'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='Py_GetRecursionLimit' mangled-name='Py_GetRecursionLimit' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='261' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='Py_GetRecursionLimit'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='Py_SetRecursionLimit' mangled-name='Py_SetRecursionLimit' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='268' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='Py_SetRecursionLimit'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='new_limit' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='268' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyEval_MatchKeys' mangled-name='_PyEval_MatchKeys' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='358' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyEval_MatchKeys'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='358' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='map' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='358' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='keys' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='358' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyEval_MatchClass' mangled-name='_PyEval_MatchClass' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='462' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyEval_MatchClass'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='462' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='subject' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='462' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='type' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='462' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-7' name='nargs' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='463' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='kwargs' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='463' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyEval_EvalFrame' mangled-name='PyEval_EvalFrame' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='613' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyEval_EvalFrame'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-348' name='f' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='613' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyEval_EvalFrameEx' mangled-name='PyEval_EvalFrameEx' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='621' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyEval_EvalFrameEx'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-348' name='f' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='621' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='throwflag' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='621' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyEval_FrameClearAndPop' mangled-name='_PyEval_FrameClearAndPop' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='1706' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyEval_FrameClearAndPop'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='1706' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-365' name='frame' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='1706' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyEvalFramePushAndInit' mangled-name='_PyEvalFramePushAndInit' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='1718' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyEvalFramePushAndInit'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='1718' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-305' name='func' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='1718' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='locals' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='1719' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-255' name='args' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='1719' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21' name='argcount' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='1720' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='kwnames' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='1720' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-365'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyEval_ExceptionGroupMatch' mangled-name='_PyEval_ExceptionGroupMatch' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2004' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyEval_ExceptionGroupMatch'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='exc_value' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2004' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='match_type' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2004' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-235' name='match' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2005' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-235' name='rest' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2005' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyEval_UnpackIterable' mangled-name='_PyEval_UnpackIterable' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2095' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyEval_UnpackIterable'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2095' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='v' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2095' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='argcnt' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2096' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='argcntafter' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2096' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-235' name='sp' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2096' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyEval_MonitorRaise' mangled-name='_PyEval_MonitorRaise' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2228' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyEval_MonitorRaise'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2228' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-365' name='frame' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2228' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1151' name='instr' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2229' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThreadState_EnterTracing' mangled-name='PyThreadState_EnterTracing' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2303' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThreadState_EnterTracing'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2303' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThreadState_LeaveTracing' mangled-name='PyThreadState_LeaveTracing' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2310' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThreadState_LeaveTracing'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2310' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyEval_SetProfile' mangled-name='PyEval_SetProfile' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2334' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyEval_SetProfile'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1013' name='func' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2334' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='arg' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2334' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads' mangled-name='PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2344' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1013' name='func' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2344' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='arg' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2344' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyEval_SetTrace' mangled-name='PyEval_SetTrace' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2354' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyEval_SetTrace'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1013' name='func' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2354' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='arg' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2354' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads' mangled-name='PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2364' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1013' name='func' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2364' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='arg' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2364' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyEval_GetFrame' mangled-name='PyEval_GetFrame' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2441' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyEval_GetFrame'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-348'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyEval_GetLocals' mangled-name='PyEval_GetLocals' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2489' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyEval_GetLocals'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyEval_GetFrameLocals' mangled-name='PyEval_GetFrameLocals' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2579' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyEval_GetFrameLocals'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyEval_GetFrameGlobals' mangled-name='PyEval_GetFrameGlobals' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2584' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyEval_GetFrameGlobals'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins' mangled-name='PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2594' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyEval_GetFuncName' mangled-name='PyEval_GetFuncName' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2620' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyEval_GetFuncName'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='func' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2620' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyEval_GetFuncDesc' mangled-name='PyEval_GetFuncDesc' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2633' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyEval_GetFuncDesc'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='func' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2633' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyEval_CheckExceptTypeValid' mangled-name='_PyEval_CheckExceptTypeValid' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2907' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyEval_CheckExceptTypeValid'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2907' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='right' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2907' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyEval_CheckExceptStarTypeValid' mangled-name='_PyEval_CheckExceptStarTypeValid' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2932' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyEval_CheckExceptStarTypeValid'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2932' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='right' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2932' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyEval_FormatKwargsError' mangled-name='_PyEval_FormatKwargsError' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2989' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyEval_FormatKwargsError'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2989' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='func' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2989' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='kwargs' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='2989' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyEval_FormatExcCheckArg' mangled-name='_PyEval_FormatExcCheckArg' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='3031' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyEval_FormatExcCheckArg'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/ceval.c' line='3031' column='1'/>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyInterpreterState_SetRunningMain' mangled-name='_PyInterpreterState_SetRunningMain' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_pystate.h' line='84' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyInterpreterState_SetRunningMain'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyInterpreterState_SetNotRunningMain' mangled-name='_PyInterpreterState_SetNotRunningMain' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_pystate.h' line='85' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyInterpreterState_SetNotRunningMain'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyThreadState_NewBound' mangled-name='_PyThreadState_NewBound' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_pystate.h' line='225' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyThreadState_NewBound'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='Py_EndInterpreter' mangled-name='Py_EndInterpreter' filepath='./Include/pylifecycle.h' line='22' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='Py_EndInterpreter'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyInterpreterState_Delete' mangled-name='PyInterpreterState_Delete' filepath='./Include/pystate.h' line='16' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyInterpreterState_Delete'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyInterpreterState_GetID' mangled-name='PyInterpreterState_GetID' filepath='./Include/pystate.h' line='36' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyInterpreterState_GetID'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-458'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThreadState_Clear' mangled-name='PyThreadState_Clear' filepath='./Include/pystate.h' line='49' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThreadState_Clear'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThreadState_Delete' mangled-name='PyThreadState_Delete' filepath='./Include/pystate.h' line='50' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThreadState_Delete'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThreadState_Swap' mangled-name='PyThreadState_Swap' filepath='./Include/pystate.h' line='65' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThreadState_Swap'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThreadState_GetInterpreter' mangled-name='PyThreadState_GetInterpreter' filepath='./Include/pystate.h' line='71' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThreadState_GetInterpreter'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-28'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyErr_PrintEx' mangled-name='PyErr_PrintEx' filepath='./Include/pythonrun.h' line='13' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyErr_PrintEx'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_New' mangled-name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_New' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='75' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyCrossInterpreterData_New'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-1478'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Free' mangled-name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Free' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='86' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Free'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1478' name='xid' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='86' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Init' mangled-name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Init' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='124' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Init'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1478' name='data' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='124' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28' name='interp' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='125' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-30' name='shared' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='126' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='obj' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='126' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1124' name='new_object' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='127' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_InitWithSize' mangled-name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_InitWithSize' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='148' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyCrossInterpreterData_InitWithSize'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1478' name='data' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='148' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28' name='interp' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='149' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1629' name='size' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='150' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='obj' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='150' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1124' name='new_object' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='151' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Clear' mangled-name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Clear' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='167' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Clear'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28' name='interp' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='167' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1478' name='data' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='168' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyObject_CheckCrossInterpreterData' mangled-name='_PyObject_CheckCrossInterpreterData' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='224' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyObject_CheckCrossInterpreterData'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='obj' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='224' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyObject_GetCrossInterpreterData' mangled-name='_PyObject_GetCrossInterpreterData' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='238' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyObject_GetCrossInterpreterData'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='obj' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='238' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1478' name='data' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='238' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_NewObject' mangled-name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_NewObject' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='274' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyCrossInterpreterData_NewObject'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1478' name='data' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='274' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Release' mangled-name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Release' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='324' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Release'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1478' name='data' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='324' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_ReleaseAndRawFree' mangled-name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_ReleaseAndRawFree' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='330' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyCrossInterpreterData_ReleaseAndRawFree'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1478' name='data' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='330' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_InitExcInfo' mangled-name='_PyXI_InitExcInfo' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='931' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_InitExcInfo'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1624' name='info' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='931' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='exc' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='931' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_FormatExcInfo' mangled-name='_PyXI_FormatExcInfo' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='953' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_FormatExcInfo'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1624' name='info' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='953' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_ExcInfoAsObject' mangled-name='_PyXI_ExcInfoAsObject' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='959' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_ExcInfoAsObject'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1624' name='info' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='959' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_ClearExcInfo' mangled-name='_PyXI_ClearExcInfo' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='965' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_ClearExcInfo'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1624' name='info' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='965' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_ApplyError' mangled-name='_PyXI_ApplyError' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1064' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_ApplyError'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1618' name='error' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1064' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_FreeNamespace' mangled-name='_PyXI_FreeNamespace' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1406' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_FreeNamespace'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1625' name='ns' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1406' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_NamespaceFromNames' mangled-name='_PyXI_NamespaceFromNames' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1431' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_NamespaceFromNames'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='names' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1431' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-1625'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_FillNamespaceFromDict' mangled-name='_PyXI_FillNamespaceFromDict' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1459' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_FillNamespaceFromDict'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1625' name='ns' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1459' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='nsobj' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1459' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1626' name='session' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1460' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_ApplyNamespace' mangled-name='_PyXI_ApplyNamespace' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1521' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_ApplyNamespace'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1625' name='ns' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1521' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='nsobj' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1521' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='dflt' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1521' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_ApplyCapturedException' mangled-name='_PyXI_ApplyCapturedException' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1689' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_ApplyCapturedException'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1626' name='session' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1689' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_HasCapturedException' mangled-name='_PyXI_HasCapturedException' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1701' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_HasCapturedException'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1626' name='session' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1701' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_Enter' mangled-name='_PyXI_Enter' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1707' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_Enter'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1626' name='session' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1707' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28' name='interp' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1708' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='nsupdates' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1708' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_Exit' mangled-name='_PyXI_Exit' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1776' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_Exit'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1626' name='session' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1776' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_NewInterpreter' mangled-name='_PyXI_NewInterpreter' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1836' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_NewInterpreter'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1622' name='config' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1836' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-168' name='maybe_whence' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1836' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1623' name='p_tstate' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1837' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1623' name='p_save_tstate' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1837' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-28'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyXI_EndInterpreter' mangled-name='_PyXI_EndInterpreter' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1883' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyXI_EndInterpreter'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28' name='interp' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1883' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1884' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1623' name='p_save_tstate' filepath='Python/crossinterp.c' line='1884' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Lookup' mangled-name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Lookup' filepath='Python/crossinterp_data_lookup.h' line='15' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyCrossInterpreterData_Lookup'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='obj' filepath='Python/crossinterp_data_lookup.h' line='15' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-1127'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_RegisterClass' mangled-name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_RegisterClass' filepath='Python/crossinterp_data_lookup.h' line='241' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyCrossInterpreterData_RegisterClass'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1' name='cls' filepath='Python/crossinterp_data_lookup.h' line='241' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1127' name='getdata' filepath='Python/crossinterp_data_lookup.h' line='242' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_UnregisterClass' mangled-name='_PyCrossInterpreterData_UnregisterClass' filepath='Python/crossinterp_data_lookup.h' line='273' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyCrossInterpreterData_UnregisterClass'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1' name='cls' filepath='Python/crossinterp_data_lookup.h' line='273' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ </abi-instr>
+ <abi-instr address-size='64' path='Python/errors.c' comp-dir-path='/home/runner/work/cpython/cpython' language='LANG_C11'>
+ <function-decl name='_Py_fopen_obj' mangled-name='_Py_fopen_obj' filepath='./Include/cpython/fileutils.h' line='6' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_Py_fopen_obj'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-56'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyException_AddNote' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_pyerrors.h' line='32' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyTraceBack_Print' mangled-name='PyTraceBack_Print' filepath='./Include/traceback.h' line='10' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyTraceBack_Print'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='strerror' filepath='/usr/include/string.h' line='419' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-17'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyErr_SetLocaleString' mangled-name='_PyErr_SetLocaleString' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='303' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyErr_SetLocaleString'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='exception' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='303' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='string' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='303' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyErr_GetHandledException' mangled-name='PyErr_GetHandledException' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='595' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyErr_GetHandledException'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyErr_GetExcInfo' mangled-name='PyErr_GetExcInfo' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='615' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyErr_GetExcInfo'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-235' name='p_type' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='615' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-235' name='p_value' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='615' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-235' name='p_traceback' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='615' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyErr_SetExcInfo' mangled-name='PyErr_SetExcInfo' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='622' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyErr_SetExcInfo'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='type' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='622' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='value' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='622' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='traceback' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='622' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject' mangled-name='PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='792' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='exc' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='792' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='filenameObject' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='792' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects' mangled-name='PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='798' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='exc' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='798' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='filenameObject' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='798' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='filenameObject2' filepath='Python/errors.c' line='798' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='1957' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThreadState_GetID' mangled-name='PyThreadState_GetID' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2006' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThreadState_GetID'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2006' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-106'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc' mangled-name='PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2387' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-2' name='id' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2387' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='exc' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2387' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThreadState_GetUnchecked' mangled-name='PyThreadState_GetUnchecked' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2428' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThreadState_GetUnchecked'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyInterpreterState_Main' mangled-name='PyInterpreterState_Main' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2506' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyInterpreterState_Main'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-28'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead' mangled-name='PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2517' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28' name='interp' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2517' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThreadState_Next' mangled-name='PyThreadState_Next' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2522' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThreadState_Next'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27' name='tstate' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2522' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyThread_CurrentFrames' mangled-name='_PyThread_CurrentFrames' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2537' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyThread_CurrentFrames'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc' mangled-name='_PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2867' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28' name='interp' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2867' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-1023'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc' mangled-name='_PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2877' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28' name='interp' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2877' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1023' name='eval_frame' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2878' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyInterpreterState_GetConfigCopy' mangled-name='_PyInterpreterState_GetConfigCopy' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2904' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyInterpreterState_GetConfigCopy'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-60' name='config' filepath='Python/pystate.c' line='2904' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ </abi-instr>
+ <abi-instr address-size='64' path='Python/pystrcmp.c' comp-dir-path='/home/runner/work/cpython/cpython' language='LANG_C11'>
+ <function-decl name='PyOS_mystricmp' mangled-name='PyOS_mystricmp' filepath='Python/pystrcmp.c' line='22' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyOS_mystricmp'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='s1' filepath='Python/pystrcmp.c' line='22' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='s2' filepath='Python/pystrcmp.c' line='22' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ </abi-instr>
+ <abi-instr address-size='64' path='Python/pystrhex.c' comp-dir-path='/home/runner/work/cpython/cpython' language='LANG_C11'>
+ <function-decl name='_Py_strhex' mangled-name='_Py_strhex' filepath='Python/pystrhex.c' line='145' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_Py_strhex'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='argbuf' filepath='Python/pystrhex.c' line='145' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-253' name='arglen' filepath='Python/pystrhex.c' line='145' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_Py_strhex_bytes_with_sep' mangled-name='_Py_strhex_bytes_with_sep' filepath='Python/pystrhex.c' line='167' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_Py_strhex_bytes_with_sep'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='argbuf' filepath='Python/pystrhex.c' line='167' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-253' name='arglen' filepath='Python/pystrhex.c' line='167' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='sep' filepath='Python/pystrhex.c' line='168' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-267' name='bytes_per_group' filepath='Python/pystrhex.c' line='168' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ </abi-instr>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyImport_GetImportlibExternalLoader' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_import.h' line='151' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-28'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-669'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-572'/>
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+ <function-decl name='_PyParser_ASTFromFile' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_parser.h' line='70' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-669'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-572'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyParser_InteractiveASTFromFile' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_parser.h' line='80' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
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+ <parameter type-id='type-id-669'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-572'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_Py_FdIsInteractive' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_pylifecycle.h' line='93' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyTraceBack_Print' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_traceback.h' line='98' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='rewind' filepath='/usr/include/stdio.h' line='723' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags' mangled-name='PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='179' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56' name='fp' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='179' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='filename' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='179' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-206' name='flags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='179' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_InteractiveOneObject' mangled-name='PyRun_InteractiveOneObject' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='353' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_InteractiveOneObject'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56' name='fp' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='353' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='filename' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='353' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-206' name='flags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='353' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags' mangled-name='PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='366' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56' name='fp' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='366' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='filename_str' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='366' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-206' name='flags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='366' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags' mangled-name='PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='544' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56' name='fp' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='544' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='filename' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='544' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='closeit' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='544' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-206' name='flags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='545' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_SimpleStringFlags' mangled-name='PyRun_SimpleStringFlags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='588' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_SimpleStringFlags'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='command' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='588' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-206' name='flags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='588' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyErr_Display' mangled-name='PyErr_Display' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1199' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyErr_Display'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='unused' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1199' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='value' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1199' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='tb' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1199' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_FileExFlags' mangled-name='PyRun_FileExFlags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1307' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_FileExFlags'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56' name='fp' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1307' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='filename' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1307' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='start' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1307' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='globals' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1307' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='locals' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1308' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='closeit' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1308' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-206' name='flags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1308' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='Py_CompileStringExFlags' mangled-name='Py_CompileStringExFlags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1569' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='Py_CompileStringExFlags'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='str' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1569' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='filename_str' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1569' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='start' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1569' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-206' name='flags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1570' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='optimize' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1570' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_AnyFile' mangled-name='PyRun_AnyFile' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1671' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_AnyFile'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56' name='fp' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1671' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='name' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1671' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_AnyFileEx' mangled-name='PyRun_AnyFileEx' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1678' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_AnyFileEx'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56' name='fp' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1678' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='name' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1678' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='closeit' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1678' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_AnyFileFlags' mangled-name='PyRun_AnyFileFlags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1685' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_AnyFileFlags'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56' name='fp' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1685' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='name' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1685' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-206' name='flags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1685' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_File' mangled-name='PyRun_File' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1692' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_File'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56' name='fp' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1692' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='p' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1692' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='s' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1692' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='g' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1692' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='l' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1692' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_FileEx' mangled-name='PyRun_FileEx' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1699' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_FileEx'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56' name='fp' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1699' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='p' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1699' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='s' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1699' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='g' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1699' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='l' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1699' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='c' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1699' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_FileFlags' mangled-name='PyRun_FileFlags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1706' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_FileFlags'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56' name='fp' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1706' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='p' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1706' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='s' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1706' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='g' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1706' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='l' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1706' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-206' name='flags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1707' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_SimpleFile' mangled-name='PyRun_SimpleFile' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1714' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_SimpleFile'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56' name='f' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1714' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='p' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1714' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_SimpleFileEx' mangled-name='PyRun_SimpleFileEx' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1721' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_SimpleFileEx'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-56' name='f' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1721' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='p' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1721' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='c' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1721' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_String' mangled-name='PyRun_String' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1729' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_String'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='str' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1729' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='s' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1729' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='g' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1729' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='l' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1729' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyRun_SimpleString' mangled-name='PyRun_SimpleString' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1736' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyRun_SimpleString'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='s' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1736' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='Py_CompileString' mangled-name='Py_CompileString' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1743' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='Py_CompileString'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='str' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1743' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='p' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1743' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='s' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1743' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='Py_CompileStringFlags' mangled-name='Py_CompileStringFlags' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1750' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='Py_CompileStringFlags'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='str' filepath='Python/pythonrun.c' line='1750' column='1'/>
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+ <subrange length='56' type-id='type-id-2' id='type-id-1774'/>
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+ <data-member access='public'>
+ <var-decl name='__align' type-id='type-id-181' visibility='default' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/bits/pthreadtypes.h' line='59' column='1'/>
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+ <typedef-decl name='pthread_attr_t' type-id='type-id-1777' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/bits/pthreadtypes.h' line='62' column='1' id='type-id-1778'/>
+ <pointer-type-def type-id='type-id-1776' size-in-bits='64' id='type-id-1779'/>
+ <pointer-type-def type-id='type-id-1664' size-in-bits='64' id='type-id-1780'/>
+ <qualified-type-def type-id='type-id-376' const='yes' id='type-id-1781'/>
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+ <pointer-type-def type-id='type-id-376' size-in-bits='64' id='type-id-1788'/>
+ <pointer-type-def type-id='type-id-1778' size-in-bits='64' id='type-id-1789'/>
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+ <pointer-type-def type-id='type-id-1792' size-in-bits='64' id='type-id-1793'/>
+ <var-decl name='PY_TIMEOUT_MAX' type-id='type-id-1781' mangled-name='PY_TIMEOUT_MAX' visibility='default' filepath='./Include/cpython/pythread.h' line='11' column='1' elf-symbol-id='PY_TIMEOUT_MAX'/>
+ <function-decl name='_PyTime_FromMicrosecondsClamp' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_time.h' line='147' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-210'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-210'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pthread_create' filepath='/usr/include/pthread.h' line='202' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1791'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1784'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1793'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-229'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pthread_exit' filepath='/usr/include/pthread.h' line='211' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-30'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pthread_join' filepath='/usr/include/pthread.h' line='219' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-205'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-259'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pthread_detach' filepath='/usr/include/pthread.h' line='269' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-205'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pthread_self' filepath='/usr/include/pthread.h' line='273' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-205'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pthread_attr_init' filepath='/usr/include/pthread.h' line='285' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1789'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pthread_attr_destroy' filepath='/usr/include/pthread.h' line='288' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1789'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pthread_attr_setscope' filepath='/usr/include/pthread.h' line='349' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1789'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pthread_attr_setstacksize' filepath='/usr/include/pthread.h' line='373' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1789'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pthread_cond_init' filepath='/usr/include/pthread.h' line='1112' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1557'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1787'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pthread_condattr_init' filepath='/usr/include/pthread.h' line='1194' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1305'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pthread_condattr_setclock' filepath='/usr/include/pthread.h' line='1219' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1305'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-185'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pthread_key_delete' filepath='/usr/include/pthread.h' line='1302' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-505'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pthread_getspecific' filepath='/usr/include/pthread.h' line='1305' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-505'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-30'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='sem_trywait' filepath='/usr/include/semaphore.h' line='100' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1730'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='perror' filepath='/usr/include/stdio.h' line='804' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='pause' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='489' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='confstr' filepath='/usr/include/unistd.h' line='644' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-17'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-21'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='__sysconf' filepath='/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/bits/pthread_stack_min-dynamic.h' line='24' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-181'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_get_stacksize' mangled-name='PyThread_get_stacksize' filepath='Python/thread.c' line='75' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_get_stacksize'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-21'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_set_stacksize' mangled-name='PyThread_set_stacksize' filepath='Python/thread.c' line='86' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_set_stacksize'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21' name='size' filepath='Python/thread.c' line='86' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_ParseTimeoutArg' mangled-name='PyThread_ParseTimeoutArg' filepath='Python/thread.c' line='97' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_ParseTimeoutArg'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4' name='arg' filepath='Python/thread.c' line='97' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='blocking' filepath='Python/thread.c' line='97' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1788' name='timeout_p' filepath='Python/thread.c' line='97' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_acquire_lock_timed_with_retries' mangled-name='PyThread_acquire_lock_timed_with_retries' filepath='Python/thread.c' line='131' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_acquire_lock_timed_with_retries'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1145' name='lock' filepath='Python/thread.c' line='131' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-376' name='timeout' filepath='Python/thread.c' line='132' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-478'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_tss_alloc' mangled-name='PyThread_tss_alloc' filepath='Python/thread.c' line='185' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_tss_alloc'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-1764'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_tss_free' mangled-name='PyThread_tss_free' filepath='Python/thread.c' line='196' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_tss_free'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1764' name='key' filepath='Python/thread.c' line='196' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_start_joinable_thread' mangled-name='PyThread_start_joinable_thread' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='328' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_start_joinable_thread'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-508' name='func' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='328' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-30' name='arg' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='328' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1780' name='ident' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='329' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1779' name='handle' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='329' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_start_new_thread' mangled-name='PyThread_start_new_thread' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='341' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_start_new_thread'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-508' name='func' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='341' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-30' name='arg' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='341' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-2'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_join_thread' mangled-name='PyThread_join_thread' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='352' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_join_thread'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1776' name='th' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='352' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_detach_thread' mangled-name='PyThread_detach_thread' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='357' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_detach_thread'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1776' name='th' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='357' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_exit_thread' mangled-name='PyThread_exit_thread' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='418' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_exit_thread'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_acquire_lock_timed' mangled-name='PyThread_acquire_lock_timed' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='505' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_acquire_lock_timed'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-1145' name='lock' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='505' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-376' name='microseconds' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='505' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='intr_flag' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='506' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-478'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_create_key' mangled-name='PyThread_create_key' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='890' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_create_key'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_delete_key' mangled-name='PyThread_delete_key' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='910' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_delete_key'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='key' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='910' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_delete_key_value' mangled-name='PyThread_delete_key_value' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='918' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_delete_key_value'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='key' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='918' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_set_key_value' mangled-name='PyThread_set_key_value' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='926' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_set_key_value'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='key' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='926' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-30' name='value' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='926' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_get_key_value' mangled-name='PyThread_get_key_value' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='937' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_get_key_value'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='key' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='937' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-30'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyThread_ReInitTLS' mangled-name='PyThread_ReInitTLS' filepath='Python/thread_pthread.h' line='948' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyThread_ReInitTLS'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-type size-in-bits='64' id='type-id-1792'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-30'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-30'/>
+ </function-type>
+ </abi-instr>
+ <abi-instr address-size='64' path='Python/traceback.c' comp-dir-path='/home/runner/work/cpython/cpython' language='LANG_C11'>
+ <function-decl name='_PyObject_CallMethodFormat' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_call.h' line='54' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-27'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6'/>
+ <parameter is-variadic='yes'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyCode_SafeAddr2Line' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_code.h' line='315' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-322'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyGILState_GetInterpreterStateUnsafe' filepath='./Include/internal/pycore_pystate.h' line='280' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64'>
+ <return type-id='type-id-28'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <var-decl name='PyTraceBack_Type' type-id='type-id-263' mangled-name='PyTraceBack_Type' visibility='default' filepath='./Include/traceback.h' line='13' column='1' elf-symbol-id='PyTraceBack_Type'/>
+ <function-decl name='_PyTraceback_Add' mangled-name='_PyTraceback_Add' filepath='Python/traceback.c' line='280' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyTraceback_Add'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='funcname' filepath='Python/traceback.c' line='280' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-6' name='filename' filepath='Python/traceback.c' line='280' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-5' name='lineno' filepath='Python/traceback.c' line='280' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-3'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ </abi-instr>
+ <abi-instr address-size='64' path='Python/tracemalloc.c' comp-dir-path='/home/runner/work/cpython/cpython' language='LANG_C11'>
+ <function-decl name='PyTraceMalloc_Track' mangled-name='PyTraceMalloc_Track' filepath='Python/tracemalloc.c' line='1320' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyTraceMalloc_Track'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-99' name='domain' filepath='Python/tracemalloc.c' line='1320' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-426' name='ptr' filepath='Python/tracemalloc.c' line='1320' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-21' name='size' filepath='Python/tracemalloc.c' line='1321' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='PyTraceMalloc_Untrack' mangled-name='PyTraceMalloc_Untrack' filepath='Python/tracemalloc.c' line='1351' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='PyTraceMalloc_Untrack'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-99' name='domain' filepath='Python/tracemalloc.c' line='1351' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-426' name='ptr' filepath='Python/tracemalloc.c' line='1351' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-5'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ <function-decl name='_PyTraceMalloc_GetTraceback' mangled-name='_PyTraceMalloc_GetTraceback' filepath='Python/tracemalloc.c' line='1441' column='1' visibility='default' binding='global' size-in-bits='64' elf-symbol-id='_PyTraceMalloc_GetTraceback'>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-99' name='domain' filepath='Python/tracemalloc.c' line='1441' column='1'/>
+ <parameter type-id='type-id-426' name='ptr' filepath='Python/tracemalloc.c' line='1441' column='1'/>
+ <return type-id='type-id-4'/>
+ </function-decl>
+ </abi-instr>
+</abi-corpus>
diff --git a/Doc/data/refcounts.dat b/Doc/data/refcounts.dat
index 62a96146d605ff7..9e0ce81627f2558 100644
--- a/Doc/data/refcounts.dat
+++ b/Doc/data/refcounts.dat
@@ -180,7 +180,7 @@ PyCapsule_IsValid:const char*:name::
PyCapsule_New:PyObject*::+1:
PyCapsule_New:void*:pointer::
PyCapsule_New:const char *:name::
-PyCapsule_New::void (* destructor)(PyObject* )::
+PyCapsule_New:void (*)(PyObject *):destructor::
PyCapsule_SetContext:int:::
PyCapsule_SetContext:PyObject*:self:0:
@@ -349,11 +349,11 @@ PyComplex_CheckExact:int:::
PyComplex_CheckExact:PyObject*:p:0:
PyComplex_FromCComplex:PyObject*::+1:
-PyComplex_FromCComplex::Py_complex v::
+PyComplex_FromCComplex:Py_complex:v::
PyComplex_FromDoubles:PyObject*::+1:
-PyComplex_FromDoubles::double real::
-PyComplex_FromDoubles::double imag::
+PyComplex_FromDoubles:double:real::
+PyComplex_FromDoubles:double:imag::
PyComplex_ImagAsDouble:double:::
PyComplex_ImagAsDouble:PyObject*:op:0:
@@ -622,7 +622,9 @@ PyErr_GetExcInfo:PyObject**:pvalue:+1:
PyErr_GetExcInfo:PyObject**:ptraceback:+1:
PyErr_GetRaisedException:PyObject*::+1:
-PyErr_SetRaisedException::::
+
+PyErr_SetRaisedException:void:::
+PyErr_SetRaisedException:PyObject *:exc:0:stolen
PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches:int:::
PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches:PyObject*:given:0:
@@ -642,9 +644,9 @@ PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc:PyObject*:dict:0:
PyErr_NoMemory:PyObject*::null:
PyErr_NormalizeException:void:::
-PyErr_NormalizeException:PyObject**:exc::???
-PyErr_NormalizeException:PyObject**:val::???
-PyErr_NormalizeException:PyObject**:tb::???
+PyErr_NormalizeException:PyObject**:exc:+1:???
+PyErr_NormalizeException:PyObject**:val:+1:???
+PyErr_NormalizeException:PyObject**:tb:+1:???
PyErr_Occurred:PyObject*::0:
@@ -790,6 +792,12 @@ PyEval_GetGlobals:PyObject*::0:
PyEval_GetFrame:PyObject*::0:
+PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins:PyObject*::+1:
+
+PyEval_GetFrameLocals:PyObject*::+1:
+
+PyEval_GetFrameGlobals:PyObject*::+1:
+
PyEval_GetFuncDesc:const char*:::
PyEval_GetFuncDesc:PyObject*:func:0:
@@ -916,6 +924,32 @@ PyFloat_FromString:PyObject*:str:0:
PyFloat_GetInfo:PyObject*::+1:
PyFloat_GetInfo::void::
+PyFrame_GetBack:PyObject*::+1:
+PyFrame_GetBack:PyFrameObject*:frame:0:
+
+PyFrame_GetBuiltins:PyObject*::+1:
+PyFrame_GetBuiltins:PyFrameObject*:frame:0:
+
+PyFrame_GetCode:PyObject*::+1:
+PyFrame_GetCode:PyFrameObject*:frame:0:
+
+PyFrame_GetGenerator:PyObject*::+1:
+PyFrame_GetGenerator:PyFrameObject*:frame:0:
+
+PyFrame_GetGlobals:PyObject*::+1:
+PyFrame_GetGlobals:PyFrameObject*:frame:0:
+
+PyFrame_GetLocals:PyObject*::+1:
+PyFrame_GetLocals:PyFrameObject*:frame:0:
+
+PyFrame_GetVar:PyObject*::+1:
+PyFrame_GetVar:PyFrameObject*:frame:0:
+PyFrame_GetVar:PyObject*:name:0:
+
+PyFrame_GetVarString:PyObject*::+1:
+PyFrame_GetVarString:PyFrameObject*:frame:0:
+PyFrame_GetVarString:const char*:name::
+
PyFrozenSet_Check:int:::
PyFrozenSet_Check:PyObject*:p:0:
@@ -931,21 +965,45 @@ PyFunction_Check:PyObject*:o:0:
PyFunction_GetAnnotations:PyObject*::0:
PyFunction_GetAnnotations:PyObject*:op:0:
+PyFunction_GET_ANNOTATIONS:PyObject*::0:
+PyFunction_GET_ANNOTATIONS:PyObject*:op:0:
+
PyFunction_GetClosure:PyObject*::0:
PyFunction_GetClosure:PyObject*:op:0:
+PyFunction_GET_CLOSURE:PyObject*::0:
+PyFunction_GET_CLOSURE:PyObject*:op:0:
+
PyFunction_GetCode:PyObject*::0:
PyFunction_GetCode:PyObject*:op:0:
+PyFunction_GET_CODE:PyObject*::0:
+PyFunction_GET_CODE:PyObject*:op:0:
+
PyFunction_GetDefaults:PyObject*::0:
PyFunction_GetDefaults:PyObject*:op:0:
+PyFunction_GET_DEFAULTS:PyObject*::0:
+PyFunction_GET_DEFAULTS:PyObject*:op:0:
+
+PyFunction_GetKwDefaults:PyObject*::0:
+PyFunction_GetKwDefaults:PyObject*:op:0:
+
+PyFunction_GET_KW_DEFAULTS:PyObject*::0:
+PyFunction_GET_KW_DEFAULTS:PyObject*:op:0:
+
PyFunction_GetGlobals:PyObject*::0:
PyFunction_GetGlobals:PyObject*:op:0:
+PyFunction_GET_GLOBALS:PyObject*::0:
+PyFunction_GET_GLOBALS:PyObject*:op:0:
+
PyFunction_GetModule:PyObject*::0:
PyFunction_GetModule:PyObject*:op:0:
+PyFunction_GET_MODULE:PyObject*::0:
+PyFunction_GET_MODULE:PyObject*:op:0:
+
PyFunction_New:PyObject*::+1:
PyFunction_New:PyObject*:code:+1:
PyFunction_New:PyObject*:globals:+1:
@@ -1090,6 +1148,9 @@ PyInterpreterState_Clear:PyInterpreterState*:interp::
PyInterpreterState_Delete:void:::
PyInterpreterState_Delete:PyInterpreterState*:interp::
+PyInterpreterState_GetDict:PyObject*::0:
+PyInterpreterState_GetDict:PyInterpreterState*:interp::
+
PyInterpreterState_GetID:int64_t:::
PyInterpreterState_GetID:PyInterpreterState*:interp::
@@ -1269,7 +1330,7 @@ PyMapping_GetItemString:const char*:key::
PyMapping_HasKey:int:::
PyMapping_HasKey:PyObject*:o:0:
-PyMapping_HasKey:PyObject*:key::
+PyMapping_HasKey:PyObject*:key:0:
PyMapping_HasKeyString:int:::
PyMapping_HasKeyString:PyObject*:o:0:
@@ -1429,7 +1490,7 @@ PyModule_GetState:void*:::
PyModule_GetState:PyObject*:module:0:
PyModule_New:PyObject*::+1:
-PyModule_New::char* name::
+PyModule_New:char*:name::
PyModule_NewObject:PyObject*::+1:
PyModule_NewObject:PyObject*:name:+1:
@@ -1439,7 +1500,7 @@ PyModule_SetDocString:PyObject*:module:0:
PyModule_SetDocString:const char*:docstring::
PyModuleDef_Init:PyObject*::0:
-PyModuleDef_Init:PyModuleDef*:def:0:
+PyModuleDef_Init:PyModuleDef*:def::
PyNumber_Absolute:PyObject*::+1:
PyNumber_Absolute:PyObject*:o:0:
@@ -1802,6 +1863,9 @@ PyObject_RichCompareBool:PyObject*:o1:0:
PyObject_RichCompareBool:PyObject*:o2:0:
PyObject_RichCompareBool:int:opid::
+PyObject_SelfIter:PyObject*::+1:
+PyObject_SelfIter:PyObject*:obj:0:
+
PyObject_SetAttr:int:::
PyObject_SetAttr:PyObject*:o:0:
PyObject_SetAttr:PyObject*:attr_name:0:
@@ -1939,10 +2003,10 @@ PyRun_StringFlags:PyObject*:locals:0:
PyRun_StringFlags:PyCompilerFlags*:flags::
PySeqIter_Check:int:::
-PySeqIter_Check::op::
+PySeqIter_Check:PyObject *:op:0:
PySeqIter_New:PyObject*::+1:
-PySeqIter_New:PyObject*:seq::
+PySeqIter_New:PyObject*:seq:0:
PySequence_Check:int:::
PySequence_Check:PyObject*:o:0:
@@ -2334,6 +2398,13 @@ PyType_GetFlags:PyTypeObject*:type:0:
PyType_GetName:PyObject*::+1:
PyType_GetName:PyTypeObject*:type:0:
+PyType_GetModule:PyObject*::0:
+PyType_GetModule:PyTypeObject*:type:0:
+
+PyType_GetModuleByDef:PyObject*::0:
+PyType_GetModuleByDef:PyTypeObject*:type:0:
+PyType_GetModuleByDef:PyModuleDef*:def::
+
PyType_GetQualName:PyObject*::+1:
PyType_GetQualName:PyTypeObject*:type:0:
@@ -2382,7 +2453,7 @@ PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE:PyObject*:o:0:
PyUnicode_KIND:int:::
PyUnicode_KIND:PyObject*:o:0:
-PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE::::
+PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE:Py_UCS4:::
PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE:PyObject*:o:0:
Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM:int:::
@@ -2449,7 +2520,7 @@ PyUnicode_FromWideChar:const wchar_t*:w::
PyUnicode_FromWideChar:Py_ssize_t:size::
PyUnicode_AsWideChar:Py_ssize_t:::
-PyUnicode_AsWideChar:PyObject*:*unicode:0:
+PyUnicode_AsWideChar:PyObject*:unicode:0:
PyUnicode_AsWideChar:wchar_t*:w::
PyUnicode_AsWideChar:Py_ssize_t:size::
@@ -2502,7 +2573,7 @@ PyUnicode_AsUTF8String:PyObject*:unicode:0:
PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize:const char*:::
PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize:PyObject*:unicode:0:
-PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize:Py_ssize_t*:size:0:
+PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize:Py_ssize_t*:size::
PyUnicode_AsUTF8:const char*:::
PyUnicode_AsUTF8:PyObject*:unicode:0:
@@ -2585,6 +2656,13 @@ PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful:Py_ssize_t:size::
PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful:const char*:errors::
PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful:Py_ssize_t*:consumed::
+PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful:PyObject*::+1:
+PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful:int:code_page::
+PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful:const char*:s::
+PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful:Py_ssize_t:size::
+PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful:const char*:errors::
+PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful:Py_ssize_t*:consumed::
+
PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage:PyObject*::+1:
PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage:int:code_page::
PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage:PyObject*:unicode:0:
@@ -2597,13 +2675,26 @@ PyUnicode_Concat:PyObject*::+1:
PyUnicode_Concat:PyObject*:left:0:
PyUnicode_Concat:PyObject*:right:0:
+PyUnicode_Partition:PyObject*::+1:
+PyUnicode_Partition:PyObject*:unicode:0:
+PyUnicode_Partition:PyObject*:sep:0:
+
+PyUnicode_RPartition:PyObject*::+1:
+PyUnicode_RPartition:PyObject*:unicode:0:
+PyUnicode_RPartition:PyObject*:sep:0:
+
+PyUnicode_RSplit:PyObject*::+1:
+PyUnicode_RSplit:PyObject*:unicode:0:
+PyUnicode_RSplit:PyObject*:sep:0:
+PyUnicode_RSplit:Py_ssize_t:maxsplit::
+
PyUnicode_Split:PyObject*::+1:
-PyUnicode_Split:PyObject*:left:0:
-PyUnicode_Split:PyObject*:right:0:
+PyUnicode_Split:PyObject*:unicode:0:
+PyUnicode_Split:PyObject*:sep:0:
PyUnicode_Split:Py_ssize_t:maxsplit::
PyUnicode_Splitlines:PyObject*::+1:
-PyUnicode_Splitlines:PyObject*:s:0:
+PyUnicode_Splitlines:PyObject*:unicode:0:
PyUnicode_Splitlines:int:keepend::
PyUnicode_Translate:PyObject*::+1:
@@ -2699,6 +2790,15 @@ PyUnicode_FromFormatV:PyObject*::+1:
PyUnicode_FromFormatV:const char*:format::
PyUnicode_FromFormatV:va_list:args::
+PyUnicode_FromOrdinal:PyObject*::+1:
+PyUnicode_FromOrdinal:int:ordinal::
+
+PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap:PyObject*::+1:
+PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap:PyObject*:string:::
+
+PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding:const char*:::
+PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding::void::
+
PyUnicode_GetLength:Py_ssize_t:::
PyUnicode_GetLength:PyObject*:unicode:0:
@@ -2825,13 +2925,13 @@ PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart:PyObject*:exc:0:
PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart:Py_ssize_t:start::
PyWeakref_Check:int:::
-PyWeakref_Check:PyObject*:ob::
+PyWeakref_Check:PyObject*:ob:0:
PyWeakref_CheckProxy:int:::
-PyWeakref_CheckProxy:PyObject*:ob::
+PyWeakref_CheckProxy:PyObject*:ob:0:
PyWeakref_CheckRef:int:::
-PyWeakref_CheckRef:PyObject*:ob::
+PyWeakref_CheckRef:PyObject*:ob:0:
PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT:PyObject*::0:
PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT:PyObject*:ref:0:
diff --git a/Doc/data/stable_abi.dat b/Doc/data/stable_abi.dat
index 76a035f194d9115..923742077ea7a2c 100644
--- a/Doc/data/stable_abi.dat
+++ b/Doc/data/stable_abi.dat
@@ -1,891 +1,1031 @@
role,name,added,ifdef_note,struct_abi_kind
+macro,METH_CLASS,3.2,,
+macro,METH_COEXIST,3.2,,
+macro,METH_FASTCALL,3.10,,
+macro,METH_METHOD,3.7,,
+macro,METH_NOARGS,3.2,,
+macro,METH_O,3.2,,
+macro,METH_STATIC,3.2,,
+macro,METH_VARARGS,3.2,,
macro,PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET,3.12,,
-function,PyAIter_Check,3.10,,
-function,PyArg_Parse,3.2,,
-function,PyArg_ParseTuple,3.2,,
-function,PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords,3.2,,
-function,PyArg_UnpackTuple,3.2,,
-function,PyArg_VaParse,3.2,,
-function,PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords,3.2,,
-function,PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments,3.2,,
-var,PyBaseObject_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyBool_FromLong,3.2,,
-var,PyBool_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides,3.11,,
-function,PyBuffer_FillInfo,3.11,,
-function,PyBuffer_FromContiguous,3.11,,
-function,PyBuffer_GetPointer,3.11,,
-function,PyBuffer_IsContiguous,3.11,,
-function,PyBuffer_Release,3.11,,
-function,PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat,3.11,,
-function,PyBuffer_ToContiguous,3.11,,
-var,PyByteArrayIter_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyByteArray_AsString,3.2,,
-function,PyByteArray_Concat,3.2,,
-function,PyByteArray_FromObject,3.2,,
-function,PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize,3.2,,
-function,PyByteArray_Resize,3.2,,
-function,PyByteArray_Size,3.2,,
-var,PyByteArray_Type,3.2,,
-var,PyBytesIter_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyBytes_AsString,3.2,,
-function,PyBytes_AsStringAndSize,3.2,,
-function,PyBytes_Concat,3.2,,
-function,PyBytes_ConcatAndDel,3.2,,
-function,PyBytes_DecodeEscape,3.2,,
-function,PyBytes_FromFormat,3.2,,
-function,PyBytes_FromFormatV,3.2,,
-function,PyBytes_FromObject,3.2,,
-function,PyBytes_FromString,3.2,,
-function,PyBytes_FromStringAndSize,3.2,,
-function,PyBytes_Repr,3.2,,
-function,PyBytes_Size,3.2,,
-var,PyBytes_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyAIter_Check,3.10,,
+func,PyArg_Parse,3.2,,
+func,PyArg_ParseTuple,3.2,,
+func,PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords,3.2,,
+func,PyArg_UnpackTuple,3.2,,
+func,PyArg_VaParse,3.2,,
+func,PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords,3.2,,
+func,PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments,3.2,,
+macro,PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_CONTIG,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_CONTIG_RO,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_FORMAT,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_FULL,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_FULL_RO,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_INDIRECT,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_MAX_NDIM,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_ND,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_READ,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_RECORDS,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_RECORDS_RO,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_SIMPLE,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_STRIDED,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_STRIDED_RO,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_STRIDES,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_WRITABLE,3.11,,
+macro,PyBUF_WRITE,3.11,,
+data,PyBaseObject_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyBool_FromLong,3.2,,
+data,PyBool_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides,3.11,,
+func,PyBuffer_FillInfo,3.11,,
+func,PyBuffer_FromContiguous,3.11,,
+func,PyBuffer_GetPointer,3.11,,
+func,PyBuffer_IsContiguous,3.11,,
+func,PyBuffer_Release,3.11,,
+func,PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat,3.11,,
+func,PyBuffer_ToContiguous,3.11,,
+data,PyByteArrayIter_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyByteArray_AsString,3.2,,
+func,PyByteArray_Concat,3.2,,
+func,PyByteArray_FromObject,3.2,,
+func,PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize,3.2,,
+func,PyByteArray_Resize,3.2,,
+func,PyByteArray_Size,3.2,,
+data,PyByteArray_Type,3.2,,
+data,PyBytesIter_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyBytes_AsString,3.2,,
+func,PyBytes_AsStringAndSize,3.2,,
+func,PyBytes_Concat,3.2,,
+func,PyBytes_ConcatAndDel,3.2,,
+func,PyBytes_DecodeEscape,3.2,,
+func,PyBytes_FromFormat,3.2,,
+func,PyBytes_FromFormatV,3.2,,
+func,PyBytes_FromObject,3.2,,
+func,PyBytes_FromString,3.2,,
+func,PyBytes_FromStringAndSize,3.2,,
+func,PyBytes_Repr,3.2,,
+func,PyBytes_Size,3.2,,
+data,PyBytes_Type,3.2,,
type,PyCFunction,3.2,,
type,PyCFunctionFast,3.13,,
type,PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords,3.13,,
type,PyCFunctionWithKeywords,3.2,,
-function,PyCFunction_GetFlags,3.2,,
-function,PyCFunction_GetFunction,3.2,,
-function,PyCFunction_GetSelf,3.2,,
-function,PyCFunction_New,3.4,,
-function,PyCFunction_NewEx,3.2,,
-var,PyCFunction_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyCMethod_New,3.9,,
-function,PyCallIter_New,3.2,,
-var,PyCallIter_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyCallable_Check,3.2,,
+func,PyCFunction_GetFlags,3.2,,
+func,PyCFunction_GetFunction,3.2,,
+func,PyCFunction_GetSelf,3.2,,
+func,PyCFunction_New,3.4,,
+func,PyCFunction_NewEx,3.2,,
+data,PyCFunction_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyCMethod_New,3.9,,
+func,PyCallIter_New,3.2,,
+data,PyCallIter_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyCallable_Check,3.2,,
type,PyCapsule_Destructor,3.2,,
-function,PyCapsule_GetContext,3.2,,
-function,PyCapsule_GetDestructor,3.2,,
-function,PyCapsule_GetName,3.2,,
-function,PyCapsule_GetPointer,3.2,,
-function,PyCapsule_Import,3.2,,
-function,PyCapsule_IsValid,3.2,,
-function,PyCapsule_New,3.2,,
-function,PyCapsule_SetContext,3.2,,
-function,PyCapsule_SetDestructor,3.2,,
-function,PyCapsule_SetName,3.2,,
-function,PyCapsule_SetPointer,3.2,,
-var,PyCapsule_Type,3.2,,
-var,PyClassMethodDescr_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_Decode,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_Decoder,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_Encode,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_Encoder,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_IgnoreErrors,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_KnownEncoding,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_LookupError,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors,3.7,,
-function,PyCodec_Register,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_RegisterError,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_ReplaceErrors,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_StreamReader,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_StreamWriter,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_StrictErrors,3.2,,
-function,PyCodec_Unregister,3.10,,
-function,PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors,3.2,,
-function,PyComplex_FromDoubles,3.2,,
-function,PyComplex_ImagAsDouble,3.2,,
-function,PyComplex_RealAsDouble,3.2,,
-var,PyComplex_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyDescr_NewClassMethod,3.2,,
-function,PyDescr_NewGetSet,3.2,,
-function,PyDescr_NewMember,3.2,,
-function,PyDescr_NewMethod,3.2,,
-var,PyDictItems_Type,3.2,,
-var,PyDictIterItem_Type,3.2,,
-var,PyDictIterKey_Type,3.2,,
-var,PyDictIterValue_Type,3.2,,
-var,PyDictKeys_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyDictProxy_New,3.2,,
-var,PyDictProxy_Type,3.2,,
-var,PyDictRevIterItem_Type,3.8,,
-var,PyDictRevIterKey_Type,3.8,,
-var,PyDictRevIterValue_Type,3.8,,
-var,PyDictValues_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_Clear,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_Contains,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_Copy,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_DelItem,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_DelItemString,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_GetItem,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_GetItemRef,3.13,,
-function,PyDict_GetItemString,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_GetItemStringRef,3.13,,
-function,PyDict_GetItemWithError,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_Items,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_Keys,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_Merge,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_MergeFromSeq2,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_New,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_Next,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_SetItem,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_SetItemString,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_Size,3.2,,
-var,PyDict_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_Update,3.2,,
-function,PyDict_Values,3.2,,
-var,PyEllipsis_Type,3.2,,
-var,PyEnum_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_BadArgument,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_BadInternalCall,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_CheckSignals,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_Clear,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_Display,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_DisplayException,3.12,,
-function,PyErr_ExceptionMatches,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_Fetch,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_Format,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_FormatV,3.5,,
-function,PyErr_GetExcInfo,3.7,,
-function,PyErr_GetHandledException,3.11,,
-function,PyErr_GetRaisedException,3.12,,
-function,PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_NewException,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_NoMemory,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_NormalizeException,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_Occurred,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_Print,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_PrintEx,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_ProgramText,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_ResourceWarning,3.6,,
-function,PyErr_Restore,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr,3.7,on Windows,
-function,PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename,3.7,on Windows,
-function,PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject,3.7,on Windows,
-function,PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects,3.7,on Windows,
-function,PyErr_SetExcInfo,3.7,,
-function,PyErr_SetFromErrno,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects,3.7,,
-function,PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr,3.7,on Windows,
-function,PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename,3.7,on Windows,
-function,PyErr_SetHandledException,3.11,,
-function,PyErr_SetImportError,3.7,,
-function,PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass,3.6,,
-function,PyErr_SetInterrupt,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_SetInterruptEx,3.10,,
-function,PyErr_SetNone,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_SetObject,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_SetRaisedException,3.12,,
-function,PyErr_SetString,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_SyntaxLocation,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx,3.7,,
-function,PyErr_WarnEx,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_WarnExplicit,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_WarnFormat,3.2,,
-function,PyErr_WriteUnraisable,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_AcquireThread,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_EvalCode,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_EvalCodeEx,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_EvalFrame,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_EvalFrameEx,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_GetBuiltins,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_GetFrame,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins,3.13,,
-function,PyEval_GetFrameGlobals,3.13,,
-function,PyEval_GetFrameLocals,3.13,,
-function,PyEval_GetFuncDesc,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_GetFuncName,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_GetGlobals,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_GetLocals,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_InitThreads,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_ReleaseThread,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_RestoreThread,3.2,,
-function,PyEval_SaveThread,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_ArithmeticError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_AssertionError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_AttributeError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_BaseException,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup,3.11,,
-var,PyExc_BlockingIOError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_BrokenPipeError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_BufferError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_BytesWarning,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_ChildProcessError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_ConnectionError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_ConnectionResetError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_DeprecationWarning,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_EOFError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_EncodingWarning,3.10,,
-var,PyExc_EnvironmentError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_Exception,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_FileExistsError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_FileNotFoundError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_FloatingPointError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_FutureWarning,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_GeneratorExit,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_IOError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_ImportError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_ImportWarning,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_IncompleteInputError,3.13,,
-var,PyExc_IndentationError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_IndexError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_InterruptedError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_IsADirectoryError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_KeyError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_LookupError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_MemoryError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError,3.6,,
-var,PyExc_NameError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_NotADirectoryError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_NotImplementedError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_OSError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_OverflowError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_PermissionError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_ProcessLookupError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_RecursionError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_ReferenceError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_ResourceWarning,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_RuntimeError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_RuntimeWarning,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_StopAsyncIteration,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_StopIteration,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_SyntaxError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_SyntaxWarning,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_SystemError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_SystemExit,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_TabError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_TimeoutError,3.7,,
-var,PyExc_TypeError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_UnboundLocalError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_UnicodeError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_UnicodeWarning,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_UserWarning,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_ValueError,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_Warning,3.2,,
-var,PyExc_WindowsError,3.7,on Windows,
-var,PyExc_ZeroDivisionError,3.2,,
-function,PyExceptionClass_Name,3.8,,
-function,PyException_GetArgs,3.12,,
-function,PyException_GetCause,3.2,,
-function,PyException_GetContext,3.2,,
-function,PyException_GetTraceback,3.2,,
-function,PyException_SetArgs,3.12,,
-function,PyException_SetCause,3.2,,
-function,PyException_SetContext,3.2,,
-function,PyException_SetTraceback,3.2,,
-function,PyFile_FromFd,3.2,,
-function,PyFile_GetLine,3.2,,
-function,PyFile_WriteObject,3.2,,
-function,PyFile_WriteString,3.2,,
-var,PyFilter_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyFloat_AsDouble,3.2,,
-function,PyFloat_FromDouble,3.2,,
-function,PyFloat_FromString,3.2,,
-function,PyFloat_GetInfo,3.2,,
-function,PyFloat_GetMax,3.2,,
-function,PyFloat_GetMin,3.2,,
-var,PyFloat_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyCapsule_GetContext,3.2,,
+func,PyCapsule_GetDestructor,3.2,,
+func,PyCapsule_GetName,3.2,,
+func,PyCapsule_GetPointer,3.2,,
+func,PyCapsule_Import,3.2,,
+func,PyCapsule_IsValid,3.2,,
+func,PyCapsule_New,3.2,,
+func,PyCapsule_SetContext,3.2,,
+func,PyCapsule_SetDestructor,3.2,,
+func,PyCapsule_SetName,3.2,,
+func,PyCapsule_SetPointer,3.2,,
+data,PyCapsule_Type,3.2,,
+data,PyClassMethodDescr_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_Decode,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_Decoder,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_Encode,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_Encoder,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_IgnoreErrors,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_KnownEncoding,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_LookupError,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors,3.7,,
+func,PyCodec_Register,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_RegisterError,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_ReplaceErrors,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_StreamReader,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_StreamWriter,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_StrictErrors,3.2,,
+func,PyCodec_Unregister,3.10,,
+func,PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors,3.2,,
+func,PyComplex_FromDoubles,3.2,,
+func,PyComplex_ImagAsDouble,3.2,,
+func,PyComplex_RealAsDouble,3.2,,
+data,PyComplex_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyDescr_NewClassMethod,3.2,,
+func,PyDescr_NewGetSet,3.2,,
+func,PyDescr_NewMember,3.2,,
+func,PyDescr_NewMethod,3.2,,
+data,PyDictItems_Type,3.2,,
+data,PyDictIterItem_Type,3.2,,
+data,PyDictIterKey_Type,3.2,,
+data,PyDictIterValue_Type,3.2,,
+data,PyDictKeys_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyDictProxy_New,3.2,,
+data,PyDictProxy_Type,3.2,,
+data,PyDictRevIterItem_Type,3.8,,
+data,PyDictRevIterKey_Type,3.8,,
+data,PyDictRevIterValue_Type,3.8,,
+data,PyDictValues_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_Clear,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_Contains,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_Copy,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_DelItem,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_DelItemString,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_GetItem,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_GetItemRef,3.13,,
+func,PyDict_GetItemString,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_GetItemStringRef,3.13,,
+func,PyDict_GetItemWithError,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_Items,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_Keys,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_Merge,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_MergeFromSeq2,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_New,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_Next,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_SetItem,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_SetItemString,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_Size,3.2,,
+data,PyDict_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_Update,3.2,,
+func,PyDict_Values,3.2,,
+data,PyEllipsis_Type,3.2,,
+data,PyEnum_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_BadArgument,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_BadInternalCall,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_CheckSignals,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_Clear,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_Display,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_DisplayException,3.12,,
+func,PyErr_ExceptionMatches,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_Fetch,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_Format,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_FormatV,3.5,,
+func,PyErr_GetExcInfo,3.7,,
+func,PyErr_GetHandledException,3.11,,
+func,PyErr_GetRaisedException,3.12,,
+func,PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_NewException,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_NoMemory,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_NormalizeException,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_Occurred,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_Print,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_PrintEx,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_ProgramText,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_ResourceWarning,3.6,,
+func,PyErr_Restore,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr,3.7,on Windows,
+func,PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename,3.7,on Windows,
+func,PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject,3.7,on Windows,
+func,PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects,3.7,on Windows,
+func,PyErr_SetExcInfo,3.7,,
+func,PyErr_SetFromErrno,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects,3.7,,
+func,PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr,3.7,on Windows,
+func,PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename,3.7,on Windows,
+func,PyErr_SetHandledException,3.11,,
+func,PyErr_SetImportError,3.7,,
+func,PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass,3.6,,
+func,PyErr_SetInterrupt,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_SetInterruptEx,3.10,,
+func,PyErr_SetNone,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_SetObject,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_SetRaisedException,3.12,,
+func,PyErr_SetString,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_SyntaxLocation,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx,3.7,,
+func,PyErr_WarnEx,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_WarnExplicit,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_WarnFormat,3.2,,
+func,PyErr_WriteUnraisable,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_AcquireThread,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_EvalCode,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_EvalCodeEx,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_EvalFrame,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_EvalFrameEx,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_GetBuiltins,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_GetFrame,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins,3.13,,
+func,PyEval_GetFrameGlobals,3.13,,
+func,PyEval_GetFrameLocals,3.13,,
+func,PyEval_GetFuncDesc,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_GetFuncName,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_GetGlobals,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_GetLocals,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_InitThreads,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_ReleaseThread,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_RestoreThread,3.2,,
+func,PyEval_SaveThread,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_ArithmeticError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_AssertionError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_AttributeError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_BaseException,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup,3.11,,
+data,PyExc_BlockingIOError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_BrokenPipeError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_BufferError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_BytesWarning,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_ChildProcessError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_ConnectionError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_ConnectionResetError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_DeprecationWarning,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_EOFError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_EncodingWarning,3.10,,
+data,PyExc_EnvironmentError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_Exception,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_FileExistsError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_FileNotFoundError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_FloatingPointError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_FutureWarning,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_GeneratorExit,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_IOError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_ImportError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_ImportWarning,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_IndentationError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_IndexError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_InterruptedError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_IsADirectoryError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_KeyError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_LookupError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_MemoryError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError,3.6,,
+data,PyExc_NameError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_NotADirectoryError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_NotImplementedError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_OSError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_OverflowError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_PermissionError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_ProcessLookupError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_RecursionError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_ReferenceError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_ResourceWarning,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_RuntimeError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_RuntimeWarning,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_StopAsyncIteration,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_StopIteration,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_SyntaxError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_SyntaxWarning,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_SystemError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_SystemExit,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_TabError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_TimeoutError,3.7,,
+data,PyExc_TypeError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_UnboundLocalError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_UnicodeError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_UnicodeWarning,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_UserWarning,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_ValueError,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_Warning,3.2,,
+data,PyExc_WindowsError,3.7,on Windows,
+data,PyExc_ZeroDivisionError,3.2,,
+func,PyExceptionClass_Name,3.8,,
+func,PyException_GetArgs,3.12,,
+func,PyException_GetCause,3.2,,
+func,PyException_GetContext,3.2,,
+func,PyException_GetTraceback,3.2,,
+func,PyException_SetArgs,3.12,,
+func,PyException_SetCause,3.2,,
+func,PyException_SetContext,3.2,,
+func,PyException_SetTraceback,3.2,,
+func,PyFile_FromFd,3.2,,
+func,PyFile_GetLine,3.2,,
+func,PyFile_WriteObject,3.2,,
+func,PyFile_WriteString,3.2,,
+data,PyFilter_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyFloat_AsDouble,3.2,,
+func,PyFloat_FromDouble,3.2,,
+func,PyFloat_FromString,3.2,,
+func,PyFloat_GetInfo,3.2,,
+func,PyFloat_GetMax,3.2,,
+func,PyFloat_GetMin,3.2,,
+data,PyFloat_Type,3.2,,
type,PyFrameObject,3.2,,opaque
-function,PyFrame_GetCode,3.10,,
-function,PyFrame_GetLineNumber,3.10,,
-function,PyFrozenSet_New,3.2,,
-var,PyFrozenSet_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyGC_Collect,3.2,,
-function,PyGC_Disable,3.10,,
-function,PyGC_Enable,3.10,,
-function,PyGC_IsEnabled,3.10,,
-function,PyGILState_Ensure,3.2,,
-function,PyGILState_GetThisThreadState,3.2,,
-function,PyGILState_Release,3.2,,
+func,PyFrame_GetCode,3.10,,
+func,PyFrame_GetLineNumber,3.10,,
+func,PyFrozenSet_New,3.2,,
+data,PyFrozenSet_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyGC_Collect,3.2,,
+func,PyGC_Disable,3.10,,
+func,PyGC_Enable,3.10,,
+func,PyGC_IsEnabled,3.10,,
+func,PyGILState_Ensure,3.2,,
+func,PyGILState_GetThisThreadState,3.2,,
+func,PyGILState_Release,3.2,,
type,PyGILState_STATE,3.2,,
type,PyGetSetDef,3.2,,full-abi
-var,PyGetSetDescr_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_AddModule,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_AddModuleObject,3.7,,
-function,PyImport_AddModuleRef,3.13,,
-function,PyImport_AppendInittab,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_ExecCodeModule,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject,3.7,,
-function,PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_GetImporter,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_GetMagicNumber,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_GetMagicTag,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_GetModule,3.8,,
-function,PyImport_GetModuleDict,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_Import,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_ImportFrozenModule,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject,3.7,,
-function,PyImport_ImportModule,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_ImportModuleLevel,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject,3.7,,
-function,PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock,3.2,,
-function,PyImport_ReloadModule,3.2,,
-function,PyIndex_Check,3.8,,
+data,PyGetSetDescr_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_AddModule,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_AddModuleObject,3.7,,
+func,PyImport_AddModuleRef,3.13,,
+func,PyImport_AppendInittab,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_ExecCodeModule,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject,3.7,,
+func,PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_GetImporter,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_GetMagicNumber,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_GetMagicTag,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_GetModule,3.8,,
+func,PyImport_GetModuleDict,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_Import,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_ImportFrozenModule,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject,3.7,,
+func,PyImport_ImportModule,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_ImportModuleLevel,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject,3.7,,
+func,PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock,3.2,,
+func,PyImport_ReloadModule,3.2,,
+func,PyIndex_Check,3.8,,
type,PyInterpreterState,3.2,,opaque
-function,PyInterpreterState_Clear,3.2,,
-function,PyInterpreterState_Delete,3.2,,
-function,PyInterpreterState_Get,3.9,,
-function,PyInterpreterState_GetDict,3.8,,
-function,PyInterpreterState_GetID,3.7,,
-function,PyInterpreterState_New,3.2,,
-function,PyIter_Check,3.8,,
-function,PyIter_Next,3.2,,
-function,PyIter_Send,3.10,,
-var,PyListIter_Type,3.2,,
-var,PyListRevIter_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyList_Append,3.2,,
-function,PyList_AsTuple,3.2,,
-function,PyList_GetItem,3.2,,
-function,PyList_GetItemRef,3.13,,
-function,PyList_GetSlice,3.2,,
-function,PyList_Insert,3.2,,
-function,PyList_New,3.2,,
-function,PyList_Reverse,3.2,,
-function,PyList_SetItem,3.2,,
-function,PyList_SetSlice,3.2,,
-function,PyList_Size,3.2,,
-function,PyList_Sort,3.2,,
-var,PyList_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyInterpreterState_Clear,3.2,,
+func,PyInterpreterState_Delete,3.2,,
+func,PyInterpreterState_Get,3.9,,
+func,PyInterpreterState_GetDict,3.8,,
+func,PyInterpreterState_GetID,3.7,,
+func,PyInterpreterState_New,3.2,,
+func,PyIter_Check,3.8,,
+func,PyIter_Next,3.2,,
+func,PyIter_Send,3.10,,
+data,PyListIter_Type,3.2,,
+data,PyListRevIter_Type,3.2,,
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+func,PyList_AsTuple,3.2,,
+func,PyList_GetItem,3.2,,
+func,PyList_GetItemRef,3.13,,
+func,PyList_GetSlice,3.2,,
+func,PyList_Insert,3.2,,
+func,PyList_New,3.2,,
+func,PyList_Reverse,3.2,,
+func,PyList_SetItem,3.2,,
+func,PyList_SetSlice,3.2,,
+func,PyList_Size,3.2,,
+func,PyList_Sort,3.2,,
+data,PyList_Type,3.2,,
type,PyLongObject,3.2,,opaque
-var,PyLongRangeIter_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_AsDouble,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_AsInt,3.13,,
-function,PyLong_AsLong,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_AsLongLong,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_AsSize_t,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_AsSsize_t,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_AsUnsignedLong,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_AsVoidPtr,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_FromDouble,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_FromLong,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_FromLongLong,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_FromSize_t,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_FromSsize_t,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_FromString,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_FromUnsignedLong,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_FromVoidPtr,3.2,,
-function,PyLong_GetInfo,3.2,,
-var,PyLong_Type,3.2,,
-var,PyMap_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyMapping_Check,3.2,,
-function,PyMapping_GetItemString,3.2,,
-function,PyMapping_GetOptionalItem,3.13,,
-function,PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString,3.13,,
-function,PyMapping_HasKey,3.2,,
-function,PyMapping_HasKeyString,3.2,,
-function,PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError,3.13,,
-function,PyMapping_HasKeyWithError,3.13,,
-function,PyMapping_Items,3.2,,
-function,PyMapping_Keys,3.2,,
-function,PyMapping_Length,3.2,,
-function,PyMapping_SetItemString,3.2,,
-function,PyMapping_Size,3.2,,
-function,PyMapping_Values,3.2,,
-function,PyMem_Calloc,3.7,,
-function,PyMem_Free,3.2,,
-function,PyMem_Malloc,3.2,,
-function,PyMem_RawCalloc,3.13,,
-function,PyMem_RawFree,3.13,,
-function,PyMem_RawMalloc,3.13,,
-function,PyMem_RawRealloc,3.13,,
-function,PyMem_Realloc,3.2,,
+data,PyLongRangeIter_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyLong_AsDouble,3.2,,
+func,PyLong_AsInt,3.13,,
+func,PyLong_AsLong,3.2,,
+func,PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow,3.2,,
+func,PyLong_AsLongLong,3.2,,
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type,PyMemberDef,3.2,,full-abi
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-function,PyTraceBack_Here,3.2,,
-function,PyTraceBack_Print,3.2,,
-var,PyTraceBack_Type,3.2,,
-var,PyTupleIter_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyTuple_GetItem,3.2,,
-function,PyTuple_GetSlice,3.2,,
-function,PyTuple_New,3.2,,
-function,PyTuple_Pack,3.2,,
-function,PyTuple_SetItem,3.2,,
-function,PyTuple_Size,3.2,,
-var,PyTuple_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyThreadState_Clear,3.2,,
+func,PyThreadState_Delete,3.2,,
+func,PyThreadState_Get,3.2,,
+func,PyThreadState_GetDict,3.2,,
+func,PyThreadState_GetFrame,3.10,,
+func,PyThreadState_GetID,3.10,,
+func,PyThreadState_GetInterpreter,3.10,,
+func,PyThreadState_New,3.2,,
+func,PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc,3.2,,
+func,PyThreadState_Swap,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_GetInfo,3.3,,
+func,PyThread_ReInitTLS,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_acquire_lock,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_acquire_lock_timed,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_allocate_lock,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_create_key,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_delete_key,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_delete_key_value,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_exit_thread,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_free_lock,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_get_key_value,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_get_stacksize,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_get_thread_ident,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_get_thread_native_id,3.2,on platforms with native thread IDs,
+func,PyThread_init_thread,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_release_lock,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_set_key_value,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_set_stacksize,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_start_new_thread,3.2,,
+func,PyThread_tss_alloc,3.7,,
+func,PyThread_tss_create,3.7,,
+func,PyThread_tss_delete,3.7,,
+func,PyThread_tss_free,3.7,,
+func,PyThread_tss_get,3.7,,
+func,PyThread_tss_is_created,3.7,,
+func,PyThread_tss_set,3.7,,
+func,PyTraceBack_Here,3.2,,
+func,PyTraceBack_Print,3.2,,
+data,PyTraceBack_Type,3.2,,
+data,PyTupleIter_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyTuple_GetItem,3.2,,
+func,PyTuple_GetSlice,3.2,,
+func,PyTuple_New,3.2,,
+func,PyTuple_Pack,3.2,,
+func,PyTuple_SetItem,3.2,,
+func,PyTuple_Size,3.2,,
+data,PyTuple_Type,3.2,,
type,PyTypeObject,3.2,,opaque
-function,PyType_ClearCache,3.2,,
-function,PyType_FromMetaclass,3.12,,
-function,PyType_FromModuleAndSpec,3.10,,
-function,PyType_FromSpec,3.2,,
-function,PyType_FromSpecWithBases,3.3,,
-function,PyType_GenericAlloc,3.2,,
-function,PyType_GenericNew,3.2,,
-function,PyType_GetFlags,3.2,,
-function,PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName,3.13,,
-function,PyType_GetModule,3.10,,
-function,PyType_GetModuleByDef,3.13,,
-function,PyType_GetModuleName,3.13,,
-function,PyType_GetModuleState,3.10,,
-function,PyType_GetName,3.11,,
-function,PyType_GetQualName,3.11,,
-function,PyType_GetSlot,3.4,,
-function,PyType_GetTypeDataSize,3.12,,
-function,PyType_IsSubtype,3.2,,
-function,PyType_Modified,3.2,,
-function,PyType_Ready,3.2,,
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+func,PyType_FromMetaclass,3.12,,
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+func,PyType_GenericNew,3.2,,
+func,PyType_GetFlags,3.2,,
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+func,PyType_GetModule,3.10,,
+func,PyType_GetModuleByDef,3.13,,
+func,PyType_GetModuleName,3.13,,
+func,PyType_GetModuleState,3.10,,
+func,PyType_GetName,3.11,,
+func,PyType_GetQualName,3.11,,
+func,PyType_GetSlot,3.4,,
+func,PyType_GetTypeDataSize,3.12,,
+func,PyType_IsSubtype,3.2,,
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+func,PyType_Ready,3.2,,
type,PyType_Slot,3.2,,full-abi
type,PyType_Spec,3.2,,full-abi
-var,PyType_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart,3.2,,
-var,PyUnicodeIter_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_Append,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AppendAndDel,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsASCIIString,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsCharmapString,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsEncodedString,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsLatin1String,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsMBCSString,3.7,on Windows,
-function,PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsUCS4,3.7,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy,3.7,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsUTF16String,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsUTF32String,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize,3.10,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsUTF8String,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsWideChar,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_AsWideCharString,3.7,,
-function,PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_Compare,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_Concat,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_Contains,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_Count,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_Decode,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeASCII,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful,3.7,on Windows,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeLocale,3.7,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize,3.7,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS,3.7,on Windows,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful,3.7,on Windows,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage,3.7,on Windows,
-function,PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_EncodeLocale,3.7,,
-function,PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8,3.13,,
-function,PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize,3.13,,
-function,PyUnicode_FSConverter,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_FSDecoder,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_Find,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_FindChar,3.7,,
-function,PyUnicode_Format,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_FromFormat,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_FromFormatV,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_FromObject,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_FromOrdinal,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_FromString,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_FromWideChar,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_GetLength,3.7,,
-function,PyUnicode_InternFromString,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_InternInPlace,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_IsIdentifier,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_Join,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_Partition,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_RPartition,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_RSplit,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_ReadChar,3.7,,
-function,PyUnicode_Replace,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_Resize,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_RichCompare,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_Split,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_Splitlines,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_Substring,3.7,,
-function,PyUnicode_Tailmatch,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_Translate,3.2,,
-var,PyUnicode_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyUnicode_WriteChar,3.7,,
+data,PyType_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart,3.2,,
+data,PyUnicodeIter_Type,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_Append,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AppendAndDel,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsASCIIString,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsCharmapString,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsEncodedString,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsLatin1String,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsMBCSString,3.7,on Windows,
+func,PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsUCS4,3.7,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy,3.7,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsUTF16String,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsUTF32String,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize,3.10,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsUTF8String,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsWideChar,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_AsWideCharString,3.7,,
+func,PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_Compare,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_Concat,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_Contains,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_Count,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_Decode,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeASCII,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful,3.7,on Windows,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeLocale,3.7,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize,3.7,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS,3.7,on Windows,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful,3.7,on Windows,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage,3.7,on Windows,
+func,PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_EncodeLocale,3.7,,
+func,PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8,3.13,,
+func,PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize,3.13,,
+func,PyUnicode_FSConverter,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_FSDecoder,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_Find,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_FindChar,3.7,,
+func,PyUnicode_Format,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_FromFormat,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_FromFormatV,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_FromObject,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_FromOrdinal,3.2,,
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+func,PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_FromWideChar,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_GetLength,3.7,,
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+func,PyUnicode_InternInPlace,3.2,,
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+func,PyUnicode_Join,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_Partition,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_RPartition,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_RSplit,3.2,,
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+func,PyUnicode_Resize,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_RichCompare,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_Split,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_Splitlines,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_Substring,3.7,,
+func,PyUnicode_Tailmatch,3.2,,
+func,PyUnicode_Translate,3.2,,
+data,PyUnicode_Type,3.2,,
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type,PyVarObject,3.2,,members
member,PyVarObject.ob_base,3.2,,
member,PyVarObject.ob_size,3.2,,
-function,PyVectorcall_Call,3.12,,
-function,PyVectorcall_NARGS,3.12,,
+func,PyVectorcall_Call,3.12,,
+func,PyVectorcall_NARGS,3.12,,
type,PyWeakReference,3.2,,opaque
-function,PyWeakref_GetObject,3.2,,
-function,PyWeakref_GetRef,3.13,,
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-var,PyWrapperDescr_Type,3.2,,
-function,PyWrapper_New,3.2,,
-var,PyZip_Type,3.2,,
-function,Py_AddPendingCall,3.2,,
-function,Py_AtExit,3.2,,
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+data,PyWrapperDescr_Type,3.2,,
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macro,Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS,3.2,,
macro,Py_BLOCK_THREADS,3.2,,
-function,Py_BuildValue,3.2,,
-function,Py_BytesMain,3.8,,
-function,Py_CompileString,3.2,,
-function,Py_DecRef,3.2,,
-function,Py_DecodeLocale,3.7,,
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+func,Py_BytesMain,3.8,,
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+func,Py_DecRef,3.2,,
+func,Py_DecodeLocale,3.7,,
macro,Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS,3.2,,
-function,Py_EncodeLocale,3.7,,
-function,Py_EndInterpreter,3.2,,
-function,Py_EnterRecursiveCall,3.9,,
-function,Py_Exit,3.2,,
-function,Py_FatalError,3.2,,
-var,Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors,3.10,,
-var,Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding,3.2,,
-function,Py_Finalize,3.2,,
-function,Py_FinalizeEx,3.6,,
-function,Py_GenericAlias,3.9,,
-var,Py_GenericAliasType,3.9,,
-function,Py_GetBuildInfo,3.2,,
-function,Py_GetCompiler,3.2,,
-function,Py_GetConstant,3.13,,
-function,Py_GetConstantBorrowed,3.13,,
-function,Py_GetCopyright,3.2,,
-function,Py_GetExecPrefix,3.2,,
-function,Py_GetPath,3.2,,
-function,Py_GetPlatform,3.2,,
-function,Py_GetPrefix,3.2,,
-function,Py_GetProgramFullPath,3.2,,
-function,Py_GetProgramName,3.2,,
-function,Py_GetPythonHome,3.2,,
-function,Py_GetRecursionLimit,3.2,,
-function,Py_GetVersion,3.2,,
-var,Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding,3.2,,
-function,Py_IncRef,3.2,,
-function,Py_Initialize,3.2,,
-function,Py_InitializeEx,3.2,,
-function,Py_Is,3.10,,
-function,Py_IsFalse,3.10,,
-function,Py_IsFinalizing,3.13,,
-function,Py_IsInitialized,3.2,,
-function,Py_IsNone,3.10,,
-function,Py_IsTrue,3.10,,
-function,Py_LeaveRecursiveCall,3.9,,
-function,Py_Main,3.2,,
-function,Py_MakePendingCalls,3.2,,
-function,Py_NewInterpreter,3.2,,
-function,Py_NewRef,3.10,,
-function,Py_ReprEnter,3.2,,
-function,Py_ReprLeave,3.2,,
-function,Py_SetProgramName,3.2,,
-function,Py_SetPythonHome,3.2,,
-function,Py_SetRecursionLimit,3.2,,
+func,Py_EncodeLocale,3.7,,
+func,Py_EndInterpreter,3.2,,
+func,Py_EnterRecursiveCall,3.9,,
+func,Py_Exit,3.2,,
+func,Py_FatalError,3.2,,
+data,Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors,3.10,,
+data,Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding,3.2,,
+func,Py_Finalize,3.2,,
+func,Py_FinalizeEx,3.6,,
+func,Py_GenericAlias,3.9,,
+data,Py_GenericAliasType,3.9,,
+func,Py_GetBuildInfo,3.2,,
+func,Py_GetCompiler,3.2,,
+func,Py_GetConstant,3.13,,
+func,Py_GetConstantBorrowed,3.13,,
+func,Py_GetCopyright,3.2,,
+func,Py_GetExecPrefix,3.2,,
+func,Py_GetPath,3.2,,
+func,Py_GetPlatform,3.2,,
+func,Py_GetPrefix,3.2,,
+func,Py_GetProgramFullPath,3.2,,
+func,Py_GetProgramName,3.2,,
+func,Py_GetPythonHome,3.2,,
+func,Py_GetRecursionLimit,3.2,,
+func,Py_GetVersion,3.2,,
+data,Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding,3.2,,
+func,Py_IncRef,3.2,,
+func,Py_Initialize,3.2,,
+func,Py_InitializeEx,3.2,,
+func,Py_Is,3.10,,
+func,Py_IsFalse,3.10,,
+func,Py_IsFinalizing,3.13,,
+func,Py_IsInitialized,3.2,,
+func,Py_IsNone,3.10,,
+func,Py_IsTrue,3.10,,
+func,Py_LeaveRecursiveCall,3.9,,
+func,Py_Main,3.2,,
+func,Py_MakePendingCalls,3.2,,
+func,Py_NewInterpreter,3.2,,
+func,Py_NewRef,3.10,,
+macro,Py_READONLY,3.12,,
+macro,Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET,3.12,,
+func,Py_ReprEnter,3.2,,
+func,Py_ReprLeave,3.2,,
+func,Py_SetProgramName,3.2,,
+func,Py_SetPythonHome,3.2,,
+func,Py_SetRecursionLimit,3.2,,
+macro,Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,3.2,,
+macro,Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,3.2,,
+macro,Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,3.2,,
+macro,Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL,3.12,,
+macro,Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END,3.12,,
+macro,Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR,3.8,,
+macro,Py_T_BOOL,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_BYTE,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_CHAR,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_DOUBLE,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_FLOAT,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_INT,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_LONG,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_LONGLONG,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_OBJECT_EX,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_PYSSIZET,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_SHORT,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_STRING,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_STRING_INPLACE,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_UBYTE,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_UINT,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_ULONG,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_ULONGLONG,3.12,,
+macro,Py_T_USHORT,3.12,,
type,Py_UCS4,3.2,,
macro,Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS,3.2,,
-var,Py_UTF8Mode,3.8,,
-function,Py_VaBuildValue,3.2,,
-var,Py_Version,3.11,,
-function,Py_XNewRef,3.10,,
+data,Py_UTF8Mode,3.8,,
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+macro,Py_am_aiter,3.5,,
+macro,Py_am_anext,3.5,,
+macro,Py_am_await,3.5,,
+macro,Py_am_send,3.10,,
+macro,Py_bf_getbuffer,3.11,,
+macro,Py_bf_releasebuffer,3.11,,
type,Py_buffer,3.11,,full-abi
type,Py_intptr_t,3.2,,
+macro,Py_mod_create,3.5,,
+macro,Py_mod_exec,3.5,,
+macro,Py_mod_gil,3.13,,
+macro,Py_mod_multiple_interpreters,3.12,,
+macro,Py_mp_ass_subscript,3.2,,
+macro,Py_mp_length,3.2,,
+macro,Py_mp_subscript,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_absolute,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_add,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_and,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_bool,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_divmod,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_float,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_floor_divide,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_index,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_inplace_add,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_inplace_and,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_inplace_floor_divide,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_inplace_lshift,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_inplace_matrix_multiply,3.5,,
+macro,Py_nb_inplace_multiply,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_inplace_or,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_inplace_power,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_inplace_remainder,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_inplace_rshift,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_inplace_subtract,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_inplace_true_divide,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_inplace_xor,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_int,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_invert,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_lshift,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_matrix_multiply,3.5,,
+macro,Py_nb_multiply,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_negative,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_or,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_positive,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_power,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_remainder,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_rshift,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_subtract,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_true_divide,3.2,,
+macro,Py_nb_xor,3.2,,
+macro,Py_sq_ass_item,3.2,,
+macro,Py_sq_concat,3.2,,
+macro,Py_sq_contains,3.2,,
+macro,Py_sq_inplace_concat,3.2,,
+macro,Py_sq_inplace_repeat,3.2,,
+macro,Py_sq_item,3.2,,
+macro,Py_sq_length,3.2,,
+macro,Py_sq_repeat,3.2,,
type,Py_ssize_t,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_alloc,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_base,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_bases,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_call,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_clear,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_dealloc,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_del,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_descr_get,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_descr_set,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_doc,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_finalize,3.5,,
+macro,Py_tp_free,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_getattr,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_getattro,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_getset,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_hash,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_init,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_is_gc,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_iter,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_iternext,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_members,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_methods,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_new,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_repr,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_richcompare,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_setattr,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_setattro,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_str,3.2,,
+macro,Py_tp_traverse,3.2,,
type,Py_uintptr_t,3.2,,
type,allocfunc,3.2,,
type,binaryfunc,3.2,,
diff --git a/Doc/deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-3.14.rst b/Doc/deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-3.14.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..d16da66c29abe7e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-3.14.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+Pending Removal in Python 3.14
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+* The ``ma_version_tag`` field in :c:type:`PyDictObject` for extension modules
+ (:pep:`699`; :gh:`101193`).
+
+* Creating :c:data:`immutable types <Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE>` with mutable
+ bases (:gh:`95388`).
+
+* Functions to configure Python's initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11:
+
+ * :c:func:`!PySys_SetArgvEx()`:
+ Set :c:member:`PyConfig.argv` instead.
+ * :c:func:`!PySys_SetArgv()`:
+ Set :c:member:`PyConfig.argv` instead.
+ * :c:func:`!Py_SetProgramName()`:
+ Set :c:member:`PyConfig.program_name` instead.
+ * :c:func:`!Py_SetPythonHome()`:
+ Set :c:member:`PyConfig.home` instead.
+
+ The :c:func:`Py_InitializeFromConfig` API should be used with
+ :c:type:`PyConfig` instead.
+
+* Global configuration variables:
+
+ * :c:var:`Py_DebugFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.parser_debug` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_VerboseFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.verbose` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_QuietFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.quiet` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_InteractiveFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.interactive` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_InspectFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.inspect` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_OptimizeFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.optimization_level` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_NoSiteFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.site_import` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_BytesWarningFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.bytes_warning` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_FrozenFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.use_environment` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.write_bytecode` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_NoUserSiteDirectory`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.user_site_directory` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.buffered_stdio` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_HashRandomizationFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.use_hash_seed`
+ and :c:member:`PyConfig.hash_seed` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_IsolatedFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.isolated` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding` instead.
+ * :c:var:`Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio` instead.
+ * :c:var:`!Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.filesystem_encoding` instead.
+ * :c:var:`!Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.filesystem_encoding` instead.
+ * :c:var:`!Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyConfig.filesystem_errors` instead.
+ * :c:var:`!Py_UTF8Mode`:
+ Use :c:member:`PyPreConfig.utf8_mode` instead.
+ (see :c:func:`Py_PreInitialize`)
+
+ The :c:func:`Py_InitializeFromConfig` API should be used with
+ :c:type:`PyConfig` instead.
diff --git a/Doc/deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-3.15.rst b/Doc/deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-3.15.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..7d46d57dd2f5e6d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-3.15.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+Pending Removal in Python 3.15
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+* The :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule` instead.
+* :c:func:`PyWeakref_GetObject` and :c:func:`PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyWeakref_GetRef` instead.
+* :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` type and the :c:macro:`!Py_UNICODE_WIDE` macro:
+ Use :c:type:`wchar_t` instead.
+* Python initialization functions:
+
+ * :c:func:`PySys_ResetWarnOptions`:
+ Clear :data:`sys.warnoptions` and :data:`!warnings.filters` instead.
+ * :c:func:`Py_GetExecPrefix`:
+ Get :data:`sys.base_exec_prefix` and :data:`sys.exec_prefix` instead.
+ * :c:func:`Py_GetPath`:
+ Get :data:`sys.path` instead.
+ * :c:func:`Py_GetPrefix`:
+ Get :data:`sys.base_prefix` and :data:`sys.prefix` instead.
+ * :c:func:`Py_GetProgramFullPath`:
+ Get :data:`sys.executable` instead.
+ * :c:func:`Py_GetProgramName`:
+ Get :data:`sys.executable` instead.
+ * :c:func:`Py_GetPythonHome`:
+ Get :c:member:`PyConfig.home`
+ or the :envvar:`PYTHONHOME` environment variable instead.
diff --git a/Doc/deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-3.16.rst b/Doc/deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-3.16.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..9453f83799c43d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-3.16.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+Pending removal in Python 3.16
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+* The bundled copy of ``libmpdec``.
diff --git a/Doc/deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-future.rst b/Doc/deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-future.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..0c3ae52b87ff74c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-future.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+Pending Removal in Future Versions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed,
+although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal.
+
+* :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE`:
+ Unneeded since Python 3.8.
+* :c:func:`PyErr_Fetch`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyErr_GetRaisedException` instead.
+* :c:func:`PyErr_NormalizeException`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyErr_GetRaisedException` instead.
+* :c:func:`PyErr_Restore`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyErr_SetRaisedException` instead.
+* :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilename`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilenameObject` instead.
+* :c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork_Child` instead.
+* :c:func:`PySlice_GetIndicesEx`:
+ Use :c:func:`PySlice_Unpack` and :c:func:`PySlice_AdjustIndices` instead.
+* :c:func:`!PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyCodec_Decode` instead.
+* :c:func:`!PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyCodec_Decode` instead.
+* :c:func:`!PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyCodec_Encode` instead.
+* :c:func:`!PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyCodec_Encode` instead.
+* :c:func:`PyUnicode_READY`:
+ Unneeded since Python 3.12
+* :c:func:`!PyErr_Display`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyErr_DisplayException` instead.
+* :c:func:`!_PyErr_ChainExceptions`:
+ Use :c:func:`!_PyErr_ChainExceptions1` instead.
+* :c:member:`!PyBytesObject.ob_shash` member:
+ call :c:func:`PyObject_Hash` instead.
+* :c:member:`!PyDictObject.ma_version_tag` member.
+* Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:
+
+ * :c:func:`PyThread_create_key`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyThread_tss_alloc` instead.
+ * :c:func:`PyThread_delete_key`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyThread_tss_free` instead.
+ * :c:func:`PyThread_set_key_value`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyThread_tss_set` instead.
+ * :c:func:`PyThread_get_key_value`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyThread_tss_get` instead.
+ * :c:func:`PyThread_delete_key_value`:
+ Use :c:func:`PyThread_tss_delete` instead.
+ * :c:func:`PyThread_ReInitTLS`:
+ Unneeded since Python 3.7.
diff --git a/Doc/deprecations/index.rst b/Doc/deprecations/index.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..f004724fac08ba0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/deprecations/index.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+Deprecations
+============
+
+.. include:: pending-removal-in-3.14.rst
+
+.. include:: pending-removal-in-3.15.rst
+
+.. include:: pending-removal-in-3.16.rst
+
+.. include:: pending-removal-in-3.17.rst
+
+.. include:: pending-removal-in-3.18.rst
+
+.. include:: pending-removal-in-future.rst
+
+C API Deprecations
+------------------
+
+.. include:: c-api-pending-removal-in-3.14.rst
+
+.. include:: c-api-pending-removal-in-3.15.rst
+
+.. include:: c-api-pending-removal-in-future.rst
diff --git a/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.13.rst b/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.13.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..0505e0d1e5fe8c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.13.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+Pending Removal in Python 3.13
+------------------------------
+
+Modules (see :pep:`594`):
+
+* :mod:`!aifc`
+* :mod:`!audioop`
+* :mod:`!cgi`
+* :mod:`!cgitb`
+* :mod:`!chunk`
+* :mod:`!crypt`
+* :mod:`!imghdr`
+* :mod:`!mailcap`
+* :mod:`!msilib`
+* :mod:`!nis`
+* :mod:`!nntplib`
+* :mod:`!ossaudiodev`
+* :mod:`!pipes`
+* :mod:`!sndhdr`
+* :mod:`!spwd`
+* :mod:`!sunau`
+* :mod:`!telnetlib`
+* :mod:`!uu`
+* :mod:`!xdrlib`
+
+Other modules:
+
+* :mod:`!lib2to3`, and the :program:`2to3` program (:gh:`84540`)
+
+APIs:
+
+* :class:`!configparser.LegacyInterpolation` (:gh:`90765`)
+* ``locale.resetlocale()`` (:gh:`90817`)
+* :meth:`!turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle` (:gh:`50096`)
+* :func:`!unittest.findTestCases` (:gh:`50096`)
+* :func:`!unittest.getTestCaseNames` (:gh:`50096`)
+* :func:`!unittest.makeSuite` (:gh:`50096`)
+* :meth:`!unittest.TestProgram.usageExit` (:gh:`67048`)
+* :class:`!webbrowser.MacOSX` (:gh:`86421`)
+* :class:`classmethod` descriptor chaining (:gh:`89519`)
diff --git a/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.14.rst b/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.14.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..e8554a78c608f06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.14.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+Pending Removal in Python 3.14
+------------------------------
+
+* :mod:`argparse`: The *type*, *choices*, and *metavar* parameters
+ of :class:`!argparse.BooleanOptionalAction` are deprecated
+ and will be removed in 3.14.
+ (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in :gh:`92248`.)
+
+* :mod:`ast`: The following features have been deprecated in documentation
+ since Python 3.8, now cause a :exc:`DeprecationWarning` to be emitted at
+ runtime when they are accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:
+
+ * :class:`!ast.Num`
+ * :class:`!ast.Str`
+ * :class:`!ast.Bytes`
+ * :class:`!ast.NameConstant`
+ * :class:`!ast.Ellipsis`
+
+ Use :class:`ast.Constant` instead.
+ (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :gh:`90953`.)
+
+* :mod:`asyncio`:
+
+ * The child watcher classes :class:`~asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher`,
+ :class:`~asyncio.FastChildWatcher`, :class:`~asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher`
+ and :class:`~asyncio.SafeChildWatcher` are deprecated and
+ will be removed in Python 3.14.
+ (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in :gh:`94597`.)
+
+ * :func:`asyncio.set_child_watcher`, :func:`asyncio.get_child_watcher`,
+ :meth:`asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher` and
+ :meth:`asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher` are deprecated
+ and will be removed in Python 3.14.
+ (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in :gh:`94597`.)
+
+ * The :meth:`~asyncio.get_event_loop` method of the
+ default event loop policy now emits a :exc:`DeprecationWarning` if there
+ is no current event loop set and it decides to create one.
+ (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in :gh:`100160`.)
+
+* :mod:`builtins`: ``bool(NotImplemented)`` now emits a :exc:`DeprecationWarning`
+ and will raise a :exc:`TypeError` in Python 3.14.
+ (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in :gh:`118767`.)
+
+* :mod:`email`: Deprecated the *isdst* parameter in :func:`email.utils.localtime`.
+ (Contributed by Alan Williams in :gh:`72346`.)
+
+* :mod:`importlib.abc` deprecated classes:
+
+ * :class:`!importlib.abc.ResourceReader`
+ * :class:`!importlib.abc.Traversable`
+ * :class:`!importlib.abc.TraversableResources`
+
+ Use :mod:`importlib.resources.abc` classes instead:
+
+ * :class:`importlib.resources.abc.Traversable`
+ * :class:`importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources`
+
+ (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in :gh:`93963`.)
+
+* :mod:`itertools` had undocumented, inefficient, historically buggy,
+ and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle operations.
+ This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant reduction in code
+ volume and maintenance burden.
+ (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :gh:`101588`.)
+
+* :mod:`multiprocessing`: The default start method will change to a safer one on
+ Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms where ``'fork'`` is currently
+ the default (:gh:`84559`). Adding a runtime warning about this was deemed too
+ disruptive as the majority of code is not expected to care. Use the
+ :func:`~multiprocessing.get_context` or
+ :func:`~multiprocessing.set_start_method` APIs to explicitly specify when
+ your code *requires* ``'fork'``. See :ref:`multiprocessing-start-methods`.
+
+* :mod:`pathlib`: :meth:`~pathlib.PurePath.is_relative_to` and
+ :meth:`~pathlib.PurePath.relative_to`: passing additional arguments is
+ deprecated.
+
+* :mod:`pkgutil`: :func:`~pkgutil.find_loader` and :func:`~pkgutil.get_loader`
+ now raise :exc:`DeprecationWarning`;
+ use :func:`importlib.util.find_spec` instead.
+ (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in :gh:`97850`.)
+
+* :mod:`pty`:
+
+ * ``master_open()``: use :func:`pty.openpty`.
+ * ``slave_open()``: use :func:`pty.openpty`.
+
+* :mod:`sqlite3`:
+
+ * :data:`~sqlite3.version` and :data:`~sqlite3.version_info`.
+
+ * :meth:`~sqlite3.Cursor.execute` and :meth:`~sqlite3.Cursor.executemany`
+ if :ref:`named placeholders <sqlite3-placeholders>` are used and
+ *parameters* is a sequence instead of a :class:`dict`.
+
+* :mod:`urllib`:
+ :class:`!urllib.parse.Quoter` is deprecated: it was not intended to be a
+ public API.
+ (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in :gh:`88168`.)
diff --git a/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.15.rst b/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.15.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..eb3dc4f175d3c8c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.15.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
+Pending Removal in Python 3.15
+------------------------------
+
+* The import system:
+
+ * Setting :attr:`~module.__cached__` on a module while
+ failing to set :attr:`__spec__.cached <importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.cached>`
+ is deprecated. In Python 3.15, :attr:`!__cached__` will cease to be set or
+ take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (:gh:`97879`)
+
+ * Setting :attr:`~module.__package__` on a module while
+ failing to set :attr:`__spec__.parent <importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.parent>`
+ is deprecated. In Python 3.15, :attr:`!__package__` will cease to be set or
+ take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (:gh:`97879`)
+
+* :mod:`ctypes`:
+
+ * The undocumented :func:`!ctypes.SetPointerType` function
+ has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
+
+* :mod:`http.server`:
+
+ * The obsolete and rarely used :class:`~http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler`
+ has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
+ No direct replacement exists.
+ *Anything* is better than CGI to interface
+ a web server with a request handler.
+
+ * The :option:`!--cgi` flag to the :program:`python -m http.server`
+ command-line interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
+
+* :mod:`importlib`:
+
+ * ``load_module()`` method: use ``exec_module()`` instead.
+
+* :mod:`pathlib`:
+
+ * :meth:`.PurePath.is_reserved`
+ has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
+ Use :func:`os.path.isreserved` to detect reserved paths on Windows.
+
+* :mod:`platform`:
+
+ * :func:`~platform.java_ver` has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
+ This function is only useful for Jython support, has a confusing API,
+ and is largely untested.
+
+* :mod:`sysconfig`:
+
+ * The *check_home* argument of :func:`sysconfig.is_python_build` has been
+ deprecated since Python 3.12.
+
+* :mod:`threading`:
+
+ * :func:`~threading.RLock` will take no arguments in Python 3.15.
+ Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14,
+ as the Python version does not permit any arguments,
+ but the C version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments,
+ ignoring every argument.
+
+* :mod:`types`:
+
+ * :class:`types.CodeType`: Accessing :attr:`~codeobject.co_lnotab` was
+ deprecated in :pep:`626`
+ since 3.10 and was planned to be removed in 3.12,
+ but it only got a proper :exc:`DeprecationWarning` in 3.12.
+ May be removed in 3.15.
+ (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in :gh:`101866`.)
+
+* :mod:`typing`:
+
+ * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating
+ :class:`~typing.NamedTuple` classes
+ (e.g. ``Point = NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)``)
+ has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
+ Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.
+
+ * When using the functional syntax of :class:`~typing.TypedDict`\s, failing
+ to pass a value to the *fields* parameter (``TD = TypedDict("TD")``) or
+ passing ``None`` (``TD = TypedDict("TD", None)``) has been deprecated
+ since Python 3.13.
+ Use ``class TD(TypedDict): pass`` or ``TD = TypedDict("TD", {})``
+ to create a TypedDict with zero field.
+
+ * The :deco:`typing.no_type_check_decorator` decorator function
+ has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
+ After eight years in the :mod:`typing` module,
+ it has yet to be supported by any major type checker.
+
+* :mod:`wave`:
+
+ * The :meth:`~wave.Wave_read.getmark`, :meth:`!setmark`,
+ and :meth:`~wave.Wave_read.getmarkers` methods of
+ the :class:`~wave.Wave_read` and :class:`~wave.Wave_write` classes
+ have been deprecated since Python 3.13.
diff --git a/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.16.rst b/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.16.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..6f6954b783a1aeb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.16.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+Pending removal in Python 3.16
+------------------------------
+
+* The import system:
+
+ * Setting :attr:`~module.__loader__` on a module while
+ failing to set :attr:`__spec__.loader <importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.loader>`
+ is deprecated. In Python 3.16, :attr:`!__loader__` will cease to be set or
+ taken into consideration by the import system or the standard library.
+
+* :mod:`array`:
+
+ * The ``'u'`` format code (:c:type:`wchar_t`)
+ has been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.3
+ and at runtime since Python 3.13.
+ Use the ``'w'`` format code (:c:type:`Py_UCS4`)
+ for Unicode characters instead.
+
+* :mod:`asyncio`:
+
+ * :func:`!asyncio.iscoroutinefunction` is deprecated
+ and will be removed in Python 3.16,
+ use :func:`inspect.iscoroutinefunction` instead.
+ (Contributed by Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in :gh:`122875`.)
+
+* :mod:`builtins`:
+
+ * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ``~True`` or ``~False``
+ has been deprecated since Python 3.12,
+ as it produces surprising and unintuitive results (``-2`` and ``-1``).
+ Use ``not x`` instead for the logical negation of a Boolean.
+ In the rare case that you need the bitwise inversion of
+ the underlying integer, convert to ``int`` explicitly (``~int(x)``).
+
+* :mod:`shutil`:
+
+ * The :class:`!ExecError` exception
+ has been deprecated since Python 3.14.
+ It has not been used by any function in :mod:`!shutil` since Python 3.4,
+ and is now an alias of :exc:`RuntimeError`.
+
+* :mod:`symtable`:
+
+ * The :meth:`Class.get_methods <symtable.Class.get_methods>` method
+ has been deprecated since Python 3.14.
+
+* :mod:`sys`:
+
+ * The :func:`~sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding` function
+ has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
+ Use the :envvar:`PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING` environment variable instead.
+
+* :mod:`tarfile`:
+
+ * The undocumented and unused :attr:`!TarFile.tarfile` attribute
+ has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
diff --git a/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.17.rst b/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.17.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..0a1c2f08cab3bd7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.17.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+Pending removal in Python 3.17
+------------------------------
+
+* :mod:`collections.abc`:
+
+ - :class:`collections.abc.ByteString` is scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.
+
+ Use ``isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)`` to test if ``obj``
+ implements the :ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>` at runtime. For use
+ in type annotations, either use :class:`~collections.abc.Buffer` or a union
+ that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g.,
+ ``bytes | bytearray | memoryview``).
+
+ :class:`!ByteString` was originally intended to be an abstract class that
+ would serve as a supertype of both :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`.
+ However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an
+ instance of :class:`!ByteString` never actually told you anything useful
+ about the object. Other common buffer types such as :class:`memoryview`
+ were also never understood as subtypes of :class:`!ByteString` (either at
+ runtime or by static type checkers).
+
+ See :pep:`PEP 688 <688#current-options>` for more details.
+ (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in :gh:`91896`.)
+
+
+* :mod:`typing`:
+
+ - Before Python 3.14, old-style unions were implemented using the private class
+ ``typing._UnionGenericAlias``. This class is no longer needed for the implementation,
+ but it has been retained for backward compatibility, with removal scheduled for Python
+ 3.17. Users should use documented introspection helpers like :func:`typing.get_origin`
+ and :func:`typing.get_args` instead of relying on private implementation details.
+ - :class:`typing.ByteString`, deprecated since Python 3.9, is scheduled for removal in
+ Python 3.17.
+
+ Use ``isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)`` to test if ``obj``
+ implements the :ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>` at runtime. For use
+ in type annotations, either use :class:`~collections.abc.Buffer` or a union
+ that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g.,
+ ``bytes | bytearray | memoryview``).
+
+ :class:`!ByteString` was originally intended to be an abstract class that
+ would serve as a supertype of both :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`.
+ However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an
+ instance of :class:`!ByteString` never actually told you anything useful
+ about the object. Other common buffer types such as :class:`memoryview`
+ were also never understood as subtypes of :class:`!ByteString` (either at
+ runtime or by static type checkers).
+
+ See :pep:`PEP 688 <688#current-options>` for more details.
+ (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in :gh:`91896`.)
diff --git a/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.18.rst b/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.18.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..3e7992194784240
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.18.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+Pending removal in Python 3.18
+------------------------------
+
+* :mod:`decimal`:
+
+ * The non-standard and undocumented :class:`~decimal.Decimal` format
+ specifier ``'N'``, which is only supported in the :mod:`!decimal` module's
+ C implementation, has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
+ (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :gh:`89902`.)
diff --git a/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-future.rst b/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-future.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..20707c644e2ac11
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/deprecations/pending-removal-in-future.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,148 @@
+Pending Removal in Future Versions
+----------------------------------
+
+The following APIs will be removed in the future,
+although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal.
+
+* :mod:`argparse`: Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually exclusive
+ groups are deprecated.
+
+* :mod:`builtins`:
+
+ * Generators: ``throw(type, exc, tb)`` and ``athrow(type, exc, tb)``
+ signature is deprecated: use ``throw(exc)`` and ``athrow(exc)`` instead,
+ the single argument signature.
+ * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by keywords,
+ for example ``0in x``, ``1or x``, ``0if 1else 2``. It allows confusing and
+ ambiguous expressions like ``[0x1for x in y]`` (which can be interpreted as
+ ``[0x1 for x in y]`` or ``[0x1f or x in y]``). A syntax warning is raised
+ if the numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords
+ :keyword:`and`, :keyword:`else`, :keyword:`for`, :keyword:`if`,
+ :keyword:`in`, :keyword:`is` and :keyword:`or`. In a future release it
+ will be changed to a syntax error. (:gh:`87999`)
+ * Support for ``__index__()`` and ``__int__()`` method returning non-int type:
+ these methods will be required to return an instance of a strict subclass of
+ :class:`int`.
+ * Support for ``__float__()`` method returning a strict subclass of
+ :class:`float`: these methods will be required to return an instance of
+ :class:`float`.
+ * Support for ``__complex__()`` method returning a strict subclass of
+ :class:`complex`: these methods will be required to return an instance of
+ :class:`complex`.
+ * Delegation of ``int()`` to ``__trunc__()`` method.
+ * Passing a complex number as the *real* or *imag* argument in the
+ :func:`complex` constructor is now deprecated; it should only be passed
+ as a single positional argument.
+ (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :gh:`109218`.)
+
+* :mod:`calendar`: ``calendar.January`` and ``calendar.February`` constants are
+ deprecated and replaced by :data:`calendar.JANUARY` and
+ :data:`calendar.FEBRUARY`.
+ (Contributed by Prince Roshan in :gh:`103636`.)
+
+* :attr:`codeobject.co_lnotab`: use the :meth:`codeobject.co_lines` method
+ instead.
+
+* :mod:`datetime`:
+
+ * :meth:`~datetime.datetime.utcnow`:
+ use ``datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)``.
+ * :meth:`~datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp`:
+ use ``datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)``.
+
+* :mod:`gettext`: Plural value must be an integer.
+
+* :mod:`importlib`:
+
+ * :func:`~importlib.util.cache_from_source` *debug_override* parameter is
+ deprecated: use the *optimization* parameter instead.
+
+* :mod:`importlib.metadata`:
+
+ * ``EntryPoints`` tuple interface.
+ * Implicit ``None`` on return values.
+
+* :mod:`logging`: the ``warn()`` method has been deprecated
+ since Python 3.3, use :meth:`~logging.warning` instead.
+
+* :mod:`mailbox`: Use of StringIO input and text mode is deprecated, use
+ BytesIO and binary mode instead.
+
+* :mod:`os`: Calling :func:`os.register_at_fork` in multi-threaded process.
+
+* :class:`!pydoc.ErrorDuringImport`: A tuple value for *exc_info* parameter is
+ deprecated, use an exception instance.
+
+* :mod:`re`: More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references
+ and group names in regular expressions. Only sequence of ASCII digits is now
+ accepted as a numerical reference. The group name in bytes patterns and
+ replacement strings can now only contain ASCII letters and digits and
+ underscore.
+ (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in :gh:`91760`.)
+
+* :mod:`!sre_compile`, :mod:`!sre_constants` and :mod:`!sre_parse` modules.
+
+* :mod:`shutil`: :func:`~shutil.rmtree`'s *onerror* parameter is deprecated in
+ Python 3.12; use the *onexc* parameter instead.
+
+* :mod:`ssl` options and protocols:
+
+ * :class:`ssl.SSLContext` without protocol argument is deprecated.
+ * :class:`ssl.SSLContext`: :meth:`~ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols` and
+ :meth:`!selected_npn_protocol` are deprecated: use ALPN
+ instead.
+ * ``ssl.OP_NO_SSL*`` options
+ * ``ssl.OP_NO_TLS*`` options
+ * ``ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3``
+ * ``ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS``
+ * ``ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1``
+ * ``ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1``
+ * ``ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2``
+ * ``ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3``
+ * ``ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1``
+ * ``ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1``
+
+* :mod:`threading` methods:
+
+ * :meth:`!threading.Condition.notifyAll`: use :meth:`~threading.Condition.notify_all`.
+ * :meth:`!threading.Event.isSet`: use :meth:`~threading.Event.is_set`.
+ * :meth:`!threading.Thread.isDaemon`, :meth:`threading.Thread.setDaemon`:
+ use :attr:`threading.Thread.daemon` attribute.
+ * :meth:`!threading.Thread.getName`, :meth:`threading.Thread.setName`:
+ use :attr:`threading.Thread.name` attribute.
+ * :meth:`!threading.currentThread`: use :meth:`threading.current_thread`.
+ * :meth:`!threading.activeCount`: use :meth:`threading.active_count`.
+
+* :class:`typing.Text` (:gh:`92332`).
+
+* :class:`unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase`: it is deprecated to return a value
+ that is not ``None`` from a test case.
+
+* :mod:`urllib.parse` deprecated functions: :func:`~urllib.parse.urlparse` instead
+
+ * ``splitattr()``
+ * ``splithost()``
+ * ``splitnport()``
+ * ``splitpasswd()``
+ * ``splitport()``
+ * ``splitquery()``
+ * ``splittag()``
+ * ``splittype()``
+ * ``splituser()``
+ * ``splitvalue()``
+ * ``to_bytes()``
+
+* :mod:`urllib.request`: :class:`~urllib.request.URLopener` and
+ :class:`~urllib.request.FancyURLopener` style of invoking requests is
+ deprecated. Use newer :func:`~urllib.request.urlopen` functions and methods.
+
+* :mod:`wsgiref`: ``SimpleHandler.stdout.write()`` should not do partial
+ writes.
+
+* :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree`: Testing the truth value of an
+ :class:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.Element` is deprecated. In a future release it
+ will always return ``True``. Prefer explicit ``len(elem)`` or
+ ``elem is not None`` tests instead.
+
+* :meth:`zipimport.zipimporter.load_module` is deprecated:
+ use :meth:`~zipimport.zipimporter.exec_module` instead.
diff --git a/Doc/extending/building.rst b/Doc/extending/building.rst
index ddde567f6f3efa5..a58eb40d431c594 100644
--- a/Doc/extending/building.rst
+++ b/Doc/extending/building.rst
@@ -23,10 +23,10 @@ instance. See :ref:`initializing-modules` for details.
.. highlight:: python
For modules with ASCII-only names, the function must be named
-``PyInit_<modulename>``, with ``<modulename>`` replaced by the name of the
-module. When using :ref:`multi-phase-initialization`, non-ASCII module names
+:samp:`PyInit_{<name>}`, with ``<name>`` replaced by the name of the module.
+When using :ref:`multi-phase-initialization`, non-ASCII module names
are allowed. In this case, the initialization function name is
-``PyInitU_<modulename>``, with ``<modulename>`` encoded using Python's
+:samp:`PyInitU_{<name>}`, with ``<name>`` encoded using Python's
*punycode* encoding with hyphens replaced by underscores. In Python::
def initfunc_name(name):
diff --git a/Doc/extending/embedding.rst b/Doc/extending/embedding.rst
index 20397dc5add5db6..cb41889437c8b0d 100644
--- a/Doc/extending/embedding.rst
+++ b/Doc/extending/embedding.rst
@@ -196,8 +196,8 @@ interesting part with respect to embedding Python starts with ::
After initializing the interpreter, the script is loaded using
:c:func:`PyImport_Import`. This routine needs a Python string as its argument,
-which is constructed using the :c:func:`PyUnicode_FromString` data conversion
-routine. ::
+which is constructed using the :c:func:`PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault` data
+conversion routine. ::
pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
/* pFunc is a new reference */
@@ -245,21 +245,23 @@ Python extension. For example::
return PyLong_FromLong(numargs);
}
- static PyMethodDef EmbMethods[] = {
+ static PyMethodDef emb_module_methods[] = {
{"numargs", emb_numargs, METH_VARARGS,
"Return the number of arguments received by the process."},
{NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}
};
- static PyModuleDef EmbModule = {
- PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, "emb", NULL, -1, EmbMethods,
- NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL
+ static struct PyModuleDef emb_module = {
+ .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
+ .m_name = "emb",
+ .m_size = 0,
+ .m_methods = emb_module_methods,
};
static PyObject*
PyInit_emb(void)
{
- return PyModule_Create(&EmbModule);
+ return PyModuleDef_Init(&emb_module);
}
Insert the above code just above the :c:func:`main` function. Also, insert the
diff --git a/Doc/extending/extending.rst b/Doc/extending/extending.rst
index b70e1b1fe57e67c..6518e20cafbc9e7 100644
--- a/Doc/extending/extending.rst
+++ b/Doc/extending/extending.rst
@@ -75,12 +75,37 @@ the module and a copyright notice if you like).
See :ref:`arg-parsing-string-and-buffers` for a description of this macro.
All user-visible symbols defined by :file:`Python.h` have a prefix of ``Py`` or
-``PY``, except those defined in standard header files. For convenience, and
-since they are used extensively by the Python interpreter, ``"Python.h"``
-includes a few standard header files: ``<stdio.h>``, ``<string.h>``,
-``<errno.h>``, and ``<stdlib.h>``. If the latter header file does not exist on
-your system, it declares the functions :c:func:`malloc`, :c:func:`free` and
-:c:func:`realloc` directly.
+``PY``, except those defined in standard header files.
+
+.. tip::
+
+ For backward compatibility, :file:`Python.h` includes several standard header files.
+ C extensions should include the standard headers that they use,
+ and should not rely on these implicit includes.
+ If using the limited C API version 3.13 or newer, the implicit includes are:
+
+ * ``<assert.h>``
+ * ``<intrin.h>`` (on Windows)
+ * ``<inttypes.h>``
+ * ``<limits.h>``
+ * ``<math.h>``
+ * ``<stdarg.h>``
+ * ``<wchar.h>``
+ * ``<sys/types.h>`` (if present)
+
+ If :c:macro:`Py_LIMITED_API` is not defined, or is set to version 3.12 or older,
+ the headers below are also included:
+
+ * ``<ctype.h>``
+ * ``<unistd.h>`` (on POSIX)
+
+ If :c:macro:`Py_LIMITED_API` is not defined, or is set to version 3.10 or older,
+ the headers below are also included:
+
+ * ``<errno.h>``
+ * ``<stdio.h>``
+ * ``<stdlib.h>``
+ * ``<string.h>``
The next thing we add to our module file is the C function that will be called
when the Python expression ``spam.system(string)`` is evaluated (we'll see
@@ -203,31 +228,57 @@ function usually raises :c:data:`PyExc_TypeError`. If you have an argument whos
value must be in a particular range or must satisfy other conditions,
:c:data:`PyExc_ValueError` is appropriate.
-You can also define a new exception that is unique to your module. For this, you
-usually declare a static object variable at the beginning of your file::
+You can also define a new exception that is unique to your module.
+The simplest way to do this is to declare a static global object variable at
+the beginning of the file::
- static PyObject *SpamError;
+ static PyObject *SpamError = NULL;
-and initialize it in your module's initialization function (:c:func:`!PyInit_spam`)
-with an exception object::
+and initialize it by calling :c:func:`PyErr_NewException` in the module's
+:c:data:`Py_mod_exec` function (:c:func:`!spam_module_exec`)::
- PyMODINIT_FUNC
- PyInit_spam(void)
- {
- PyObject *m;
+ SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL);
- m = PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
- if (m == NULL)
- return NULL;
+Since :c:data:`!SpamError` is a global variable, it will be overwritten every time
+the module is reinitialized, when the :c:data:`Py_mod_exec` function is called.
+
+For now, let's avoid the issue: we will block repeated initialization by raising an
+:py:exc:`ImportError`::
+ static PyObject *SpamError = NULL;
+
+ static int
+ spam_module_exec(PyObject *m)
+ {
+ if (SpamError != NULL) {
+ PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ImportError,
+ "cannot initialize spam module more than once");
+ return -1;
+ }
SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL);
- if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "error", SpamError) < 0) {
- Py_CLEAR(SpamError);
- Py_DECREF(m);
- return NULL;
+ if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SpamError", SpamError) < 0) {
+ return -1;
}
- return m;
+ return 0;
+ }
+
+ static PyModuleDef_Slot spam_module_slots[] = {
+ {Py_mod_exec, spam_module_exec},
+ {0, NULL}
+ };
+
+ static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = {
+ .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
+ .m_name = "spam",
+ .m_size = 0, // non-negative
+ .m_slots = spam_module_slots,
+ };
+
+ PyMODINIT_FUNC
+ PyInit_spam(void)
+ {
+ return PyModuleDef_Init(&spam_module);
}
Note that the Python name for the exception object is :exc:`!spam.error`. The
@@ -242,6 +293,11 @@ needed to ensure that it will not be discarded, causing :c:data:`!SpamError` to
become a dangling pointer. Should it become a dangling pointer, C code which
raises the exception could cause a core dump or other unintended side effects.
+For now, the :c:func:`Py_DECREF` call to remove this reference is missing.
+Even when the Python interpreter shuts down, the global :c:data:`!SpamError`
+variable will not be garbage-collected. It will "leak".
+We did, however, ensure that this will happen at most once per process.
+
We discuss the use of :c:macro:`PyMODINIT_FUNC` as a function return type later in this
sample.
@@ -318,7 +374,7 @@ The Module's Method Table and Initialization Function
I promised to show how :c:func:`!spam_system` is called from Python programs.
First, we need to list its name and address in a "method table"::
- static PyMethodDef SpamMethods[] = {
+ static PyMethodDef spam_methods[] = {
...
{"system", spam_system, METH_VARARGS,
"Execute a shell command."},
@@ -343,13 +399,10 @@ function.
The method table must be referenced in the module definition structure::
- static struct PyModuleDef spammodule = {
- PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
- "spam", /* name of module */
- spam_doc, /* module documentation, may be NULL */
- -1, /* size of per-interpreter state of the module,
- or -1 if the module keeps state in global variables. */
- SpamMethods
+ static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = {
+ ...
+ .m_methods = spam_methods,
+ ...
};
This structure, in turn, must be passed to the interpreter in the module's
@@ -360,23 +413,17 @@ only non-\ ``static`` item defined in the module file::
PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_spam(void)
{
- return PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
+ return PyModuleDef_Init(&spam_module);
}
Note that :c:macro:`PyMODINIT_FUNC` declares the function as ``PyObject *`` return type,
declares any special linkage declarations required by the platform, and for C++
declares the function as ``extern "C"``.
-When the Python program imports module :mod:`!spam` for the first time,
-:c:func:`!PyInit_spam` is called. (See below for comments about embedding Python.)
-It calls :c:func:`PyModule_Create`, which returns a module object, and
-inserts built-in function objects into the newly created module based upon the
-table (an array of :c:type:`PyMethodDef` structures) found in the module definition.
-:c:func:`PyModule_Create` returns a pointer to the module object
-that it creates. It may abort with a fatal error for
-certain errors, or return ``NULL`` if the module could not be initialized
-satisfactorily. The init function must return the module object to its caller,
-so that it then gets inserted into ``sys.modules``.
+:c:func:`!PyInit_spam` is called when each interpreter imports its module
+:mod:`!spam` for the first time. (See below for comments about embedding Python.)
+A pointer to the module definition must be returned via :c:func:`PyModuleDef_Init`,
+so that the import machinery can create the module and store it in ``sys.modules``.
When embedding Python, the :c:func:`!PyInit_spam` function is not called
automatically unless there's an entry in the :c:data:`PyImport_Inittab` table.
@@ -433,23 +480,19 @@ optionally followed by an import of the module::
.. note::
- Removing entries from ``sys.modules`` or importing compiled modules into
- multiple interpreters within a process (or following a :c:func:`fork` without an
- intervening :c:func:`exec`) can create problems for some extension modules.
- Extension module authors should exercise caution when initializing internal data
- structures.
+ If you declare a global variable or a local static one, the module may
+ experience unintended side-effects on re-initialisation, for example when
+ removing entries from ``sys.modules`` or importing compiled modules into
+ multiple interpreters within a process
+ (or following a :c:func:`fork` without an intervening :c:func:`exec`).
+ If module state is not yet fully :ref:`isolated <isolating-extensions-howto>`,
+ authors should consider marking the module as having no support for subinterpreters
+ (via :c:macro:`Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED`).
A more substantial example module is included in the Python source distribution
-as :file:`Modules/xxmodule.c`. This file may be used as a template or simply
+as :file:`Modules/xxlimited.c`. This file may be used as a template or simply
read as an example.
-.. note::
-
- Unlike our ``spam`` example, ``xxmodule`` uses *multi-phase initialization*
- (new in Python 3.5), where a PyModuleDef structure is returned from
- ``PyInit_spam``, and creation of the module is left to the import machinery.
- For details on multi-phase initialization, see :PEP:`489`.
-
.. _compilation:
@@ -502,10 +545,8 @@ calling the Python callback functions from a C callback. Other uses are also
imaginable.
Fortunately, the Python interpreter is easily called recursively, and there is a
-standard interface to call a Python function. (I won't dwell on how to call the
-Python parser with a particular string as input --- if you're interested, have a
-look at the implementation of the :option:`-c` command line option in
-:file:`Modules/main.c` from the Python source code.)
+standard interface to call a Python function. (If you're interested in how to call the
+Python parser with a particular string as input, see :ref:`veryhigh`.)
Calling a Python function is easy. First, the Python program must somehow pass
you the Python function object. You should provide a function (or some other
@@ -790,18 +831,17 @@ Philbrick (philbrick@hks.com)::
{NULL, NULL, 0, NULL} /* sentinel */
};
- static struct PyModuleDef keywdargmodule = {
- PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
- "keywdarg",
- NULL,
- -1,
- keywdarg_methods
+ static struct PyModuleDef keywdarg_module = {
+ .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
+ .m_name = "keywdarg",
+ .m_size = 0,
+ .m_methods = keywdarg_methods,
};
PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_keywdarg(void)
{
- return PyModule_Create(&keywdargmodule);
+ return PyModuleDef_Init(&keywdarg_module);
}
@@ -868,7 +908,7 @@ It is important to call :c:func:`free` at the right time. If a block's address
is forgotten but :c:func:`free` is not called for it, the memory it occupies
cannot be reused until the program terminates. This is called a :dfn:`memory
leak`. On the other hand, if a program calls :c:func:`free` for a block and then
-continues to use the block, it creates a conflict with re-use of the block
+continues to use the block, it creates a conflict with reuse of the block
through another :c:func:`malloc` call. This is called :dfn:`using freed memory`.
It has the same bad consequences as referencing uninitialized data --- core
dumps, wrong results, mysterious crashes.
@@ -896,7 +936,7 @@ and the object is freed.
An alternative strategy is called :dfn:`automatic garbage collection`.
(Sometimes, reference counting is also referred to as a garbage collection
-strategy, hence my use of "automatic" to distinguish the two.) The big
+strategy, hence the use of "automatic" to distinguish the two.) The big
advantage of automatic garbage collection is that the user doesn't need to call
:c:func:`free` explicitly. (Another claimed advantage is an improvement in speed
or memory usage --- this is no hard fact however.) The disadvantage is that for
@@ -1042,7 +1082,14 @@ references to all its items, so when item 1 is replaced, it has to dispose of
the original item 1. Now let's suppose the original item 1 was an instance of a
user-defined class, and let's further suppose that the class defined a
:meth:`!__del__` method. If this class instance has a reference count of 1,
-disposing of it will call its :meth:`!__del__` method.
+disposing of it will call its :meth:`!__del__` method. Internally,
+:c:func:`PyList_SetItem` calls :c:func:`Py_DECREF` on the replaced item,
+which invokes replaced item's corresponding
+:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc` function. During
+deallocation, :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc` calls
+:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_finalize`, which is mapped to the
+:meth:`!__del__` method for class instances (see :pep:`442`). This entire
+sequence happens synchronously within the :c:func:`PyList_SetItem` call.
Since it is written in Python, the :meth:`!__del__` method can execute arbitrary
Python code. Could it perhaps do something to invalidate the reference to
@@ -1072,8 +1119,9 @@ why his :meth:`!__del__` methods would fail...
The second case of problems with a borrowed reference is a variant involving
threads. Normally, multiple threads in the Python interpreter can't get in each
-other's way, because there is a global lock protecting Python's entire object
-space. However, it is possible to temporarily release this lock using the macro
+other's way, because there is a :term:`global lock <global interpreter lock>`
+protecting Python's entire object space.
+However, it is possible to temporarily release this lock using the macro
:c:macro:`Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS`, and to re-acquire it using
:c:macro:`Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS`. This is common around blocking I/O calls, to
let other threads use the processor while waiting for the I/O to complete.
@@ -1259,20 +1307,15 @@ two more lines must be added::
#include "spammodule.h"
The ``#define`` is used to tell the header file that it is being included in the
-exporting module, not a client module. Finally, the module's initialization
-function must take care of initializing the C API pointer array::
+exporting module, not a client module. Finally, the module's :c:data:`mod_exec
+<Py_mod_exec>` function must take care of initializing the C API pointer array::
- PyMODINIT_FUNC
- PyInit_spam(void)
+ static int
+ spam_module_exec(PyObject *m)
{
- PyObject *m;
static void *PySpam_API[PySpam_API_pointers];
PyObject *c_api_object;
- m = PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
- if (m == NULL)
- return NULL;
-
/* Initialize the C API pointer array */
PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM] = (void *)PySpam_System;
@@ -1280,11 +1323,10 @@ function must take care of initializing the C API pointer array::
c_api_object = PyCapsule_New((void *)PySpam_API, "spam._C_API", NULL);
if (PyModule_Add(m, "_C_API", c_api_object) < 0) {
- Py_DECREF(m);
- return NULL;
+ return -1;
}
- return m;
+ return 0;
}
Note that ``PySpam_API`` is declared ``static``; otherwise the pointer
@@ -1343,20 +1385,16 @@ like this::
All that a client module must do in order to have access to the function
:c:func:`!PySpam_System` is to call the function (or rather macro)
-:c:func:`!import_spam` in its initialization function::
+:c:func:`!import_spam` in its :c:data:`mod_exec <Py_mod_exec>` function::
- PyMODINIT_FUNC
- PyInit_client(void)
+ static int
+ client_module_exec(PyObject *m)
{
- PyObject *m;
-
- m = PyModule_Create(&clientmodule);
- if (m == NULL)
- return NULL;
- if (import_spam() < 0)
- return NULL;
+ if (import_spam() < 0) {
+ return -1;
+ }
/* additional initialization can happen here */
- return m;
+ return 0;
}
The main disadvantage of this approach is that the file :file:`spammodule.h` is
@@ -1367,7 +1405,7 @@ Finally it should be mentioned that Capsules offer additional functionality,
which is especially useful for memory allocation and deallocation of the pointer
stored in a Capsule. The details are described in the Python/C API Reference
Manual in the section :ref:`capsules` and in the implementation of Capsules (files
-:file:`Include/pycapsule.h` and :file:`Objects/pycapsule.c` in the Python source
+:file:`Include/pycapsule.h` and :file:`Objects/capsule.c` in the Python source
code distribution).
.. rubric:: Footnotes
diff --git a/Doc/extending/index.rst b/Doc/extending/index.rst
index 01b4df6d44acff5..3880f4d0b49c492 100644
--- a/Doc/extending/index.rst
+++ b/Doc/extending/index.rst
@@ -12,11 +12,12 @@ language. Finally, it shows how to compile and link extension modules so that
they can be loaded dynamically (at run time) into the interpreter, if the
underlying operating system supports this feature.
-This document assumes basic knowledge about Python. For an informal
-introduction to the language, see :ref:`tutorial-index`. :ref:`reference-index`
-gives a more formal definition of the language. :ref:`library-index` documents
-the existing object types, functions and modules (both built-in and written in
-Python) that give the language its wide application range.
+This document assumes basic knowledge about C and Python. For an informal
+introduction to Python, see :ref:`tutorial-index`. :ref:`reference-index`
+gives a more formal definition of the language. :ref:`builtins-index` documents
+the built-in functions and object types, and :ref:`library-index` documents the
+modules (both built-in and written in Python) that give the language its wide
+application range.
For a detailed description of the whole Python/C API, see the separate
:ref:`c-api-index`.
@@ -26,19 +27,9 @@ Recommended third party tools
=============================
This guide only covers the basic tools for creating extensions provided
-as part of this version of CPython. Third party tools like
-`Cython <https://cython.org/>`_, `cffi <https://cffi.readthedocs.io>`_,
-`SWIG <https://www.swig.org>`_ and `Numba <https://numba.pydata.org/>`_
-offer both simpler and more sophisticated approaches to creating C and C++
-extensions for Python.
-
-.. seealso::
-
- `Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions <https://packaging.python.org/guides/packaging-binary-extensions/>`_
- The Python Packaging User Guide not only covers several available
- tools that simplify the creation of binary extensions, but also
- discusses the various reasons why creating an extension module may be
- desirable in the first place.
+as part of this version of CPython. Some :ref:`third party tools
+<c-api-tools>` offer both simpler and more sophisticated approaches to creating
+C and C++ extensions for Python.
Creating extensions without third party tools
@@ -49,6 +40,10 @@ assistance from third party tools. It is intended primarily for creators
of those tools, rather than being a recommended way to create your own
C extensions.
+.. seealso::
+
+ :pep:`489` -- Multi-phase extension module initialization
+
.. toctree::
:maxdepth: 2
:numbered:
diff --git a/Doc/extending/newtypes.rst b/Doc/extending/newtypes.rst
index 473a418809cff10..7f57a3a6aac0ed6 100644
--- a/Doc/extending/newtypes.rst
+++ b/Doc/extending/newtypes.rst
@@ -296,7 +296,7 @@ An interesting advantage of using the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_members` table
descriptors that are used at runtime is that any attribute defined this way can
have an associated doc string simply by providing the text in the table. An
application can use the introspection API to retrieve the descriptor from the
-class object, and get the doc string using its :attr:`!__doc__` attribute.
+class object, and get the doc string using its :attr:`~type.__doc__` attribute.
As with the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_methods` table, a sentinel entry with a :c:member:`~PyMethodDef.ml_name` value
of ``NULL`` is required.
@@ -545,7 +545,7 @@ performance-critical objects (such as numbers).
.. seealso::
Documentation for the :mod:`weakref` module.
-For an object to be weakly referencable, the extension type must set the
+For an object to be weakly referenceable, the extension type must set the
``Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF`` bit of the :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_flags`
field. The legacy :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset` field should
be left as zero.
diff --git a/Doc/extending/newtypes_tutorial.rst b/Doc/extending/newtypes_tutorial.rst
index 7eba9759119b3bf..613a21e97b9495e 100644
--- a/Doc/extending/newtypes_tutorial.rst
+++ b/Doc/extending/newtypes_tutorial.rst
@@ -55,8 +55,10 @@ from the previous chapter. This file defines three things:
#. How the :class:`!Custom` **type** behaves: this is the ``CustomType`` struct,
which defines a set of flags and function pointers that the interpreter
inspects when specific operations are requested.
-#. How to initialize the :mod:`!custom` module: this is the ``PyInit_custom``
- function and the associated ``custommodule`` struct.
+#. How to define and execute the :mod:`!custom` module: this is the
+ ``PyInit_custom`` function and the associated ``custom_module`` struct for
+ defining the module, and the ``custom_module_exec`` function to set up
+ a fresh module object.
The first bit is::
@@ -144,7 +146,7 @@ only used for variable-sized objects and should otherwise be zero.
If you want your type to be subclassable from Python, and your type has the same
:c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize` as its base type, you may have problems with multiple
inheritance. A Python subclass of your type will have to list your type first
- in its :attr:`~class.__bases__`, or else it will not be able to call your type's
+ in its :attr:`~type.__bases__`, or else it will not be able to call your type's
:meth:`~object.__new__` method without getting an error. You can avoid this problem by
ensuring that your type has a larger value for :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize` than its
base type does. Most of the time, this will be true anyway, because either your
@@ -171,18 +173,18 @@ implementation provided by the API function :c:func:`PyType_GenericNew`. ::
.tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
Everything else in the file should be familiar, except for some code in
-:c:func:`!PyInit_custom`::
+:c:func:`!custom_module_exec`::
- if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
- return;
+ if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
+ return -1;
+ }
This initializes the :class:`!Custom` type, filling in a number of members
to the appropriate default values, including :c:member:`~PyObject.ob_type` that we initially
set to ``NULL``. ::
if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
- Py_DECREF(m);
- return NULL;
+ return -1;
}
This adds the type to the module dictionary. This allows us to create
@@ -447,7 +449,7 @@ Further, the attributes can be deleted, setting the C pointers to ``NULL``. Eve
though we can make sure the members are initialized to non-``NULL`` values, the
members can be set to ``NULL`` if the attributes are deleted.
-We define a single method, :meth:`!Custom.name()`, that outputs the objects name as the
+We define a single method, :meth:`!Custom.name`, that outputs the objects name as the
concatenation of the first and last names. ::
static PyObject *
@@ -845,27 +847,22 @@ but let the base class handle it by calling its own :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_
The :c:type:`PyTypeObject` struct supports a :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_base`
specifying the type's concrete base class. Due to cross-platform compiler
issues, you can't fill that field directly with a reference to
-:c:type:`PyList_Type`; it should be done later in the module initialization
+:c:type:`PyList_Type`; it should be done in the :c:data:`Py_mod_exec`
function::
- PyMODINIT_FUNC
- PyInit_sublist(void)
+ static int
+ sublist_module_exec(PyObject *m)
{
- PyObject* m;
SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
- if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0)
- return NULL;
-
- m = PyModule_Create(&sublistmodule);
- if (m == NULL)
- return NULL;
+ if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0) {
+ return -1;
+ }
if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
- Py_DECREF(m);
- return NULL;
+ return -1;
}
- return m;
+ return 0;
}
Before calling :c:func:`PyType_Ready`, the type structure must have the
diff --git a/Doc/faq/design.rst b/Doc/faq/design.rst
index c8beb64e39bc1a3..3872a9ab9364f99 100644
--- a/Doc/faq/design.rst
+++ b/Doc/faq/design.rst
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ operations. This means that as far as floating-point operations are concerned,
Python behaves like many popular languages including C and Java.
Many numbers that can be written easily in decimal notation cannot be expressed
-exactly in binary floating-point. For example, after::
+exactly in binary floating point. For example, after::
>>> x = 1.2
@@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ which is exactly::
The typical precision of 53 bits provides Python floats with 15--16
decimal digits of accuracy.
-For a fuller explanation, please see the :ref:`floating point arithmetic
+For a fuller explanation, please see the :ref:`floating-point arithmetic
<tut-fp-issues>` chapter in the Python tutorial.
@@ -263,6 +263,8 @@ In general, structured switch statements execute one block of code
when an expression has a particular value or set of values.
Since Python 3.10 one can easily match literal values, or constants
within a namespace, with a ``match ... case`` statement.
+See :ref:`the specification <match>` and :ref:`the tutorial <tut-match>`
+for more information about :keyword:`match` statements.
An older alternative is a sequence of ``if... elif... elif... else``.
For cases where you need to choose from a very large number of possibilities,
@@ -328,7 +330,7 @@ Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?
-----------------------------------------------------------------
`Cython <https://cython.org/>`_ compiles a modified version of Python with
-optional annotations into C extensions. `Nuitka <https://www.nuitka.net/>`_ is
+optional annotations into C extensions. `Nuitka <https://nuitka.net/>`_ is
an up-and-coming compiler of Python into C++ code, aiming to support the full
Python language.
@@ -345,7 +347,7 @@ to perform a garbage collection, obtain debugging statistics, and tune the
collector's parameters.
Other implementations (such as `Jython <https://www.jython.org>`_ or
-`PyPy <https://www.pypy.org>`_), however, can rely on a different mechanism
+`PyPy <https://pypy.org>`_), however, can rely on a different mechanism
such as a full-blown garbage collector. This difference can cause some
subtle porting problems if your Python code depends on the behavior of the
reference counting implementation.
@@ -589,9 +591,9 @@ exhaustive test suites that exercise every line of code in a module.
An appropriate testing discipline can help build large complex applications in
Python as well as having interface specifications would. In fact, it can be
better because an interface specification cannot test certain properties of a
-program. For example, the :meth:`!list.append` method is expected to add new elements
+program. For example, the :meth:`list.append` method is expected to add new elements
to the end of some internal list; an interface specification cannot test that
-your :meth:`!list.append` implementation will actually do this correctly, but it's
+your :meth:`list.append` implementation will actually do this correctly, but it's
trivial to check this property in a test suite.
Writing test suites is very helpful, and you might want to design your code to
diff --git a/Doc/faq/extending.rst b/Doc/faq/extending.rst
index 1cff2c4091df060..1d5abed2317b0ce 100644
--- a/Doc/faq/extending.rst
+++ b/Doc/faq/extending.rst
@@ -37,24 +37,9 @@ Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?
----------------------------------------------
There are a number of alternatives to writing your own C extensions, depending
-on what you're trying to do.
-
-.. XXX make sure these all work
-
-`Cython <https://cython.org>`_ and its relative `Pyrex
-<https://www.csse.canterbury.ac.nz/greg.ewing/python/Pyrex/>`_ are compilers
-that accept a slightly modified form of Python and generate the corresponding
-C code. Cython and Pyrex make it possible to write an extension without having
-to learn Python's C API.
-
-If you need to interface to some C or C++ library for which no Python extension
-currently exists, you can try wrapping the library's data types and functions
-with a tool such as `SWIG <https://www.swig.org>`_. `SIP
-<https://github.com/Python-SIP/sip>`__, `CXX
-<https://cxx.sourceforge.net/>`_ `Boost
-<https://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html>`_, or `Weave
-<https://github.com/scipy/weave>`_ are also
-alternatives for wrapping C++ libraries.
+on what you're trying to do. :ref:`Recommended third party tools <c-api-tools>`
+offer both simpler and more sophisticated approaches to creating C and C++
+extensions for Python.
How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?
@@ -246,13 +231,12 @@ Then, when you run GDB:
I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-Most packaged versions of Python don't include the
-:file:`/usr/lib/python2.{x}/config/` directory, which contains various files
+Most packaged versions of Python omit some files
required for compiling Python extensions.
-For Red Hat, install the python-devel RPM to get the necessary files.
+For Red Hat, install the python3-devel RPM to get the necessary files.
-For Debian, run ``apt-get install python-dev``.
+For Debian, run ``apt-get install python3-dev``.
How do I tell "incomplete input" from "invalid input"?
------------------------------------------------------
diff --git a/Doc/faq/general.rst b/Doc/faq/general.rst
index ec7c28975949990..7327151e1e381d8 100644
--- a/Doc/faq/general.rst
+++ b/Doc/faq/general.rst
@@ -122,6 +122,8 @@ available. Consult `the Python Package Index <https://pypi.org>`_ to
find packages of interest to you.
+.. _faq-version-numbering-scheme:
+
How does the Python version numbering scheme work?
--------------------------------------------------
@@ -183,10 +185,8 @@ information on getting the source code and compiling it.
How do I get documentation on Python?
-------------------------------------
-.. XXX mention py3k
-
The standard documentation for the current stable version of Python is available
-at https://docs.python.org/3/. PDF, plain text, and downloadable HTML versions are
+at https://docs.python.org/3/. EPUB, plain text, and downloadable HTML versions are
also available at https://docs.python.org/3/download.html.
The documentation is written in reStructuredText and processed by `the Sphinx
@@ -309,10 +309,10 @@ guaranteed that interfaces will remain the same throughout a series of bugfix
releases.
The latest stable releases can always be found on the `Python download page
-<https://www.python.org/downloads/>`_. There are two production-ready versions
-of Python: 2.x and 3.x. The recommended version is 3.x, which is supported by
-most widely used libraries. Although 2.x is still widely used, `it is not
-maintained anymore <https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/>`_.
+<https://www.python.org/downloads/>`_.
+Python 3.x is the recommended version and supported by most widely used libraries.
+Python 2.x :pep:`is not maintained anymore <373>`.
+
How many people are using Python?
---------------------------------
diff --git a/Doc/faq/library.rst b/Doc/faq/library.rst
index b959cd73921428e..522923572bfbbf8 100644
--- a/Doc/faq/library.rst
+++ b/Doc/faq/library.rst
@@ -796,12 +796,12 @@ is simple::
import random
random.random()
-This returns a random floating point number in the range [0, 1).
+This returns a random floating-point number in the range [0, 1).
There are also many other specialized generators in this module, such as:
* ``randrange(a, b)`` chooses an integer in the range [a, b).
-* ``uniform(a, b)`` chooses a floating point number in the range [a, b).
+* ``uniform(a, b)`` chooses a floating-point number in the range [a, b).
* ``normalvariate(mean, sdev)`` samples the normal (Gaussian) distribution.
Some higher-level functions operate on sequences directly, such as:
diff --git a/Doc/faq/programming.rst b/Doc/faq/programming.rst
index 0a88c5f6384f2be..737a7c6077fa0d5 100644
--- a/Doc/faq/programming.rst
+++ b/Doc/faq/programming.rst
@@ -8,11 +8,11 @@ Programming FAQ
.. contents::
-General Questions
+General questions
=================
-Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints, single-stepping, etc.?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Is there a source code-level debugger with breakpoints and single-stepping?
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Yes.
@@ -25,8 +25,7 @@ Reference Manual <pdb>`. You can also write your own debugger by using the code
for pdb as an example.
The IDLE interactive development environment, which is part of the standard
-Python distribution (normally available as
-`Tools/scripts/idle3 <https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Tools/scripts/idle3>`_),
+Python distribution (normally available as :mod:`idlelib`),
includes a graphical debugger.
PythonWin is a Python IDE that includes a GUI debugger based on pdb. The
@@ -48,7 +47,6 @@ There are a number of commercial Python IDEs that include graphical debuggers.
They include:
* `Wing IDE <https://wingware.com/>`_
-* `Komodo IDE <https://www.activestate.com/products/komodo-ide/>`_
* `PyCharm <https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/>`_
@@ -57,13 +55,15 @@ Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?
Yes.
-`Pylint <https://pylint.pycqa.org/en/latest/index.html>`_ and
-`Pyflakes <https://github.com/PyCQA/pyflakes>`_ do basic checking that will
+`Ruff <https://docs.astral.sh/ruff/>`__,
+`Pylint <https://pylint.readthedocs.io/>`__ and
+`Pyflakes <https://github.com/PyCQA/pyflakes>`__ do basic checking that will
help you catch bugs sooner.
-Static type checkers such as `Mypy <https://mypy-lang.org/>`_,
-`Pyre <https://pyre-check.org/>`_, and
-`Pytype <https://github.com/google/pytype>`_ can check type hints in Python
+Static type checkers such as `mypy <https://mypy-lang.org/>`__,
+`ty <https://docs.astral.sh/ty/>`__,
+`Pyrefly <https://pyrefly.org/>`__, and
+`pytype <https://github.com/google/pytype>`__ can check type hints in Python
source code.
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ set of modules required by a program and bind these modules together with a
Python binary to produce a single executable.
One is to use the freeze tool, which is included in the Python source tree as
-`Tools/freeze <https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Tools/freeze>`_.
+:source:`Tools/freeze`.
It converts Python byte code to C arrays; with a C compiler you can
embed all your modules into a new program, which is then linked with the
standard Python modules.
@@ -103,6 +103,7 @@ executables:
* `py2app <https://github.com/ronaldoussoren/py2app>`_ (macOS only)
* `py2exe <https://www.py2exe.org/>`_ (Windows only)
+
Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?
----------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -110,7 +111,7 @@ Yes. The coding style required for standard library modules is documented as
:pep:`8`.
-Core Language
+Core language
=============
.. _faq-unboundlocalerror:
@@ -143,7 +144,7 @@ results in an :exc:`!UnboundLocalError`:
>>> foo()
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
- UnboundLocalError: local variable 'x' referenced before assignment
+ UnboundLocalError: cannot access local variable 'x' where it is not associated with a value
This is because when you make an assignment to a variable in a scope, that
variable becomes local to that scope and shadows any similarly named variable
@@ -208,7 +209,7 @@ Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same resul
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Assume you use a for loop to define a few different lambdas (or even plain
-functions), e.g.::
+functions), for example::
>>> squares = []
>>> for x in range(5):
@@ -227,7 +228,7 @@ they all return ``16``::
This happens because ``x`` is not local to the lambdas, but is defined in
the outer scope, and it is accessed when the lambda is called --- not when it
is defined. At the end of the loop, the value of ``x`` is ``4``, so all the
-functions now return ``4**2``, i.e. ``16``. You can also verify this by
+functions now return ``4**2``, that is ``16``. You can also verify this by
changing the value of ``x`` and see how the results of the lambdas change::
>>> x = 8
@@ -298,9 +299,9 @@ using multiple imports per line uses less screen space.
It's good practice if you import modules in the following order:
-1. standard library modules -- e.g. :mod:`sys`, :mod:`os`, :mod:`argparse`, :mod:`re`
+1. standard library modules -- such as :mod:`sys`, :mod:`os`, :mod:`argparse`, :mod:`re`
2. third-party library modules (anything installed in Python's site-packages
- directory) -- e.g. :mod:`!dateutil`, :mod:`!requests`, :mod:`!PIL.Image`
+ directory) -- such as :pypi:`dateutil`, :pypi:`requests`, :pypi:`tzdata`
3. locally developed modules
It is sometimes necessary to move imports to a function or class to avoid
@@ -454,7 +455,7 @@ There are two factors that produce this result:
(the list), and both ``x`` and ``y`` refer to it.
2) Lists are :term:`mutable`, which means that you can change their content.
-After the call to :meth:`!append`, the content of the mutable object has
+After the call to :meth:`~sequence.append`, the content of the mutable object has
changed from ``[]`` to ``[10]``. Since both the variables refer to the same
object, using either name accesses the modified value ``[10]``.
@@ -494,11 +495,11 @@ new objects).
In other words:
-* If we have a mutable object (:class:`list`, :class:`dict`, :class:`set`,
- etc.), we can use some specific operations to mutate it and all the variables
+* If we have a mutable object (such as :class:`list`, :class:`dict`, :class:`set`),
+ we can use some specific operations to mutate it and all the variables
that refer to it will see the change.
-* If we have an immutable object (:class:`str`, :class:`int`, :class:`tuple`,
- etc.), all the variables that refer to it will always see the same value,
+* If we have an immutable object (such as :class:`str`, :class:`int`, :class:`tuple`),
+ all the variables that refer to it will always see the same value,
but operations that transform that value into a new value always return a new
object.
@@ -511,7 +512,7 @@ How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)?
Remember that arguments are passed by assignment in Python. Since assignment
just creates references to objects, there's no alias between an argument name in
-the caller and callee, and so no call-by-reference per se. You can achieve the
+the caller and callee, and consequently no call-by-reference. You can achieve the
desired effect in a number of ways.
1) By returning a tuple of the results::
@@ -714,8 +715,8 @@ not::
"a" in ("b", "a")
-The same is true of the various assignment operators (``=``, ``+=`` etc). They
-are not truly operators but syntactic delimiters in assignment statements.
+The same is true of the various assignment operators (``=``, ``+=``, and so on).
+They are not truly operators but syntactic delimiters in assignment statements.
Is there an equivalent of C's "?:" ternary operator?
@@ -868,9 +869,9 @@ with either a space or parentheses.
How do I convert a string to a number?
--------------------------------------
-For integers, use the built-in :func:`int` type constructor, e.g. ``int('144')
-== 144``. Similarly, :func:`float` converts to floating-point,
-e.g. ``float('144') == 144.0``.
+For integers, use the built-in :func:`int` type constructor, for example, ``int('144')
+== 144``. Similarly, :func:`float` converts to a floating-point number,
+for example, ``float('144') == 144.0``.
By default, these interpret the number as decimal, so that ``int('0144') ==
144`` holds true, and ``int('0x144')`` raises :exc:`ValueError`. ``int(string,
@@ -887,18 +888,18 @@ unwanted side effects. For example, someone could pass
directory.
:func:`eval` also has the effect of interpreting numbers as Python expressions,
-so that e.g. ``eval('09')`` gives a syntax error because Python does not allow
+so that, for example, ``eval('09')`` gives a syntax error because Python does not allow
leading '0' in a decimal number (except '0').
How do I convert a number to a string?
--------------------------------------
-To convert, e.g., the number ``144`` to the string ``'144'``, use the built-in type
+For example, to convert the number ``144`` to the string ``'144'``, use the built-in type
constructor :func:`str`. If you want a hexadecimal or octal representation, use
the built-in functions :func:`hex` or :func:`oct`. For fancy formatting, see
-the :ref:`f-strings` and :ref:`formatstrings` sections,
-e.g. ``"{:04d}".format(144)`` yields
+the :ref:`f-strings` and :ref:`formatstrings` sections.
+For example, ``"{:04d}".format(144)`` yields
``'0144'`` and ``"{:.3f}".format(1.0/3.0)`` yields ``'0.333'``.
@@ -908,7 +909,7 @@ How do I modify a string in place?
You can't, because strings are immutable. In most situations, you should
simply construct a new string from the various parts you want to assemble
it from. However, if you need an object with the ability to modify in-place
-unicode data, try using an :class:`io.StringIO` object or the :mod:`array`
+Unicode data, try using an :class:`io.StringIO` object or the :mod:`array`
module::
>>> import io
@@ -986,8 +987,8 @@ There are various techniques.
f()
-Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Is there an equivalent to Perl's ``chomp()`` for removing trailing newlines from strings?
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
You can use ``S.rstrip("\r\n")`` to remove all occurrences of any line
terminator from the end of the string ``S`` without removing other trailing
@@ -1005,23 +1006,23 @@ Since this is typically only desired when reading text one line at a time, using
``S.rstrip()`` this way works well.
-Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?
-------------------------------------------
+Is there a ``scanf()`` or ``sscanf()`` equivalent?
+--------------------------------------------------
Not as such.
For simple input parsing, the easiest approach is usually to split the line into
whitespace-delimited words using the :meth:`~str.split` method of string objects
and then convert decimal strings to numeric values using :func:`int` or
-:func:`float`. :meth:`!split()` supports an optional "sep" parameter which is useful
+:func:`float`. :meth:`!split` supports an optional "sep" parameter which is useful
if the line uses something other than whitespace as a separator.
For more complicated input parsing, regular expressions are more powerful
than C's ``sscanf`` and better suited for the task.
-What does 'UnicodeDecodeError' or 'UnicodeEncodeError' error mean?
--------------------------------------------------------------------
+What does ``UnicodeDecodeError`` or ``UnicodeEncodeError`` error mean?
+----------------------------------------------------------------------
See the :ref:`unicode-howto`.
@@ -1036,7 +1037,7 @@ A raw string ending with an odd number of backslashes will escape the string's q
>>> r'C:\this\will\not\work\'
File "<stdin>", line 1
r'C:\this\will\not\work\'
- ^
+ ^
SyntaxError: unterminated string literal (detected at line 1)
There are several workarounds for this. One is to use regular strings and double
@@ -1066,13 +1067,14 @@ the raw string::
Also see the specification in the :ref:`language reference <strings>`.
+
Performance
===========
My program is too slow. How do I speed it up?
---------------------------------------------
-That's a tough one, in general. First, here are a list of things to
+That's a tough one, in general. First, here is a list of things to
remember before diving further:
* Performance characteristics vary across Python implementations. This FAQ
@@ -1125,6 +1127,7 @@ yourself.
The wiki page devoted to `performance tips
<https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonSpeed/PerformanceTips>`_.
+
.. _efficient_string_concatenation:
What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?
@@ -1143,7 +1146,7 @@ them into a list and call :meth:`str.join` at the end::
chunks.append(s)
result = ''.join(chunks)
-(another reasonably efficient idiom is to use :class:`io.StringIO`)
+(Another reasonably efficient idiom is to use :class:`io.StringIO`.)
To accumulate many :class:`bytes` objects, the recommended idiom is to extend
a :class:`bytearray` object using in-place concatenation (the ``+=`` operator)::
@@ -1153,7 +1156,7 @@ a :class:`bytearray` object using in-place concatenation (the ``+=`` operator)::
result += b
-Sequences (Tuples/Lists)
+Sequences (tuples/lists)
========================
How do I convert between tuples and lists?
@@ -1217,8 +1220,8 @@ list, deleting duplicates as you go::
else:
last = mylist[i]
-If all elements of the list may be used as set keys (i.e. they are all
-:term:`hashable`) this is often faster ::
+If all elements of the list may be used as set keys (that is, they are all
+:term:`hashable`) this is often faster::
mylist = list(set(mylist))
@@ -1226,13 +1229,13 @@ This converts the list into a set, thereby removing duplicates, and then back
into a list.
-How do you remove multiple items from a list
---------------------------------------------
+How do you remove multiple items from a list?
+---------------------------------------------
As with removing duplicates, explicitly iterating in reverse with a
delete condition is one possibility. However, it is easier and faster
to use slice replacement with an implicit or explicit forward iteration.
-Here are three variations.::
+Here are three variations::
mylist[:] = filter(keep_function, mylist)
mylist[:] = (x for x in mylist if keep_condition)
@@ -1254,7 +1257,7 @@ difference is that a Python list can contain objects of many different types.
The ``array`` module also provides methods for creating arrays of fixed types
with compact representations, but they are slower to index than lists. Also
note that `NumPy <https://numpy.org/>`_
-and other third party packages define array-like structures with
+and other third-party packages define array-like structures with
various characteristics as well.
To get Lisp-style linked lists, you can emulate *cons cells* using tuples::
@@ -1324,7 +1327,7 @@ Or, you can use an extension that provides a matrix datatype; `NumPy
How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?
-------------------------------------------------------------
-To call a method or function and accumulate the return values is a list,
+To call a method or function and accumulate the return values in a list,
a :term:`list comprehension` is an elegant solution::
result = [obj.method() for obj in mylist]
@@ -1340,6 +1343,7 @@ a plain :keyword:`for` loop will suffice::
for obj in mylist:
function(obj)
+
.. _faq-augmented-assignment-tuple-error:
Why does a_tuple[i] += ['item'] raise an exception when the addition works?
@@ -1397,9 +1401,9 @@ To see why this happens, you need to know that (a) if an object implements an
:meth:`~object.__iadd__` magic method, it gets called when the ``+=`` augmented
assignment
is executed, and its return value is what gets used in the assignment statement;
-and (b) for lists, :meth:`!__iadd__` is equivalent to calling :meth:`!extend` on the list
-and returning the list. That's why we say that for lists, ``+=`` is a
-"shorthand" for :meth:`!list.extend`::
+and (b) for lists, :meth:`!__iadd__` is equivalent to calling
+:meth:`~sequence.extend` on the list and returning the list.
+That's why we say that for lists, ``+=`` is a "shorthand" for :meth:`list.extend`::
>>> a_list = []
>>> a_list += [1]
@@ -1444,7 +1448,7 @@ How can I sort one list by values from another list?
----------------------------------------------------
Merge them into an iterator of tuples, sort the resulting list, and then pick
-out the element you want. ::
+out the element you want.
>>> list1 = ["what", "I'm", "sorting", "by"]
>>> list2 = ["something", "else", "to", "sort"]
@@ -1504,14 +1508,15 @@ How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of
Use the built-in function :func:`isinstance(obj, cls) <isinstance>`. You can
check if an object
is an instance of any of a number of classes by providing a tuple instead of a
-single class, e.g. ``isinstance(obj, (class1, class2, ...))``, and can also
-check whether an object is one of Python's built-in types, e.g.
+single class, for example, ``isinstance(obj, (class1, class2, ...))``, and can also
+check whether an object is one of Python's built-in types, for example,
``isinstance(obj, str)`` or ``isinstance(obj, (int, float, complex))``.
Note that :func:`isinstance` also checks for virtual inheritance from an
:term:`abstract base class`. So, the test will return ``True`` for a
registered class even if hasn't directly or indirectly inherited from it. To
-test for "true inheritance", scan the :term:`MRO` of the class:
+test for "true inheritance", scan the :term:`method resolution order` (MRO) of
+the class:
.. testcode::
@@ -1574,7 +1579,7 @@ call it::
What is delegation?
-------------------
-Delegation is an object oriented technique (also called a design pattern).
+Delegation is an object-oriented technique (also called a design pattern).
Let's say you have an object ``x`` and want to change the behaviour of just one
of its methods. You can create a new class that provides a new implementation
of the method you're interested in changing and delegates all other methods to
@@ -1613,9 +1618,16 @@ method too, and it must do so carefully. The basic implementation of
self.__dict__[name] = value
...
-Most :meth:`!__setattr__` implementations must modify
-:meth:`self.__dict__ <object.__dict__>` to store
-local state for self without causing an infinite recursion.
+Many :meth:`~object.__setattr__` implementations call :meth:`!object.__setattr__` to set
+an attribute on self without causing infinite recursion::
+
+ class X:
+ def __setattr__(self, name, value):
+ # Custom logic here...
+ object.__setattr__(self, name, value)
+
+Alternatively, it is possible to set attributes by inserting
+entries into :attr:`self.__dict__ <object.__dict__>` directly.
How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?
@@ -1638,7 +1650,7 @@ How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?
You could assign the base class to an alias and derive from the alias. Then all
you have to change is the value assigned to the alias. Incidentally, this trick
-is also handy if you want to decide dynamically (e.g. depending on availability
+is also handy if you want to decide dynamically (such as depending on availability
of resources) which base class to use. Example::
class Base:
@@ -1703,9 +1715,9 @@ How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python?
This answer actually applies to all methods, but the question usually comes up
first in the context of constructors.
-In C++ you'd write
+In C++ you'd write:
-.. code-block:: c
+.. code-block:: c++
class C {
C() { cout << "No arguments\n"; }
@@ -1724,7 +1736,7 @@ default arguments. For example::
This is not entirely equivalent, but close enough in practice.
-You could also try a variable-length argument list, e.g. ::
+You could also try a variable-length argument list, for example::
def __init__(self, *args):
...
@@ -1741,10 +1753,31 @@ but effective way to define class private variables. Any identifier of the form
is textually replaced with ``_classname__spam``, where ``classname`` is the
current class name with any leading underscores stripped.
-This doesn't guarantee privacy: an outside user can still deliberately access
-the "_classname__spam" attribute, and private values are visible in the object's
-``__dict__``. Many Python programmers never bother to use private variable
-names at all.
+The identifier can be used unchanged within the class, but to access it outside
+the class, the mangled name must be used:
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+ class A:
+ def __one(self):
+ return 1
+ def two(self):
+ return 2 * self.__one()
+
+ class B(A):
+ def three(self):
+ return 3 * self._A__one()
+
+ four = 4 * A()._A__one()
+
+In particular, this does not guarantee privacy since an outside user can still
+deliberately access the private attribute; many Python programmers never bother
+to use private variable names at all.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+ The :ref:`private name mangling specifications <private-name-mangling>`
+ for details and special cases.
My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.
@@ -1756,7 +1789,7 @@ The :keyword:`del` statement does not necessarily call :meth:`~object.__del__` -
decrements the object's reference count, and if this reaches zero
:meth:`!__del__` is called.
-If your data structures contain circular links (e.g. a tree where each child has
+If your data structures contain circular links (for example, a tree where each child has
a parent reference and each parent has a list of children) the reference counts
will never go back to zero. Once in a while Python runs an algorithm to detect
such cycles, but the garbage collector might run some time after the last
@@ -1841,24 +1874,24 @@ object identity is assured. Generally, there are three circumstances where
identity is guaranteed:
1) Assignments create new names but do not change object identity. After the
-assignment ``new = old``, it is guaranteed that ``new is old``.
+ assignment ``new = old``, it is guaranteed that ``new is old``.
2) Putting an object in a container that stores object references does not
-change object identity. After the list assignment ``s[0] = x``, it is
-guaranteed that ``s[0] is x``.
+ change object identity. After the list assignment ``s[0] = x``, it is
+ guaranteed that ``s[0] is x``.
3) If an object is a singleton, it means that only one instance of that object
-can exist. After the assignments ``a = None`` and ``b = None``, it is
-guaranteed that ``a is b`` because ``None`` is a singleton.
+ can exist. After the assignments ``a = None`` and ``b = None``, it is
+ guaranteed that ``a is b`` because ``None`` is a singleton.
In most other circumstances, identity tests are inadvisable and equality tests
are preferred. In particular, identity tests should not be used to check
constants such as :class:`int` and :class:`str` which aren't guaranteed to be
singletons::
- >>> a = 1000
- >>> b = 500
- >>> c = b + 500
+ >>> a = 10_000_000
+ >>> b = 5_000_000
+ >>> c = b + 5_000_000
>>> a is c
False
@@ -1879,28 +1912,30 @@ In the standard library code, you will see several common patterns for
correctly using identity tests:
1) As recommended by :pep:`8`, an identity test is the preferred way to check
-for ``None``. This reads like plain English in code and avoids confusion with
-other objects that may have boolean values that evaluate to false.
+ for ``None``. This reads like plain English in code and avoids confusion
+ with other objects that may have boolean values that evaluate to false.
2) Detecting optional arguments can be tricky when ``None`` is a valid input
-value. In those situations, you can create a singleton sentinel object
-guaranteed to be distinct from other objects. For example, here is how
-to implement a method that behaves like :meth:`dict.pop`::
+ value. In those situations, you can create a singleton sentinel object
+ guaranteed to be distinct from other objects. For example, here is how
+ to implement a method that behaves like :meth:`dict.pop`:
+
+ .. code-block:: python
- _sentinel = object()
+ _sentinel = object()
- def pop(self, key, default=_sentinel):
- if key in self:
- value = self[key]
- del self[key]
- return value
- if default is _sentinel:
- raise KeyError(key)
- return default
+ def pop(self, key, default=_sentinel):
+ if key in self:
+ value = self[key]
+ del self[key]
+ return value
+ if default is _sentinel:
+ raise KeyError(key)
+ return default
3) Container implementations sometimes need to augment equality tests with
-identity tests. This prevents the code from being confused by objects such as
-``float('NaN')`` that are not equal to themselves.
+ identity tests. This prevents the code from being confused by objects
+ such as ``float('NaN')`` that are not equal to themselves.
For example, here is the implementation of
:meth:`!collections.abc.Sequence.__contains__`::
@@ -1925,9 +1960,9 @@ parent class:
.. testcode::
- from datetime import date
+ import datetime as dt
- class FirstOfMonthDate(date):
+ class FirstOfMonthDate(dt.date):
"Always choose the first day of the month"
def __new__(cls, year, month, day):
return super().__new__(cls, year, month, 1)
@@ -1966,11 +2001,11 @@ How do I cache method calls?
----------------------------
The two principal tools for caching methods are
-:func:`functools.cached_property` and :func:`functools.lru_cache`. The
+:deco:`functools.cached_property` and :deco:`functools.lru_cache`. The
former stores results at the instance level and the latter at the class
level.
-The *cached_property* approach only works with methods that do not take
+The ``cached_property`` approach only works with methods that do not take
any arguments. It does not create a reference to the instance. The
cached method result will be kept only as long as the instance is alive.
@@ -1979,7 +2014,7 @@ method result will be released right away. The disadvantage is that if
instances accumulate, so too will the accumulated method results. They
can grow without bound.
-The *lru_cache* approach works with methods that have :term:`hashable`
+The ``lru_cache`` approach works with methods that have :term:`hashable`
arguments. It creates a reference to the instance unless special
efforts are made to pass in weak references.
@@ -2013,11 +2048,11 @@ This example shows the various techniques::
# Depends on the station_id, date, and units.
The above example assumes that the *station_id* never changes. If the
-relevant instance attributes are mutable, the *cached_property* approach
+relevant instance attributes are mutable, the ``cached_property`` approach
can't be made to work because it cannot detect changes to the
attributes.
-To make the *lru_cache* approach work when the *station_id* is mutable,
+To make the ``lru_cache`` approach work when the *station_id* is mutable,
the class needs to define the :meth:`~object.__eq__` and :meth:`~object.__hash__`
methods so that the cache can detect relevant attribute updates::
@@ -2063,10 +2098,10 @@ one user but run as another, such as if you are testing with a web server.
Unless the :envvar:`PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE` environment variable is set,
creation of a .pyc file is automatic if you're importing a module and Python
-has the ability (permissions, free space, etc...) to create a ``__pycache__``
+has the ability (permissions, free space, and so on) to create a ``__pycache__``
subdirectory and write the compiled module to that subdirectory.
-Running Python on a top level script is not considered an import and no
+Running Python on a top-level script is not considered an import and no
``.pyc`` will be created. For example, if you have a top-level module
``foo.py`` that imports another module ``xyz.py``, when you run ``foo`` (by
typing ``python foo.py`` as a shell command), a ``.pyc`` will be created for
@@ -2085,7 +2120,7 @@ the ``compile()`` function in that module interactively::
This will write the ``.pyc`` to a ``__pycache__`` subdirectory in the same
location as ``foo.py`` (or you can override that with the optional parameter
-``cfile``).
+*cfile*).
You can also automatically compile all files in a directory or directories using
the :mod:`compileall` module. You can do it from the shell prompt by running
@@ -2190,7 +2225,7 @@ changed module, do this::
importlib.reload(modname)
Warning: this technique is not 100% fool-proof. In particular, modules
-containing statements like ::
+containing statements like::
from modname import some_objects
diff --git a/Doc/glossary.rst b/Doc/glossary.rst
index 2846f77feb112dc..a70ee3c9b31aead 100644
--- a/Doc/glossary.rst
+++ b/Doc/glossary.rst
@@ -21,7 +21,9 @@ Glossary
right delimiters (parentheses, square brackets, curly braces or triple
quotes), or after specifying a decorator.
- * The :const:`Ellipsis` built-in constant.
+ .. index:: single: ...; ellipsis literal
+
+ * The three dots form of the :ref:`Ellipsis <bltin-ellipsis-object>` object.
abstract base class
Abstract base classes complement :term:`duck-typing` by
@@ -88,21 +90,24 @@ Glossary
:meth:`~object.__aexit__` methods. Introduced by :pep:`492`.
asynchronous generator
- A function which returns an :term:`asynchronous generator iterator`. It
- looks like a coroutine function defined with :keyword:`async def` except
- that it contains :keyword:`yield` expressions for producing a series of
- values usable in an :keyword:`async for` loop.
-
- Usually refers to an asynchronous generator function, but may refer to an
- *asynchronous generator iterator* in some contexts. In cases where the
- intended meaning isn't clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity.
+ Informally used to mean either an :term:`asynchronous generator
+ function` or an :term:`asynchronous generator iterator`, depending on
+ context. The formal terms :term:`asynchronous generator function` and
+ :term:`asynchronous generator iterator` are uncommon in practice;
+ "asynchronous generator" alone is almost always sufficient.
+
+ asynchronous generator function
+ A function which returns an :term:`asynchronous generator iterator`.
+ It looks like a coroutine function defined with :keyword:`async def`
+ except that it contains :keyword:`yield` expressions for producing a
+ series of values usable in an :keyword:`async for` loop. See :pep:`525`.
An asynchronous generator function may contain :keyword:`await`
expressions as well as :keyword:`async for`, and :keyword:`async with`
statements.
asynchronous generator iterator
- An object created by a :term:`asynchronous generator` function.
+ An object created by an :term:`asynchronous generator function`.
This is an :term:`asynchronous iterator` which when called using the
:meth:`~object.__anext__` method returns an awaitable object which will execute
@@ -110,7 +115,7 @@ Glossary
:keyword:`yield` expression.
Each :keyword:`yield` temporarily suspends processing, remembering the
- location execution state (including local variables and pending
+ execution state (including local variables and pending
try-statements). When the *asynchronous generator iterator* effectively
resumes with another awaitable returned by :meth:`~object.__anext__`, it
picks up where it left off. See :pep:`492` and :pep:`525`.
@@ -127,6 +132,14 @@ Glossary
iterator's :meth:`~object.__anext__` method until it raises a
:exc:`StopAsyncIteration` exception. Introduced by :pep:`492`.
+ atomic operation
+ An operation that appears to execute as a single, indivisible step: no
+ other thread can observe it half-done, and its effects become visible all
+ at once. Python does not guarantee that high-level statements are atomic
+ (for example, ``x += 1`` performs multiple bytecode operations and is not
+ atomic). Atomicity is only guaranteed where explicitly documented. See
+ also :term:`race condition` and :term:`data race`.
+
attribute
A value associated with an object which is usually referenced by name
using dotted expressions.
@@ -226,6 +239,28 @@ Glossary
A variable defined in a class and intended to be modified only at
class level (i.e., not in an instance of the class).
+ closure variable
+ A :term:`free variable` referenced from a :term:`nested scope` that is defined in an outer
+ scope rather than being resolved at runtime from the globals or builtin namespaces.
+ May be explicitly defined with the :keyword:`nonlocal` keyword to allow write access,
+ or implicitly defined if the variable is only being read.
+
+ For example, in the ``inner`` function in the following code, both ``x`` and ``print`` are
+ :term:`free variables <free variable>`, but only ``x`` is a *closure variable*::
+
+ def outer():
+ x = 0
+ def inner():
+ nonlocal x
+ x += 1
+ print(x)
+ return inner
+
+ Due to the :attr:`codeobject.co_freevars` attribute (which, despite its name, only
+ includes the names of closure variables rather than listing all referenced free
+ variables), the more general :term:`free variable` term is sometimes used even
+ when the intended meaning is to refer specifically to closure variables.
+
complex number
An extension of the familiar real number system in which all numbers are
expressed as a sum of a real part and an imaginary part. Imaginary
@@ -238,19 +273,49 @@ Glossary
advanced mathematical feature. If you're not aware of a need for them,
it's almost certain you can safely ignore them.
+ concurrency
+ The ability of a computer program to perform multiple tasks at the same
+ time. Python provides libraries for writing programs that make use of
+ different forms of concurrency. :mod:`asyncio` is a library for dealing
+ with asynchronous tasks and coroutines. :mod:`threading` provides
+ access to operating system threads and :mod:`multiprocessing` to
+ operating system processes. Multi-core processors can execute threads and
+ processes on different CPU cores at the same time (see
+ :term:`parallelism`).
+
+ concurrent modification
+ When multiple threads modify shared data at the same time. Concurrent
+ modification without proper synchronization can cause
+ :term:`race conditions <race condition>`, and might also trigger a
+ :term:`data race <data race>`, data corruption, or both.
+
+ context
+ This term has different meanings depending on where and how it is used.
+ Some common meanings:
+
+ * The temporary state or environment established by a :term:`context
+ manager` via a :keyword:`with` statement.
+ * The collection of keyvalue bindings associated with a particular
+ :class:`contextvars.Context` object and accessed via
+ :class:`~contextvars.ContextVar` objects. Also see :term:`context
+ variable`.
+ * A :class:`contextvars.Context` object. Also see :term:`current
+ context`.
+
+ context management protocol
+ The :meth:`~object.__enter__` and :meth:`~object.__exit__` methods called
+ by the :keyword:`with` statement. See :pep:`343`.
+
context manager
- An object which controls the environment seen in a :keyword:`with`
- statement by defining :meth:`~object.__enter__` and :meth:`~object.__exit__` methods.
- See :pep:`343`.
+ An object which implements the :term:`context management protocol` and
+ controls the environment seen in a :keyword:`with` statement. See
+ :pep:`343`.
context variable
- A variable which can have different values depending on its context.
- This is similar to Thread-Local Storage in which each execution
- thread may have a different value for a variable. However, with context
- variables, there may be several contexts in one execution thread and the
- main usage for context variables is to keep track of variables in
+ A variable whose value depends on which context is the :term:`current
+ context`. Values are accessed via :class:`contextvars.ContextVar`
+ objects. Context variables are primarily used to isolate state between
concurrent asynchronous tasks.
- See :mod:`contextvars`.
contiguous
.. index:: C-contiguous, Fortran contiguous
@@ -284,10 +349,40 @@ Glossary
is used when necessary to distinguish this implementation from others
such as Jython or IronPython.
+ current context
+ The :term:`context` (:class:`contextvars.Context` object) that is
+ currently used by :class:`~contextvars.ContextVar` objects to access (get
+ or set) the values of :term:`context variables <context variable>`. Each
+ thread has its own current context. Frameworks for executing asynchronous
+ tasks (see :mod:`asyncio`) associate each task with a context which
+ becomes the current context whenever the task starts or resumes execution.
+
+ data race
+ A situation where multiple threads access the same memory location
+ concurrently, at least one of the accesses is a write, and the threads
+ do not use any synchronization to control their access. Data races
+ lead to :term:`non-deterministic` behavior and can cause data corruption.
+ Proper use of :term:`locks <lock>` and other :term:`synchronization primitives
+ <synchronization primitive>` prevents data races. Note that data races
+ can only happen in native code, but that :term:`native code` might be
+ exposed in a Python API. See also :term:`race condition` and
+ :term:`thread-safe`.
+
+ deadlock
+ A situation in which two or more tasks (threads, processes, or coroutines)
+ wait indefinitely for each other to release resources or complete actions,
+ preventing any from making progress. For example, if thread A holds lock
+ 1 and waits for lock 2, while thread B holds lock 2 and waits for lock 1,
+ both threads will wait indefinitely. In Python this often arises from
+ acquiring multiple locks in conflicting orders or from circular
+ join/await dependencies. Deadlocks can be avoided by always acquiring
+ multiple :term:`locks <lock>` in a consistent order. See also
+ :term:`lock` and :term:`reentrant`.
+
decorator
A function returning another function, usually applied as a function
transformation using the ``@wrapper`` syntax. Common examples for
- decorators are :func:`classmethod` and :func:`staticmethod`.
+ decorators are :deco:`classmethod` and :deco:`staticmethod`.
The decorator syntax is merely syntactic sugar, the following two
function definitions are semantically equivalent::
@@ -342,7 +437,7 @@ Glossary
docstring
A string literal which appears as the first expression in a class,
function or module. While ignored when the suite is executed, it is
- recognized by the compiler and put into the :attr:`!__doc__` attribute
+ recognized by the compiler and put into the :attr:`~definition.__doc__` attribute
of the enclosing class, function or module. Since it is available via
introspection, it is the canonical place for documentation of the
object.
@@ -358,6 +453,11 @@ Glossary
with :term:`abstract base classes <abstract base class>`.) Instead, it
typically employs :func:`hasattr` tests or :term:`EAFP` programming.
+ dunder
+ An informal short-hand for "double underscore", used when talking about a
+ :term:`special method`. For example, ``__init__`` is often pronounced
+ "dunder init".
+
EAFP
Easier to ask for forgiveness than permission. This common Python coding
style assumes the existence of valid keys or attributes and catches
@@ -370,7 +470,7 @@ Glossary
A piece of syntax which can be evaluated to some value. In other words,
an expression is an accumulation of expression elements like literals,
names, attribute access, operators or function calls which all return a
- value. In contrast to many other languages, not all language constructs
+ value. Not all language constructs
are expressions. There are also :term:`statement`\s which cannot be used
as expressions, such as :keyword:`while`. Assignments are also statements,
not expressions.
@@ -425,11 +525,11 @@ Glossary
An object that tries to find the :term:`loader` for a module that is
being imported.
- Since Python 3.3, there are two types of finder: :term:`meta path finders
+ There are two types of finder: :term:`meta path finders
<meta path finder>` for use with :data:`sys.meta_path`, and :term:`path
entry finders <path entry finder>` for use with :data:`sys.path_hooks`.
- See :pep:`302`, :pep:`420` and :pep:`451` for much more detail.
+ See :ref:`finders-and-loaders` and :mod:`importlib` for much more detail.
floor division
Mathematical division that rounds down to nearest integer. The floor
@@ -438,6 +538,19 @@ Glossary
division. Note that ``(-11) // 4`` is ``-3`` because that is ``-2.75``
rounded *downward*. See :pep:`238`.
+ free threading
+ A threading model where multiple threads can run Python bytecode
+ simultaneously within the same interpreter. This is in contrast to
+ the :term:`global interpreter lock` which allows only one thread to
+ execute Python bytecode at a time. See :pep:`703`.
+
+ free variable
+ Formally, as defined in the :ref:`language execution model <bind_names>`, a free
+ variable is any variable used in a namespace which is not a local variable in that
+ namespace. See :term:`closure variable` for an example.
+ Pragmatically, due to the name of the :attr:`codeobject.co_freevars` attribute,
+ the term is also sometimes used as a synonym for :term:`closure variable`.
+
function
A series of statements which returns some value to a caller. It can also
be passed zero or more :term:`arguments <argument>` which may be used in
@@ -484,23 +597,33 @@ Glossary
.. index:: single: generator
generator
- A function which returns a :term:`generator iterator`. It looks like a
- normal function except that it contains :keyword:`yield` expressions
- for producing a series of values usable in a for-loop or that can be
- retrieved one at a time with the :func:`next` function.
+ Informally used to mean either a :term:`generator function` or a
+ :term:`generator iterator`, depending on context. The formal terms
+ :term:`generator function` and :term:`generator iterator` are uncommon
+ in practice; "generator" alone is almost always sufficient.
+
+ .. index:: single: generator function
- Usually refers to a generator function, but may refer to a
- *generator iterator* in some contexts. In cases where the intended
- meaning isn't clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity.
+ generator function
+ A function which returns a :term:`generator` object. It looks like a
+ normal function except that it contains :keyword:`yield` expressions
+ for producing a series of values usable in a :keyword:`for`\-loop or
+ that can be retrieved one at a time with the :func:`next` function.
+ See :ref:`yieldexpr`.
generator iterator
- An object created by a :term:`generator` function.
+ An object created by a :term:`generator function` or a
+ :term:`generator expression`.
Each :keyword:`yield` temporarily suspends processing, remembering the
- location execution state (including local variables and pending
- try-statements). When the *generator iterator* resumes, it picks up where
- it left off (in contrast to functions which start fresh on every
- invocation).
+ execution state (including local variables and pending try-statements).
+ When the *generator iterator* resumes, it picks up where it left off
+ (in contrast to functions which start fresh on every invocation).
+
+ Generator iterators also implement the :meth:`~generator.send` method
+ to send a value into the suspended generator, and the
+ :meth:`~generator.throw` method to raise an exception at the point
+ where the generator was paused. See :ref:`generator-methods`.
.. index:: single: generator expression
@@ -519,7 +642,7 @@ Glossary
determined by the dispatch algorithm.
See also the :term:`single dispatch` glossary entry, the
- :func:`functools.singledispatch` decorator, and :pep:`443`.
+ :deco:`functools.singledispatch` decorator, and :pep:`443`.
generic type
A :term:`type` that can be parameterized; typically a
@@ -550,11 +673,19 @@ Glossary
As of Python 3.13, the GIL can be disabled using the :option:`--disable-gil`
build configuration. After building Python with this option, code must be
- run with :option:`-X gil 0 <-X>` or after setting the :envvar:`PYTHON_GIL=0 <PYTHON_GIL>`
+ run with :option:`-X gil=0 <-X>` or after setting the :envvar:`PYTHON_GIL=0 <PYTHON_GIL>`
environment variable. This feature enables improved performance for
multi-threaded applications and makes it easier to use multi-core CPUs
efficiently. For more details, see :pep:`703`.
+ global state
+ Data that is accessible throughout a program, such as module-level
+ variables, class variables, or C static variables in :term:`extension modules
+ <extension module>`. In multi-threaded programs, global state shared
+ between threads typically requires synchronization to avoid
+ :term:`race conditions <race condition>` and
+ :term:`data races <data race>`.
+
hash-based pyc
A bytecode cache file that uses the hash rather than the last-modified
time of the corresponding source file to determine its validity. See
@@ -584,21 +715,21 @@ Glossary
which ships with the standard distribution of Python.
immortal
- If an object is immortal, its reference count is never modified, and
- therefore it is never deallocated.
-
- Built-in strings and singletons are immortal objects. For example,
- :const:`True` and :const:`None` singletons are immmortal.
+ *Immortal objects* are a CPython implementation detail introduced
+ in :pep:`683`.
- See `PEP 683 – Immortal Objects, Using a Fixed Refcount
- <https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/>`_ for more information.
+ If an object is immortal, its :term:`reference count` is never modified,
+ and therefore it is never deallocated while the interpreter is running.
+ For example, :const:`True` and :const:`None` are immortal in CPython.
immutable
An object with a fixed value. Immutable objects include numbers, strings and
tuples. Such an object cannot be altered. A new object has to
be created if a different value has to be stored. They play an important
role in places where a constant hash value is needed, for example as a key
- in a dictionary.
+ in a dictionary. Immutable objects are inherently :term:`thread-safe`
+ because their state cannot be modified after creation, eliminating concerns
+ about improperly synchronized :term:`concurrent modification`.
import path
A list of locations (or :term:`path entries <path entry>`) that are
@@ -651,7 +782,7 @@ Glossary
iterables include all sequence types (such as :class:`list`, :class:`str`,
and :class:`tuple`) and some non-sequence types like :class:`dict`,
:term:`file objects <file object>`, and objects of any classes you define
- with an :meth:`~iterator.__iter__` method or with a
+ with an :meth:`~object.__iter__` method or with a
:meth:`~object.__getitem__` method
that implements :term:`sequence` semantics.
@@ -688,6 +819,10 @@ Glossary
CPython does not consistently apply the requirement that an iterator
define :meth:`~iterator.__iter__`.
+ And also please note that :term:`free-threaded <free threading>`
+ CPython does not guarantee :term:`thread-safe` behavior of iterator
+ operations.
+
key function
A key function or collation function is a callable that returns a value
@@ -702,7 +837,7 @@ Glossary
:func:`itertools.groupby`.
There are several ways to create a key function. For example. the
- :meth:`str.lower` method can serve as a key function for case insensitive
+ :meth:`str.casefold` method can serve as a key function for case insensitive
sorts. Alternatively, a key function can be built from a
:keyword:`lambda` expression such as ``lambda r: (r[0], r[2])``. Also,
:func:`operator.attrgetter`, :func:`operator.itemgetter`, and
@@ -724,10 +859,15 @@ Glossary
:keyword:`if` statements.
In a multi-threaded environment, the LBYL approach can risk introducing a
- race condition between "the looking" and "the leaping". For example, the
- code, ``if key in mapping: return mapping[key]`` can fail if another
+ :term:`race condition` between "the looking" and "the leaping". For example,
+ the code, ``if key in mapping: return mapping[key]`` can fail if another
thread removes *key* from *mapping* after the test, but before the lookup.
- This issue can be solved with locks or by using the EAFP approach.
+ This issue can be solved with :term:`locks <lock>` or by using the
+ :term:`EAFP` approach. See also :term:`thread-safe`.
+
+ lexical analyzer
+
+ Formal name for the *tokenizer*; see :term:`token`.
list
A built-in Python :term:`sequence`. Despite its name it is more akin
@@ -742,11 +882,39 @@ Glossary
clause is optional. If omitted, all elements in ``range(256)`` are
processed.
+ lock
+ A :term:`synchronization primitive` that allows only one thread at a
+ time to access a shared resource. A thread must acquire a lock before
+ accessing the protected resource and release it afterward. If a thread
+ attempts to acquire a lock that is already held by another thread, it
+ will block until the lock becomes available. Python's :mod:`threading`
+ module provides :class:`~threading.Lock` (a basic lock) and
+ :class:`~threading.RLock` (a :term:`reentrant` lock). Locks are used
+ to prevent :term:`race conditions <race condition>` and ensure
+ :term:`thread-safe` access to shared data. Alternative design patterns
+ to locks exist such as queues, producer/consumer patterns, and
+ thread-local state. See also :term:`deadlock`, and :term:`reentrant`.
+
+ lock-free
+ An operation that does not acquire any :term:`lock` and uses atomic CPU
+ instructions to ensure correctness. Lock-free operations can execute
+ concurrently without blocking each other and cannot be blocked by
+ operations that hold locks. In :term:`free-threaded <free threading>`
+ Python, built-in types like :class:`dict` and :class:`list` provide
+ lock-free read operations, which means other threads may observe
+ intermediate states during multi-step modifications even when those
+ modifications hold the :term:`per-object lock`.
+
loader
- An object that loads a module. It must define a method named
- :meth:`load_module`. A loader is typically returned by a
- :term:`finder`. See :pep:`302` for details and
- :class:`importlib.abc.Loader` for an :term:`abstract base class`.
+ An object that loads a module.
+ It must define the :meth:`!exec_module` and :meth:`!create_module` methods
+ to implement the :class:`~importlib.abc.Loader` interface.
+ A loader is typically returned by a :term:`finder`.
+ See also:
+
+ * :ref:`finders-and-loaders`
+ * :class:`importlib.abc.Loader`
+ * :pep:`302`
locale encoding
On Unix, it is the encoding of the LC_CTYPE locale. It can be set with
@@ -816,12 +984,17 @@ Glossary
A namespace containing the import-related information used to load a
module. An instance of :class:`importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec`.
+ See also :ref:`module-specs`.
+
MRO
See :term:`method resolution order`.
mutable
- Mutable objects can change their value but keep their :func:`id`. See
- also :term:`immutable`.
+ An :term:`object` with state that is allowed to change during the course
+ of the program. In multi-threaded programs, mutable objects that are
+ shared between threads require careful synchronization to avoid
+ :term:`race conditions <race condition>`. See also :term:`immutable`,
+ :term:`thread-safe`, and :term:`concurrent modification`.
named tuple
The term "named tuple" applies to any type or class that inherits from
@@ -861,13 +1034,25 @@ Glossary
modules, respectively.
namespace package
- A :pep:`420` :term:`package` which serves only as a container for
- subpackages. Namespace packages may have no physical representation,
+ A :term:`package` which serves only as a container for subpackages.
+ Namespace packages may have no physical representation,
and specifically are not like a :term:`regular package` because they
have no ``__init__.py`` file.
+ Namespace packages allow several individually installable packages to have a common parent package.
+ Otherwise, it is recommended to use a :term:`regular package`.
+
+ For more information, see :pep:`420` and :ref:`reference-namespace-package`.
+
See also :term:`module`.
+ native code
+ Code that is compiled to machine instructions and runs directly on the
+ processor, as opposed to code that is interpreted or runs in a virtual
+ machine. In the context of Python, native code typically refers to
+ C, C++, Rust or Fortran code in :term:`extension modules <extension module>`
+ that can be called from Python. See also :term:`extension module`.
+
nested scope
The ability to refer to a variable in an enclosing definition. For
instance, a function defined inside another function can refer to
@@ -884,11 +1069,29 @@ Glossary
properties, :meth:`~object.__getattribute__`, class methods, and static
methods.
+ non-deterministic
+ Behavior where the outcome of a program can vary between executions with
+ the same inputs. In multi-threaded programs, non-deterministic behavior
+ often results from :term:`race conditions <race condition>` where the
+ relative timing or interleaving of threads affects the result.
+ Proper synchronization using :term:`locks <lock>` and other
+ :term:`synchronization primitives <synchronization primitive>` helps
+ ensure deterministic behavior.
+
object
Any data with state (attributes or value) and defined behavior
(methods). Also the ultimate base class of any :term:`new-style
class`.
+ optimized scope
+ A scope where target local variable names are reliably known to the
+ compiler when the code is compiled, allowing optimization of read and
+ write access to these names. The local namespaces for functions,
+ generators, coroutines, comprehensions, and generator expressions are
+ optimized in this fashion. Note: most interpreter optimizations are
+ applied to all scopes, only those relying on a known set of local
+ and nonlocal variable names are restricted to optimized scopes.
+
package
A Python :term:`module` which can contain submodules or recursively,
subpackages. Technically, a package is a Python module with a
@@ -896,6 +1099,16 @@ Glossary
See also :term:`regular package` and :term:`namespace package`.
+ parallelism
+ Executing multiple operations at the same time (e.g. on multiple CPU
+ cores). In Python builds with the
+ :term:`global interpreter lock (GIL) <global interpreter lock>`, only one
+ thread runs Python bytecode at a time, so taking advantage of multiple
+ CPU cores typically involves multiple processes
+ (e.g. :mod:`multiprocessing`) or native extensions that release the GIL.
+ In :term:`free-threaded <free threading>` Python, multiple Python threads
+ can run Python code simultaneously on different cores.
+
parameter
A named entity in a :term:`function` (or method) definition that
specifies an :term:`argument` (or in some cases, arguments) that the
@@ -949,6 +1162,16 @@ Glossary
<faq-argument-vs-parameter>`, the :class:`inspect.Parameter` class, the
:ref:`function` section, and :pep:`362`.
+ per-object lock
+ A :term:`lock` associated with an individual object instance rather than
+ a global lock shared across all objects. In :term:`free-threaded
+ <free threading>` Python, built-in types like :class:`dict` and
+ :class:`list` use per-object locks to allow concurrent operations on
+ different objects while serializing operations on the same object.
+ Operations that hold the per-object lock prevent other locking operations
+ on the same object from proceeding, but do not block :term:`lock-free`
+ operations.
+
path entry
A single location on the :term:`import path` which the :term:`path
based finder` consults to find modules for importing.
@@ -1070,6 +1293,18 @@ Glossary
>>> email.mime.text.__name__
'email.mime.text'
+ race condition
+ A condition of a program where the behavior
+ depends on the relative timing or ordering of events, particularly in
+ multi-threaded programs. Race conditions can lead to
+ :term:`non-deterministic` behavior and bugs that are difficult to
+ reproduce. A :term:`data race` is a specific type of race condition
+ involving unsynchronized access to shared memory. The :term:`LBYL`
+ coding style is particularly susceptible to race conditions in
+ multi-threaded code. Using :term:`locks <lock>` and other
+ :term:`synchronization primitives <synchronization primitive>`
+ helps prevent race conditions.
+
reference count
The number of references to an object. When the reference count of an
object drops to zero, it is deallocated. Some objects are
@@ -1080,12 +1315,36 @@ Glossary
:func:`sys.getrefcount` function to return the
reference count for a particular object.
+ In :term:`CPython`, reference counts are not considered to be stable
+ or well-defined values; the number of references to an object, and how
+ that number is affected by Python code, may be different between
+ versions.
+
regular package
A traditional :term:`package`, such as a directory containing an
``__init__.py`` file.
See also :term:`namespace package`.
+ reentrant
+ A property of a function or :term:`lock` that allows it to be called or
+ acquired multiple times by the same thread without causing errors or a
+ :term:`deadlock`.
+
+ For functions, reentrancy means the function can be safely called again
+ before a previous invocation has completed, which is important when
+ functions may be called recursively or from signal handlers. Thread-unsafe
+ functions may be :term:`non-deterministic` if they're called reentrantly in a
+ multithreaded program.
+
+ For locks, Python's :class:`threading.RLock` (reentrant lock) is
+ reentrant, meaning a thread that already holds the lock can acquire it
+ again without blocking. In contrast, :class:`threading.Lock` is not
+ reentrant - attempting to acquire it twice from the same thread will cause
+ a deadlock.
+
+ See also :term:`lock` and :term:`deadlock`.
+
REPL
An acronym for the "read–eval–print loop", another name for the
:term:`interactive` interpreter shell.
@@ -1105,13 +1364,14 @@ Glossary
:class:`tuple`, and :class:`bytes`. Note that :class:`dict` also
supports :meth:`~object.__getitem__` and :meth:`!__len__`, but is considered a
mapping rather than a sequence because the lookups use arbitrary
- :term:`immutable` keys rather than integers.
+ :term:`hashable` keys rather than integers.
The :class:`collections.abc.Sequence` abstract base class
defines a much richer interface that goes beyond just
:meth:`~object.__getitem__` and :meth:`~object.__len__`, adding
- :meth:`!count`, :meth:`!index`, :meth:`~object.__contains__`, and
- :meth:`~object.__reversed__`. Types that implement this expanded
+ :meth:`~sequence.count`, :meth:`~sequence.index`,
+ :meth:`~object.__contains__`, and :meth:`~object.__reversed__`.
+ Types that implement this expanded
interface can be registered explicitly using
:func:`~abc.ABCMeta.register`. For more documentation on sequence
methods generally, see
@@ -1134,16 +1394,12 @@ Glossary
(subscript) notation uses :class:`slice` objects internally.
soft deprecated
- A soft deprecation can be used when using an API which should no longer
- be used to write new code, but it remains safe to continue using it in
- existing code. The API remains documented and tested, but will not be
- developed further (no enhancement).
-
- The main difference between a "soft" and a (regular) "hard" deprecation
- is that the soft deprecation does not imply scheduling the removal of the
- deprecated API.
+ A soft deprecated API should not be used in new code,
+ but it is safe for already existing code to use it.
+ The API remains documented and tested, but will not be enhanced further.
- Another difference is that a soft deprecation does not issue a warning.
+ Soft deprecation, unlike normal deprecation, does not plan on removing the API
+ and will not emit warnings.
See `PEP 387: Soft Deprecation
<https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/#soft-deprecation>`_.
@@ -1156,6 +1412,16 @@ Glossary
and ending with double underscores. Special methods are documented in
:ref:`specialnames`.
+ standard library
+ The collection of :term:`packages <package>`, :term:`modules <module>`
+ and :term:`extension modules <extension module>` distributed as a part
+ of the official Python interpreter package. The exact membership of the
+ collection may vary based on platform, available system libraries, or
+ other criteria. Documentation can be found at :ref:`library-index`.
+
+ See also :data:`sys.stdlib_module_names` for a list of all possible
+ standard library module names.
+
statement
A statement is part of a suite (a "block" of code). A statement is either
an :term:`expression` or one of several constructs with a keyword, such
@@ -1166,6 +1432,17 @@ Glossary
issues such as incorrect types. See also :term:`type hints <type hint>`
and the :mod:`typing` module.
+ stdlib
+ An abbreviation of :term:`standard library`.
+
+ steal
+ In Python's C API, "*stealing*" an argument means that ownership of the
+ argument is transferred to the called function.
+ The caller must not use that reference after the call.
+ Generally, functions that "steal" an argument do so even if they fail.
+
+ See :ref:`api-refcountdetails` for a full explanation.
+
strong reference
In Python's C API, a strong reference is a reference to an object
which is owned by the code holding the reference. The strong
@@ -1180,6 +1457,18 @@ Glossary
See also :term:`borrowed reference`.
+ synchronization primitive
+ A basic building block for coordinating (synchronizing) the execution of
+ multiple threads to ensure :term:`thread-safe` access to shared resources.
+ Python's :mod:`threading` module provides several synchronization primitives
+ including :class:`~threading.Lock`, :class:`~threading.RLock`,
+ :class:`~threading.Semaphore`, :class:`~threading.Condition`,
+ :class:`~threading.Event`, and :class:`~threading.Barrier`. Additionally,
+ the :mod:`queue` module provides multi-producer, multi-consumer queues
+ that are especially useful in multithreaded programs. These
+ primitives help prevent :term:`race conditions <race condition>` and
+ coordinate thread execution. See also :term:`lock`.
+
text encoding
A string in Python is a sequence of Unicode code points (in range
``U+0000``--``U+10FFFF``). To store or transfer a string, it needs to be
@@ -1203,6 +1492,30 @@ Glossary
See also :term:`binary file` for a file object able to read and write
:term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`.
+ thread-safe
+ A module, function, or class that behaves correctly when used by multiple
+ threads concurrently. Thread-safe code uses appropriate
+ :term:`synchronization primitives <synchronization primitive>` like
+ :term:`locks <lock>` to protect shared mutable state, or is designed
+ to avoid shared mutable state entirely. In the
+ :term:`free-threaded <free threading>` build, built-in types like
+ :class:`dict`, :class:`list`, and :class:`set` use internal locking
+ to make many operations thread-safe, although thread safety is not
+ necessarily guaranteed. Code that is not thread-safe may experience
+ :term:`race conditions <race condition>` and :term:`data races <data race>`
+ when used in multi-threaded programs.
+
+ token
+
+ A small unit of source code, generated by the
+ :ref:`lexical analyzer <lexical>` (also called the *tokenizer*).
+ Names, numbers, strings, operators,
+ newlines and similar are represented by tokens.
+
+ The :mod:`tokenize` module exposes Python's lexical analyzer.
+ The :mod:`token` module contains information on the various types
+ of tokens.
+
triple-quoted string
A string which is bound by three instances of either a quotation mark
(") or an apostrophe ('). While they don't provide any functionality
@@ -1215,7 +1528,7 @@ Glossary
type
The type of a Python object determines what kind of object it is; every
object has a type. An object's type is accessible as its
- :attr:`~instance.__class__` attribute or can be retrieved with
+ :attr:`~object.__class__` attribute or can be retrieved with
``type(obj)``.
type alias
@@ -1291,6 +1604,11 @@ Glossary
A computer defined entirely in software. Python's virtual machine
executes the :term:`bytecode` emitted by the bytecode compiler.
+ walrus operator
+ A light-hearted way to refer to the :ref:`assignment expression
+ <assignment-expressions>` operator ``:=`` because it looks a bit like a
+ walrus if you turn your head.
+
Zen of Python
Listing of Python design principles and philosophies that are helpful in
understanding and using the language. The listing can be found by typing
diff --git a/Doc/howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio.rst b/Doc/howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..7c5f8df4558e6a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,608 @@
+.. _a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio:
+
+****************************************
+A Conceptual Overview of :mod:`!asyncio`
+****************************************
+
+This :ref:`HOWTO <how-tos>` article seeks to help you build a sturdy mental
+model of how :mod:`asyncio` fundamentally works, helping you understand the
+how and why behind the recommended patterns.
+
+You might be curious about some key :mod:`!asyncio` concepts.
+By the end of this article, you'll be able to comfortably answer these questions:
+
+- What's happening behind the scenes when an object is awaited?
+- How does :mod:`!asyncio` differentiate between a task which doesn't need
+ CPU time (such as a network request or file read) as opposed to a task that
+ does (such as computing n-factorial)?
+- How to write an asynchronous variant of an operation, such as
+ an async sleep or database request.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+ * The `guide <https://github.com/anordin95/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio/
+ tree/main>`_ that inspired this HOWTO article, by Alexander Nordin.
+ * This in-depth `YouTube tutorial series <https://www.youtube.com/
+ watch?v=Xbl7XjFYsN4&list=PLhNSoGM2ik6SIkVGXWBwerucXjgP1rHmB>`_ on
+ ``asyncio`` created by Python core team member, Łukasz Langa.
+ * `500 Lines or Less: A Web Crawler With asyncio Coroutines <https://
+ aosabook.org/en/500L/a-web-crawler-with-asyncio-coroutines.html>`_ by A.
+ Jesse Jiryu Davis and Guido van Rossum.
+
+--------------------------------------------
+A conceptual overview part 1: the high-level
+--------------------------------------------
+
+In part 1, we'll cover the main, high-level building blocks of :mod:`!asyncio`:
+the event loop, coroutine functions, coroutine objects, tasks, and ``await``.
+
+==========
+Event Loop
+==========
+
+Everything in :mod:`!asyncio` happens relative to the event loop.
+It's the star of the show.
+It's like an orchestra conductor.
+It's behind the scenes managing resources.
+Some power is explicitly granted to it, but a lot of its ability to get things
+done comes from the respect and cooperation of its worker bees.
+
+In more technical terms, the event loop contains a collection of jobs to be run.
+Some jobs are added directly by you, and some indirectly by :mod:`!asyncio`.
+The event loop takes a job from its backlog of work and invokes it (or "gives
+it control"), similar to calling a function, and then that job runs.
+Once it pauses or completes, it returns control to the event loop.
+The event loop will then select another job from its pool and invoke it.
+You can *roughly* think of the collection of jobs as a queue: jobs are added and
+then processed one at a time, generally (but not always) in order.
+This process repeats indefinitely, with the event loop cycling endlessly
+onwards.
+If there are no more jobs pending execution, the event loop is smart enough to
+rest and avoid needlessly wasting CPU cycles, and will come back when there's
+more work to be done.
+
+Effective execution relies on jobs sharing well and cooperating; a greedy job
+could hog control and leave the other jobs to starve, rendering the overall
+event loop approach rather useless.
+
+::
+
+ import asyncio
+
+ # This creates an event loop and indefinitely cycles through
+ # its collection of jobs.
+ event_loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()
+ event_loop.run_forever()
+
+=====================================
+Asynchronous functions and coroutines
+=====================================
+
+This is a basic, boring Python function::
+
+ def hello_printer():
+ print(
+ "Hi, I am a lowly, simple printer, though I have all I "
+ "need in life -- \nfresh paper and my dearly beloved octopus "
+ "partner in crime."
+ )
+
+Calling a regular function invokes its logic or body::
+
+ >>> hello_printer()
+ Hi, I am a lowly, simple printer, though I have all I need in life --
+ fresh paper and my dearly beloved octopus partner in crime.
+
+The :ref:`async def <async def>`, as opposed to just a plain ``def``, makes
+this an asynchronous function (or "coroutine function").
+Calling it creates and returns a :ref:`coroutine <coroutine>` object.
+
+::
+
+ async def loudmouth_penguin(magic_number: int):
+ print(
+ "I am a super special talking penguin. Far cooler than that printer. "
+ f"By the way, my lucky number is: {magic_number}."
+ )
+
+Calling the async function, ``loudmouth_penguin``, does not execute the print statement;
+instead, it creates a coroutine object::
+
+ >>> loudmouth_penguin(magic_number=3)
+ <coroutine object loudmouth_penguin at 0x104ed2740>
+
+The terms "coroutine function" and "coroutine object" are often conflated
+as coroutine.
+That can be confusing!
+In this article, coroutine specifically refers to a coroutine object, or more
+precisely, an instance of :class:`types.CoroutineType` (native coroutine).
+Note that coroutines can also exist as instances of
+:class:`collections.abc.Coroutine` -- a distinction that matters for type
+checking.
+
+A coroutine represents the function's body or logic.
+A coroutine has to be explicitly started; again, merely creating the coroutine
+does not start it.
+Notably, the coroutine can be paused and resumed at various points within the
+function's body.
+That pausing and resuming ability is what allows for asynchronous behavior!
+
+Coroutines and coroutine functions were built by leveraging the functionality
+of :term:`generators <generator iterator>` and
+:term:`generator functions <generator>`.
+Recall, a generator function is a function that :keyword:`yield`\s, like this
+one::
+
+ def get_random_number():
+ # This would be a bad random number generator!
+ print("Hi")
+ yield 1
+ print("Hello")
+ yield 7
+ print("Howdy")
+ yield 4
+ ...
+
+Similar to a coroutine function, calling a generator function does not run it.
+Instead, it creates a generator object::
+
+ >>> get_random_number()
+ <generator object get_random_number at 0x1048671c0>
+
+You can proceed to the next ``yield`` of a generator by using the
+built-in function :func:`next`.
+In other words, the generator runs, then pauses.
+For example::
+
+ >>> generator = get_random_number()
+ >>> next(generator)
+ Hi
+ 1
+ >>> next(generator)
+ Hello
+ 7
+
+=====
+Tasks
+=====
+
+Roughly speaking, :ref:`tasks <asyncio-task-obj>` are coroutines (not coroutine
+functions) tied to an event loop.
+A task also maintains a list of callback functions whose importance will become
+clear in a moment when we discuss :keyword:`await`.
+The recommended way to create tasks is via :func:`asyncio.create_task`.
+
+Creating a task automatically schedules it for execution (by adding a
+callback to run it in the event loop's to-do list, that is, collection of jobs).
+
+:mod:`!asyncio` automatically associates tasks with the event loop for you.
+This automatic association was purposely designed into :mod:`!asyncio` for
+the sake of simplicity.
+Without it, you'd have to keep track of the event loop object and pass it to
+any coroutine function that wants to create tasks, adding redundant clutter
+to your code.
+
+::
+
+ coroutine = loudmouth_penguin(magic_number=5)
+ # This creates a Task object and schedules its execution via the event loop.
+ task = asyncio.create_task(coroutine)
+
+Earlier, we manually created the event loop and set it to run forever.
+In practice, it's recommended to use (and common to see) :func:`asyncio.run`,
+which takes care of managing the event loop and ensuring the provided
+coroutine finishes before advancing.
+For example, many async programs follow this setup::
+
+ import asyncio
+
+ async def main():
+ # Perform all sorts of wacky, wild asynchronous things...
+ ...
+
+ if __name__ == "__main__":
+ asyncio.run(main())
+ # The program will not reach the following print statement until the
+ # coroutine main() finishes.
+ print("coroutine main() is done!")
+
+It's important to be aware that the task itself is not added to the event loop,
+only a callback to the task is.
+This matters if the task object you created is garbage collected before it's
+called by the event loop.
+For example, consider this program:
+
+.. code-block::
+ :linenos:
+
+ async def hello():
+ print("hello!")
+
+ async def main():
+ asyncio.create_task(hello())
+ # Other asynchronous instructions which run for a while
+ # and cede control to the event loop...
+ ...
+
+ asyncio.run(main())
+
+Because there's no reference to the task object created on line 5, it *might*
+be garbage collected before the event loop invokes it.
+Later instructions in the coroutine ``main()`` hand control back to the event
+loop so it can invoke other jobs.
+When the event loop eventually tries to run the task, it might fail and
+discover the task object does not exist!
+This can also happen even if a coroutine keeps a reference to a task but
+completes before that task finishes.
+When the coroutine exits, local variables go out of scope and may be subject
+to garbage collection.
+In practice, ``asyncio`` and Python's garbage collector work pretty hard to
+ensure this sort of thing doesn't happen.
+But that's no reason to be reckless!
+
+=====
+await
+=====
+
+:keyword:`await` is a Python keyword that's commonly used in one of two
+different ways::
+
+ await task
+ await coroutine
+
+In a crucial way, the behavior of ``await`` depends on the type of object
+being awaited.
+
+Awaiting a task will cede control from the current task or coroutine to
+the event loop.
+In the process of relinquishing control, a few important things happen.
+We'll use the following code example to illustrate::
+
+ async def plant_a_tree():
+ dig_the_hole_task = asyncio.create_task(dig_the_hole())
+ await dig_the_hole_task
+
+ # Other instructions associated with planting a tree.
+ ...
+
+In this example, imagine the event loop has passed control to the start of the
+coroutine ``plant_a_tree()``.
+As seen above, the coroutine creates a task and then awaits it.
+The ``await dig_the_hole_task`` instruction adds a callback (which will resume
+``plant_a_tree()``) to the ``dig_the_hole_task`` object's list of callbacks.
+And then, the instruction cedes control to the event loop.
+Some time later, the event loop will pass control to ``dig_the_hole_task``
+and the task will finish whatever it needs to do.
+Once the task finishes, it will add its various callbacks to the event loop,
+in this case, a call to resume ``plant_a_tree()``.
+
+Generally speaking, when the awaited task finishes (``dig_the_hole_task``),
+the original task or coroutine (``plant_a_tree()``) is added back to the event
+loop's to-do list to be resumed.
+
+This is a basic, yet reliable mental model.
+In practice, the control handoffs are slightly more complex, but not by much.
+In part 2, we'll walk through the details that make this possible.
+
+**Unlike tasks, awaiting a coroutine does not hand control back to the event
+loop!**
+Wrapping a coroutine in a task first, then awaiting that would cede
+control.
+The behavior of ``await coroutine`` is effectively the same as invoking a
+regular, synchronous Python function.
+Consider this program::
+
+ import asyncio
+
+ async def coro_a():
+ print("I am coro_a(). Hi!")
+
+ async def coro_b():
+ print("I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop...")
+
+ async def main():
+ task_b = asyncio.create_task(coro_b())
+ num_repeats = 3
+ for _ in range(num_repeats):
+ await coro_a()
+ await task_b
+
+ asyncio.run(main())
+
+The first statement in the coroutine ``main()`` creates ``task_b`` and schedules
+it for execution via the event loop.
+Then, ``coro_a()`` is repeatedly awaited. Control never cedes to the
+event loop, which is why we see the output of all three ``coro_a()``
+invocations before ``coro_b()``'s output:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+ I am coro_a(). Hi!
+ I am coro_a(). Hi!
+ I am coro_a(). Hi!
+ I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop...
+
+If we change ``await coro_a()`` to ``await asyncio.create_task(coro_a())``, the
+behavior changes.
+The coroutine ``main()`` cedes control to the event loop with that statement.
+The event loop then proceeds through its backlog of work, calling ``task_b``
+and then the task which wraps ``coro_a()`` before resuming the coroutine
+``main()``.
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+ I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop...
+ I am coro_a(). Hi!
+ I am coro_a(). Hi!
+ I am coro_a(). Hi!
+
+This behavior of ``await coroutine`` can trip a lot of people up!
+That example highlights how using only ``await coroutine`` could
+unintentionally hog control from other tasks and effectively stall the event
+loop.
+:func:`asyncio.run` can help you detect such occurrences via the
+``debug=True`` flag, which enables
+:ref:`debug mode <asyncio-debug-mode>`.
+Among other things, it will log any coroutines that monopolize execution for
+100ms or longer.
+
+The design intentionally trades off some conceptual clarity around usage of
+``await`` for improved performance.
+Each time a task is awaited, control needs to be passed all the way up the
+call stack to the event loop.
+That might sound minor, but in a large program with many ``await`` statements and a deep
+call stack, that overhead can add up to a meaningful performance drag.
+
+------------------------------------------------
+A conceptual overview part 2: the nuts and bolts
+------------------------------------------------
+
+Part 2 goes into detail on the mechanisms :mod:`!asyncio` uses to manage
+control flow.
+This is where the magic happens.
+You'll come away from this section knowing what ``await`` does behind the scenes
+and how to make your own asynchronous operators.
+
+================================
+The inner workings of coroutines
+================================
+
+:mod:`!asyncio` leverages four components to pass around control.
+
+:meth:`coroutine.send(arg) <generator.send>` is the method used to start or
+resume a coroutine.
+If the coroutine was paused and is now being resumed, the argument ``arg``
+will be sent in as the return value of the ``yield`` statement which originally
+paused it.
+If the coroutine is being used for the first time (as opposed to being resumed),
+``arg`` must be ``None``.
+
+.. code-block::
+ :linenos:
+
+ class Rock:
+ def __await__(self):
+ value_sent_in = yield 7
+ print(f"Rock.__await__ resuming with value: {value_sent_in}.")
+ return value_sent_in
+
+ async def main():
+ print("Beginning coroutine main().")
+ rock = Rock()
+ print("Awaiting rock...")
+ value_from_rock = await rock
+ print(f"Coroutine received value: {value_from_rock} from rock.")
+ return 23
+
+ coroutine = main()
+ intermediate_result = coroutine.send(None)
+ print(f"Coroutine paused and returned intermediate value: {intermediate_result}.")
+
+ print(f"Resuming coroutine and sending in value: 42.")
+ try:
+ coroutine.send(42)
+ except StopIteration as e:
+ returned_value = e.value
+ print(f"Coroutine main() finished and provided value: {returned_value}.")
+
+:ref:`yield <yieldexpr>`, as usual, pauses execution and returns control
+to the caller.
+In the example above, the ``yield``, on line 3, is called by
+``... = await rock`` on line 11.
+More broadly speaking, ``await`` calls the :meth:`~object.__await__` method of
+the given object.
+``await`` also does one more very special thing: it propagates (or "passes
+along") any ``yield``\ s it receives up the call chain.
+In this case, that's back to ``... = coroutine.send(None)`` on line 16.
+
+The coroutine is resumed via the ``coroutine.send(42)`` call on line 21.
+The coroutine picks back up from where it ``yield``\ ed (or paused) on line 3
+and executes the remaining statements in its body.
+When a coroutine finishes, it raises a :exc:`StopIteration` exception with the
+return value attached in the :attr:`~StopIteration.value` attribute.
+
+That snippet produces this output:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+ Beginning coroutine main().
+ Awaiting rock...
+ Coroutine paused and returned intermediate value: 7.
+ Resuming coroutine and sending in value: 42.
+ Rock.__await__ resuming with value: 42.
+ Coroutine received value: 42 from rock.
+ Coroutine main() finished and provided value: 23.
+
+It's worth pausing for a moment here and making sure you followed the various
+ways that control flow and values were passed. A lot of important ideas were
+covered and it's worth ensuring your understanding is firm.
+
+The only way to yield (or effectively cede control) from a coroutine is to
+``await`` an object that ``yield``\ s in its ``__await__`` method.
+That might sound odd to you. You might be thinking:
+
+ 1. What about a ``yield`` directly within the coroutine function? The
+ coroutine function becomes an
+ :ref:`async generator function <asynchronous-generator-functions>`, a
+ different beast entirely.
+
+ 2. What about a :ref:`yield from <yieldexpr>` within the coroutine function to a (plain)
+ generator?
+ That causes the error: ``SyntaxError: yield from not allowed in a coroutine.``
+ This was intentionally designed for the sake of simplicity -- mandating only
+ one way of using coroutines.
+ Initially ``yield`` was barred as well, but was re-accepted to allow for
+ async generators.
+ Despite that, ``yield from`` and ``await`` effectively do the same thing.
+
+=======
+Futures
+=======
+
+A :ref:`future <asyncio-future-obj>` is an object meant to represent a
+computation's status and result.
+The term is a nod to the idea of something still to come or not yet happened,
+and the object is a way to keep an eye on that something.
+
+A future has a few important attributes. One is its state, which can be either
+"pending", "cancelled", or "done".
+Another is its result, which is set when the state transitions to done.
+Unlike a coroutine, a future does not represent the actual computation to be
+done; instead, it represents the status and result of that computation, kind of
+like a status light (red, yellow, or green) or indicator.
+
+:class:`asyncio.Task` subclasses :class:`asyncio.Future` in order to gain
+these various capabilities.
+The prior section said tasks store a list of callbacks, which wasn't entirely
+accurate.
+It's actually the ``Future`` class that implements this logic, which ``Task``
+inherits.
+
+Futures may also be used directly (not via tasks).
+Tasks mark themselves as done when their coroutine is complete.
+Futures are much more versatile and will be marked as done when you say so.
+In this way, they're the flexible interface for you to make your own conditions
+for waiting and resuming.
+
+========================
+A homemade asyncio.sleep
+========================
+
+We'll go through an example of how you could leverage a future to create your
+own variant of asynchronous sleep (``async_sleep``) which mimics
+:func:`asyncio.sleep`.
+
+This snippet registers a few tasks with the event loop and then awaits the task
+created by ``asyncio.create_task``, which wraps the ``async_sleep(3)`` coroutine.
+We want that task to finish only after three seconds have elapsed, but without
+preventing other tasks from running.
+
+::
+
+ async def other_work():
+ print("I like work. Work work.")
+
+ async def main():
+ # Add a few other tasks to the event loop, so there's something
+ # to do while asynchronously sleeping.
+ work_tasks = [
+ asyncio.create_task(other_work()),
+ asyncio.create_task(other_work()),
+ asyncio.create_task(other_work())
+ ]
+ print(
+ "Beginning asynchronous sleep at time: "
+ f"{datetime.datetime.now().strftime("%H:%M:%S")}."
+ )
+ await asyncio.create_task(async_sleep(3))
+ print(
+ "Done asynchronous sleep at time: "
+ f"{datetime.datetime.now().strftime("%H:%M:%S")}."
+ )
+ # asyncio.gather effectively awaits each task in the collection.
+ await asyncio.gather(*work_tasks)
+
+
+Below, we use a future to enable custom control over when that task will be
+marked as done.
+If :meth:`future.set_result() <asyncio.Future.set_result>` (the method
+responsible for marking that future as done) is never called, then this task
+will never finish.
+We've also enlisted the help of another task, which we'll see in a moment, that
+will monitor how much time has elapsed and, accordingly, call
+``future.set_result()``.
+
+::
+
+ async def async_sleep(seconds: float):
+ future = asyncio.Future()
+ time_to_wake = time.time() + seconds
+ # Add the watcher-task to the event loop.
+ watcher_task = asyncio.create_task(_sleep_watcher(future, time_to_wake))
+ # Block until the future is marked as done.
+ await future
+
+Below, we use a rather bare ``YieldToEventLoop()`` object to ``yield``
+from its ``__await__`` method, ceding control to the event loop.
+This is effectively the same as calling ``asyncio.sleep(0)``, but this approach
+offers more clarity, not to mention it's somewhat cheating to use
+``asyncio.sleep`` when showcasing how to implement it!
+
+As usual, the event loop cycles through its tasks, giving them control
+and receiving control back when they pause or finish.
+The ``watcher_task``, which runs the coroutine ``_sleep_watcher(...)``, will
+be invoked once per full cycle of the event loop.
+On each resumption, it'll check the time and if not enough has elapsed, then
+it'll pause once again and hand control back to the event loop.
+Once enough time has elapsed, ``_sleep_watcher(...)``
+marks the future as done and completes by exiting its
+infinite ``while`` loop.
+Given this helper task is only invoked once per cycle of the event loop,
+you'd be correct to note that this asynchronous sleep will sleep *at least*
+three seconds, rather than exactly three seconds.
+Note this is also true of ``asyncio.sleep``.
+
+::
+
+ class YieldToEventLoop:
+ def __await__(self):
+ yield
+
+ async def _sleep_watcher(future, time_to_wake):
+ while True:
+ if time.time() >= time_to_wake:
+ # This marks the future as done.
+ future.set_result(None)
+ break
+ else:
+ await YieldToEventLoop()
+
+Here is the full program's output:
+
+.. code-block:: none
+
+ $ python custom-async-sleep.py
+ Beginning asynchronous sleep at time: 14:52:22.
+ I like work. Work work.
+ I like work. Work work.
+ I like work. Work work.
+ Done asynchronous sleep at time: 14:52:25.
+
+You might feel this implementation of asynchronous sleep was unnecessarily
+convoluted.
+And, well, it was.
+The example was meant to showcase the versatility of futures with a simple
+example that could be mimicked for more complex needs.
+For reference, you could implement it without futures, like so::
+
+ async def simpler_async_sleep(seconds):
+ time_to_wake = time.time() + seconds
+ while True:
+ if time.time() >= time_to_wake:
+ return
+ else:
+ await YieldToEventLoop()
+
+But that's all for now. Hopefully you're ready to more confidently dive into
+some async programming or check out advanced topics in the
+:mod:`rest of the documentation <asyncio>`.
diff --git a/Doc/howto/annotations.rst b/Doc/howto/annotations.rst
index be8c7e6c827f57a..2a7a4eb23007374 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/annotations.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/annotations.rst
@@ -102,9 +102,9 @@ Your code will have to have a separate code path if the object
you're examining is a class (``isinstance(o, type)``).
In that case, best practice relies on an implementation detail
of Python 3.9 and before: if a class has annotations defined,
-they are stored in the class's ``__dict__`` dictionary. Since
+they are stored in the class's :attr:`~type.__dict__` dictionary. Since
the class may or may not have annotations defined, best practice
-is to call the ``get`` method on the class dict.
+is to call the :meth:`~dict.get` method on the class dict.
To put it all together, here is some sample code that safely
accesses the ``__annotations__`` attribute on an arbitrary
@@ -121,8 +121,8 @@ the type of ``ann`` using :func:`isinstance` before further
examination.
Note that some exotic or malformed type objects may not have
-a ``__dict__`` attribute, so for extra safety you may also wish
-to use :func:`getattr` to access ``__dict__``.
+a :attr:`~type.__dict__` attribute, so for extra safety you may also wish
+to use :func:`getattr` to access :attr:`!__dict__`.
Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations
@@ -149,7 +149,7 @@ on an arbitrary object ``o``:
as the ``globals``, and ``dict(vars(o))`` as the ``locals``,
when calling :func:`eval`.
* If ``o`` is a wrapped callable using :func:`functools.update_wrapper`,
- :func:`functools.wraps`, or :func:`functools.partial`, iteratively
+ :deco:`functools.wraps`, or :func:`functools.partial`, iteratively
unwrap it by accessing either ``o.__wrapped__`` or ``o.func`` as
appropriate, until you have found the root unwrapped function.
* If ``o`` is a callable (but not a class), use
diff --git a/Doc/howto/argparse-optparse.rst b/Doc/howto/argparse-optparse.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..b684619885b4c71
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/howto/argparse-optparse.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+.. currentmodule:: argparse
+
+.. _upgrading-optparse-code:
+.. _migrating-optparse-code:
+
+============================================
+Migrating ``optparse`` code to ``argparse``
+============================================
+
+The :mod:`argparse` module offers several higher level features not natively
+provided by the :mod:`optparse` module, including:
+
+* Handling positional arguments.
+* Supporting subcommands.
+* Allowing alternative option prefixes like ``+`` and ``/``.
+* Handling zero-or-more and one-or-more style arguments.
+* Producing more informative usage messages.
+* Providing a much simpler interface for custom ``type`` and ``action``.
+
+Originally, the :mod:`argparse` module attempted to maintain compatibility
+with :mod:`optparse`. However, the fundamental design differences between
+supporting declarative command line option processing (while leaving positional
+argument processing to application code), and supporting both named options
+and positional arguments in the declarative interface mean that the
+API has diverged from that of ``optparse`` over time.
+
+As described in :ref:`choosing-an-argument-parser`, applications that are
+currently using :mod:`optparse` and are happy with the way it works can
+just continue to use ``optparse``.
+
+Application developers that are considering migrating should also review
+the list of intrinsic behavioural differences described in that section
+before deciding whether or not migration is desirable.
+
+For applications that do choose to migrate from :mod:`optparse` to :mod:`argparse`,
+the following suggestions should be helpful:
+
+* Replace all :meth:`optparse.OptionParser.add_option` calls with
+ :meth:`ArgumentParser.add_argument` calls.
+
+* Replace ``(options, args) = parser.parse_args()`` with ``args =
+ parser.parse_args()`` and add additional :meth:`ArgumentParser.add_argument`
+ calls for the positional arguments. Keep in mind that what was previously
+ called ``options``, now in the :mod:`argparse` context is called ``args``.
+
+* Replace :meth:`optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args`
+ by using :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args` instead of
+ :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args`.
+
+* Replace callback actions and the ``callback_*`` keyword arguments with
+ ``type`` or ``action`` arguments.
+
+* Replace string names for ``type`` keyword arguments with the corresponding
+ type objects (e.g. int, float, complex, etc).
+
+* Replace :class:`optparse.Values` with :class:`Namespace` and
+ :exc:`optparse.OptionError` and :exc:`optparse.OptionValueError` with
+ :exc:`ArgumentError`.
+
+* Replace strings with implicit arguments such as ``%default`` or ``%prog`` with
+ the standard Python syntax to use dictionaries to format strings, that is,
+ ``%(default)s`` and ``%(prog)s``.
+
+* Replace the OptionParser constructor ``version`` argument with a call to
+ ``parser.add_argument('--version', action='version', version='<the version>')``.
diff --git a/Doc/howto/argparse.rst b/Doc/howto/argparse.rst
index ae5bab90bf81315..902c50de00803c5 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/argparse.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/argparse.rst
@@ -13,11 +13,16 @@ recommended command-line parsing module in the Python standard library.
.. note::
- There are two other modules that fulfill the same task, namely
- :mod:`getopt` (an equivalent for ``getopt()`` from the C
- language) and the deprecated :mod:`optparse`.
- Note also that :mod:`argparse` is based on :mod:`optparse`,
- and therefore very similar in terms of usage.
+ The standard library includes two other libraries directly related
+ to command-line parameter processing: the lower level :mod:`optparse`
+ module (which may require more code to configure for a given application,
+ but also allows an application to request behaviors that ``argparse``
+ doesn't support), and the very low level :mod:`getopt` (which specifically
+ serves as an equivalent to the :c:func:`!getopt` family of functions
+ available to C programmers).
+ While neither of those modules is covered directly in this guide, many of
+ the core concepts in ``argparse`` first originated in ``optparse``, so
+ some aspects of this tutorial will also be relevant to ``optparse`` users.
Concepts
@@ -444,7 +449,7 @@ And the output:
options:
-h, --help show this help message and exit
- -v {0,1,2}, --verbosity {0,1,2}
+ -v, --verbosity {0,1,2}
increase output verbosity
Note that the change also reflects both in the error message as well as the
@@ -841,6 +846,53 @@ translated messages.
To translate your own strings in the :mod:`argparse` output, use :mod:`gettext`.
+Custom type converters
+======================
+
+The :mod:`argparse` module allows you to specify custom type converters for
+your command-line arguments. This allows you to modify user input before it's
+stored in the :class:`argparse.Namespace`. This can be useful when you need to
+pre-process the input before it is used in your program.
+
+When using a custom type converter, you can use any callable that takes a
+single string argument (the argument value) and returns the converted value.
+However, if you need to handle more complex scenarios, you can use a custom
+action class with the **action** parameter instead.
+
+For example, let's say you want to handle arguments with different prefixes and
+process them accordingly::
+
+ import argparse
+
+ parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prefix_chars='-+')
+
+ parser.add_argument('-a', metavar='<value>', action='append',
+ type=lambda x: ('-', x))
+ parser.add_argument('+a', metavar='<value>', action='append',
+ type=lambda x: ('+', x))
+
+ args = parser.parse_args()
+ print(args)
+
+Output:
+
+.. code-block:: shell-session
+
+ $ python prog.py -a value1 +a value2
+ Namespace(a=[('-', 'value1'), ('+', 'value2')])
+
+In this example, we:
+
+* Created a parser with custom prefix characters using the ``prefix_chars``
+ parameter.
+
+* Defined two arguments, ``-a`` and ``+a``, which used the ``type`` parameter to
+ create custom type converters to store the value in a tuple with the prefix.
+
+Without the custom type converters, the arguments would have treated the ``-a``
+and ``+a`` as the same argument, which would have been undesirable. By using custom
+type converters, we were able to differentiate between the two arguments.
+
Conclusion
==========
diff --git a/Doc/howto/cporting.rst b/Doc/howto/cporting.rst
index 7773620b40b973b..cf857aed0425ec4 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/cporting.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/cporting.rst
@@ -14,13 +14,11 @@ We recommend the following resources for porting extension modules to Python 3:
module.
* The `Porting guide`_ from the *py3c* project provides opinionated
suggestions with supporting code.
-* The `Cython`_ and `CFFI`_ libraries offer abstractions over
- Python's C API.
+* :ref:`Recommended third party tools <c-api-tools>` offer abstractions over
+ the Python's C API.
Extensions generally need to be re-written to use one of them,
but the library then handles differences between various Python
versions and implementations.
.. _Migrating C extensions: http://python3porting.com/cextensions.html
.. _Porting guide: https://py3c.readthedocs.io/en/latest/guide.html
-.. _Cython: https://cython.org/
-.. _CFFI: https://cffi.readthedocs.io/en/latest/
diff --git a/Doc/howto/curses.rst b/Doc/howto/curses.rst
index f9ad81e38f8dc3d..caf07c2d4158a60 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/curses.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/curses.rst
@@ -55,8 +55,8 @@ code, all the functions described here will probably be available. The older
versions of curses carried by some proprietary Unixes may not support
everything, though.
-The Windows version of Python doesn't include the :mod:`curses`
-module. A ported version called :pypi:`UniCurses` is available.
+The Windows version of Python doesn't include the :mod:`curses` module.
+The third-party :pypi:`windows-curses` package provides the same interface on Windows.
The Python curses module
@@ -145,8 +145,8 @@ importing the :func:`curses.wrapper` function and using it like this::
v = i-10
stdscr.addstr(i, 0, '10 divided by {} is {}'.format(v, 10/v))
- stdscr.refresh()
- stdscr.getkey()
+ stdscr.refresh()
+ stdscr.getkey()
wrapper(main)
@@ -298,15 +298,18 @@ the next subsection.
The :meth:`~curses.window.addstr` method takes a Python string or
bytestring as the value to be displayed. The contents of bytestrings
-are sent to the terminal as-is. Strings are encoded to bytes using
-the value of the window's :attr:`~window.encoding` attribute; this defaults to
-the default system encoding as returned by :func:`locale.getencoding`.
+are sent to the terminal as-is.
+On a build without wide-character support strings are encoded
+using the value of the window's :attr:`~window.encoding` attribute;
+this defaults to the default system encoding
+as returned by :func:`locale.getencoding`.
The :meth:`~curses.window.addch` methods take a character, which can be
either a string of length 1, a bytestring of length 1, or an integer.
-Constants are provided for extension characters; these constants are
-integers greater than 255. For example, :const:`ACS_PLMINUS` is a +/-
+Constants are provided for the characters of the terminal's alternate
+character set.
+For example, :const:`ACS_PLMINUS` is a +/-
symbol, and :const:`ACS_ULCORNER` is the upper left corner of a box
(handy for drawing borders). You can also use the appropriate Unicode
character.
@@ -320,11 +323,11 @@ won't be distracting; it can be confusing to have the cursor blinking at some
apparently random location.
If your application doesn't need a blinking cursor at all, you can
-call ``curs_set(False)`` to make it invisible. For compatibility
-with older curses versions, there's a ``leaveok(bool)`` function
-that's a synonym for :func:`~curses.curs_set`. When *bool* is true, the
-curses library will attempt to suppress the flashing cursor, and you
-won't need to worry about leaving it in odd locations.
+call ``curs_set(False)`` to make it invisible.
+The window method :meth:`~curses.window.leaveok` does something different:
+when its argument is true,
+curses leaves the cursor wherever the last update put it,
+instead of moving it back to the window's cursor position.
Attributes and Color
@@ -430,40 +433,48 @@ The C curses library offers only very simple input mechanisms. Python's
:mod:`curses` module adds a basic text-input widget. (Other libraries
such as :pypi:`Urwid` have more extensive collections of widgets.)
-There are two methods for getting input from a window:
+There are three methods for getting input from a window:
-* :meth:`~curses.window.getch` refreshes the screen and then waits for
+* :meth:`~curses.window.get_wch` refreshes the screen and then waits for
the user to hit a key, displaying the key if :func:`~curses.echo` has been
called earlier. You can optionally specify a coordinate to which
the cursor should be moved before pausing.
-* :meth:`~curses.window.getkey` does the same thing but converts the
- integer to a string. Individual characters are returned as
- 1-character strings, and special keys such as function keys return
- longer strings containing a key name such as ``KEY_UP`` or ``^G``.
+* :meth:`~curses.window.getch` does the same thing but returns the code of
+ the key instead of a character.
+ With ncurses this is a single byte of the key's encoding in the current
+ locale, so a character encoded with several bytes takes several calls,
+ one byte per call.
+
+* :meth:`~curses.window.getkey` does the same as :meth:`!getch` but returns
+ a string:
+ an ordinary key as a 1-character string,
+ and a special key as its name, such as ``KEY_UP``.
It's possible to not wait for the user using the
:meth:`~curses.window.nodelay` window method. After ``nodelay(True)``,
-:meth:`!getch` and :meth:`!getkey` for the window become
-non-blocking. To signal that no input is ready, :meth:`!getch` returns
-``curses.ERR`` (a value of -1) and :meth:`!getkey` raises an exception.
+the reads for the window become non-blocking.
+To signal that no input is ready,
+:meth:`!get_wch` and :meth:`!getkey` raise an exception,
+and :meth:`!getch` returns ``-1``.
There's also a :func:`~curses.halfdelay` function, which can be used to (in
-effect) set a timer on each :meth:`!getch`; if no input becomes
+effect) set a timer on each read; if no input becomes
available within a specified delay (measured in tenths of a second),
-curses raises an exception.
+the read fails the same way.
-The :meth:`!getch` method returns an integer; if it's between 0 and 255, it
-represents the ASCII code of the key pressed. Values greater than 255 are
-special keys such as Page Up, Home, or the cursor keys. You can compare the
-value returned to constants such as :const:`curses.KEY_PPAGE`,
+Special keys such as Page Up, Home, or the cursor keys are returned by all
+three as one of the :ref:`KEY_* constants <curses-key-constants>`,
+all larger than 255.
+You can compare the value returned to constants such as
+:const:`curses.KEY_PPAGE`,
:const:`curses.KEY_HOME`, or :const:`curses.KEY_LEFT`. The main loop of
your program may look something like this::
while True:
- c = stdscr.getch()
- if c == ord('p'):
+ c = stdscr.get_wch()
+ if c == 'p':
PrintDocument()
- elif c == ord('q'):
+ elif c == 'q':
break # Exit the while loop
elif c == curses.KEY_HOME:
x = y = 0
@@ -475,15 +486,16 @@ conversion functions that take either integer or 1-character-string arguments
and return the same type. For example, :func:`curses.ascii.ctrl` returns the
control character corresponding to its argument.
-There's also a method to retrieve an entire string,
+There's also a method to retrieve an entire line,
:meth:`~curses.window.getstr`. It isn't used very often, because its
functionality is quite limited; the only editing keys available are
-the backspace key and the Enter key, which terminates the string. It
-can optionally be limited to a fixed number of characters. ::
+the erase and kill characters, and the Enter key, which terminates the line.
+It returns a bytes object,
+and can optionally be limited to a fixed number of bytes. ::
curses.echo() # Enable echoing of characters
- # Get a 15-character string, with the cursor on the top line
+ # Get a line of at most 15 bytes, with the cursor on the top line
s = stdscr.getstr(0,0, 15)
The :mod:`curses.textpad` module supplies a text box that supports an
diff --git a/Doc/howto/descriptor.rst b/Doc/howto/descriptor.rst
index 51f9f4a6556e576..71488269c47b706 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/descriptor.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/descriptor.rst
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ This guide has four major sections:
4) The last section has pure Python equivalents for built-in descriptors that
are written in C. Read this if you're curious about how functions turn
into bound methods or about the implementation of common tools like
- :func:`classmethod`, :func:`staticmethod`, :func:`property`, and
+ :deco:`classmethod`, :deco:`staticmethod`, :deco:`property`, and
:term:`__slots__`.
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ add new capabilities one by one.
Simple example: A descriptor that returns a constant
----------------------------------------------------
-The :class:`Ten` class is a descriptor whose :meth:`__get__` method always
+The :class:`!Ten` class is a descriptor whose :meth:`~object.__get__` method always
returns the constant ``10``:
.. testcode::
@@ -120,10 +120,10 @@ different, updated answers each time::
2
Besides showing how descriptors can run computations, this example also
-reveals the purpose of the parameters to :meth:`__get__`. The *self*
+reveals the purpose of the parameters to :meth:`~object.__get__`. The *self*
parameter is *size*, an instance of *DirectorySize*. The *obj* parameter is
either *g* or *s*, an instance of *Directory*. It is the *obj* parameter that
-lets the :meth:`__get__` method learn the target directory. The *objtype*
+lets the :meth:`~object.__get__` method learn the target directory. The *objtype*
parameter is the class *Directory*.
@@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ Managed attributes
A popular use for descriptors is managing access to instance data. The
descriptor is assigned to a public attribute in the class dictionary while the
actual data is stored as a private attribute in the instance dictionary. The
-descriptor's :meth:`__get__` and :meth:`__set__` methods are triggered when
+descriptor's :meth:`~object.__get__` and :meth:`~object.__set__` methods are triggered when
the public attribute is accessed.
In the following example, *age* is the public attribute and *_age* is the
@@ -215,9 +215,9 @@ Customized names
When a class uses descriptors, it can inform each descriptor about which
variable name was used.
-In this example, the :class:`Person` class has two descriptor instances,
-*name* and *age*. When the :class:`Person` class is defined, it makes a
-callback to :meth:`__set_name__` in *LoggedAccess* so that the field names can
+In this example, the :class:`!Person` class has two descriptor instances,
+*name* and *age*. When the :class:`!Person` class is defined, it makes a
+callback to :meth:`~object.__set_name__` in *LoggedAccess* so that the field names can
be recorded, giving each descriptor its own *public_name* and *private_name*:
.. testcode::
@@ -253,8 +253,8 @@ be recorded, giving each descriptor its own *public_name* and *private_name*:
def birthday(self):
self.age += 1
-An interactive session shows that the :class:`Person` class has called
-:meth:`__set_name__` so that the field names would be recorded. Here
+An interactive session shows that the :class:`!Person` class has called
+:meth:`~object.__set_name__` so that the field names would be recorded. Here
we call :func:`vars` to look up the descriptor without triggering it:
.. doctest::
@@ -294,10 +294,10 @@ The two *Person* instances contain only the private names:
Closing thoughts
----------------
-A :term:`descriptor` is what we call any object that defines :meth:`__get__`,
-:meth:`__set__`, or :meth:`__delete__`.
+A :term:`descriptor` is what we call any object that defines :meth:`~object.__get__`,
+:meth:`~object.__set__`, or :meth:`~object.__delete__`.
-Optionally, descriptors can have a :meth:`__set_name__` method. This is only
+Optionally, descriptors can have a :meth:`~object.__set_name__` method. This is only
used in cases where a descriptor needs to know either the class where it was
created or the name of class variable it was assigned to. (This method, if
present, is called even if the class is not a descriptor.)
@@ -317,8 +317,8 @@ Descriptors invert that relationship and allow the data being looked-up to
have a say in the matter.
Descriptors are used throughout the language. It is how functions turn into
-bound methods. Common tools like :func:`classmethod`, :func:`staticmethod`,
-:func:`property`, and :func:`functools.cached_property` are all implemented as
+bound methods. Common tools like :deco:`classmethod`, :deco:`staticmethod`,
+:deco:`property`, and :deco:`functools.cached_property` are all implemented as
descriptors.
@@ -337,7 +337,7 @@ any data, it verifies that the new value meets various type and range
restrictions. If those restrictions aren't met, it raises an exception to
prevent data corruption at its source.
-This :class:`Validator` class is both an :term:`abstract base class` and a
+This :class:`!Validator` class is both an :term:`abstract base class` and a
managed attribute descriptor:
.. testcode::
@@ -360,8 +360,8 @@ managed attribute descriptor:
def validate(self, value):
pass
-Custom validators need to inherit from :class:`Validator` and must supply a
-:meth:`validate` method to test various restrictions as needed.
+Custom validators need to inherit from :class:`!Validator` and must supply a
+:meth:`!validate` method to test various restrictions as needed.
Custom validators
@@ -369,13 +369,13 @@ Custom validators
Here are three practical data validation utilities:
-1) :class:`OneOf` verifies that a value is one of a restricted set of options.
+1) :class:`!OneOf` verifies that a value is one of a restricted set of options.
-2) :class:`Number` verifies that a value is either an :class:`int` or
+2) :class:`!Number` verifies that a value is either an :class:`int` or
:class:`float`. Optionally, it verifies that a value is between a given
minimum or maximum.
-3) :class:`String` verifies that a value is a :class:`str`. Optionally, it
+3) :class:`!String` verifies that a value is a :class:`str`. Optionally, it
validates a given minimum or maximum length. It can validate a
user-defined `predicate
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)>`_ as well.
@@ -389,7 +389,9 @@ Here are three practical data validation utilities:
def validate(self, value):
if value not in self.options:
- raise ValueError(f'Expected {value!r} to be one of {self.options!r}')
+ raise ValueError(
+ f'Expected {value!r} to be one of {self.options!r}'
+ )
class Number(Validator):
@@ -418,7 +420,7 @@ Here are three practical data validation utilities:
def validate(self, value):
if not isinstance(value, str):
- raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be an str')
+ raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be a str')
if self.minsize is not None and len(value) < self.minsize:
raise ValueError(
f'Expected {value!r} to be no smaller than {self.minsize!r}'
@@ -469,6 +471,7 @@ The descriptors prevent invalid instances from being created:
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: Expected -5 to be at least 0
+
>>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 'V') # Blocked: 'V' isn't a number
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
@@ -498,8 +501,8 @@ Definition and introduction
---------------------------
In general, a descriptor is an attribute value that has one of the methods in
-the descriptor protocol. Those methods are :meth:`__get__`, :meth:`__set__`,
-and :meth:`__delete__`. If any of those methods are defined for an
+the descriptor protocol. Those methods are :meth:`~object.__get__`, :meth:`~object.__set__`,
+and :meth:`~object.__delete__`. If any of those methods are defined for an
attribute, it is said to be a :term:`descriptor`.
The default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete the
@@ -513,7 +516,7 @@ were defined.
Descriptors are a powerful, general purpose protocol. They are the mechanism
behind properties, methods, static methods, class methods, and
-:func:`super()`. They are used throughout Python itself. Descriptors
+:func:`super`. They are used throughout Python itself. Descriptors
simplify the underlying C code and offer a flexible set of new tools for
everyday Python programs.
@@ -531,8 +534,8 @@ That is all there is to it. Define any of these methods and an object is
considered a descriptor and can override default behavior upon being looked up
as an attribute.
-If an object defines :meth:`__set__` or :meth:`__delete__`, it is considered
-a data descriptor. Descriptors that only define :meth:`__get__` are called
+If an object defines :meth:`~object.__set__` or :meth:`~object.__delete__`, it is considered
+a data descriptor. Descriptors that only define :meth:`~object.__get__` are called
non-data descriptors (they are often used for methods but other uses are
possible).
@@ -542,9 +545,9 @@ has an entry with the same name as a data descriptor, the data descriptor
takes precedence. If an instance's dictionary has an entry with the same
name as a non-data descriptor, the dictionary entry takes precedence.
-To make a read-only data descriptor, define both :meth:`__get__` and
-:meth:`__set__` with the :meth:`__set__` raising an :exc:`AttributeError` when
-called. Defining the :meth:`__set__` method with an exception raising
+To make a read-only data descriptor, define both :meth:`~object.__get__` and
+:meth:`~object.__set__` with the :meth:`~object.__set__` raising an :exc:`AttributeError` when
+called. Defining the :meth:`~object.__set__` method with an exception raising
placeholder is enough to make it a data descriptor.
@@ -559,8 +562,8 @@ attribute access.
The expression ``obj.x`` looks up the attribute ``x`` in the chain of
namespaces for ``obj``. If the search finds a descriptor outside of the
-instance ``__dict__``, its :meth:`__get__` method is invoked according to the
-precedence rules listed below.
+instance :attr:`~object.__dict__`, its :meth:`~object.__get__` method is
+invoked according to the precedence rules listed below.
The details of invocation depend on whether ``obj`` is an object, class, or
instance of super.
@@ -571,7 +574,7 @@ Invocation from an instance
Instance lookup scans through a chain of namespaces giving data descriptors
the highest priority, followed by instance variables, then non-data
-descriptors, then class variables, and lastly :meth:`__getattr__` if it is
+descriptors, then class variables, and lastly :meth:`~object.__getattr__` if it is
provided.
If a descriptor is found for ``a.x``, then it is invoked with:
@@ -716,12 +719,12 @@ a pure Python equivalent:
>>> object_getattribute(u2, 'x') == u2.x == (D1, u2, U2)
True
-Note, there is no :meth:`__getattr__` hook in the :meth:`__getattribute__`
-code. That is why calling :meth:`__getattribute__` directly or with
-``super().__getattribute__`` will bypass :meth:`__getattr__` entirely.
+Note, there is no :meth:`~object.__getattr__` hook in the :meth:`~object.__getattribute__`
+code. That is why calling :meth:`~object.__getattribute__` directly or with
+``super().__getattribute__`` will bypass :meth:`~object.__getattr__` entirely.
Instead, it is the dot operator and the :func:`getattr` function that are
-responsible for invoking :meth:`__getattr__` whenever :meth:`__getattribute__`
+responsible for invoking :meth:`~object.__getattr__` whenever :meth:`~object.__getattribute__`
raises an :exc:`AttributeError`. Their logic is encapsulated in a helper
function:
@@ -773,8 +776,8 @@ Invocation from a class
-----------------------
The logic for a dotted lookup such as ``A.x`` is in
-:meth:`type.__getattribute__`. The steps are similar to those for
-:meth:`object.__getattribute__` but the instance dictionary lookup is replaced
+:meth:`!type.__getattribute__`. The steps are similar to those for
+:meth:`!object.__getattribute__` but the instance dictionary lookup is replaced
by a search through the class's :term:`method resolution order`.
If a descriptor is found, it is invoked with ``desc.__get__(None, A)``.
@@ -786,8 +789,8 @@ The full C implementation can be found in :c:func:`!type_getattro` and
Invocation from super
---------------------
-The logic for super's dotted lookup is in the :meth:`__getattribute__` method for
-object returned by :class:`super()`.
+The logic for super's dotted lookup is in the :meth:`~object.__getattribute__` method for
+object returned by :func:`super`.
A dotted lookup such as ``super(A, obj).m`` searches ``obj.__class__.__mro__``
for the base class ``B`` immediately following ``A`` and then returns
@@ -803,21 +806,21 @@ The full C implementation can be found in :c:func:`!super_getattro` in
Summary of invocation logic
---------------------------
-The mechanism for descriptors is embedded in the :meth:`__getattribute__()`
+The mechanism for descriptors is embedded in the :meth:`~object.__getattribute__`
methods for :class:`object`, :class:`type`, and :func:`super`.
The important points to remember are:
-* Descriptors are invoked by the :meth:`__getattribute__` method.
+* Descriptors are invoked by the :meth:`~object.__getattribute__` method.
* Classes inherit this machinery from :class:`object`, :class:`type`, or
:func:`super`.
-* Overriding :meth:`__getattribute__` prevents automatic descriptor calls
+* Overriding :meth:`~object.__getattribute__` prevents automatic descriptor calls
because all the descriptor logic is in that method.
-* :meth:`object.__getattribute__` and :meth:`type.__getattribute__` make
- different calls to :meth:`__get__`. The first includes the instance and may
+* :meth:`!object.__getattribute__` and :meth:`!type.__getattribute__` make
+ different calls to :meth:`~object.__get__`. The first includes the instance and may
include the class. The second puts in ``None`` for the instance and always
includes the class.
@@ -832,16 +835,16 @@ Automatic name notification
Sometimes it is desirable for a descriptor to know what class variable name it
was assigned to. When a new class is created, the :class:`type` metaclass
scans the dictionary of the new class. If any of the entries are descriptors
-and if they define :meth:`__set_name__`, that method is called with two
+and if they define :meth:`~object.__set_name__`, that method is called with two
arguments. The *owner* is the class where the descriptor is used, and the
*name* is the class variable the descriptor was assigned to.
The implementation details are in :c:func:`!type_new` and
:c:func:`!set_names` in :source:`Objects/typeobject.c`.
-Since the update logic is in :meth:`type.__new__`, notifications only take
+Since the update logic is in :meth:`!type.__new__`, notifications only take
place at the time of class creation. If descriptors are added to the class
-afterwards, :meth:`__set_name__` will need to be called manually.
+afterwards, :meth:`~object.__set_name__` will need to be called manually.
ORM example
@@ -870,7 +873,7 @@ care of lookups or updates:
conn.execute(self.store, [value, obj.key])
conn.commit()
-We can use the :class:`Field` class to define `models
+We can use the :class:`!Field` class to define `models
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_model>`_ that describe the schema for
each table in a database:
@@ -990,7 +993,7 @@ The documentation shows a typical use to define a managed attribute ``x``:
AttributeError: 'C' object has no attribute '_C__x'
To see how :func:`property` is implemented in terms of the descriptor protocol,
-here is a pure Python equivalent:
+here is a pure Python equivalent that implements most of the core functionality:
.. testcode::
@@ -1004,59 +1007,35 @@ here is a pure Python equivalent:
if doc is None and fget is not None:
doc = fget.__doc__
self.__doc__ = doc
- self._name = None
def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
- self._name = name
-
- @property
- def __name__(self):
- return self._name if self._name is not None else self.fget.__name__
-
- @__name__.setter
- def __name__(self, value):
- self._name = value
+ self.__name__ = name
def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
if obj is None:
return self
if self.fget is None:
- raise AttributeError(
- f'property {self.__name__!r} of {type(obj).__name__!r} '
- 'object has no getter'
- )
+ raise AttributeError
return self.fget(obj)
def __set__(self, obj, value):
if self.fset is None:
- raise AttributeError(
- f'property {self.__name__!r} of {type(obj).__name__!r} '
- 'object has no setter'
- )
+ raise AttributeError
self.fset(obj, value)
def __delete__(self, obj):
if self.fdel is None:
- raise AttributeError(
- f'property {self.__name__!r} of {type(obj).__name__!r} '
- 'object has no deleter'
- )
+ raise AttributeError
self.fdel(obj)
def getter(self, fget):
- prop = type(self)(fget, self.fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)
- prop._name = self._name
- return prop
+ return type(self)(fget, self.fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)
def setter(self, fset):
- prop = type(self)(self.fget, fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)
- prop._name = self._name
- return prop
+ return type(self)(self.fget, fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)
def deleter(self, fdel):
- prop = type(self)(self.fget, self.fset, fdel, self.__doc__)
- prop._name = self._name
- return prop
+ return type(self)(self.fget, self.fset, fdel, self.__doc__)
.. testcode::
:hide:
@@ -1119,23 +1098,23 @@ here is a pure Python equivalent:
>>> try:
... cc.no_getter
... except AttributeError as e:
- ... e.args[0]
+ ... type(e).__name__
...
- "property 'no_getter' of 'CC' object has no getter"
+ 'AttributeError'
>>> try:
... cc.no_setter = 33
... except AttributeError as e:
- ... e.args[0]
+ ... type(e).__name__
...
- "property 'no_setter' of 'CC' object has no setter"
+ 'AttributeError'
>>> try:
... del cc.no_deleter
... except AttributeError as e:
- ... e.args[0]
+ ... type(e).__name__
...
- "property 'no_deleter' of 'CC' object has no deleter"
+ 'AttributeError'
>>> CC.no_doc.__doc__ is None
True
@@ -1161,7 +1140,7 @@ to wrap access to the value attribute in a property data descriptor:
self.recalc()
return self._value
-Either the built-in :func:`property` or our :func:`Property` equivalent would
+Either the built-in :func:`property` or our :func:`!Property` equivalent would
work in this example.
@@ -1208,7 +1187,7 @@ roughly equivalent to:
return self
To support automatic creation of methods, functions include the
-:meth:`__get__` method for binding methods during attribute access. This
+:meth:`~object.__get__` method for binding methods during attribute access. This
means that functions are non-data descriptors that return bound methods
during dotted lookup from an instance. Here's how it works:
@@ -1252,19 +1231,19 @@ The function has a :term:`qualified name` attribute to support introspection:
'D.f'
Accessing the function through the class dictionary does not invoke
-:meth:`__get__`. Instead, it just returns the underlying function object::
+:meth:`~object.__get__`. Instead, it just returns the underlying function object::
>>> D.__dict__['f']
<function D.f at 0x00C45070>
-Dotted access from a class calls :meth:`__get__` which just returns the
+Dotted access from a class calls :meth:`~object.__get__` which just returns the
underlying function unchanged::
>>> D.f
<function D.f at 0x00C45070>
The interesting behavior occurs during dotted access from an instance. The
-dotted lookup calls :meth:`__get__` which returns a bound method object::
+dotted lookup calls :meth:`~object.__get__` which returns a bound method object::
>>> d = D()
>>> d.f
@@ -1289,7 +1268,7 @@ Kinds of methods
Non-data descriptors provide a simple mechanism for variations on the usual
patterns of binding functions into methods.
-To recap, functions have a :meth:`__get__` method so that they can be converted
+To recap, functions have a :meth:`~object.__get__` method so that they can be converted
to a method when accessed as attributes. The non-data descriptor transforms an
``obj.f(*args)`` call into ``f(obj, *args)``. Calling ``cls.f(*args)``
becomes ``f(*args)``.
@@ -1326,8 +1305,8 @@ mean, median, and other descriptive statistics that depend on the data. However,
there may be useful functions which are conceptually related but do not depend
on the data. For instance, ``erf(x)`` is handy conversion routine that comes up
in statistical work but does not directly depend on a particular dataset.
-It can be called either from an object or the class: ``s.erf(1.5) --> .9332`` or
-``Sample.erf(1.5) --> .9332``.
+It can be called either from an object or the class: ``s.erf(1.5) --> 0.9332``
+or ``Sample.erf(1.5) --> 0.9332``.
Since static methods return the underlying function with no changes, the
example calls are unexciting:
@@ -1347,7 +1326,7 @@ example calls are unexciting:
30
Using the non-data descriptor protocol, a pure Python version of
-:func:`staticmethod` would look like this:
+:deco:`staticmethod` would look like this:
.. testcode::
@@ -1483,7 +1462,7 @@ Now a new dictionary of unique keys can be constructed like this:
{'a': None, 'b': None, 'r': None, 'c': None, 'd': None}
Using the non-data descriptor protocol, a pure Python version of
-:func:`classmethod` would look like this:
+:deco:`classmethod` would look like this:
.. testcode::
@@ -1621,7 +1600,7 @@ matters when a large number of instances are going to be created.
4. Improves speed. Reading instance variables is 35% faster with
``__slots__`` (as measured with Python 3.10 on an Apple M1 processor).
-5. Blocks tools like :func:`functools.cached_property` which require an
+5. Blocks tools like :deco:`functools.cached_property` which require an
instance dictionary to function correctly:
.. testcode::
@@ -1657,7 +1636,7 @@ by member descriptors:
class Member:
def __init__(self, name, clsname, offset):
- 'Emulate PyMemberDef in Include/structmember.h'
+ 'Emulate PyMemberDef in Include/descrobject.h'
# Also see descr_new() in Objects/descrobject.c
self.name = name
self.clsname = clsname
@@ -1688,7 +1667,7 @@ by member descriptors:
'Emulate member_repr() in Objects/descrobject.c'
return f'<Member {self.name!r} of {self.clsname!r}>'
-The :meth:`type.__new__` method takes care of adding member objects to class
+The :meth:`!type.__new__` method takes care of adding member objects to class
variables:
.. testcode::
@@ -1739,7 +1718,7 @@ Python:
)
super().__delattr__(name)
-To use the simulation in a real class, just inherit from :class:`Object` and
+To use the simulation in a real class, just inherit from :class:`!Object` and
set the :term:`metaclass` to :class:`Type`:
.. testcode::
diff --git a/Doc/howto/enum.rst b/Doc/howto/enum.rst
index 30be15230fc088e..4d1aafa6e69b900 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/enum.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/enum.rst
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+.. _enum-howto:
+
==========
Enum HOWTO
==========
@@ -7,7 +9,7 @@ Enum HOWTO
.. currentmodule:: enum
An :class:`Enum` is a set of symbolic names bound to unique values. They are
-similar to global variables, but they offer a more useful :func:`repr()`,
+similar to global variables, but they offer a more useful :func:`repr`,
grouping, type-safety, and a few other features.
They are most useful when you have a variable that can take one of a limited
@@ -62,12 +64,12 @@ The *type* of an enumeration member is the enum it belongs to::
>>> isinstance(Weekday.FRIDAY, Weekday)
True
-Enum members have an attribute that contains just their :attr:`name`::
+Enum members have an attribute that contains just their :attr:`!name`::
>>> print(Weekday.TUESDAY.name)
TUESDAY
-Likewise, they have an attribute for their :attr:`value`::
+Likewise, they have an attribute for their :attr:`!value`::
>>> Weekday.WEDNESDAY.value
@@ -75,17 +77,18 @@ Likewise, they have an attribute for their :attr:`value`::
Unlike many languages that treat enumerations solely as name/value pairs,
Python Enums can have behavior added. For example, :class:`datetime.date`
-has two methods for returning the weekday: :meth:`weekday` and :meth:`isoweekday`.
+has two methods for returning the weekday:
+:meth:`~datetime.date.weekday` and :meth:`~datetime.date.isoweekday`.
The difference is that one of them counts from 0-6 and the other from 1-7.
-Rather than keep track of that ourselves we can add a method to the :class:`Weekday`
-enum to extract the day from the :class:`date` instance and return the matching
+Rather than keep track of that ourselves we can add a method to the :class:`!Weekday`
+enum to extract the day from the :class:`~datetime.date` instance and return the matching
enum member::
@classmethod
def from_date(cls, date):
return cls(date.isoweekday())
-The complete :class:`Weekday` enum now looks like this::
+The complete :class:`!Weekday` enum now looks like this::
>>> class Weekday(Enum):
... MONDAY = 1
@@ -102,13 +105,13 @@ The complete :class:`Weekday` enum now looks like this::
Now we can find out what today is! Observe::
- >>> from datetime import date
- >>> Weekday.from_date(date.today()) # doctest: +SKIP
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> Weekday.from_date(dt.date.today()) # doctest: +SKIP
<Weekday.TUESDAY: 2>
Of course, if you're reading this on some other day, you'll see that day instead.
-This :class:`Weekday` enum is great if our variable only needs one day, but
+This :class:`!Weekday` enum is great if our variable only needs one day, but
what if we need several? Maybe we're writing a function to plot chores during
a week, and don't want to use a :class:`list` -- we could use a different type
of :class:`Enum`::
@@ -126,7 +129,7 @@ of :class:`Enum`::
We've changed two things: we're inherited from :class:`Flag`, and the values are
all powers of 2.
-Just like the original :class:`Weekday` enum above, we can have a single selection::
+Just like the original :class:`!Weekday` enum above, we can have a single selection::
>>> first_week_day = Weekday.MONDAY
>>> first_week_day
@@ -165,7 +168,7 @@ And a function to display the chores for a given day::
answer SO questions
In cases where the actual values of the members do not matter, you can save
-yourself some work and use :func:`auto()` for the values::
+yourself some work and use :func:`auto` for the values::
>>> from enum import auto
>>> class Weekday(Flag):
@@ -201,7 +204,7 @@ If you want to access enum members by *name*, use item access::
>>> Color['GREEN']
<Color.GREEN: 2>
-If you have an enum member and need its :attr:`name` or :attr:`value`::
+If you have an enum member and need its :attr:`!name` or :attr:`!value`::
>>> member = Color.RED
>>> member.name
@@ -253,7 +256,7 @@ Ensuring unique enumeration values
----------------------------------
By default, enumerations allow multiple names as aliases for the same value.
-When this behavior isn't desired, you can use the :func:`unique` decorator::
+When this behavior isn't desired, you can use the :deco:`unique` decorator::
>>> from enum import Enum, unique
>>> @unique
@@ -282,7 +285,7 @@ If the exact value is unimportant you can use :class:`auto`::
>>> [member.value for member in Color]
[1, 2, 3]
-The values are chosen by :func:`_generate_next_value_`, which can be
+The values are chosen by :func:`~Enum._generate_next_value_`, which can be
overridden::
>>> class AutoName(Enum):
@@ -301,7 +304,7 @@ overridden::
.. note::
- The :meth:`_generate_next_value_` method must be defined before any members.
+ The :meth:`~Enum._generate_next_value_` method must be defined before any members.
Iteration
---------
@@ -422,18 +425,18 @@ Then::
The rules for what is allowed are as follows: names that start and end with
a single underscore are reserved by enum and cannot be used; all other
attributes defined within an enumeration will become members of this
-enumeration, with the exception of special methods (:meth:`__str__`,
-:meth:`__add__`, etc.), descriptors (methods are also descriptors), and
-variable names listed in :attr:`_ignore_`.
+enumeration, with the exception of special methods (:meth:`~object.__str__`,
+:meth:`~object.__add__`, etc.), descriptors (methods are also descriptors), and
+variable names listed in :attr:`~Enum._ignore_`.
-Note: if your enumeration defines :meth:`__new__` and/or :meth:`__init__`,
+Note: if your enumeration defines :meth:`~object.__new__` and/or :meth:`~object.__init__`,
any value(s) given to the enum member will be passed into those methods.
See `Planet`_ for an example.
.. note::
- The :meth:`__new__` method, if defined, is used during creation of the Enum
- members; it is then replaced by Enum's :meth:`__new__` which is used after
+ The :meth:`~object.__new__` method, if defined, is used during creation of the Enum
+ members; it is then replaced by Enum's :meth:`~object.__new__` which is used after
class creation for lookup of existing members. See :ref:`new-vs-init` for
more details.
@@ -506,7 +509,7 @@ to use the standard :func:`repr`.
.. note::
- Adding :func:`~dataclasses.dataclass` decorator to :class:`Enum`
+ Adding :deco:`~dataclasses.dataclass` decorator to :class:`Enum`
and its subclasses is not supported. It will not raise any errors,
but it will produce very strange results at runtime, such as members
being equal to each other::
@@ -542,7 +545,7 @@ from that module.
nested in other classes.
It is possible to modify how enum members are pickled/unpickled by defining
-:meth:`__reduce_ex__` in the enumeration class. The default method is by-value,
+:meth:`~object.__reduce_ex__` in the enumeration class. The default method is by-value,
but enums with complicated values may want to use by-name::
>>> import enum
@@ -578,7 +581,7 @@ values. The last two options enable assigning arbitrary values to
enumerations; the others auto-assign increasing integers starting with 1 (use
the ``start`` parameter to specify a different starting value). A
new class derived from :class:`Enum` is returned. In other words, the above
-assignment to :class:`Animal` is equivalent to::
+assignment to :class:`!Animal` is equivalent to::
>>> class Animal(Enum):
... ANT = 1
@@ -606,7 +609,7 @@ The solution is to specify the module name explicitly as follows::
the source, pickling will be disabled.
The new pickle protocol 4 also, in some circumstances, relies on
-:attr:`~definition.__qualname__` being set to the location where pickle will be able
+:attr:`~type.__qualname__` being set to the location where pickle will be able
to find the class. For example, if the class was made available in class
SomeData in the global scope::
@@ -889,7 +892,7 @@ simple to implement independently::
pass
This demonstrates how similar derived enumerations can be defined; for example
-a :class:`FloatEnum` that mixes in :class:`float` instead of :class:`int`.
+a :class:`!FloatEnum` that mixes in :class:`float` instead of :class:`int`.
Some rules:
@@ -903,32 +906,32 @@ Some rules:
additional type, all the members must have values of that type, e.g.
:class:`int` above. This restriction does not apply to mix-ins which only
add methods and don't specify another type.
-4. When another data type is mixed in, the :attr:`value` attribute is *not the
+4. When another data type is mixed in, the :attr:`~Enum.value` attribute is *not the
same* as the enum member itself, although it is equivalent and will compare
equal.
-5. A ``data type`` is a mixin that defines :meth:`__new__`, or a
+5. A ``data type`` is a mixin that defines :meth:`~object.__new__`, or a
:class:`~dataclasses.dataclass`
6. %-style formatting: ``%s`` and ``%r`` call the :class:`Enum` class's
- :meth:`__str__` and :meth:`__repr__` respectively; other codes (such as
+ :meth:`~object.__str__` and :meth:`~object.__repr__` respectively; other codes (such as
``%i`` or ``%h`` for IntEnum) treat the enum member as its mixed-in type.
7. :ref:`Formatted string literals <f-strings>`, :meth:`str.format`,
- and :func:`format` will use the enum's :meth:`__str__` method.
+ and :func:`format` will use the enum's :meth:`~object.__str__` method.
.. note::
Because :class:`IntEnum`, :class:`IntFlag`, and :class:`StrEnum` are
designed to be drop-in replacements for existing constants, their
- :meth:`__str__` method has been reset to their data types'
- :meth:`__str__` method.
+ :meth:`~object.__str__` method has been reset to their data types'
+ :meth:`~object.__str__` method.
.. _new-vs-init:
-When to use :meth:`__new__` vs. :meth:`__init__`
-------------------------------------------------
+When to use :meth:`~object.__new__` vs. :meth:`~object.__init__`
+----------------------------------------------------------------
-:meth:`__new__` must be used whenever you want to customize the actual value of
+:meth:`~object.__new__` must be used whenever you want to customize the actual value of
the :class:`Enum` member. Any other modifications may go in either
-:meth:`__new__` or :meth:`__init__`, with :meth:`__init__` being preferred.
+:meth:`~object.__new__` or :meth:`~object.__init__`, with :meth:`~object.__init__` being preferred.
For example, if you want to pass several items to the constructor, but only
want one of them to be the value::
@@ -962,75 +965,16 @@ want one of them to be the value::
Finer Points
-^^^^^^^^^^^^
-
-Supported ``__dunder__`` names
-""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
-
-:attr:`__members__` is a read-only ordered mapping of ``member_name``:``member``
-items. It is only available on the class.
-
-:meth:`__new__`, if specified, must create and return the enum members; it is
-also a very good idea to set the member's :attr:`_value_` appropriately. Once
-all the members are created it is no longer used.
-
-
-Supported ``_sunder_`` names
-""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
-
-- :attr:`~Enum._name_` -- name of the member
-- :attr:`~Enum._value_` -- value of the member; can be set in ``__new__``
-- :meth:`~Enum._missing_` -- a lookup function used when a value is not found;
- may be overridden
-- :attr:`~Enum._ignore_` -- a list of names, either as a :class:`list` or a
- :class:`str`, that will not be transformed into members, and will be removed
- from the final class
-- :meth:`~Enum._generate_next_value_` -- used to get an appropriate value for
- an enum member; may be overridden
-- :meth:`~Enum._add_alias_` -- adds a new name as an alias to an existing
- member.
-- :meth:`~Enum._add_value_alias_` -- adds a new value as an alias to an
- existing member. See `MultiValueEnum`_ for an example.
+------------
- .. note::
+Supported ``__dunder__`` and ``_sunder_`` names
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
- For standard :class:`Enum` classes the next value chosen is the highest
- value seen incremented by one.
-
- For :class:`Flag` classes the next value chosen will be the next highest
- power-of-two.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.13
- Prior versions would use the last seen value instead of the highest value.
-
-.. versionadded:: 3.6 ``_missing_``, ``_order_``, ``_generate_next_value_``
-.. versionadded:: 3.7 ``_ignore_``
-.. versionadded:: 3.13 ``_add_alias_``, ``_add_value_alias_``
-
-To help keep Python 2 / Python 3 code in sync an :attr:`_order_` attribute can
-be provided. It will be checked against the actual order of the enumeration
-and raise an error if the two do not match::
-
- >>> class Color(Enum):
- ... _order_ = 'RED GREEN BLUE'
- ... RED = 1
- ... BLUE = 3
- ... GREEN = 2
- ...
- Traceback (most recent call last):
- ...
- TypeError: member order does not match _order_:
- ['RED', 'BLUE', 'GREEN']
- ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']
-
-.. note::
-
- In Python 2 code the :attr:`_order_` attribute is necessary as definition
- order is lost before it can be recorded.
+The supported ``__dunder__`` and ``_sunder_`` names can be found in the :ref:`Enum API documentation <enum-dunder-sunder>`.
_Private__names
-"""""""""""""""
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
:ref:`Private names <private-name-mangling>` are not converted to enum members,
but remain normal attributes.
@@ -1039,7 +983,7 @@ but remain normal attributes.
``Enum`` member type
-""""""""""""""""""""
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Enum members are instances of their enum class, and are normally accessed as
``EnumClass.member``. In certain situations, such as writing custom enum
@@ -1052,7 +996,7 @@ recommended.
Creating members that are mixed with other data types
-"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
When subclassing other data types, such as :class:`int` or :class:`str`, with
an :class:`Enum`, all values after the ``=`` are passed to that data type's
@@ -1066,7 +1010,7 @@ constructor. For example::
Boolean value of ``Enum`` classes and members
-"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Enum classes that are mixed with non-:class:`Enum` types (such as
:class:`int`, :class:`str`, etc.) are evaluated according to the mixed-in
@@ -1081,7 +1025,7 @@ Plain :class:`Enum` classes always evaluate as :data:`True`.
``Enum`` classes with methods
-"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
If you give your enum subclass extra methods, like the `Planet`_
class below, those methods will show up in a :func:`dir` of the member,
@@ -1094,7 +1038,7 @@ but not of the class::
Combining members of ``Flag``
-"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Iterating over a combination of :class:`Flag` members will only return the members that
are comprised of a single bit::
@@ -1114,7 +1058,7 @@ are comprised of a single bit::
``Flag`` and ``IntFlag`` minutia
-""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Using the following snippet for our examples::
@@ -1150,6 +1094,14 @@ the following are true:
>>> (Color.RED | Color.GREEN).name
'RED|GREEN'
+ >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
+ ... R = 4
+ ... W = 2
+ ... X = 1
+ ...
+ >>> (Perm.R & Perm.W).name is None # effectively Perm(0)
+ True
+
- multi-bit flags, aka aliases, can be returned from operations::
>>> Color.RED | Color.BLUE
@@ -1206,12 +1158,12 @@ Enum Classes
^^^^^^^^^^^^
The :class:`EnumType` metaclass is responsible for providing the
-:meth:`__contains__`, :meth:`__dir__`, :meth:`__iter__` and other methods that
+:meth:`~object.__contains__`, :meth:`~object.__dir__`, :meth:`~object.__iter__` and other methods that
allow one to do things with an :class:`Enum` class that fail on a typical
class, such as ``list(Color)`` or ``some_enum_var in Color``. :class:`EnumType` is
responsible for ensuring that various other methods on the final :class:`Enum`
-class are correct (such as :meth:`__new__`, :meth:`__getnewargs__`,
-:meth:`__str__` and :meth:`__repr__`).
+class are correct (such as :meth:`~object.__new__`, :meth:`~object.__getnewargs__`,
+:meth:`~object.__str__` and :meth:`~object.__repr__`).
Flag Classes
^^^^^^^^^^^^
@@ -1226,7 +1178,7 @@ Enum Members (aka instances)
The most interesting thing about enum members is that they are singletons.
:class:`EnumType` creates them all while it is creating the enum class itself,
-and then puts a custom :meth:`__new__` in place to ensure that no new ones are
+and then puts a custom :meth:`~object.__new__` in place to ensure that no new ones are
ever instantiated by returning only the existing member instances.
Flag Members
@@ -1274,7 +1226,7 @@ is. There are several ways to define this type of simple enumeration:
- use instances of :class:`auto` for the value
- use instances of :class:`object` as the value
- use a descriptive string as the value
-- use a tuple as the value and a custom :meth:`__new__` to replace the
+- use a tuple as the value and a custom :meth:`~object.__new__` to replace the
tuple with an :class:`int` value
Using any of these methods signifies to the user that these values are not
@@ -1310,7 +1262,7 @@ Using :class:`object` would look like::
<Color.GREEN: <object object at 0x...>>
This is also a good example of why you might want to write your own
-:meth:`__repr__`::
+:meth:`~object.__repr__`::
>>> class Color(Enum):
... RED = object()
@@ -1338,10 +1290,10 @@ Using a string as the value would look like::
<Color.GREEN: 'go'>
-Using a custom :meth:`__new__`
-""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
+Using a custom :meth:`~object.__new__`
+""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
-Using an auto-numbering :meth:`__new__` would look like::
+Using an auto-numbering :meth:`~object.__new__` would look like::
>>> class AutoNumber(Enum):
... def __new__(cls):
@@ -1387,8 +1339,8 @@ to handle any extra arguments::
.. note::
- The :meth:`__new__` method, if defined, is used during creation of the Enum
- members; it is then replaced by Enum's :meth:`__new__` which is used after
+ The :meth:`~object.__new__` method, if defined, is used during creation of the Enum
+ members; it is then replaced by Enum's :meth:`~object.__new__` which is used after
class creation for lookup of existing members.
.. warning::
@@ -1467,6 +1419,7 @@ alias::
behaviors as well as disallowing aliases. If the only desired change is
disallowing aliases, the :func:`unique` decorator can be used instead.
+.. _multi-value-enum:
MultiValueEnum
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
@@ -1494,7 +1447,7 @@ Supports having more than one value per member::
Planet
^^^^^^
-If :meth:`__new__` or :meth:`__init__` is defined, the value of the enum member
+If :meth:`~object.__new__` or :meth:`~object.__init__` is defined, the value of the enum member
will be passed to those methods::
>>> class Planet(Enum):
@@ -1525,10 +1478,10 @@ will be passed to those methods::
TimePeriod
^^^^^^^^^^
-An example to show the :attr:`_ignore_` attribute in use::
+An example to show the :attr:`~Enum._ignore_` attribute in use::
- >>> from datetime import timedelta
- >>> class Period(timedelta, Enum):
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> class Period(dt.timedelta, Enum):
... "different lengths of time"
... _ignore_ = 'Period i'
... Period = vars()
diff --git a/Doc/howto/free-threading-extensions.rst b/Doc/howto/free-threading-extensions.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..df94336d2c22d25
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/howto/free-threading-extensions.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,290 @@
+.. highlight:: c
+
+.. _freethreading-extensions-howto:
+
+******************************************
+C API Extension Support for Free Threading
+******************************************
+
+Starting with the 3.13 release, CPython has experimental support for running
+with the :term:`global interpreter lock` (GIL) disabled in a configuration
+called :term:`free threading`. This document describes how to adapt C API
+extensions to support free threading.
+
+
+Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C
+========================================
+
+The CPython C API exposes the ``Py_GIL_DISABLED`` macro: in the free-threaded
+build it's defined to ``1``, and in the regular build it's not defined.
+You can use it to enable code that only runs under the free-threaded build::
+
+ #ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED
+ /* code that only runs in the free-threaded build */
+ #endif
+
+.. note::
+
+ On Windows, this macro is not defined automatically, but must be specified
+ to the compiler when building. The :func:`sysconfig.get_config_var` function
+ can be used to determine whether the current running interpreter had the
+ macro defined.
+
+
+Module Initialization
+=====================
+
+Extension modules need to explicitly indicate that they support running with
+the GIL disabled; otherwise importing the extension will raise a warning and
+enable the GIL at runtime.
+
+There are two ways to indicate that an extension module supports running with
+the GIL disabled depending on whether the extension uses multi-phase or
+single-phase initialization.
+
+Multi-Phase Initialization
+..........................
+
+Extensions that use multi-phase initialization (i.e.,
+:c:func:`PyModuleDef_Init`) should add a :c:data:`Py_mod_gil` slot in the
+module definition. If your extension supports older versions of CPython,
+you should guard the slot with a :c:data:`PY_VERSION_HEX` check.
+
+::
+
+ static struct PyModuleDef_Slot module_slots[] = {
+ ...
+ #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030D0000
+ {Py_mod_gil, Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED},
+ #endif
+ {0, NULL}
+ };
+
+ static struct PyModuleDef moduledef = {
+ PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
+ .m_slots = module_slots,
+ ...
+ };
+
+
+Single-Phase Initialization
+...........................
+
+Extensions that use single-phase initialization (i.e.,
+:c:func:`PyModule_Create`) should call :c:func:`PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL` to
+indicate that they support running with the GIL disabled. The function is
+only defined in the free-threaded build, so you should guard the call with
+``#ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED`` to avoid compilation errors in the regular build.
+
+::
+
+ static struct PyModuleDef moduledef = {
+ PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
+ ...
+ };
+
+ PyMODINIT_FUNC
+ PyInit_mymodule(void)
+ {
+ PyObject *m = PyModule_Create(&moduledef);
+ if (m == NULL) {
+ return NULL;
+ }
+ #ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED
+ PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(m, Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED);
+ #endif
+ return m;
+ }
+
+
+General API Guidelines
+======================
+
+Most of the C API is thread-safe, but there are some exceptions.
+
+* **Struct Fields**: Accessing fields in Python C API objects or structs
+ directly is not thread-safe if the field may be concurrently modified.
+* **Macros**: Accessor macros like :c:macro:`PyList_GET_ITEM` and
+ :c:macro:`PyList_SET_ITEM` do not perform any error checking or locking.
+ These macros are not thread-safe if the container object may be modified
+ concurrently.
+* **Borrowed References**: C API functions that return
+ :term:`borrowed references <borrowed reference>` may not be thread-safe if
+ the containing object is modified concurrently. See the section on
+ :ref:`borrowed references <borrowed-references>` for more information.
+
+
+Container Thread Safety
+.......................
+
+Containers like :c:struct:`PyListObject`,
+:c:struct:`PyDictObject`, and :c:struct:`PySetObject` perform internal locking
+in the free-threaded build. For example, the :c:func:`PyList_Append` will
+lock the list before appending an item.
+
+.. _PyDict_Next:
+
+``PyDict_Next``
+'''''''''''''''
+
+A notable exception is :c:func:`PyDict_Next`, which does not lock the
+dictionary. You should use :c:macro:`Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION` to protect
+the dictionary while iterating over it if the dictionary may be concurrently
+modified::
+
+ Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(dict);
+ PyObject *key, *value;
+ Py_ssize_t pos = 0;
+ while (PyDict_Next(dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
+ ...
+ }
+ Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();
+
+
+Borrowed References
+===================
+
+.. _borrowed-references:
+
+Some C API functions return :term:`borrowed references <borrowed reference>`.
+These APIs are not thread-safe if the containing object is modified
+concurrently. For example, it's not safe to use :c:func:`PyList_GetItem`
+if the list may be modified concurrently.
+
+The following table lists some borrowed reference APIs and their replacements
+that return :term:`strong references <strong reference>`.
+
++-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+| Borrowed reference API | Strong reference API |
++===================================+===================================+
+| :c:func:`PyList_GetItem` | :c:func:`PyList_GetItemRef` |
++-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+| :c:func:`PyList_GET_ITEM` | :c:func:`PyList_GetItemRef` |
++-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+| :c:func:`PyDict_GetItem` | :c:func:`PyDict_GetItemRef` |
++-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+| :c:func:`PyDict_GetItemWithError` | :c:func:`PyDict_GetItemRef` |
++-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+| :c:func:`PyDict_GetItemString` | :c:func:`PyDict_GetItemStringRef` |
++-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+| :c:func:`PyDict_SetDefault` | :c:func:`PyDict_SetDefaultRef` |
++-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+| :c:func:`PyDict_Next` | none (see :ref:`PyDict_Next`) |
++-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+| :c:func:`PyWeakref_GetObject` | :c:func:`PyWeakref_GetRef` |
++-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+| :c:func:`PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT` | :c:func:`PyWeakref_GetRef` |
++-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+| :c:func:`PyImport_AddModule` | :c:func:`PyImport_AddModuleRef` |
++-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+
+Not all APIs that return borrowed references are problematic. For
+example, :c:func:`PyTuple_GetItem` is safe because tuples are immutable.
+Similarly, not all uses of the above APIs are problematic. For example,
+:c:func:`PyDict_GetItem` is often used for parsing keyword argument
+dictionaries in function calls; those keyword argument dictionaries are
+effectively private (not accessible by other threads), so using borrowed
+references in that context is safe.
+
+Some of these functions were added in Python 3.13. You can use the
+`pythoncapi-compat <https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat>`_ package
+to provide implementations of these functions for older Python versions.
+
+
+.. _free-threaded-memory-allocation:
+
+Memory Allocation APIs
+======================
+
+Python's memory management C API provides functions in three different
+:ref:`allocation domains <allocator-domains>`: "raw", "mem", and "object".
+For thread-safety, the free-threaded build requires that only Python objects
+are allocated using the object domain, and that all Python object are
+allocated using that domain. This differs from the prior Python versions,
+where this was only a best practice and not a hard requirement.
+
+.. note::
+
+ Search for uses of :c:func:`PyObject_Malloc` in your
+ extension and check that the allocated memory is used for Python objects.
+ Use :c:func:`PyMem_Malloc` to allocate buffers instead of
+ :c:func:`PyObject_Malloc`.
+
+
+Thread State and GIL APIs
+=========================
+
+Python provides a set of functions and macros to manage thread state and the
+GIL, such as:
+
+* :c:func:`PyGILState_Ensure` and :c:func:`PyGILState_Release`
+* :c:func:`PyEval_SaveThread` and :c:func:`PyEval_RestoreThread`
+* :c:macro:`Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS` and :c:macro:`Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS`
+
+These functions should still be used in the free-threaded build to manage
+thread state even when the :term:`GIL` is disabled. For example, if you
+create a thread outside of Python, you must call :c:func:`PyGILState_Ensure`
+before calling into the Python API to ensure that the thread has a valid
+Python thread state.
+
+You should continue to call :c:func:`PyEval_SaveThread` or
+:c:macro:`Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS` around blocking operations, such as I/O or
+lock acquisitions, to allow other threads to run the
+:term:`cyclic garbage collector <garbage collection>`.
+
+
+Protecting Internal Extension State
+===================================
+
+Your extension may have internal state that was previously protected by the
+GIL. You may need to add locking to protect this state. The approach will
+depend on your extension, but some common patterns include:
+
+* **Caches**: global caches are a common source of shared state. Consider
+ using a lock to protect the cache or disabling it in the free-threaded build
+ if the cache is not critical for performance.
+* **Global State**: global state may need to be protected by a lock or moved
+ to thread local storage. C11 and C++11 provide the ``thread_local`` or
+ ``_Thread_local`` for
+ `thread-local storage <https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/language/storage_duration>`_.
+
+
+Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build
+===============================================
+
+C API extensions need to be built specifically for the free-threaded build.
+The wheels, shared libraries, and binaries are indicated by a ``t`` suffix.
+
+* `pypa/manylinux <https://github.com/pypa/manylinux>`_ supports the
+ free-threaded build, with the ``t`` suffix, such as ``python3.13t``.
+* `pypa/cibuildwheel <https://github.com/pypa/cibuildwheel>`_ supports the
+ free-threaded build if you set
+ `CIBW_ENABLE to cpython-freethreading <https://cibuildwheel.pypa.io/en/stable/options/#enable>`_.
+
+Limited C API and Stable ABI
+............................
+
+The free-threaded build does not currently support the
+:ref:`Limited C API <limited-c-api>` or the stable ABI. If you use
+`setuptools <https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/setuptools.html>`_ to build
+your extension and currently set ``py_limited_api=True`` you can use
+``py_limited_api=not sysconfig.get_config_var("Py_GIL_DISABLED")`` to opt out
+of the limited API when building with the free-threaded build.
+
+.. note::
+ You will need to build separate wheels specifically for the free-threaded
+ build. If you currently use the stable ABI, you can continue to build a
+ single wheel for multiple non-free-threaded Python versions.
+
+
+Windows
+.......
+
+Due to a limitation of the official Windows installer, you will need to
+manually define ``Py_GIL_DISABLED=1`` when building extensions from source.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+ `Porting Extension Modules to Support Free-Threading
+ <https://py-free-threading.github.io/porting/>`_:
+ A community-maintained porting guide for extension authors.
diff --git a/Doc/howto/free-threading-python.rst b/Doc/howto/free-threading-python.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..92ea0fc01349483
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/howto/free-threading-python.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,154 @@
+.. _freethreading-python-howto:
+
+**********************************************
+Python experimental support for free threading
+**********************************************
+
+Starting with the 3.13 release, CPython has experimental support for a build of
+Python called :term:`free threading` where the :term:`global interpreter lock`
+(GIL) is disabled. Free-threaded execution allows for full utilization of the
+available processing power by running threads in parallel on available CPU cores.
+While not all software will benefit from this automatically, programs
+designed with threading in mind will run faster on multi-core hardware.
+
+**The free-threaded mode is experimental** and work is ongoing to improve it:
+expect some bugs and a substantial single-threaded performance hit.
+
+This document describes the implications of free threading
+for Python code. See :ref:`freethreading-extensions-howto` for information on
+how to write C extensions that support the free-threaded build.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+ :pep:`703` – Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython for an
+ overall description of free-threaded Python.
+
+
+Installation
+============
+
+Starting with Python 3.13, the official macOS and Windows installers
+optionally support installing free-threaded Python binaries. The installers
+are available at https://www.python.org/downloads/.
+
+For information on other platforms, see the `Installing a Free-Threaded Python
+<https://py-free-threading.github.io/installing-cpython/>`_, a
+community-maintained installation guide for installing free-threaded Python.
+
+When building CPython from source, the :option:`--disable-gil` configure option
+should be used to build a free-threaded Python interpreter.
+
+
+Identifying free-threaded Python
+================================
+
+To check if the current interpreter supports free-threading, :option:`python -VV <-V>`
+and :data:`sys.version` contain "experimental free-threading build".
+The new :func:`sys._is_gil_enabled` function can be used to check whether
+the GIL is actually disabled in the running process.
+
+The ``sysconfig.get_config_var("Py_GIL_DISABLED")`` configuration variable can
+be used to determine whether the build supports free threading. If the variable
+is set to ``1``, then the build supports free threading. This is the recommended
+mechanism for decisions related to the build configuration.
+
+
+The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python
+===================================================
+
+Free-threaded builds of CPython support optionally running with the GIL enabled
+at runtime using the environment variable :envvar:`PYTHON_GIL` or
+the command-line option :option:`-X gil`.
+
+The GIL may also automatically be enabled when importing a C-API extension
+module that is not explicitly marked as supporting free threading. A warning
+will be printed in this case.
+
+In addition to individual package documentation, the following websites track
+the status of popular packages support for free threading:
+
+* https://py-free-threading.github.io/tracking/
+* https://hugovk.github.io/free-threaded-wheels/
+
+
+Thread safety
+=============
+
+The free-threaded build of CPython aims to provide similar thread-safety
+behavior at the Python level to the default GIL-enabled build. Built-in
+types like :class:`dict`, :class:`list`, and :class:`set` use internal locks
+to protect against concurrent modifications in ways that behave similarly to
+the GIL. However, Python has not historically guaranteed specific behavior for
+concurrent modifications to these built-in types, so this should be treated
+as a description of the current implementation, not a guarantee of current or
+future behavior.
+
+.. note::
+
+ It's recommended to use the :class:`threading.Lock` or other synchronization
+ primitives instead of relying on the internal locks of built-in types, when
+ possible.
+
+
+Known limitations
+=================
+
+This section describes known limitations of the free-threaded CPython build.
+
+Immortalization
+---------------
+
+The free-threaded build of the 3.13 release makes some objects :term:`immortal`.
+Immortal objects are not deallocated and have reference counts that are
+never modified. This is done to avoid reference count contention that would
+prevent efficient multi-threaded scaling.
+
+An object will be made immortal when a new thread is started for the first time
+after the main thread is running. The following objects are immortalized:
+
+* :ref:`function <user-defined-funcs>` objects declared at the module level
+* :ref:`method <instance-methods>` descriptors
+* :ref:`code <code-objects>` objects
+* :term:`module` objects and their dictionaries
+* :ref:`classes <classes>` (type objects)
+
+Because immortal objects are never deallocated, applications that create many
+objects of these types may see increased memory usage. This is expected to be
+addressed in the 3.14 release.
+
+Additionally, numeric and string literals in the code as well as strings
+returned by :func:`sys.intern` are also immortalized. This behavior is
+expected to remain in the 3.14 free-threaded build.
+
+
+Frame objects
+-------------
+
+It is not safe to access :ref:`frame <frame-objects>` objects from other
+threads and doing so may cause your program to crash . This means that
+:func:`sys._current_frames` is generally not safe to use in a free-threaded
+build. Functions like :func:`inspect.currentframe` and :func:`sys._getframe`
+are generally safe as long as the resulting frame object is not passed to
+another thread.
+
+Iterators
+---------
+
+Sharing the same iterator object between multiple threads is generally not
+safe and threads may see duplicate or missing elements when iterating or crash
+the interpreter.
+
+
+Single-threaded performance
+---------------------------
+
+The free-threaded build has additional overhead when executing Python code
+compared to the default GIL-enabled build. In 3.13, this overhead is about
+40% on the `pyperformance <https://pyperformance.readthedocs.io/>`_ suite.
+Programs that spend most of their time in C extensions or I/O will see
+less of an impact. The largest impact is because the specializing adaptive
+interpreter (:pep:`659`) is disabled in the free-threaded build. We expect
+to re-enable it in a thread-safe way in the 3.14 release. This overhead is
+expected to be reduced in upcoming Python release. We are aiming for an
+overhead of 10% or less on the pyperformance suite compared to the default
+GIL-enabled build.
diff --git a/Doc/howto/functional.rst b/Doc/howto/functional.rst
index b0f9d22d74f0e31..b78be3bbfbfed97 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/functional.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/functional.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,10 @@
+.. _functional-howto:
+
********************************
Functional Programming HOWTO
********************************
-:Author: A. M. Kuchling
+:Author: \A. M. Kuchling
:Release: 0.32
In this document, we'll take a tour of Python's features suitable for
@@ -600,7 +602,7 @@ generators:
raise an exception inside the generator; the exception is raised by the
``yield`` expression where the generator's execution is paused.
-* :meth:`~generator.close` raises a :exc:`GeneratorExit` exception inside the
+* :meth:`~generator.close` sends a :exc:`GeneratorExit` exception to the
generator to terminate the iteration. On receiving this exception, the
generator's code must either raise :exc:`GeneratorExit` or
:exc:`StopIteration`; catching the exception and doing anything else is
@@ -1040,7 +1042,7 @@ first calculation. ::
>>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, [])
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
- TypeError: reduce() of empty sequence with no initial value
+ TypeError: reduce() of empty iterable with no initial value
>>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)
6
>>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [], 1)
@@ -1215,7 +1217,7 @@ flow inside a program. The book uses Scheme for its examples, but many of the
design approaches described in these chapters are applicable to functional-style
Python code.
-https://www.defmacro.org/ramblings/fp.html: A general introduction to functional
+https://defmacro.org/2006/06/19/fp.html: A general introduction to functional
programming that uses Java examples and has a lengthy historical introduction.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming: General Wikipedia entry
diff --git a/Doc/howto/gdb_helpers.rst b/Doc/howto/gdb_helpers.rst
index 53bbf7ddaa2ab96..98ce813ca4ab024 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/gdb_helpers.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/gdb_helpers.rst
@@ -180,7 +180,7 @@ regular machine-level integer::
(gdb) p some_python_integer
$4 = 42
-The internal structure can be revealed with a cast to :c:expr:`PyLongObject *`:
+The internal structure can be revealed with a cast to :c:expr:`PyLongObject *`::
(gdb) p *(PyLongObject*)some_python_integer
$5 = {ob_base = {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 8, ob_type = 0x3dad39f5e0}, ob_size = 1},
diff --git a/Doc/howto/index.rst b/Doc/howto/index.rst
index 065071e39a06c58..7a673577d6c69c1 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/index.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/index.rst
@@ -1,18 +1,19 @@
+.. _how-tos:
+
***************
Python HOWTOs
***************
-Python HOWTOs are documents that cover a single, specific topic,
-and attempt to cover it fairly completely. Modelled on the Linux
-Documentation Project's HOWTO collection, this collection is an
+Python HOWTOs are documents that cover a specific topic in-depth.
+Modeled on the Linux Documentation Project's HOWTO collection, this collection is an
effort to foster documentation that's more detailed than the
Python Library Reference.
-Currently, the HOWTOs are:
-
.. toctree::
:maxdepth: 1
+ :hidden:
+ a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio.rst
cporting.rst
curses.rst
descriptor.rst
@@ -34,4 +35,38 @@ Currently, the HOWTOs are:
isolating-extensions.rst
timerfd.rst
mro.rst
+ free-threading-python.rst
+ free-threading-extensions.rst
+
+General:
+
+* :ref:`a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio`
+* :ref:`annotations-howto`
+* :ref:`argparse-tutorial`
+* :ref:`descriptorhowto`
+* :ref:`enum-howto`
+* :ref:`functional-howto`
+* :ref:`ipaddress-howto`
+* :ref:`logging-howto`
+* :ref:`logging-cookbook`
+* :ref:`regex-howto`
+* :ref:`sortinghowto`
+* :ref:`unicode-howto`
+* :ref:`urllib-howto`
+
+Advanced development:
+
+* :ref:`curses-howto`
+* :ref:`freethreading-python-howto`
+* :ref:`freethreading-extensions-howto`
+* :ref:`isolating-extensions-howto`
+* :ref:`python_2.3_mro`
+* :ref:`socket-howto`
+* :ref:`timerfd-howto`
+* :ref:`cporting-howto`
+
+Debugging and profiling:
+* :ref:`gdb`
+* :ref:`instrumentation`
+* :ref:`perf_profiling`
diff --git a/Doc/howto/instrumentation.rst b/Doc/howto/instrumentation.rst
index 9c99fcecce1fcbd..06c1ae40da5e67e 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/instrumentation.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/instrumentation.rst
@@ -269,6 +269,8 @@ should instead read:
(assuming a :ref:`debug build <debug-build>` of CPython 3.6)
+.. _static-markers:
+
Available static markers
------------------------
@@ -307,7 +309,7 @@ Available static markers
.. object:: gc__start(int generation)
Fires when the Python interpreter starts a garbage collection cycle.
- ``arg0`` is the generation to scan, like :func:`gc.collect()`.
+ ``arg0`` is the generation to scan, like :func:`gc.collect`.
.. object:: gc__done(long collected)
@@ -339,6 +341,84 @@ Available static markers
.. versionadded:: 3.8
+C Entry Points
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+To simplify triggering of DTrace markers, Python's C API comes with a number
+of helper functions that mirror each static marker. On builds of Python without
+DTrace enabled, these do nothing.
+
+In general, it is not necessary to call these yourself, as Python will do
+it for you.
+
+.. list-table::
+ :widths: 50 25 25
+ :header-rows: 1
+
+ * * C API Function
+ * Static Marker
+ * Notes
+ * * .. c:function:: void PyDTrace_LINE(const char *arg0, const char *arg1, int arg2)
+ * :c:func:`!line`
+ *
+ * * .. c:function:: void PyDTrace_FUNCTION_ENTRY(const char *arg0, const char *arg1, int arg2)
+ * :c:func:`!function__entry`
+ *
+ * * .. c:function:: void PyDTrace_FUNCTION_RETURN(const char *arg0, const char *arg1, int arg2)
+ * :c:func:`!function__return`
+ *
+ * * .. c:function:: void PyDTrace_GC_START(int arg0)
+ * :c:func:`!gc__start`
+ *
+ * * .. c:function:: void PyDTrace_GC_DONE(Py_ssize_t arg0)
+ * :c:func:`!gc__done`
+ *
+ * * .. c:function:: void PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_START(int arg0)
+ * :c:func:`!instance__new__start`
+ * Not used by Python
+ * * .. c:function:: void PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_DONE(int arg0)
+ * :c:func:`!instance__new__done`
+ * Not used by Python
+ * * .. c:function:: void PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_START(int arg0)
+ * :c:func:`!instance__delete__start`
+ * Not used by Python
+ * * .. c:function:: void PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_DONE(int arg0)
+ * :c:func:`!instance__delete__done`
+ * Not used by Python
+ * * .. c:function:: void PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_START(const char *arg0)
+ * :c:func:`!import__find__load__start`
+ *
+ * * .. c:function:: void PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_DONE(const char *arg0, int arg1)
+ * :c:func:`!import__find__load__done`
+ *
+ * * .. c:function:: void PyDTrace_AUDIT(const char *arg0, void *arg1)
+ * :c:func:`!audit`
+ *
+
+
+C Probing Checks
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. c:function:: int PyDTrace_LINE_ENABLED(void)
+.. c:function:: int PyDTrace_FUNCTION_ENTRY_ENABLED(void)
+.. c:function:: int PyDTrace_FUNCTION_RETURN_ENABLED(void)
+.. c:function:: int PyDTrace_GC_START_ENABLED(void)
+.. c:function:: int PyDTrace_GC_DONE_ENABLED(void)
+.. c:function:: int PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_START_ENABLED(void)
+.. c:function:: int PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_DONE_ENABLED(void)
+.. c:function:: int PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_START_ENABLED(void)
+.. c:function:: int PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_DONE_ENABLED(void)
+.. c:function:: int PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_START_ENABLED(void)
+.. c:function:: int PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_DONE_ENABLED(void)
+.. c:function:: int PyDTrace_AUDIT_ENABLED(void)
+
+ All calls to ``PyDTrace`` functions must be guarded by a call to one
+ of these functions. This allows Python to minimize performance impact
+ when probing is disabled.
+
+ On builds without DTrace enabled, these functions do nothing and return
+ ``0``.
+
SystemTap Tapsets
-----------------
diff --git a/Doc/howto/isolating-extensions.rst b/Doc/howto/isolating-extensions.rst
index e35855deedbe5fa..7da6dc8a39795e8 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/isolating-extensions.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/isolating-extensions.rst
@@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ possible, consider explicit locking.
If it is necessary to use process-global state, the simplest way to
avoid issues with multiple interpreters is to explicitly prevent a
module from being loaded more than once per process—see
-`Opt-Out: Limiting to One Module Object per Process`_.
+:ref:`isolating-extensions-optout`.
Managing Per-Module State
@@ -207,6 +207,8 @@ An example of a module with per-module state is currently available as
example module initialization shown at the bottom of the file.
+.. _isolating-extensions-optout:
+
Opt-Out: Limiting to One Module Object per Process
--------------------------------------------------
@@ -215,21 +217,36 @@ multiple interpreters correctly. If this is not yet the case for your
module, you can explicitly make your module loadable only once per
process. For example::
+ // A process-wide flag
static int loaded = 0;
+ // Mutex to provide thread safety (only needed for free-threaded Python)
+ static PyMutex modinit_mutex = {0};
+
static int
exec_module(PyObject* module)
{
+ PyMutex_Lock(&modinit_mutex);
if (loaded) {
+ PyMutex_Unlock(&modinit_mutex);
PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ImportError,
"cannot load module more than once per process");
return -1;
}
loaded = 1;
+ PyMutex_Unlock(&modinit_mutex);
// ... rest of initialization
}
+If your module's :c:member:`PyModuleDef.m_clear` function is able to prepare
+for future re-initialization, it should clear the ``loaded`` flag.
+In this case, your module won't support multiple instances existing
+*concurrently*, but it will, for example, support being loaded after
+Python runtime shutdown (:c:func:`Py_FinalizeEx`) and re-initialization
+(:c:func:`Py_Initialize`).
+
+
Module State Access from Functions
----------------------------------
@@ -339,7 +356,7 @@ That is, heap types should:
- Define a traverse function using ``Py_tp_traverse``, which
visits the type (e.g. using ``Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self))``).
-Please refer to the the documentation of
+Please refer to the documentation of
:c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC` and :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_traverse`
for additional considerations.
@@ -436,7 +453,7 @@ Avoiding ``PyObject_New``
GC-tracked objects need to be allocated using GC-aware functions.
-If you use use :c:func:`PyObject_New` or :c:func:`PyObject_NewVar`:
+If you use :c:func:`PyObject_New` or :c:func:`PyObject_NewVar`:
- Get and call type's :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_alloc` slot, if possible.
That is, replace ``TYPE *o = PyObject_New(TYPE, typeobj)`` with::
@@ -609,8 +626,7 @@ Open Issues
Several issues around per-module state and heap types are still open.
-Discussions about improving the situation are best held on the `capi-sig
-mailing list <https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/capi-sig.python.org/>`__.
+Discussions about improving the situation are best held on the `discuss forum under c-api tag <https://discuss.python.org/c/core-dev/c-api/30>`__.
Per-Class Scope
diff --git a/Doc/howto/logging-cookbook.rst b/Doc/howto/logging-cookbook.rst
index 60d88204b795f65..f2f94833716b316 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/logging-cookbook.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/logging-cookbook.rst
@@ -229,7 +229,7 @@ messages should not. Here's how you can achieve this::
# tell the handler to use this format
console.setFormatter(formatter)
# add the handler to the root logger
- logging.getLogger('').addHandler(console)
+ logging.getLogger().addHandler(console)
# Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')
@@ -637,7 +637,7 @@ the receiving end. A simple way of doing this is attaching a
import logging, logging.handlers
- rootLogger = logging.getLogger('')
+ rootLogger = logging.getLogger()
rootLogger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
socketHandler = logging.handlers.SocketHandler('localhost',
logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)
@@ -825,9 +825,9 @@ To test these files, do the following in a POSIX environment:
which will lead to records being written to the log.
#. Inspect the log files in the :file:`run` subdirectory. You should see the
- most recent log lines in files matching the pattern :file:`app.log*`. They won't be in
- any particular order, since they have been handled concurrently by different
- worker processes in a non-deterministic way.
+ most recent log lines in files matching the pattern :file:`app.log*`. They
+ won't be in any particular order, since they have been handled concurrently
+ by different worker processes in a non-deterministic way.
#. You can shut down the listener and the web application by running
``venv/bin/supervisorctl -c supervisor.conf shutdown``.
@@ -835,6 +835,19 @@ To test these files, do the following in a POSIX environment:
You may need to tweak the configuration files in the unlikely event that the
configured ports clash with something else in your test environment.
+The default configuration uses a TCP socket on port 9020. You can use a Unix
+Domain socket instead of a TCP socket by doing the following:
+
+#. In :file:`listener.json`, add a ``socket`` key with the path to the domain
+ socket you want to use. If this key is present, the listener listens on the
+ corresponding domain socket and not on a TCP socket (the ``port`` key is
+ ignored).
+
+#. In :file:`webapp.json`, change the socket handler configuration dictionary
+ so that the ``host`` value is the path to the domain socket, and set the
+ ``port`` value to ``null``.
+
+
.. currentmodule:: logging
.. _context-info:
@@ -1267,11 +1280,8 @@ to adapt in your own applications.
You could also write your own handler which uses the :class:`~multiprocessing.Lock`
class from the :mod:`multiprocessing` module to serialize access to the
-file from your processes. The existing :class:`FileHandler` and subclasses do
-not make use of :mod:`multiprocessing` at present, though they may do so in the
-future. Note that at present, the :mod:`multiprocessing` module does not provide
-working lock functionality on all platforms (see
-https://bugs.python.org/issue3770).
+file from your processes. The stdlib :class:`FileHandler` and subclasses do
+not make use of :mod:`multiprocessing`.
.. currentmodule:: logging.handlers
@@ -1526,10 +1536,10 @@ to this (remembering to first import :mod:`concurrent.futures`)::
for i in range(10):
executor.submit(worker_process, queue, worker_configurer)
-Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI
+Deploying web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-When deploying Web applications using `Gunicorn <https://gunicorn.org/>`_ or `uWSGI
+When deploying web applications using `Gunicorn <https://gunicorn.org/>`_ or `uWSGI
<https://uwsgi-docs.readthedocs.io/en/latest/>`_ (or similar), multiple worker
processes are created to handle client requests. In such environments, avoid creating
file-based handlers directly in your web application. Instead, use a
@@ -1937,7 +1947,7 @@ Subclass ``QueueListener``
class NNGSocketListener(logging.handlers.QueueListener):
def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs):
- # Have a timeout for interruptability, and open a
+ # Have a timeout for interruptibility, and open a
# subscriber socket
socket = pynng.Sub0(listen=uri, recv_timeout=500)
# The b'' subscription matches all topics
@@ -3596,7 +3606,6 @@ detailed information.
.. code-block:: python3
- import datetime
import logging
import random
import sys
@@ -3831,7 +3840,7 @@ Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support
Although :rfc:`5424` dates from 2009, most syslog servers are configured by default to
use the older :rfc:`3164`, which hails from 2001. When ``logging`` was added to Python
in 2003, it supported the earlier (and only existing) protocol at the time. Since
-RFC5424 came out, as there has not been widespread deployment of it in syslog
+RFC 5424 came out, as there has not been widespread deployment of it in syslog
servers, the :class:`~logging.handlers.SysLogHandler` functionality has not been
updated.
@@ -3839,7 +3848,7 @@ RFC 5424 contains some useful features such as support for structured data, and
need to be able to log to a syslog server with support for it, you can do so with a
subclassed handler which looks something like this::
- import datetime
+ import datetime as dt
import logging.handlers
import re
import socket
@@ -3857,7 +3866,7 @@ subclassed handler which looks something like this::
def format(self, record):
version = 1
- asctime = datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(record.created).isoformat()
+ asctime = dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(record.created).isoformat()
m = self.tz_offset.match(time.strftime('%z'))
has_offset = False
if m and time.timezone:
@@ -3903,7 +3912,7 @@ subclassed handler which looks something like this::
You'll need to be familiar with RFC 5424 to fully understand the above code, and it
may be that you have slightly different needs (e.g. for how you pass structural data
-to the log). Nevertheless, the above should be adaptable to your speciric needs. With
+to the log). Nevertheless, the above should be adaptable to your specific needs. With
the above handler, you'd pass structured data using something like this::
sd = {
@@ -4022,7 +4031,7 @@ As you can see, this output isn't ideal. That's because the underlying code
which writes to ``sys.stderr`` makes multiple writes, each of which results in a
separate logged line (for example, the last three lines above). To get around
this problem, you need to buffer things and only output log lines when newlines
-are seen. Let's use a slghtly better implementation of ``LoggerWriter``:
+are seen. Let's use a slightly better implementation of ``LoggerWriter``:
.. code-block:: python
@@ -4055,6 +4064,104 @@ lines. With this approach, you get better output:
WARNING:demo: 1/0
WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
+How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output
+--------------------------------------------------
+
+Usually, messages that are logged (say to console or file) consist of a single
+line of text. However, sometimes there is a need to handle messages with
+multiple lines - whether because a logging format string contains newlines, or
+logged data contains newlines. If you want to handle such messages uniformly, so
+that each line in the logged message appears uniformly formatted as if it was
+logged separately, you can do this using a handler mixin, as in the following
+snippet:
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+ # Assume this is in a module mymixins.py
+ import copy
+
+ class MultilineMixin:
+ def emit(self, record):
+ s = record.getMessage()
+ if '\n' not in s:
+ super().emit(record)
+ else:
+ lines = s.splitlines()
+ rec = copy.copy(record)
+ rec.args = None
+ for line in lines:
+ rec.msg = line
+ super().emit(rec)
+
+You can use the mixin as in the following script:
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+ import logging
+
+ from mymixins import MultilineMixin
+
+ logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
+ class StreamHandler(MultilineMixin, logging.StreamHandler):
+ pass
+
+ if __name__ == '__main__':
+ logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(asctime)s %(levelname)-9s %(message)s',
+ handlers = [StreamHandler()])
+ logger.debug('Single line')
+ logger.debug('Multiple lines:\nfool me once ...')
+ logger.debug('Another single line')
+ logger.debug('Multiple lines:\n%s', 'fool me ...\ncan\'t get fooled again')
+
+The script, when run, prints something like:
+
+.. code-block:: text
+
+ 2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG Single line
+ 2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG Multiple lines:
+ 2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG fool me once ...
+ 2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG Another single line
+ 2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG Multiple lines:
+ 2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG fool me ...
+ 2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG can't get fooled again
+
+If, on the other hand, you are concerned about `log injection
+<https://owasp.org/www-community/attacks/Log_Injection>`_, you can use a
+formatter which escapes newlines, as per the following example:
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+ import logging
+
+ logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
+ class EscapingFormatter(logging.Formatter):
+ def format(self, record):
+ s = super().format(record)
+ return s.replace('\n', r'\n')
+
+ if __name__ == '__main__':
+ h = logging.StreamHandler()
+ h.setFormatter(EscapingFormatter('%(asctime)s %(levelname)-9s %(message)s'))
+ logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, handlers = [h])
+ logger.debug('Single line')
+ logger.debug('Multiple lines:\nfool me once ...')
+ logger.debug('Another single line')
+ logger.debug('Multiple lines:\n%s', 'fool me ...\ncan\'t get fooled again')
+
+You can, of course, use whatever escaping scheme makes the most sense for you.
+The script, when run, should produce output like this:
+
+.. code-block:: text
+
+ 2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG Single line
+ 2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG Multiple lines:\nfool me once ...
+ 2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG Another single line
+ 2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG Multiple lines:\nfool me ...\ncan't get fooled again
+
+Escaping behaviour can't be the stdlib default , as it would break backwards
+compatibility.
.. patterns-to-avoid:
diff --git a/Doc/howto/logging.rst b/Doc/howto/logging.rst
index ab758a885b35564..3a52e7322dcbca5 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/logging.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/logging.rst
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+.. _logging-howto:
+
=============
Logging HOWTO
=============
@@ -26,7 +28,7 @@ When to use logging
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
You can access logging functionality by creating a logger via ``logger =
-getLogger(__name__)``, and then calling the logger's :meth:`~Logger.debug`,
+logging.getLogger(__name__)``, and then calling the logger's :meth:`~Logger.debug`,
:meth:`~Logger.info`, :meth:`~Logger.warning`, :meth:`~Logger.error` and
:meth:`~Logger.critical` methods. To determine when to use logging, and to see
which logger methods to use when, see the table below. It states, for each of a
@@ -300,10 +302,10 @@ reading the following sections. If you're ready for that, grab some of your
favourite beverage and carry on.
If your logging needs are simple, then use the above examples to incorporate
-logging into your own scripts, and if you run into problems or don't
-understand something, please post a question on the comp.lang.python Usenet
-group (available at https://groups.google.com/g/comp.lang.python) and you
-should receive help before too long.
+logging into your own scripts, and if you run into problems or don't understand
+something, please post a question in the Help category of the `Python
+discussion forum <https://discuss.python.org/c/help/7>`_ and you should receive
+help before too long.
Still here? You can carry on reading the next few sections, which provide a
slightly more advanced/in-depth tutorial than the basic one above. After that,
@@ -380,8 +382,52 @@ Logging Flow
The flow of log event information in loggers and handlers is illustrated in the
following diagram.
-.. image:: logging_flow.png
- :class: invert-in-dark-mode
+.. only:: not html
+
+ .. image:: logging_flow.*
+
+.. raw:: html
+ :file: logging_flow.svg
+
+.. raw:: html
+
+ <script>
+ /*
+ * This snippet is needed to handle the case where a light or dark theme is
+ * chosen via the theme is selected in the page. We call the existing handler
+ * and then add a dark-theme class to the body when the dark theme is selected.
+ * The SVG styling (above) then does the rest.
+ *
+ * If the pydoc theme is updated to set the dark-theme class, this snippet
+ * won't be needed any more.
+ */
+ (function() {
+ var oldActivateTheme = activateTheme;
+
+ function updateBody(theme) {
+ let elem = document.body;
+
+ elem.classList.remove('dark-theme');
+ elem.classList.remove('light-theme');
+ if (theme === 'dark') {
+ elem.classList.add('dark-theme');
+ }
+ else if (theme === 'light') {
+ elem.classList.add('light-theme');
+ }
+ }
+
+ activateTheme = function(theme) {
+ oldActivateTheme(theme);
+ updateBody(theme);
+ };
+ /*
+ * If the page is refreshed, make sure we update the body - the overriding
+ * of activateTheme won't have taken effect yet.
+ */
+ updateBody(localStorage.getItem('currentTheme') || 'auto');
+ })();
+ </script>
Loggers
^^^^^^^
diff --git a/Doc/howto/logging_flow.png b/Doc/howto/logging_flow.png
index d65e597f811db5e..d60ed7c031585a4 100644
Binary files a/Doc/howto/logging_flow.png and b/Doc/howto/logging_flow.png differ
diff --git a/Doc/howto/logging_flow.svg b/Doc/howto/logging_flow.svg
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..4974994ac6b4007
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/howto/logging_flow.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,327 @@
+<svg width="22cm" height="23cm" viewBox="1 1 439 446" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
+ <!-- Invert color in dark mode -->
+ <style type="text/css">
+ svg {
+ background-color: transparent !important;
+ }
+ line {
+ stroke: #000000;
+ fill: none;
+ stroke-opacity: 1;
+ }
+ polygon, rect {
+ fill: none;
+ stroke: #000000;
+ fill-opacity: 1;
+ stroke-opacity: 1;
+ }
+ polygon.filled {
+ fill: #000000;
+ }
+ polyline {
+ fill: none;
+ stroke-opacity: 1;
+ stroke: #000000;
+ }
+ text {
+ fill: #000000;
+ fill-opacity: 1;
+ stroke: none;
+ font-family: sans-serif;
+ font-style: normal;
+ font-weight: normal;
+ text-anchor: start;
+ }
+ @media (prefers-color-scheme: dark) {
+ polygon, rect, polyline, line {
+ stroke: #ffffff;
+ }
+ polygon.filled {
+ fill: #ffffff;
+ }
+ text {
+ fill: #ffffff;
+ }
+ image {
+ filter: invert(100%) hue-rotate(180deg) saturate(1.25);
+ }
+ }
+ /* These rules are for when the theme selector is used, perhaps in contrast to the browser theme. */
+ body.dark-theme polygon, body.dark-theme rect, body.dark-theme polyline, body.dark-theme line {
+ stroke: #ffffff;
+ }
+ body.dark-theme polygon.filled {
+ fill: #ffffff;
+ }
+ body.dark-theme text {
+ fill: #ffffff;
+ }
+ body.light-theme polygon, body.light-theme rect, body.light-theme polyline, body.light-theme line {
+ stroke: #000000;
+ }
+ body.light-theme polygon.filled {
+ fill: #000000;
+ }
+ body.light-theme text {
+ fill: #000000;
+ }
+ </style>
+
+ <defs />
+ <g id="Background">
+ <rect style="stroke-width: 1.8; stroke-dasharray: 3;" x="227.504" y="1.91011" width="211.607" height="207.375" rx="0" ry="0" />
+ <rect style="stroke-width: 1.2;" x="230.966" y="5.62454" width="68.4216" height="21.9166" rx="0" ry="0" />
+ <rect style="stroke-width: 1.2;" x="5.27912" y="5.70399" width="68.4216" height="21.9166" rx="0" ry="0" />
+ <text font-size="6.77333" style="font-weight: 700;" x="17.0649" y="19.0071">
+ <tspan x="17.0649" y="19.0071">Logger flow</tspan>
+ </text>
+ <g>
+ <rect x="81.5533" y="106.469" width="44.45" height="25.9333" rx="0" ry="0" />
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+ <tspan x="333.307" y="105.598"></tspan>
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+ <tspan x="397.102" y="130.471">Yes</tspan>
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+ <tspan x="323.563" y="178.785">No</tspan>
+ </text>
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+ <tspan x="333.307" y="105.598"></tspan>
+ </text>
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+ <tspan x="323.75" y="99.0042">Yes</tspan>
+ </text>
+ <text font-size="6.77323" style="text-anchor: middle;" x="355.762" y="18.2449">
+ <tspan x="355.762" y="18.2449">Record passed</tspan>
+ <tspan x="355.762" y="26.7116">to handler</tspan>
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diff --git a/Doc/howto/mro.rst b/Doc/howto/mro.rst
index a44ef6848af4f3d..5007fa046b9c792 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/mro.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/mro.rst
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order
The Method Resolution Order discussed here was *introduced* in Python 2.3,
but it is still used in later versions -- including Python 3.
-By `Michele Simionato <https://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~micheles/>`__.
+By `Michele Simionato <https://github.com/micheles>`__.
:Abstract:
@@ -189,7 +189,7 @@ prescription:
the tail of any of the other lists, then add it to the linearization
of C and remove it from the lists in the merge, otherwise look at the
head of the next list and take it, if it is a good head. Then repeat
- the operation until all the class are removed or it is impossible to
+ the operation until all the classes are removed or it is impossible to
find good heads. In this case, it is impossible to construct the
merge, Python 2.3 will refuse to create the class C and will raise an
exception.*
@@ -335,7 +335,7 @@ E is more specialized than C, even if it is in a higher level.
A lazy programmer can obtain the MRO directly from Python 2.2, since in
this case it coincides with the Python 2.3 linearization. It is enough
-to invoke the .mro() method of class A:
+to invoke the :meth:`~type.mro` method of class A:
>>> A.mro() # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
[<class 'A'>, <class 'B'>, <class 'E'>,
@@ -398,7 +398,7 @@ with inheritance diagram
We see that class G inherits from F and E, with F *before* E: therefore
we would expect the attribute *G.remember2buy* to be inherited by
-*F.rembermer2buy* and not by *E.remember2buy*: nevertheless Python 2.2
+*F.remember2buy* and not by *E.remember2buy*: nevertheless Python 2.2
gives
>>> G.remember2buy # doctest: +SKIP
@@ -426,7 +426,7 @@ In this case the MRO is GFEF and the local precedence ordering is
preserved.
As a general rule, hierarchies such as the previous one should be
-avoided, since it is unclear if F should override E or viceversa.
+avoided, since it is unclear if F should override E or vice-versa.
Python 2.3 solves the ambiguity by raising an exception in the creation
of class G, effectively stopping the programmer from generating
ambiguous hierarchies. The reason for that is that the C3 algorithm
diff --git a/Doc/howto/perf_profiling.rst b/Doc/howto/perf_profiling.rst
index 06459d1b2229648..b579d7765763655 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/perf_profiling.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/perf_profiling.rst
@@ -162,12 +162,12 @@ the :option:`!-X` option takes precedence over the environment variable.
Example, using the environment variable::
- $ PYTHONPERFSUPPORT=1 perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python script.py
+ $ PYTHONPERFSUPPORT=1 perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python my_script.py
$ perf report -g -i perf.data
Example, using the :option:`!-X` option::
- $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python -X perf script.py
+ $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python -X perf my_script.py
$ perf report -g -i perf.data
Example, using the :mod:`sys` APIs in file :file:`example.py`:
@@ -236,7 +236,7 @@ When using the perf JIT mode, you need an extra step before you can run ``perf
report``. You need to call the ``perf inject`` command to inject the JIT
information into the ``perf.data`` file.::
- $ perf record -F 9999 -g --call-graph dwarf -o perf.data python -Xperf_jit my_script.py
+ $ perf record -F 9999 -g -k 1 --call-graph dwarf -o perf.data python -Xperf_jit my_script.py
$ perf inject -i perf.data --jit --output perf.jit.data
$ perf report -g -i perf.jit.data
@@ -254,13 +254,28 @@ files in the current directory which are ELF images for all the JIT trampolines
that were created by Python.
.. warning::
- Notice that when using ``--call-graph dwarf`` the ``perf`` tool will take
+ When using ``--call-graph dwarf``, the ``perf`` tool will take
snapshots of the stack of the process being profiled and save the
- information in the ``perf.data`` file. By default the size of the stack dump
- is 8192 bytes but the user can change the size by passing the size after
- comma like ``--call-graph dwarf,4096``. The size of the stack dump is
- important because if the size is too small ``perf`` will not be able to
- unwind the stack and the output will be incomplete. On the other hand, if
- the size is too big, then ``perf`` won't be able to sample the process as
- frequently as it would like as the overhead will be higher.
+ information in the ``perf.data`` file. By default, the size of the stack dump
+ is 8192 bytes, but you can change the size by passing it after
+ a comma like ``--call-graph dwarf,16384``.
+ The size of the stack dump is important because if the size is too small
+ ``perf`` will not be able to unwind the stack and the output will be
+ incomplete. On the other hand, if the size is too big, then ``perf`` won't
+ be able to sample the process as frequently as it would like as the overhead
+ will be higher.
+
+ The stack size is particularly important when profiling Python code compiled
+ with low optimization levels (like ``-O0``), as these builds tend to have
+ larger stack frames. If you are compiling Python with ``-O0`` and not seeing
+ Python functions in your profiling output, try increasing the stack dump
+ size to 65528 bytes (the maximum)::
+
+ $ perf record -F 9999 -g -k 1 --call-graph dwarf,65528 -o perf.data python -Xperf_jit my_script.py
+
+ Different compilation flags can significantly impact stack sizes:
+
+ - Builds with ``-O0`` typically have much larger stack frames than those with ``-O1`` or higher
+ - Adding optimizations (``-O1``, ``-O2``, etc.) typically reduces stack size
+ - Frame pointers (``-fno-omit-frame-pointer``) generally provide more reliable stack unwinding
diff --git a/Doc/howto/pyporting.rst b/Doc/howto/pyporting.rst
index d560364107bd125..9f73c811cfcbc0d 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/pyporting.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/pyporting.rst
@@ -18,9 +18,9 @@ please see :ref:`cporting-howto`.
The archived python-porting_ mailing list may contain some useful guidance.
-Since Python 3.13 the original porting guide was discontinued.
+Since Python 3.11 the original porting guide was discontinued.
You can find the old guide in the
-`archive <https://docs.python.org/3.12/howto/pyporting.html>`_.
+`archive <https://docs.python.org/3.10/howto/pyporting.html>`_.
Third-party guides
diff --git a/Doc/howto/regex.rst b/Doc/howto/regex.rst
index 5e2f9a9d1837fe0..786442d0cf9914d 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/regex.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/regex.rst
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
.. _regex-howto:
****************************
- Regular Expression HOWTO
+ Regular expression HOWTO
****************************
:Author: A.M. Kuchling <amk@amk.ca>
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ Python code to do the processing; while Python code will be slower than an
elaborate regular expression, it will also probably be more understandable.
-Simple Patterns
+Simple patterns
===============
We'll start by learning about the simplest possible regular expressions. Since
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ expressions (deterministic and non-deterministic finite automata), you can refer
to almost any textbook on writing compilers.
-Matching Characters
+Matching characters
-------------------
Most letters and characters will simply match themselves. For example, the
@@ -159,7 +159,7 @@ match even a newline. ``.`` is often used where you want to match "any
character".
-Repeating Things
+Repeating things
----------------
Being able to match varying sets of characters is the first thing regular
@@ -210,7 +210,7 @@ this RE against the string ``'abcbd'``.
| | | ``[bcd]*`` is only matching |
| | | ``bc``. |
+------+-----------+---------------------------------+
-| 6 | ``abcb`` | Try ``b`` again. This time |
+| 7 | ``abcb`` | Try ``b`` again. This time |
| | | the character at the |
| | | current position is ``'b'``, so |
| | | it succeeds. |
@@ -255,7 +255,7 @@ is equivalent to ``+``, and ``{0,1}`` is the same as ``?``. It's better to use
to read.
-Using Regular Expressions
+Using regular expressions
=========================
Now that we've looked at some simple regular expressions, how do we actually use
@@ -264,7 +264,7 @@ expression engine, allowing you to compile REs into objects and then perform
matches with them.
-Compiling Regular Expressions
+Compiling regular expressions
-----------------------------
Regular expressions are compiled into pattern objects, which have
@@ -295,7 +295,7 @@ disadvantage which is the topic of the next section.
.. _the-backslash-plague:
-The Backslash Plague
+The backslash plague
--------------------
As stated earlier, regular expressions use the backslash character (``'\'``) to
@@ -335,7 +335,7 @@ expressions will often be written in Python code using this raw string notation.
In addition, special escape sequences that are valid in regular expressions,
but not valid as Python string literals, now result in a
-:exc:`DeprecationWarning` and will eventually become a :exc:`SyntaxError`,
+:exc:`SyntaxWarning` and will eventually become a :exc:`SyntaxError`,
which means the sequences will be invalid if raw string notation or escaping
the backslashes isn't used.
@@ -351,7 +351,7 @@ the backslashes isn't used.
+-------------------+------------------+
-Performing Matches
+Performing matches
------------------
Once you have an object representing a compiled regular expression, what do you
@@ -369,10 +369,10 @@ for a complete listing.
| | location where this RE matches. |
+------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| ``findall()`` | Find all substrings where the RE matches, and |
-| | returns them as a list. |
+| | return them as a list. |
+------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| ``finditer()`` | Find all substrings where the RE matches, and |
-| | returns them as an :term:`iterator`. |
+| | return them as an :term:`iterator`. |
+------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
:meth:`~re.Pattern.match` and :meth:`~re.Pattern.search` return ``None`` if no match can be found. If
@@ -473,7 +473,7 @@ Two pattern methods return all of the matches for a pattern.
The ``r`` prefix, making the literal a raw string literal, is needed in this
example because escape sequences in a normal "cooked" string literal that are
not recognized by Python, as opposed to regular expressions, now result in a
-:exc:`DeprecationWarning` and will eventually become a :exc:`SyntaxError`. See
+:exc:`SyntaxWarning` and will eventually become a :exc:`SyntaxError`. See
:ref:`the-backslash-plague`.
:meth:`~re.Pattern.findall` has to create the entire list before it can be returned as the
@@ -491,7 +491,7 @@ result. The :meth:`~re.Pattern.finditer` method returns a sequence of
(29, 31)
-Module-Level Functions
+Module-level functions
----------------------
You don't have to create a pattern object and call its methods; the
@@ -518,7 +518,7 @@ Outside of loops, there's not much difference thanks to the internal
cache.
-Compilation Flags
+Compilation flags
-----------------
.. currentmodule:: re
@@ -642,7 +642,7 @@ of each one.
whitespace is in a character class or preceded by an unescaped backslash; this
lets you organize and indent the RE more clearly. This flag also lets you put
comments within a RE that will be ignored by the engine; comments are marked by
- a ``'#'`` that's neither in a character class or preceded by an unescaped
+ a ``'#'`` that's neither in a character class nor preceded by an unescaped
backslash.
For example, here's a RE that uses :const:`re.VERBOSE`; see how much easier it
@@ -669,7 +669,7 @@ of each one.
to understand than the version using :const:`re.VERBOSE`.
-More Pattern Power
+More pattern power
==================
So far we've only covered a part of the features of regular expressions. In
@@ -679,7 +679,7 @@ retrieve portions of the text that was matched.
.. _more-metacharacters:
-More Metacharacters
+More metacharacters
-------------------
There are some metacharacters that we haven't covered yet. Most of them will be
@@ -872,7 +872,7 @@ Backreferences like this aren't often useful for just searching through a string
find out that they're *very* useful when performing string substitutions.
-Non-capturing and Named Groups
+Non-capturing and named groups
------------------------------
Elaborate REs may use many groups, both to capture substrings of interest, and
@@ -976,7 +976,7 @@ current point. The regular expression for finding doubled words,
'the the'
-Lookahead Assertions
+Lookahead assertions
--------------------
Another zero-width assertion is the lookahead assertion. Lookahead assertions
@@ -1013,7 +1013,9 @@ extension. This regular expression matches ``foo.bar`` and
Now, consider complicating the problem a bit; what if you want to match
filenames where the extension is not ``bat``? Some incorrect attempts:
-``.*[.][^b].*$`` The first attempt above tries to exclude ``bat`` by requiring
+``.*[.][^b].*$``
+
+The first attempt above tries to exclude ``bat`` by requiring
that the first character of the extension is not a ``b``. This is wrong,
because the pattern also doesn't match ``foo.bar``.
@@ -1040,7 +1042,9 @@ confusing.
A negative lookahead cuts through all this confusion:
-``.*[.](?!bat$)[^.]*$`` The negative lookahead means: if the expression ``bat``
+``.*[.](?!bat$)[^.]*$``
+
+The negative lookahead means: if the expression ``bat``
doesn't match at this point, try the rest of the pattern; if ``bat$`` does
match, the whole pattern will fail. The trailing ``$`` is required to ensure
that something like ``sample.batch``, where the extension only starts with
@@ -1054,7 +1058,7 @@ end in either ``bat`` or ``exe``:
``.*[.](?!bat$|exe$)[^.]*$``
-Modifying Strings
+Modifying strings
=================
Up to this point, we've simply performed searches against a static string.
@@ -1076,7 +1080,7 @@ using the following pattern methods:
+------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-Splitting Strings
+Splitting strings
-----------------
The :meth:`~re.Pattern.split` method of a pattern splits a string apart
@@ -1130,7 +1134,7 @@ argument, but is otherwise the same. ::
['Words', 'words, words.']
-Search and Replace
+Search and replace
------------------
Another common task is to find all the matches for a pattern, and replace them
@@ -1229,7 +1233,7 @@ pattern object as the first parameter, or use embedded modifiers in the
pattern string, e.g. ``sub("(?i)b+", "x", "bbbb BBBB")`` returns ``'x x'``.
-Common Problems
+Common problems
===============
Regular expressions are a powerful tool for some applications, but in some ways
@@ -1237,7 +1241,7 @@ their behaviour isn't intuitive and at times they don't behave the way you may
expect them to. This section will point out some of the most common pitfalls.
-Use String Methods
+Use string methods
------------------
Sometimes using the :mod:`re` module is a mistake. If you're matching a fixed
@@ -1303,7 +1307,7 @@ string and then backtracking to find a match for the rest of the RE. Use
:func:`re.search` instead.
-Greedy versus Non-Greedy
+Greedy versus non-greedy
------------------------
When repeating a regular expression, as in ``a*``, the resulting action is to
@@ -1381,9 +1385,9 @@ Feedback
========
Regular expressions are a complicated topic. Did this document help you
-understand them? Were there parts that were unclear, or Problems you
+understand them? Were there parts that were unclear, or problems you
encountered that weren't covered here? If so, please send suggestions for
-improvements to the author.
+improvements to the :ref:`issue tracker <using-the-tracker>`.
The most complete book on regular expressions is almost certainly Jeffrey
Friedl's Mastering Regular Expressions, published by O'Reilly. Unfortunately,
diff --git a/Doc/howto/sorting.rst b/Doc/howto/sorting.rst
index b98f91e023bdfc7..b486d5f2454c4f0 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/sorting.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/sorting.rst
@@ -308,7 +308,7 @@ Odds and Ends
:meth:`~object.__lt__` is not implemented (see :func:`object.__lt__`
for details on the mechanics). To avoid surprises, :pep:`8`
recommends that all six comparison methods be implemented.
- The :func:`~functools.total_ordering` decorator is provided to make that
+ The :deco:`~functools.total_ordering` decorator is provided to make that
task easier.
* Key functions need not depend directly on the objects being sorted. A key
diff --git a/Doc/howto/unicode.rst b/Doc/howto/unicode.rst
index 254fe7293553535..243cc27bac7025d 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/unicode.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/unicode.rst
@@ -352,6 +352,8 @@ If you don't include such a comment, the default encoding used will be UTF-8 as
already mentioned. See also :pep:`263` for more information.
+.. _unicode-properties:
+
Unicode Properties
------------------
diff --git a/Doc/howto/urllib2.rst b/Doc/howto/urllib2.rst
index 33a2a7ea89ea07a..4e77d2cb407f726 100644
--- a/Doc/howto/urllib2.rst
+++ b/Doc/howto/urllib2.rst
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ Introduction
You may also find useful the following article on fetching web resources
with Python:
- * `Basic Authentication <https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml>`_
+ * `Basic Authentication <https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml>`__
A tutorial on *Basic Authentication*, with examples in Python.
@@ -245,75 +245,27 @@ codes in the 100--299 range indicate success, you will usually only see error
codes in the 400--599 range.
:attr:`http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses` is a useful dictionary of
-response codes in that shows all the response codes used by :rfc:`2616`. The
-dictionary is reproduced here for convenience ::
+response codes that shows all the response codes used by :rfc:`2616`.
+An excerpt from the dictionary is shown below ::
- # Table mapping response codes to messages; entries have the
- # form {code: (shortmessage, longmessage)}.
responses = {
- 100: ('Continue', 'Request received, please continue'),
- 101: ('Switching Protocols',
- 'Switching to new protocol; obey Upgrade header'),
-
- 200: ('OK', 'Request fulfilled, document follows'),
- 201: ('Created', 'Document created, URL follows'),
- 202: ('Accepted',
- 'Request accepted, processing continues off-line'),
- 203: ('Non-Authoritative Information', 'Request fulfilled from cache'),
- 204: ('No Content', 'Request fulfilled, nothing follows'),
- 205: ('Reset Content', 'Clear input form for further input.'),
- 206: ('Partial Content', 'Partial content follows.'),
-
- 300: ('Multiple Choices',
- 'Object has several resources -- see URI list'),
- 301: ('Moved Permanently', 'Object moved permanently -- see URI list'),
- 302: ('Found', 'Object moved temporarily -- see URI list'),
- 303: ('See Other', 'Object moved -- see Method and URL list'),
- 304: ('Not Modified',
- 'Document has not changed since given time'),
- 305: ('Use Proxy',
- 'You must use proxy specified in Location to access this '
- 'resource.'),
- 307: ('Temporary Redirect',
- 'Object moved temporarily -- see URI list'),
-
- 400: ('Bad Request',
- 'Bad request syntax or unsupported method'),
- 401: ('Unauthorized',
- 'No permission -- see authorization schemes'),
- 402: ('Payment Required',
- 'No payment -- see charging schemes'),
- 403: ('Forbidden',
- 'Request forbidden -- authorization will not help'),
- 404: ('Not Found', 'Nothing matches the given URI'),
- 405: ('Method Not Allowed',
- 'Specified method is invalid for this server.'),
- 406: ('Not Acceptable', 'URI not available in preferred format.'),
- 407: ('Proxy Authentication Required', 'You must authenticate with '
- 'this proxy before proceeding.'),
- 408: ('Request Timeout', 'Request timed out; try again later.'),
- 409: ('Conflict', 'Request conflict.'),
- 410: ('Gone',
- 'URI no longer exists and has been permanently removed.'),
- 411: ('Length Required', 'Client must specify Content-Length.'),
- 412: ('Precondition Failed', 'Precondition in headers is false.'),
- 413: ('Request Entity Too Large', 'Entity is too large.'),
- 414: ('Request-URI Too Long', 'URI is too long.'),
- 415: ('Unsupported Media Type', 'Entity body in unsupported format.'),
- 416: ('Requested Range Not Satisfiable',
- 'Cannot satisfy request range.'),
- 417: ('Expectation Failed',
- 'Expect condition could not be satisfied.'),
-
- 500: ('Internal Server Error', 'Server got itself in trouble'),
- 501: ('Not Implemented',
- 'Server does not support this operation'),
- 502: ('Bad Gateway', 'Invalid responses from another server/proxy.'),
- 503: ('Service Unavailable',
- 'The server cannot process the request due to a high load'),
- 504: ('Gateway Timeout',
- 'The gateway server did not receive a timely response'),
- 505: ('HTTP Version Not Supported', 'Cannot fulfill request.'),
+ ...
+ <HTTPStatus.OK: 200>: ('OK', 'Request fulfilled, document follows'),
+ ...
+ <HTTPStatus.FORBIDDEN: 403>: ('Forbidden',
+ 'Request forbidden -- authorization will '
+ 'not help'),
+ <HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND: 404>: ('Not Found',
+ 'Nothing matches the given URI'),
+ ...
+ <HTTPStatus.IM_A_TEAPOT: 418>: ("I'm a Teapot",
+ 'Server refuses to brew coffee because '
+ 'it is a teapot'),
+ ...
+ <HTTPStatus.SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE: 503>: ('Service Unavailable',
+ 'The server cannot process the '
+ 'request due to a high load'),
+ ...
}
When an error is raised the server responds by returning an HTTP error code
diff --git a/Doc/includes/diff.py b/Doc/includes/diff.py
index 001619f5f83fc08..bc4bd58ff3e3f11 100644
--- a/Doc/includes/diff.py
+++ b/Doc/includes/diff.py
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-""" Command line interface to difflib.py providing diffs in four formats:
+""" Command-line interface to difflib.py providing diffs in four formats:
* ndiff: lists every line and highlights interline changes.
* context: highlights clusters of changes in a before/after format.
@@ -8,11 +8,11 @@
"""
import sys, os, difflib, argparse
-from datetime import datetime, timezone
+import datetime as dt
def file_mtime(path):
- t = datetime.fromtimestamp(os.stat(path).st_mtime,
- timezone.utc)
+ t = dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(os.stat(path).st_mtime,
+ dt.timezone.utc)
return t.astimezone().isoformat()
def main():
diff --git a/Doc/includes/email-alternative.py b/Doc/includes/email-alternative.py
index 26b302b495c7acc..afe2b4fbb5eb3ff 100644
--- a/Doc/includes/email-alternative.py
+++ b/Doc/includes/email-alternative.py
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@
recette
</a> sera sûrement un très bon repas.
</p>
- <img src="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.comcid:{asparagus_cid}" />
+ <img src="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.comcid:{asparagus_cid}">
</body>
</html>
""".format(asparagus_cid=asparagus_cid[1:-1]), subtype='html')
diff --git a/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom.c b/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom.c
index 5253f879360210e..039a1a7219349c3 100644
--- a/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom.c
+++ b/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom.c
@@ -16,28 +16,37 @@ static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
.tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
};
-static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
+static int
+custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
+{
+ if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
+ return -1;
+ }
+
+ if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
+ return -1;
+ }
+
+ return 0;
+}
+
+static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
+ {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
+ // Just use this while using static types
+ {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
+ {0, NULL}
+};
+
+static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
.m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
.m_name = "custom",
.m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
- .m_size = -1,
+ .m_size = 0,
+ .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
};
PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_custom(void)
{
- PyObject *m;
- if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
- return NULL;
-
- m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
- if (m == NULL)
- return NULL;
-
- if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
- Py_DECREF(m);
- return NULL;
- }
-
- return m;
+ return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
}
diff --git a/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom2.c b/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom2.c
index a0222b1795209b7..72f728015fe3489 100644
--- a/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom2.c
+++ b/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom2.c
@@ -103,28 +103,36 @@ static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
.tp_methods = Custom_methods,
};
-static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
- .m_base =PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
+static int
+custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
+{
+ if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
+ return -1;
+ }
+
+ if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
+ return -1;
+ }
+
+ return 0;
+}
+
+static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
+ {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
+ {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
+ {0, NULL}
+};
+
+static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
+ .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
.m_name = "custom2",
.m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
- .m_size = -1,
+ .m_size = 0,
+ .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
};
PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_custom2(void)
{
- PyObject *m;
- if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
- return NULL;
-
- m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
- if (m == NULL)
- return NULL;
-
- if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
- Py_DECREF(m);
- return NULL;
- }
-
- return m;
+ return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
}
diff --git a/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom3.c b/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom3.c
index 4aeebe0a7507d10..c3d9b42c6c63e34 100644
--- a/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom3.c
+++ b/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom3.c
@@ -144,28 +144,36 @@ static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
.tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
};
-static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
+static int
+custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
+{
+ if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
+ return -1;
+ }
+
+ if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
+ return -1;
+ }
+
+ return 0;
+}
+
+static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
+ {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
+ {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
+ {0, NULL}
+};
+
+static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
.m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
.m_name = "custom3",
.m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
- .m_size = -1,
+ .m_size = 0,
+ .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
};
PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_custom3(void)
{
- PyObject *m;
- if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
- return NULL;
-
- m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
- if (m == NULL)
- return NULL;
-
- if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
- Py_DECREF(m);
- return NULL;
- }
-
- return m;
+ return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
}
diff --git a/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom4.c b/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom4.c
index 3998918f68301e9..5bed0f8d538f93f 100644
--- a/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom4.c
+++ b/Doc/includes/newtypes/custom4.c
@@ -162,28 +162,36 @@ static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
.tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
};
-static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
+static int
+custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
+{
+ if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
+ return -1;
+ }
+
+ if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
+ return -1;
+ }
+
+ return 0;
+}
+
+static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
+ {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
+ {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
+ {0, NULL}
+};
+
+static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
.m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
.m_name = "custom4",
.m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
- .m_size = -1,
+ .m_size = 0,
+ .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
};
PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_custom4(void)
{
- PyObject *m;
- if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
- return NULL;
-
- m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
- if (m == NULL)
- return NULL;
-
- if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
- Py_DECREF(m);
- return NULL;
- }
-
- return m;
+ return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
}
diff --git a/Doc/includes/newtypes/sublist.c b/Doc/includes/newtypes/sublist.c
index d8aba463f30ba2a..721f075cacc68b5 100644
--- a/Doc/includes/newtypes/sublist.c
+++ b/Doc/includes/newtypes/sublist.c
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ SubList_init(SubListObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
}
static PyTypeObject SubListType = {
- PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
+ .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
.tp_name = "sublist.SubList",
.tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("SubList objects"),
.tp_basicsize = sizeof(SubListObject),
@@ -39,29 +39,37 @@ static PyTypeObject SubListType = {
.tp_methods = SubList_methods,
};
-static PyModuleDef sublistmodule = {
- PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
+static int
+sublist_module_exec(PyObject *m)
+{
+ SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
+ if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0) {
+ return -1;
+ }
+
+ if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
+ return -1;
+ }
+
+ return 0;
+}
+
+static PyModuleDef_Slot sublist_module_slots[] = {
+ {Py_mod_exec, sublist_module_exec},
+ {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
+ {0, NULL}
+};
+
+static PyModuleDef sublist_module = {
+ .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
.m_name = "sublist",
.m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
- .m_size = -1,
+ .m_size = 0,
+ .m_slots = sublist_module_slots,
};
PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_sublist(void)
{
- PyObject *m;
- SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
- if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0)
- return NULL;
-
- m = PyModule_Create(&sublistmodule);
- if (m == NULL)
- return NULL;
-
- if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
- Py_DECREF(m);
- return NULL;
- }
-
- return m;
+ return PyModuleDef_Init(&sublist_module);
}
diff --git a/Doc/includes/tzinfo_examples.py b/Doc/includes/tzinfo_examples.py
index 1fa6e615e46a763..762b1b62fc871d4 100644
--- a/Doc/includes/tzinfo_examples.py
+++ b/Doc/includes/tzinfo_examples.py
@@ -1,68 +1,70 @@
-from datetime import tzinfo, timedelta, datetime
-
-ZERO = timedelta(0)
-HOUR = timedelta(hours=1)
-SECOND = timedelta(seconds=1)
+import datetime as dt
# A class capturing the platform's idea of local time.
# (May result in wrong values on historical times in
# timezones where UTC offset and/or the DST rules had
# changed in the past.)
-import time as _time
+import time
+
+ZERO = dt.timedelta(0)
+HOUR = dt.timedelta(hours=1)
+SECOND = dt.timedelta(seconds=1)
-STDOFFSET = timedelta(seconds = -_time.timezone)
-if _time.daylight:
- DSTOFFSET = timedelta(seconds = -_time.altzone)
+STDOFFSET = dt.timedelta(seconds=-time.timezone)
+if time.daylight:
+ DSTOFFSET = dt.timedelta(seconds=-time.altzone)
else:
DSTOFFSET = STDOFFSET
DSTDIFF = DSTOFFSET - STDOFFSET
-class LocalTimezone(tzinfo):
- def fromutc(self, dt):
- assert dt.tzinfo is self
- stamp = (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=self)) // SECOND
- args = _time.localtime(stamp)[:6]
+class LocalTimezone(dt.tzinfo):
+
+ def fromutc(self, when):
+ assert when.tzinfo is self
+ stamp = (when - dt.datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=self)) // SECOND
+ args = time.localtime(stamp)[:6]
dst_diff = DSTDIFF // SECOND
# Detect fold
- fold = (args == _time.localtime(stamp - dst_diff))
- return datetime(*args, microsecond=dt.microsecond,
- tzinfo=self, fold=fold)
+ fold = (args == time.localtime(stamp - dst_diff))
+ return dt.datetime(*args, microsecond=when.microsecond,
+ tzinfo=self, fold=fold)
- def utcoffset(self, dt):
- if self._isdst(dt):
+ def utcoffset(self, when):
+ if self._isdst(when):
return DSTOFFSET
else:
return STDOFFSET
- def dst(self, dt):
- if self._isdst(dt):
+ def dst(self, when):
+ if self._isdst(when):
return DSTDIFF
else:
return ZERO
- def tzname(self, dt):
- return _time.tzname[self._isdst(dt)]
+ def tzname(self, when):
+ return time.tzname[self._isdst(when)]
- def _isdst(self, dt):
- tt = (dt.year, dt.month, dt.day,
- dt.hour, dt.minute, dt.second,
- dt.weekday(), 0, 0)
- stamp = _time.mktime(tt)
- tt = _time.localtime(stamp)
+ def _isdst(self, when):
+ tt = (when.year, when.month, when.day,
+ when.hour, when.minute, when.second,
+ when.weekday(), 0, 0)
+ stamp = time.mktime(tt)
+ tt = time.localtime(stamp)
return tt.tm_isdst > 0
+
Local = LocalTimezone()
# A complete implementation of current DST rules for major US time zones.
-def first_sunday_on_or_after(dt):
- days_to_go = 6 - dt.weekday()
+def first_sunday_on_or_after(when):
+ days_to_go = 6 - when.weekday()
if days_to_go:
- dt += timedelta(days_to_go)
- return dt
+ when += dt.timedelta(days_to_go)
+ return when
# US DST Rules
@@ -75,21 +77,22 @@ def first_sunday_on_or_after(dt):
#
# In the US, since 2007, DST starts at 2am (standard time) on the second
# Sunday in March, which is the first Sunday on or after Mar 8.
-DSTSTART_2007 = datetime(1, 3, 8, 2)
+DSTSTART_2007 = dt.datetime(1, 3, 8, 2)
# and ends at 2am (DST time) on the first Sunday of Nov.
-DSTEND_2007 = datetime(1, 11, 1, 2)
+DSTEND_2007 = dt.datetime(1, 11, 1, 2)
# From 1987 to 2006, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the first
# Sunday in April and to end at 2am (DST time) on the last
# Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday on or after Oct 25.
-DSTSTART_1987_2006 = datetime(1, 4, 1, 2)
-DSTEND_1987_2006 = datetime(1, 10, 25, 2)
+DSTSTART_1987_2006 = dt.datetime(1, 4, 1, 2)
+DSTEND_1987_2006 = dt.datetime(1, 10, 25, 2)
# From 1967 to 1986, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the last
# Sunday in April (the one on or after April 24) and to end at 2am (DST time)
# on the last Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday
# on or after Oct 25.
-DSTSTART_1967_1986 = datetime(1, 4, 24, 2)
+DSTSTART_1967_1986 = dt.datetime(1, 4, 24, 2)
DSTEND_1967_1986 = DSTEND_1987_2006
+
def us_dst_range(year):
# Find start and end times for US DST. For years before 1967, return
# start = end for no DST.
@@ -100,17 +103,17 @@ def us_dst_range(year):
elif 1966 < year < 1987:
dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1967_1986, DSTEND_1967_1986
else:
- return (datetime(year, 1, 1), ) * 2
+ return (dt.datetime(year, 1, 1), ) * 2
start = first_sunday_on_or_after(dststart.replace(year=year))
end = first_sunday_on_or_after(dstend.replace(year=year))
return start, end
-class USTimeZone(tzinfo):
+class USTimeZone(dt.tzinfo):
def __init__(self, hours, reprname, stdname, dstname):
- self.stdoffset = timedelta(hours=hours)
+ self.stdoffset = dt.timedelta(hours=hours)
self.reprname = reprname
self.stdname = stdname
self.dstname = dstname
@@ -118,45 +121,45 @@ def __init__(self, hours, reprname, stdname, dstname):
def __repr__(self):
return self.reprname
- def tzname(self, dt):
- if self.dst(dt):
+ def tzname(self, when):
+ if self.dst(when):
return self.dstname
else:
return self.stdname
- def utcoffset(self, dt):
- return self.stdoffset + self.dst(dt)
+ def utcoffset(self, when):
+ return self.stdoffset + self.dst(when)
- def dst(self, dt):
- if dt is None or dt.tzinfo is None:
+ def dst(self, when):
+ if when is None or when.tzinfo is None:
# An exception may be sensible here, in one or both cases.
# It depends on how you want to treat them. The default
# fromutc() implementation (called by the default astimezone()
- # implementation) passes a datetime with dt.tzinfo is self.
+ # implementation) passes a datetime with when.tzinfo is self.
return ZERO
- assert dt.tzinfo is self
- start, end = us_dst_range(dt.year)
+ assert when.tzinfo is self
+ start, end = us_dst_range(when.year)
# Can't compare naive to aware objects, so strip the timezone from
- # dt first.
- dt = dt.replace(tzinfo=None)
- if start + HOUR <= dt < end - HOUR:
+ # when first.
+ when = when.replace(tzinfo=None)
+ if start + HOUR <= when < end - HOUR:
# DST is in effect.
return HOUR
- if end - HOUR <= dt < end:
- # Fold (an ambiguous hour): use dt.fold to disambiguate.
- return ZERO if dt.fold else HOUR
- if start <= dt < start + HOUR:
+ if end - HOUR <= when < end:
+ # Fold (an ambiguous hour): use when.fold to disambiguate.
+ return ZERO if when.fold else HOUR
+ if start <= when < start + HOUR:
# Gap (a non-existent hour): reverse the fold rule.
- return HOUR if dt.fold else ZERO
+ return HOUR if when.fold else ZERO
# DST is off.
return ZERO
- def fromutc(self, dt):
- assert dt.tzinfo is self
- start, end = us_dst_range(dt.year)
+ def fromutc(self, when):
+ assert when.tzinfo is self
+ start, end = us_dst_range(when.year)
start = start.replace(tzinfo=self)
end = end.replace(tzinfo=self)
- std_time = dt + self.stdoffset
+ std_time = when + self.stdoffset
dst_time = std_time + HOUR
if end <= dst_time < end + HOUR:
# Repeated hour
diff --git a/Doc/includes/wasm-ios-notavail.rst b/Doc/includes/wasm-ios-notavail.rst
deleted file mode 100644
index c820665f5e403c6..000000000000000
--- a/Doc/includes/wasm-ios-notavail.rst
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,8 +0,0 @@
-.. include for modules that don't work on WASM or iOS
-
-.. availability:: not WASI, not iOS.
-
- This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms, or
- on iOS. See :ref:`wasm-availability` for more information on WASM
- availability; see :ref:`iOS-availability` for more information on iOS
- availability.
diff --git a/Doc/includes/wasm-mobile-notavail.rst b/Doc/includes/wasm-mobile-notavail.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..725b0f7a86d17d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/includes/wasm-mobile-notavail.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+.. include for modules that don't work on WASM or mobile platforms
+
+.. availability:: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.
+
+ This module is not supported on :ref:`mobile platforms <mobile-availability>`
+ or :ref:`WebAssembly platforms <wasm-availability>`.
diff --git a/Doc/installing/index.rst b/Doc/installing/index.rst
index a46c1caefe4d8ac..c372d9f47418001 100644
--- a/Doc/installing/index.rst
+++ b/Doc/installing/index.rst
@@ -1,16 +1,14 @@
-.. highlight:: none
+.. highlight:: shell
.. _installing-index:
*************************
-Installing Python Modules
+Installing Python modules
*************************
-:Email: distutils-sig@python.org
-
As a popular open source development project, Python has an active
supporting community of contributors and users that also make their software
-available for other Python developers to use under open source license terms.
+available for other Python developers to use under open-source license terms.
This allows Python users to share and collaborate effectively, benefiting
from the solutions others have already created to common (and sometimes
@@ -34,34 +32,24 @@ creating and sharing your own Python projects, refer to the
Key terms
=========
-* ``pip`` is the preferred installer program. Starting with Python 3.4, it
+* :program:`pip` is the preferred installer program. It
is included by default with the Python binary installers.
* A *virtual environment* is a semi-isolated Python environment that allows
packages to be installed for use by a particular application, rather than
being installed system wide.
-* ``venv`` is the standard tool for creating virtual environments, and has
- been part of Python since Python 3.3. Starting with Python 3.4, it
- defaults to installing ``pip`` into all created virtual environments.
-* ``virtualenv`` is a third party alternative (and predecessor) to
- ``venv``. It allows virtual environments to be used on versions of
- Python prior to 3.4, which either don't provide ``venv`` at all, or
- aren't able to automatically install ``pip`` into created environments.
-* The `Python Package Index <https://pypi.org>`__ is a public
+* ``venv`` is the standard tool for creating virtual environments.
+ It defaults to installing :program:`pip` into all created virtual environments.
+* ``virtualenv`` is a third-party alternative (and predecessor) to
+ ``venv``.
+* The `Python Package Index (PyPI) <https://pypi.org>`__ is a public
repository of open source licensed packages made available for use by
other Python users.
-* the `Python Packaging Authority
+* The `Python Packaging Authority
<https://www.pypa.io/>`__ is the group of
developers and documentation authors responsible for the maintenance and
evolution of the standard packaging tools and the associated metadata and
file format standards. They maintain a variety of tools, documentation,
and issue trackers on `GitHub <https://github.com/pypa>`__.
-* ``distutils`` is the original build and distribution system first added to
- the Python standard library in 1998. While direct use of ``distutils`` is
- being phased out, it still laid the foundation for the current packaging
- and distribution infrastructure, and it not only remains part of the
- standard library, but its name lives on in other ways (such as the name
- of the mailing list used to coordinate Python packaging standards
- development).
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
The use of ``venv`` is now recommended for creating virtual environments.
@@ -79,7 +67,7 @@ The standard packaging tools are all designed to be used from the command
line.
The following command will install the latest version of a module and its
-dependencies from the Python Package Index::
+dependencies from PyPI::
python -m pip install SomePackage
@@ -106,7 +94,7 @@ explicitly::
python -m pip install --upgrade SomePackage
-More information and resources regarding ``pip`` and its capabilities can be
+More information and resources regarding :program:`pip` and its capabilities can be
found in the `Python Packaging User Guide <https://packaging.python.org>`__.
Creation of virtual environments is done through the :mod:`venv` module.
@@ -124,19 +112,6 @@ How do I ...?
These are quick answers or links for some common tasks.
-... install ``pip`` in versions of Python prior to Python 3.4?
---------------------------------------------------------------
-
-Python only started bundling ``pip`` with Python 3.4. For earlier versions,
-``pip`` needs to be "bootstrapped" as described in the Python Packaging
-User Guide.
-
-.. seealso::
-
- `Python Packaging User Guide: Requirements for Installing Packages
- <https://packaging.python.org/installing/#requirements-for-installing-packages>`__
-
-
.. installing-per-user-installation:
... install packages just for the current user?
@@ -150,10 +125,10 @@ package just for the current user, rather than for all users of the system.
---------------------------------------
A number of scientific Python packages have complex binary dependencies, and
-aren't currently easy to install using ``pip`` directly. At this point in
-time, it will often be easier for users to install these packages by
+aren't currently easy to install using :program:`pip` directly.
+It will often be easier for users to install these packages by
`other means <https://packaging.python.org/science/>`__
-rather than attempting to install them with ``pip``.
+rather than attempting to install them with :program:`pip`.
.. seealso::
@@ -166,29 +141,25 @@ rather than attempting to install them with ``pip``.
On Linux, macOS, and other POSIX systems, use the versioned Python commands
in combination with the ``-m`` switch to run the appropriate copy of
-``pip``::
+:program:`pip`::
- python2 -m pip install SomePackage # default Python 2
- python2.7 -m pip install SomePackage # specifically Python 2.7
- python3 -m pip install SomePackage # default Python 3
- python3.4 -m pip install SomePackage # specifically Python 3.4
+ python3 -m pip install SomePackage # default Python 3
+ python3.14 -m pip install SomePackage # specifically Python 3.14
-Appropriately versioned ``pip`` commands may also be available.
+Appropriately versioned :program:`pip` commands may also be available.
-On Windows, use the ``py`` Python launcher in combination with the ``-m``
+On Windows, use the :program:`py` Python launcher in combination with the ``-m``
switch::
- py -2 -m pip install SomePackage # default Python 2
- py -2.7 -m pip install SomePackage # specifically Python 2.7
- py -3 -m pip install SomePackage # default Python 3
- py -3.4 -m pip install SomePackage # specifically Python 3.4
+ py -3 -m pip install SomePackage # default Python 3
+ py -3.14 -m pip install SomePackage # specifically Python 3.14
.. other questions:
Once the Development & Deployment part of PPUG is fleshed out, some of
those sections should be linked from new questions here (most notably,
we should have a question about avoiding depending on PyPI that links to
- https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/mirrors/)
+ https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/guides/index-mirrors-and-caches/)
Common installation issues
@@ -201,39 +172,38 @@ On Linux systems, a Python installation will typically be included as part
of the distribution. Installing into this Python installation requires
root access to the system, and may interfere with the operation of the
system package manager and other components of the system if a component
-is unexpectedly upgraded using ``pip``.
+is unexpectedly upgraded using :program:`pip`.
On such systems, it is often better to use a virtual environment or a
-per-user installation when installing packages with ``pip``.
+per-user installation when installing packages with :program:`pip`.
Pip not installed
-----------------
-It is possible that ``pip`` does not get installed by default. One potential fix is::
+It is possible that :program:`pip` does not get installed by default. One potential fix is::
python -m ensurepip --default-pip
-There are also additional resources for `installing pip.
-<https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/#ensure-pip-setuptools-and-wheel-are-up-to-date>`__
+There are also additional resources for `installing pip
+<https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/#ensure-pip-setuptools-and-wheel-are-up-to-date>`__.
Installing binary extensions
----------------------------
-Python has typically relied heavily on source based distribution, with end
+Python once relied heavily on source-based distribution, with end
users being expected to compile extension modules from source as part of
the installation process.
-With the introduction of support for the binary ``wheel`` format, and the
-ability to publish wheels for at least Windows and macOS through the
-Python Package Index, this problem is expected to diminish over time,
+With the introduction of the binary wheel format, and the
+ability to publish wheels through PyPI, this problem is diminishing,
as users are more regularly able to install pre-built extensions rather
than needing to build them themselves.
Some of the solutions for installing `scientific software
<https://packaging.python.org/science/>`__
-that are not yet available as pre-built ``wheel`` files may also help with
+that are not yet available as pre-built wheel files may also help with
obtaining other binary extensions without needing to build them locally.
.. seealso::
diff --git a/Doc/library/__future__.rst b/Doc/library/__future__.rst
index 762f8b4695b3dd9..fcc7e282a7a7af5 100644
--- a/Doc/library/__future__.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/__future__.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`__future__` --- Future statement definitions
-==================================================
+:mod:`!__future__` --- Future statement definitions
+===================================================
.. module:: __future__
:synopsis: Future statement definitions
@@ -37,36 +37,51 @@ No feature description will ever be deleted from :mod:`__future__`. Since its
introduction in Python 2.1 the following features have found their way into the
language using this mechanism:
-+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
-| feature | optional in | mandatory in | effect |
-+==================+=============+==============+=============================================+
-| nested_scopes | 2.1.0b1 | 2.2 | :pep:`227`: |
-| | | | *Statically Nested Scopes* |
-+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
-| generators | 2.2.0a1 | 2.3 | :pep:`255`: |
-| | | | *Simple Generators* |
-+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
-| division | 2.2.0a2 | 3.0 | :pep:`238`: |
-| | | | *Changing the Division Operator* |
-+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
-| absolute_import | 2.5.0a1 | 3.0 | :pep:`328`: |
-| | | | *Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative* |
-+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
-| with_statement | 2.5.0a1 | 2.6 | :pep:`343`: |
-| | | | *The "with" Statement* |
-+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
-| print_function | 2.6.0a2 | 3.0 | :pep:`3105`: |
-| | | | *Make print a function* |
-+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
-| unicode_literals | 2.6.0a2 | 3.0 | :pep:`3112`: |
-| | | | *Bytes literals in Python 3000* |
-+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
-| generator_stop | 3.5.0b1 | 3.7 | :pep:`479`: |
-| | | | *StopIteration handling inside generators* |
-+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
-| annotations | 3.7.0b1 | TBD [1]_ | :pep:`563`: |
-| | | | *Postponed evaluation of annotations* |
-+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
+
+.. list-table::
+ :widths: auto
+ :header-rows: 1
+
+ * * feature
+ * optional in
+ * mandatory in
+ * effect
+ * * .. data:: nested_scopes
+ * 2.1.0b1
+ * 2.2
+ * :pep:`227`: *Statically Nested Scopes*
+ * * .. data:: generators
+ * 2.2.0a1
+ * 2.3
+ * :pep:`255`: *Simple Generators*
+ * * .. data:: division
+ * 2.2.0a2
+ * 3.0
+ * :pep:`238`: *Changing the Division Operator*
+ * * .. data:: absolute_import
+ * 2.5.0a1
+ * 3.0
+ * :pep:`328`: *Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative*
+ * * .. data:: with_statement
+ * 2.5.0a1
+ * 2.6
+ * :pep:`343`: *The “with” Statement*
+ * * .. data:: print_function
+ * 2.6.0a2
+ * 3.0
+ * :pep:`3105`: *Make print a function*
+ * * .. data:: unicode_literals
+ * 2.6.0a2
+ * 3.0
+ * :pep:`3112`: *Bytes literals in Python 3000*
+ * * .. data:: generator_stop
+ * 3.5.0b1
+ * 3.7
+ * :pep:`479`: *StopIteration handling inside generators*
+ * * .. data:: annotations
+ * 3.7.0b1
+ * Never [1]_
+ * :pep:`563`: *Postponed evaluation of annotations*
.. XXX Adding a new entry? Remember to update simple_stmts.rst, too.
diff --git a/Doc/library/__main__.rst b/Doc/library/__main__.rst
index c999253f781b107..647ff9da04d10de 100644
--- a/Doc/library/__main__.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/__main__.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`__main__` --- Top-level code environment
-==============================================
+:mod:`!__main__` --- Top-level code environment
+===============================================
.. module:: __main__
:synopsis: The environment where top-level code is run. Covers command-line
@@ -251,9 +251,9 @@ attribute will include the package's path if imported::
>>> asyncio.__main__.__name__
'asyncio.__main__'
-This won't work for ``__main__.py`` files in the root directory of a .zip file
-though. Hence, for consistency, minimal ``__main__.py`` like the :mod:`venv`
-one mentioned below are preferred.
+This won't work for ``__main__.py`` files in the root directory of a
+``.zip`` file though. Hence, for consistency, a minimal ``__main__.py``
+without a ``__name__`` check is preferred.
.. seealso::
diff --git a/Doc/library/_thread.rst b/Doc/library/_thread.rst
index 297f50a46e06928..7a2a27aa164839e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/_thread.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/_thread.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`_thread` --- Low-level threading API
-==========================================
+:mod:`!_thread` --- Low-level threading API
+===========================================
.. module:: _thread
:synopsis: Low-level threading API.
@@ -36,11 +36,6 @@ This module defines the following constants and functions:
This is now a synonym of the built-in :exc:`RuntimeError`.
-.. data:: LockType
-
- This is the type of lock objects.
-
-
.. function:: start_new_thread(function, args[, kwargs])
Start a new thread and return its identifier. The thread executes the
@@ -159,77 +154,82 @@ This module defines the following constants and functions:
.. versionadded:: 3.2
-Lock objects have the following methods:
+.. raw:: html
+ <!-- Keep the old URL fragments working (see gh-89554) -->
+ <span id='thread.lock.acquire'></span>
+ <span id='thread.lock.release'></span>
+ <span id='thread.lock.locked'></span>
-.. method:: lock.acquire(blocking=True, timeout=-1)
+.. class:: LockType
- Without any optional argument, this method acquires the lock unconditionally, if
- necessary waiting until it is released by another thread (only one thread at a
- time can acquire a lock --- that's their reason for existence).
+ This is the type of lock objects.
+
+ Lock objects have the following methods:
- If the *blocking* argument is present, the action depends on its
- value: if it is False, the lock is only acquired if it can be acquired
- immediately without waiting, while if it is True, the lock is acquired
- unconditionally as above.
+ .. method:: acquire(blocking=True, timeout=-1)
- If the floating-point *timeout* argument is present and positive, it
- specifies the maximum wait time in seconds before returning. A negative
- *timeout* argument specifies an unbounded wait. You cannot specify
- a *timeout* if *blocking* is False.
+ Without any optional argument, this method acquires the lock unconditionally, if
+ necessary waiting until it is released by another thread (only one thread at a
+ time can acquire a lock --- that's their reason for existence).
- The return value is ``True`` if the lock is acquired successfully,
- ``False`` if not.
+ If the *blocking* argument is present, the action depends on its
+ value: if it is false, the lock is only acquired if it can be acquired
+ immediately without waiting, while if it is true, the lock is acquired
+ unconditionally as above.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.2
- The *timeout* parameter is new.
+ If the floating-point *timeout* argument is present and positive, it
+ specifies the maximum wait time in seconds before returning. A negative
+ *timeout* argument specifies an unbounded wait. You cannot specify
+ a *timeout* if *blocking* is false.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.2
- Lock acquires can now be interrupted by signals on POSIX.
+ The return value is ``True`` if the lock is acquired successfully,
+ ``False`` if not.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+ The *timeout* parameter is new.
-.. method:: lock.release()
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+ Lock acquires can now be interrupted by signals on POSIX.
- Releases the lock. The lock must have been acquired earlier, but not
- necessarily by the same thread.
+ .. method:: release()
+ Releases the lock. The lock must have been acquired earlier, but not
+ necessarily by the same thread.
-.. method:: lock.locked()
+ .. method:: locked()
- Return the status of the lock: ``True`` if it has been acquired by some thread,
- ``False`` if not.
+ Return the status of the lock: ``True`` if it has been acquired by some thread,
+ ``False`` if not.
-In addition to these methods, lock objects can also be used via the
-:keyword:`with` statement, e.g.::
+ In addition to these methods, lock objects can also be used via the
+ :keyword:`with` statement, e.g.::
- import _thread
+ import _thread
- a_lock = _thread.allocate_lock()
+ a_lock = _thread.allocate_lock()
- with a_lock:
- print("a_lock is locked while this executes")
+ with a_lock:
+ print("a_lock is locked while this executes")
**Caveats:**
.. index:: pair: module; signal
-* Threads interact strangely with interrupts: the :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt`
- exception will be received by an arbitrary thread. (When the :mod:`signal`
- module is available, interrupts always go to the main thread.)
+* Interrupts always go to the main thread (the :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt`
+ exception will be received by that thread.)
* Calling :func:`sys.exit` or raising the :exc:`SystemExit` exception is
equivalent to calling :func:`_thread.exit`.
-* It is not possible to interrupt the :meth:`~threading.Lock.acquire` method on
- a lock --- the :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` exception will happen after the lock
- has been acquired.
+* It is platform-dependent whether the :meth:`~threading.Lock.acquire` method
+ on a lock can be interrupted (so that the :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` exception
+ will happen immediately, rather than only after the lock has been acquired or
+ the operation has timed out). It can be interrupted on POSIX, but not on
+ Windows.
* When the main thread exits, it is system defined whether the other threads
survive. On most systems, they are killed without executing
:keyword:`try` ... :keyword:`finally` clauses or executing object
destructors.
-* When the main thread exits, it does not do any of its usual cleanup (except
- that :keyword:`try` ... :keyword:`finally` clauses are honored), and the
- standard I/O files are not flushed.
-
diff --git a/Doc/library/abc.rst b/Doc/library/abc.rst
index 10e2cba50e49b09..4b3c9f2b73d7a7c 100644
--- a/Doc/library/abc.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/abc.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`abc` --- Abstract Base Classes
-====================================
+:mod:`!abc` --- Abstract Base Classes
+=====================================
.. module:: abc
:synopsis: Abstract base classes according to :pep:`3119`.
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ a helper class :class:`ABC` to alternatively define ABCs through inheritance:
that you can customize the behavior of :func:`issubclass` further without the
need to call :meth:`register` on every class you want to consider a
subclass of the ABC. (This class method is called from the
- :meth:`~class.__subclasscheck__` method of the ABC.)
+ :meth:`~type.__subclasscheck__` method of the ABC.)
This method should return ``True``, ``False`` or :data:`NotImplemented`. If
it returns ``True``, the *subclass* is considered a subclass of this ABC.
@@ -141,18 +141,18 @@ a helper class :class:`ABC` to alternatively define ABCs through inheritance:
MyIterable.register(Foo)
The ABC ``MyIterable`` defines the standard iterable method,
- :meth:`~iterator.__iter__`, as an abstract method. The implementation given
+ :meth:`~object.__iter__`, as an abstract method. The implementation given
here can still be called from subclasses. The :meth:`!get_iterator` method
is also part of the ``MyIterable`` abstract base class, but it does not have
to be overridden in non-abstract derived classes.
The :meth:`__subclasshook__` class method defined here says that any class
- that has an :meth:`~iterator.__iter__` method in its
+ that has an :meth:`~object.__iter__` method in its
:attr:`~object.__dict__` (or in that of one of its base classes, accessed
- via the :attr:`~class.__mro__` list) is considered a ``MyIterable`` too.
+ via the :attr:`~type.__mro__` list) is considered a ``MyIterable`` too.
Finally, the last line makes ``Foo`` a virtual subclass of ``MyIterable``,
- even though it does not define an :meth:`~iterator.__iter__` method (it uses
+ even though it does not define an :meth:`~object.__iter__` method (it uses
the old-style iterable protocol, defined in terms of :meth:`~object.__len__` and
:meth:`~object.__getitem__`). Note that this will not make ``get_iterator``
available as a method of ``Foo``, so it is provided separately.
@@ -170,17 +170,17 @@ The :mod:`!abc` module also provides the following decorator:
or is derived from it. A class that has a metaclass derived from
:class:`!ABCMeta` cannot be instantiated unless all of its abstract methods
and properties are overridden. The abstract methods can be called using any
- of the normal 'super' call mechanisms. :func:`!abstractmethod` may be used
+ of the normal 'super' call mechanisms. :deco:`!abstractmethod` may be used
to declare abstract methods for properties and descriptors.
Dynamically adding abstract methods to a class, or attempting to modify the
abstraction status of a method or class once it is created, are only
supported using the :func:`update_abstractmethods` function. The
- :func:`!abstractmethod` only affects subclasses derived using regular
+ :deco:`!abstractmethod` only affects subclasses derived using regular
inheritance; "virtual subclasses" registered with the ABC's
:meth:`~ABCMeta.register` method are not affected.
- When :func:`!abstractmethod` is applied in combination with other method
+ When :deco:`!abstractmethod` is applied in combination with other method
descriptors, it should be applied as the innermost decorator, as shown in
the following usage examples::
@@ -218,7 +218,7 @@ The :mod:`!abc` module also provides the following decorator:
the descriptor must identify itself as abstract using
:attr:`!__isabstractmethod__`. In general, this attribute should be ``True``
if any of the methods used to compose the descriptor are abstract. For
- example, Python's built-in :class:`property` does the equivalent of::
+ example, Python's built-in :deco:`property` does the equivalent of::
class Descriptor:
...
@@ -242,13 +242,13 @@ The :mod:`!abc` module also supports the following legacy decorators:
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. deprecated:: 3.3
- It is now possible to use :class:`classmethod` with
- :func:`abstractmethod`, making this decorator redundant.
+ It is now possible to use :deco:`classmethod` with
+ :deco:`abstractmethod`, making this decorator redundant.
- A subclass of the built-in :func:`classmethod`, indicating an abstract
- classmethod. Otherwise it is similar to :func:`abstractmethod`.
+ A subclass of the built-in :class:`classmethod`, indicating an abstract
+ classmethod. Otherwise it is similar to :deco:`abstractmethod`.
- This special case is deprecated, as the :func:`classmethod` decorator
+ This special case is deprecated, as the :deco:`classmethod` decorator
is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to an abstract
method::
@@ -263,13 +263,13 @@ The :mod:`!abc` module also supports the following legacy decorators:
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. deprecated:: 3.3
- It is now possible to use :class:`staticmethod` with
- :func:`abstractmethod`, making this decorator redundant.
+ It is now possible to use :deco:`staticmethod` with
+ :deco:`abstractmethod`, making this decorator redundant.
- A subclass of the built-in :func:`staticmethod`, indicating an abstract
- staticmethod. Otherwise it is similar to :func:`abstractmethod`.
+ A subclass of the built-in :class:`staticmethod`, indicating an abstract
+ staticmethod. Otherwise it is similar to :deco:`abstractmethod`.
- This special case is deprecated, as the :func:`staticmethod` decorator
+ This special case is deprecated, as the :deco:`staticmethod` decorator
is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to an abstract
method::
@@ -283,14 +283,14 @@ The :mod:`!abc` module also supports the following legacy decorators:
.. decorator:: abstractproperty
.. deprecated:: 3.3
- It is now possible to use :class:`property`, :meth:`property.getter`,
- :meth:`property.setter` and :meth:`property.deleter` with
- :func:`abstractmethod`, making this decorator redundant.
+ It is now possible to use :deco:`property`, :deco:`property.getter`,
+ :deco:`property.setter` and :deco:`property.deleter` with
+ :deco:`abstractmethod`, making this decorator redundant.
- A subclass of the built-in :func:`property`, indicating an abstract
+ A subclass of the built-in :class:`property`, indicating an abstract
property.
- This special case is deprecated, as the :func:`property` decorator
+ This special case is deprecated, as the :deco:`property` decorator
is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to an abstract
method::
diff --git a/Doc/library/aifc.rst b/Doc/library/aifc.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..a756d679036ecbf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/aifc.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+:mod:`!aifc` --- Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: aifc
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!aifc` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/aifc.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/allos.rst b/Doc/library/allos.rst
index f7105d8af8e28b3..1aed340b2527acf 100644
--- a/Doc/library/allos.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/allos.rst
@@ -15,15 +15,9 @@ but they are available on most other systems as well. Here's an overview:
os.rst
io.rst
time.rst
- argparse.rst
- getopt.rst
logging.rst
logging.config.rst
logging.handlers.rst
- getpass.rst
- curses.rst
- curses.ascii.rst
- curses.panel.rst
platform.rst
errno.rst
ctypes.rst
diff --git a/Doc/library/argparse.rst b/Doc/library/argparse.rst
index eaddd44e2defd71..790d7564aafa64b 100644
--- a/Doc/library/argparse.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/argparse.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`argparse` --- Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands
-===============================================================================
+:mod:`!argparse` --- Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands
+================================================================================
.. module:: argparse
:synopsis: Command-line option and argument parsing library.
@@ -11,6 +11,18 @@
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/argparse.py`
+.. note::
+
+ While :mod:`argparse` is the default recommended standard library module
+ for implementing basic command line applications, authors with more
+ exacting requirements for exactly how their command line applications
+ behave may find it doesn't provide the necessary level of control.
+ Refer to :ref:`choosing-an-argument-parser` for alternatives to
+ consider when ``argparse`` doesn't support behaviors that the application
+ requires (such as entirely disabling support for interspersed options and
+ positional arguments, or accepting option parameter values that start
+ with ``-`` even when they correspond to another defined option).
+
--------------
.. sidebar:: Tutorial
@@ -19,17 +31,13 @@
introduction to Python command-line parsing, have a look at the
:ref:`argparse tutorial <argparse-tutorial>`.
-The :mod:`argparse` module makes it easy to write user-friendly command-line
-interfaces. The program defines what arguments it requires, and :mod:`argparse`
-will figure out how to parse those out of :data:`sys.argv`. The :mod:`argparse`
+The :mod:`!argparse` module makes it easy to write user-friendly command-line
+interfaces. The program defines what arguments it requires, and :mod:`!argparse`
+will figure out how to parse those out of :data:`sys.argv`. The :mod:`!argparse`
module also automatically generates help and usage messages. The module
will also issue errors when users give the program invalid arguments.
-
-Core Functionality
-------------------
-
-The :mod:`argparse` module's support for command-line interfaces is built
+The :mod:`!argparse` module's support for command-line interfaces is built
around an instance of :class:`argparse.ArgumentParser`. It is a container for
argument specifications and has options that apply to the parser as whole::
@@ -53,133 +61,9 @@ the extracted data in a :class:`argparse.Namespace` object::
args = parser.parse_args()
print(args.filename, args.count, args.verbose)
-
-Quick Links for add_argument()
-------------------------------
-
-============================ =========================================================== ==========================================================================================================================
-Name Description Values
-============================ =========================================================== ==========================================================================================================================
-action_ Specify how an argument should be handled ``'store'``, ``'store_const'``, ``'store_true'``, ``'append'``, ``'append_const'``, ``'count'``, ``'help'``, ``'version'``
-choices_ Limit values to a specific set of choices ``['foo', 'bar']``, ``range(1, 10)``, or :class:`~collections.abc.Container` instance
-const_ Store a constant value
-default_ Default value used when an argument is not provided Defaults to ``None``
-dest_ Specify the attribute name used in the result namespace
-help_ Help message for an argument
-metavar_ Alternate display name for the argument as shown in help
-nargs_ Number of times the argument can be used :class:`int`, ``'?'``, ``'*'``, or ``'+'``
-required_ Indicate whether an argument is required or optional ``True`` or ``False``
-:ref:`type <argparse-type>` Automatically convert an argument to the given type :class:`int`, :class:`float`, ``argparse.FileType('w')``, or callable function
-============================ =========================================================== ==========================================================================================================================
-
-
-Example
--------
-
-The following code is a Python program that takes a list of integers and
-produces either the sum or the max::
-
- import argparse
-
- parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Process some integers.')
- parser.add_argument('integers', metavar='N', type=int, nargs='+',
- help='an integer for the accumulator')
- parser.add_argument('--sum', dest='accumulate', action='store_const',
- const=sum, default=max,
- help='sum the integers (default: find the max)')
-
- args = parser.parse_args()
- print(args.accumulate(args.integers))
-
-Assuming the above Python code is saved into a file called ``prog.py``, it can
-be run at the command line and it provides useful help messages:
-
-.. code-block:: shell-session
-
- $ python prog.py -h
- usage: prog.py [-h] [--sum] N [N ...]
-
- Process some integers.
-
- positional arguments:
- N an integer for the accumulator
-
- options:
- -h, --help show this help message and exit
- --sum sum the integers (default: find the max)
-
-When run with the appropriate arguments, it prints either the sum or the max of
-the command-line integers:
-
-.. code-block:: shell-session
-
- $ python prog.py 1 2 3 4
- 4
-
- $ python prog.py 1 2 3 4 --sum
- 10
-
-If invalid arguments are passed in, an error will be displayed:
-
-.. code-block:: shell-session
-
- $ python prog.py a b c
- usage: prog.py [-h] [--sum] N [N ...]
- prog.py: error: argument N: invalid int value: 'a'
-
-The following sections walk you through this example.
-
-
-Creating a parser
-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-
-The first step in using the :mod:`argparse` is creating an
-:class:`ArgumentParser` object::
-
- >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Process some integers.')
-
-The :class:`ArgumentParser` object will hold all the information necessary to
-parse the command line into Python data types.
-
-
-Adding arguments
-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-
-Filling an :class:`ArgumentParser` with information about program arguments is
-done by making calls to the :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument` method.
-Generally, these calls tell the :class:`ArgumentParser` how to take the strings
-on the command line and turn them into objects. This information is stored and
-used when :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` is called. For example::
-
- >>> parser.add_argument('integers', metavar='N', type=int, nargs='+',
- ... help='an integer for the accumulator')
- >>> parser.add_argument('--sum', dest='accumulate', action='store_const',
- ... const=sum, default=max,
- ... help='sum the integers (default: find the max)')
-
-Later, calling :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` will return an object with
-two attributes, ``integers`` and ``accumulate``. The ``integers`` attribute
-will be a list of one or more integers, and the ``accumulate`` attribute will be
-either the :func:`sum` function, if ``--sum`` was specified at the command line,
-or the :func:`max` function if it was not.
-
-
-Parsing arguments
-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-
-:class:`ArgumentParser` parses arguments through the
-:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` method. This will inspect the command line,
-convert each argument to the appropriate type and then invoke the appropriate action.
-In most cases, this means a simple :class:`Namespace` object will be built up from
-attributes parsed out of the command line::
-
- >>> parser.parse_args(['--sum', '7', '-1', '42'])
- Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function sum>, integers=[7, -1, 42])
-
-In a script, :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` will typically be called with no
-arguments, and the :class:`ArgumentParser` will automatically determine the
-command-line arguments from :data:`sys.argv`.
-
+.. note::
+ If you're looking for a guide about how to upgrade :mod:`optparse` code
+ to :mod:`!argparse`, see :ref:`Upgrading Optparse Code <upgrading-optparse-code>`.
ArgumentParser objects
----------------------
@@ -228,7 +112,7 @@ ArgumentParser objects
* allow_abbrev_ - Allows long options to be abbreviated if the
abbreviation is unambiguous. (default: ``True``)
- * exit_on_error_ - Determines whether or not ArgumentParser exits with
+ * exit_on_error_ - Determines whether or not :class:`!ArgumentParser` exits with
error info when an error occurs. (default: ``True``)
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
@@ -249,38 +133,21 @@ The following sections describe how each of these are used.
prog
^^^^
-By default, :class:`ArgumentParser` objects use ``sys.argv[0]`` to determine
-how to display the name of the program in help messages. This default is almost
-always desirable because it will make the help messages match how the program was
-invoked on the command line. For example, consider a file named
-``myprogram.py`` with the following code::
- import argparse
- parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
- parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
- args = parser.parse_args()
+By default, :class:`ArgumentParser` calculates the name of the program
+to display in help messages depending on the way the Python interpreter was run:
-The help for this program will display ``myprogram.py`` as the program name
-(regardless of where the program was invoked from):
+* The :func:`base name <os.path.basename>` of ``sys.argv[0]`` if a file was
+ passed as argument.
+* The Python interpreter name followed by ``sys.argv[0]`` if a directory or
+ a zipfile was passed as argument.
+* The Python interpreter name followed by ``-m`` followed by the
+ module or package name if the :option:`-m` option was used.
-.. code-block:: shell-session
-
- $ python myprogram.py --help
- usage: myprogram.py [-h] [--foo FOO]
-
- options:
- -h, --help show this help message and exit
- --foo FOO foo help
- $ cd ..
- $ python subdir/myprogram.py --help
- usage: myprogram.py [-h] [--foo FOO]
-
- options:
- -h, --help show this help message and exit
- --foo FOO foo help
-
-To change this default behavior, another value can be supplied using the
-``prog=`` argument to :class:`ArgumentParser`::
+This default is almost always desirable because it will make the help messages
+match the string that was used to invoke the program on the command line.
+However, to change this default behavior, another value can be supplied using
+the ``prog=`` argument to :class:`ArgumentParser`::
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
>>> parser.print_help()
@@ -309,22 +176,8 @@ usage
^^^^^
By default, :class:`ArgumentParser` calculates the usage message from the
-arguments it contains::
-
- >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
- >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', help='foo help')
- >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='+', help='bar help')
- >>> parser.print_help()
- usage: PROG [-h] [--foo [FOO]] bar [bar ...]
-
- positional arguments:
- bar bar help
-
- options:
- -h, --help show this help message and exit
- --foo [FOO] foo help
-
-The default message can be overridden with the ``usage=`` keyword argument::
+arguments it contains. The default message can be overridden with the
+``usage=`` keyword argument::
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', usage='%(prog)s [options]')
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', help='foo help')
@@ -352,16 +205,7 @@ Most calls to the :class:`ArgumentParser` constructor will use the
``description=`` keyword argument. This argument gives a brief description of
what the program does and how it works. In help messages, the description is
displayed between the command-line usage string and the help messages for the
-various arguments::
-
- >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='A foo that bars')
- >>> parser.print_help()
- usage: argparse.py [-h]
-
- A foo that bars
-
- options:
- -h, --help show this help message and exit
+various arguments.
By default, the description will be line-wrapped so that it fits within the
given space. To change this behavior, see the formatter_class_ argument.
@@ -491,7 +335,7 @@ should not be line-wrapped::
-h, --help show this help message and exit
:class:`RawTextHelpFormatter` maintains whitespace for all sorts of help text,
-including argument descriptions. However, multiple new lines are replaced with
+including argument descriptions. However, multiple newlines are replaced with
one. If you wish to preserve multiple blank lines, add spaces between the
newlines.
@@ -540,7 +384,7 @@ Most command-line options will use ``-`` as the prefix, e.g. ``-f/--foo``.
Parsers that need to support different or additional prefix
characters, e.g. for options
like ``+f`` or ``/foo``, may specify them using the ``prefix_chars=`` argument
-to the ArgumentParser constructor::
+to the :class:`ArgumentParser` constructor::
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='-+')
>>> parser.add_argument('+f')
@@ -571,12 +415,17 @@ arguments they contain. For example::
>>> parser.parse_args(['-f', 'foo', '@args.txt'])
Namespace(f='bar')
-Arguments read from a file must by default be one per line (but see also
+Arguments read from a file must be one per line by default (but see also
:meth:`~ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args`) and are treated as if they
were in the same place as the original file referencing argument on the command
line. So in the example above, the expression ``['-f', 'foo', '@args.txt']``
is considered equivalent to the expression ``['-f', 'foo', '-f', 'bar']``.
+.. note::
+
+ Each line is treated as a single argument, so an empty line is read as an
+ empty string (``''``).
+
:class:`ArgumentParser` uses :term:`filesystem encoding and error handler`
to read the file containing arguments.
@@ -585,8 +434,8 @@ arguments will never be treated as file references.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
:class:`ArgumentParser` changed encoding and errors to read arguments files
- from default (e.g. :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding(False) <locale.getpreferredencoding>` and
- ``"strict"``) to :term:`filesystem encoding and error handler`.
+ from default (e.g. :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding(False) <locale.getpreferredencoding>`
+ and ``"strict"``) to the :term:`filesystem encoding and error handler`.
Arguments file should be encoded in UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage on Windows.
@@ -671,26 +520,9 @@ string was overridden.
add_help
^^^^^^^^
-By default, ArgumentParser objects add an option which simply displays
-the parser's help message. For example, consider a file named
-``myprogram.py`` containing the following code::
-
- import argparse
- parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
- parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
- args = parser.parse_args()
-
-If ``-h`` or ``--help`` is supplied at the command line, the ArgumentParser
-help will be printed:
-
-.. code-block:: shell-session
-
- $ python myprogram.py --help
- usage: myprogram.py [-h] [--foo FOO]
-
- options:
- -h, --help show this help message and exit
- --foo FOO foo help
+By default, :class:`ArgumentParser` objects add an option which simply displays
+the parser's help message. If ``-h`` or ``--help`` is supplied at the command
+line, the :class:`!ArgumentParser` help will be printed.
Occasionally, it may be useful to disable the addition of this help option.
This can be achieved by passing ``False`` as the ``add_help=`` argument to
@@ -722,7 +554,8 @@ exit_on_error
^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Normally, when you pass an invalid argument list to the :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args`
-method of an :class:`ArgumentParser`, it will exit with error info.
+method of an :class:`ArgumentParser`, it will print a *message* to :data:`sys.stderr` and exit with a status
+code of 2.
If the user would like to catch errors manually, the feature can be enabled by setting
``exit_on_error`` to ``False``::
@@ -743,15 +576,15 @@ If the user would like to catch errors manually, the feature can be enabled by s
The add_argument() method
-------------------------
-.. method:: ArgumentParser.add_argument(name or flags..., [action], [nargs], \
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.add_argument(name or flags..., *, [action], [nargs], \
[const], [default], [type], [choices], [required], \
[help], [metavar], [dest], [deprecated])
Define how a single command-line argument should be parsed. Each parameter
has its own more detailed description below, but in short they are:
- * `name or flags`_ - Either a name or a list of option strings, e.g. ``foo``
- or ``-f, --foo``.
+ * `name or flags`_ - Either a name or a list of option strings, e.g. ``'foo'``
+ or ``'-f', '--foo'``.
* action_ - The basic type of action to be taken when this argument is
encountered at the command line.
@@ -779,10 +612,12 @@ The add_argument() method
* deprecated_ - Whether or not use of the argument is deprecated.
+ The method returns an :class:`Action` object representing the argument.
+
The following sections describe how each of these are used.
-.. _name_or_flags:
+.. _`name or flags`:
name or flags
^^^^^^^^^^^^^
@@ -829,12 +664,7 @@ them, though most actions simply add an attribute to the object returned by
how the command-line arguments should be handled. The supplied actions are:
* ``'store'`` - This just stores the argument's value. This is the default
- action. For example::
-
- >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
- >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
- >>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1'.split())
- Namespace(foo='1')
+ action.
* ``'store_const'`` - This stores the value specified by the const_ keyword
argument; note that the const_ keyword argument defaults to ``None``. The
@@ -847,9 +677,9 @@ how the command-line arguments should be handled. The supplied actions are:
Namespace(foo=42)
* ``'store_true'`` and ``'store_false'`` - These are special cases of
- ``'store_const'`` used for storing the values ``True`` and ``False``
- respectively. In addition, they create default values of ``False`` and
- ``True`` respectively. For example::
+ ``'store_const'`` that respectively store the values ``True`` and ``False``
+ with default values of ``False`` and
+ ``True``::
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
@@ -858,19 +688,19 @@ how the command-line arguments should be handled. The supplied actions are:
>>> parser.parse_args('--foo --bar'.split())
Namespace(foo=True, bar=False, baz=True)
-* ``'append'`` - This stores a list, and appends each argument value to the
- list. It is useful to allow an option to be specified multiple times.
- If the default value is non-empty, the default elements will be present
- in the parsed value for the option, with any values from the
- command line appended after those default values. Example usage::
+* ``'append'`` - This appends each argument value to a list.
+ It is useful for allowing an option to be specified multiple times.
+ If the default value is a non-empty list, the parsed value will start
+ with the default list's elements and any values from the command line
+ will be appended after those default values. Example usage::
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
- >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='append')
+ >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='append', default=['0'])
>>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 --foo 2'.split())
- Namespace(foo=['1', '2'])
+ Namespace(foo=['0', '1', '2'])
-* ``'append_const'`` - This stores a list, and appends the value specified by
- the const_ keyword argument to the list; note that the const_ keyword
+* ``'append_const'`` - This appends the value specified by
+ the const_ keyword argument to a list; note that the const_ keyword
argument defaults to ``None``. The ``'append_const'`` action is typically
useful when multiple arguments need to store constants to the same list. For
example::
@@ -881,7 +711,22 @@ how the command-line arguments should be handled. The supplied actions are:
>>> parser.parse_args('--str --int'.split())
Namespace(types=[<class 'str'>, <class 'int'>])
-* ``'count'`` - This counts the number of times a keyword argument occurs. For
+* ``'extend'`` - This appends each item from a multi-value
+ argument to a list.
+ The ``'extend'`` action is typically used with the nargs_ keyword argument
+ value ``'+'`` or ``'*'``.
+ Note that when nargs_ is ``None`` (the default) or ``'?'``, each
+ character of the argument string will be appended to the list.
+ Example usage::
+
+ >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+ >>> parser.add_argument("--foo", action="extend", nargs="+", type=str)
+ >>> parser.parse_args(["--foo", "f1", "--foo", "f2", "f3", "f4"])
+ Namespace(foo=['f1', 'f2', 'f3', 'f4'])
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+* ``'count'`` - This counts the number of times an argument occurs. For
example, this is useful for increasing verbosity levels::
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
@@ -889,7 +734,9 @@ how the command-line arguments should be handled. The supplied actions are:
>>> parser.parse_args(['-vvv'])
Namespace(verbose=3)
- Note, the *default* will be ``None`` unless explicitly set to *0*.
+ Unless explicitly set, the *default* will be ``None``. If the default
+ value is a non-zero number, the count starts from that number rather
+ than from zero.
* ``'help'`` - This prints a complete help message for all the options in the
current parser and then exits. By default a help action is automatically
@@ -906,33 +753,16 @@ how the command-line arguments should be handled. The supplied actions are:
>>> parser.parse_args(['--version'])
PROG 2.0
-* ``'extend'`` - This stores a list, and extends each argument value to the
- list.
- Example usage::
-
- >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
- >>> parser.add_argument("--foo", action="extend", nargs="+", type=str)
- >>> parser.parse_args(["--foo", "f1", "--foo", "f2", "f3", "f4"])
- Namespace(foo=['f1', 'f2', 'f3', 'f4'])
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.8
-
-You may also specify an arbitrary action by passing an Action subclass or
-other object that implements the same interface. The ``BooleanOptionalAction``
-is available in ``argparse`` and adds support for boolean actions such as
-``--foo`` and ``--no-foo``::
-
- >>> import argparse
- >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
- >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=argparse.BooleanOptionalAction)
- >>> parser.parse_args(['--no-foo'])
- Namespace(foo=False)
-
-.. versionadded:: 3.9
+You may also specify an arbitrary action by passing an :class:`Action` subclass
+(e.g. :class:`BooleanOptionalAction`) or other object that implements the same
+interface. Only actions that consume command-line arguments (e.g. ``'store'``,
+``'append'``, ``'extend'``, or custom actions with non-zero ``nargs``) can be used
+with positional arguments.
The recommended way to create a custom action is to extend :class:`Action`,
-overriding the ``__call__`` method and optionally the ``__init__`` and
-``format_usage`` methods.
+overriding the :meth:`!__call__` method and optionally the :meth:`!__init__` and
+:meth:`!format_usage` methods. You can also register custom actions using the
+:meth:`~ArgumentParser.register` method and reference them by their registered name.
An example of a custom action::
@@ -962,7 +792,7 @@ For more details, see :class:`Action`.
nargs
^^^^^
-ArgumentParser objects usually associate a single command-line argument with a
+:class:`ArgumentParser` objects usually associate a single command-line argument with a
single action to be taken. The ``nargs`` keyword argument associates a
different number of command-line arguments with a single action.
See also :ref:`specifying-ambiguous-arguments`. The supported values are:
@@ -1029,7 +859,7 @@ See also :ref:`specifying-ambiguous-arguments`. The supported values are:
.. index:: single: + (plus); in argparse module
-* ``'+'``. Just like ``'*'``, all command-line args present are gathered into a
+* ``'+'``. Just like ``'*'``, all command-line arguments present are gathered into a
list. Additionally, an error message will be generated if there wasn't at
least one command-line argument present. For example::
@@ -1044,6 +874,8 @@ See also :ref:`specifying-ambiguous-arguments`. The supported values are:
If the ``nargs`` keyword argument is not provided, the number of arguments consumed
is determined by the action_. Generally this means a single command-line argument
will be consumed and a single item (not a list) will be produced.
+Actions that do not consume command-line arguments (e.g.
+``'store_const'``) set ``nargs=0``.
.. _const:
@@ -1067,8 +899,8 @@ the various :class:`ArgumentParser` actions. The two most common uses of it are
(like ``-f`` or ``--foo``) and ``nargs='?'``. This creates an optional
argument that can be followed by zero or one command-line arguments.
When parsing the command line, if the option string is encountered with no
- command-line argument following it, the value of ``const`` will be assumed to
- be ``None`` instead. See the nargs_ description for examples.
+ command-line argument following it, the value from ``const`` will be used.
+ See the nargs_ description for examples.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
``const=None`` by default, including when ``action='append_const'`` or
@@ -1094,7 +926,7 @@ was not present at the command line::
Namespace(foo=42)
If the target namespace already has an attribute set, the action *default*
-will not over write it::
+will not overwrite it::
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=42)
@@ -1122,6 +954,13 @@ is used when no command-line argument was present::
>>> parser.parse_args([])
Namespace(foo=42)
+Because ``nargs='*'`` gathers any supplied values into a list, an absent
+positional argument yields an empty list (``[]``). Only a non-``None``
+*default* overrides this (so ``default=None`` still gives ``[]``).
+
+For required_ arguments, the ``default`` value is ignored. For example, this
+applies to positional arguments with nargs_ values other than ``?`` or ``*``,
+or optional arguments marked as ``required=True``.
Providing ``default=argparse.SUPPRESS`` causes no attribute to be added if the
command-line argument was not present::
@@ -1148,10 +987,11 @@ necessary type-checking and type conversions to be performed.
If the type_ keyword is used with the default_ keyword, the type converter
is only applied if the default is a string.
-The argument to ``type`` can be any callable that accepts a single string.
+The argument to ``type`` can be a callable that accepts a single string or
+the name of a registered type (see :meth:`~ArgumentParser.register`)
If the function raises :exc:`ArgumentTypeError`, :exc:`TypeError`, or
:exc:`ValueError`, the exception is caught and a nicely formatted error
-message is displayed. No other exception types are handled.
+message is displayed. Other exception types are not handled.
Common built-in types and functions can be used as type converters:
@@ -1165,7 +1005,6 @@ Common built-in types and functions can be used as type converters:
parser.add_argument('distance', type=float)
parser.add_argument('street', type=ascii)
parser.add_argument('code_point', type=ord)
- parser.add_argument('source_file', type=open)
parser.add_argument('dest_file', type=argparse.FileType('w', encoding='latin-1'))
parser.add_argument('datapath', type=pathlib.Path)
@@ -1183,7 +1022,15 @@ User defined functions can be used as well:
The :func:`bool` function is not recommended as a type converter. All it does
is convert empty strings to ``False`` and non-empty strings to ``True``.
-This is usually not what is desired.
+This is usually not what is desired::
+
+ >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+ >>> _ = parser.add_argument('--verbose', type=bool)
+ >>> parser.parse_args(['--verbose', 'False'])
+ Namespace(verbose=True)
+
+See :class:`BooleanOptionalAction` or ``action='store_true'`` for common
+alternatives.
In general, the ``type`` keyword is a convenience that should only be used for
simple conversions that can only raise one of the three supported exceptions.
@@ -1196,10 +1043,11 @@ better reporting than can be given by the ``type`` keyword. A
:exc:`FileNotFoundError` exception would not be handled at all.
Even :class:`~argparse.FileType` has its limitations for use with the ``type``
-keyword. If one argument uses *FileType* and then a subsequent argument fails,
-an error is reported but the file is not automatically closed. In this case, it
-would be better to wait until after the parser has run and then use the
-:keyword:`with`-statement to manage the files.
+keyword. If one argument uses :class:`~argparse.FileType` and then a
+subsequent argument fails, an error is reported but the file is not
+automatically closed. In this case, it would be better to wait until after
+the parser has run and then use the :keyword:`with`-statement to manage the
+files.
For type checkers that simply check against a fixed set of values, consider
using the choices_ keyword instead.
@@ -1225,24 +1073,21 @@ if the argument was not one of the acceptable values::
game.py: error: argument move: invalid choice: 'fire' (choose from 'rock',
'paper', 'scissors')
-Note that inclusion in the *choices* sequence is checked after any type_
-conversions have been performed, so the type of the objects in the *choices*
-sequence should match the type_ specified::
-
- >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='doors.py')
- >>> parser.add_argument('door', type=int, choices=range(1, 4))
- >>> print(parser.parse_args(['3']))
- Namespace(door=3)
- >>> parser.parse_args(['4'])
- usage: doors.py [-h] {1,2,3}
- doors.py: error: argument door: invalid choice: 4 (choose from 1, 2, 3)
-
Any sequence can be passed as the *choices* value, so :class:`list` objects,
:class:`tuple` objects, and custom sequences are all supported.
Use of :class:`enum.Enum` is not recommended because it is difficult to
control its appearance in usage, help, and error messages.
+Note that *choices* are checked after any type_
+conversions have been performed, so objects in *choices*
+should match the type_ specified. This can make *choices*
+appear unfamiliar in usage, help, or error messages.
+
+To keep *choices* user-friendly, consider a custom type wrapper that
+converts and formats values, or omit type_ and handle conversion in
+your application code.
+
Formatted choices override the default *metavar* which is normally derived
from *dest*. This is usually what you want because the user never sees the
*dest* parameter. If this display isn't desirable (perhaps because there are
@@ -1254,7 +1099,7 @@ many choices), just specify an explicit metavar_.
required
^^^^^^^^
-In general, the :mod:`argparse` module assumes that flags like ``-f`` and ``--bar``
+In general, the :mod:`!argparse` module assumes that flags like ``-f`` and ``--bar``
indicate *optional* arguments, which can always be omitted at the command line.
To make an option *required*, ``True`` can be specified for the ``required=``
keyword argument to :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument`::
@@ -1285,22 +1130,7 @@ help
The ``help`` value is a string containing a brief description of the argument.
When a user requests help (usually by using ``-h`` or ``--help`` at the
command line), these ``help`` descriptions will be displayed with each
-argument::
-
- >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
- >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true',
- ... help='foo the bars before frobbling')
- >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='+',
- ... help='one of the bars to be frobbled')
- >>> parser.parse_args(['-h'])
- usage: frobble [-h] [--foo] bar [bar ...]
-
- positional arguments:
- bar one of the bars to be frobbled
-
- options:
- -h, --help show this help message and exit
- --foo foo the bars before frobbling
+argument.
The ``help`` strings can include various format specifiers to avoid repetition
of things like the program name or the argument default_. The available
@@ -1322,7 +1152,7 @@ specifiers include the program name, ``%(prog)s`` and most keyword arguments to
As the help string supports %-formatting, if you want a literal ``%`` to appear
in the help string, you must escape it as ``%%``.
-:mod:`argparse` supports silencing the help entry for certain options, by
+:mod:`!argparse` supports silencing the help entry for certain options, by
setting the ``help`` value to ``argparse.SUPPRESS``::
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
@@ -1340,7 +1170,7 @@ metavar
^^^^^^^
When :class:`ArgumentParser` generates help messages, it needs some way to refer
-to each expected argument. By default, ArgumentParser objects use the dest_
+to each expected argument. By default, :class:`!ArgumentParser` objects use the dest_
value as the "name" of each object. By default, for positional argument
actions, the dest_ value is used directly, and for optional argument actions,
the dest_ value is uppercased. So, a single positional argument with
@@ -1441,6 +1271,10 @@ behavior::
>>> parser.parse_args('--foo XXX'.split())
Namespace(bar='XXX')
+Multiple arguments may share the same ``dest``. By default, the value from the
+last such argument given on the command line wins. Use ``action='append'`` to
+collect values from all of them into a list instead. For conflicting *option
+strings* rather than ``dest`` names, see conflict_handler_.
.. _deprecated:
@@ -1455,7 +1289,7 @@ The ``deprecated`` keyword argument of
specifies if the argument is deprecated and will be removed
in the future.
For arguments, if ``deprecated`` is ``True``, then a warning will be
-printed to standard error when the argument is used::
+printed to :data:`sys.stderr` when the argument is used::
>>> import argparse
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='snake.py')
@@ -1466,13 +1300,13 @@ printed to standard error when the argument is used::
snake.py: warning: option '--legs' is deprecated
Namespace(legs=4)
-.. versionchanged:: 3.13
+.. versionadded:: 3.13
Action classes
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-Action classes implement the Action API, a callable which returns a callable
+:class:`!Action` classes implement the Action API, a callable which returns a callable
which processes arguments from the command-line. Any object which follows
this API may be passed as the ``action`` parameter to
:meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument`.
@@ -1481,40 +1315,61 @@ this API may be passed as the ``action`` parameter to
type=None, choices=None, required=False, help=None, \
metavar=None)
-Action objects are used by an ArgumentParser to represent the information
-needed to parse a single argument from one or more strings from the
-command line. The Action class must accept the two positional arguments
-plus any keyword arguments passed to :meth:`ArgumentParser.add_argument`
-except for the ``action`` itself.
+ :class:`!Action` objects are used by an :class:`ArgumentParser` to represent the information
+ needed to parse a single argument from one or more strings from the
+ command line. The :class:`!Action` class must accept the two positional arguments
+ plus any keyword arguments passed to :meth:`ArgumentParser.add_argument`
+ except for the ``action`` itself.
+
+ Instances of :class:`!Action` (or return value of any callable to the
+ ``action`` parameter) should have attributes :attr:`!dest`,
+ :attr:`!option_strings`, :attr:`!default`, :attr:`!type`, :attr:`!required`,
+ :attr:`!help`, etc. defined. The easiest way to ensure these attributes
+ are defined is to call :meth:`!Action.__init__`.
+
+ .. method:: __call__(parser, namespace, values, option_string=None)
+
+ :class:`!Action` instances should be callable, so subclasses must override the
+ :meth:`!__call__` method, which should accept four parameters:
+
+ * *parser* - The :class:`ArgumentParser` object which contains this action.
-Instances of Action (or return value of any callable to the ``action``
-parameter) should have attributes "dest", "option_strings", "default", "type",
-"required", "help", etc. defined. The easiest way to ensure these attributes
-are defined is to call ``Action.__init__``.
+ * *namespace* - The :class:`Namespace` object that will be returned by
+ :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args`. Most actions add an attribute to this
+ object using :func:`setattr`.
-Action instances should be callable, so subclasses must override the
-``__call__`` method, which should accept four parameters:
+ * *values* - The associated command-line arguments, with any type conversions
+ applied. Type conversions are specified with the type_ keyword argument to
+ :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument`.
-* ``parser`` - The ArgumentParser object which contains this action.
+ * *option_string* - The option string that was used to invoke this action.
+ The ``option_string`` argument is optional, and will be absent if the action
+ is associated with a positional argument.
-* ``namespace`` - The :class:`Namespace` object that will be returned by
- :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args`. Most actions add an attribute to this
- object using :func:`setattr`.
+ The :meth:`!__call__` method may perform arbitrary actions, but will typically set
+ attributes on the ``namespace`` based on ``dest`` and ``values``.
-* ``values`` - The associated command-line arguments, with any type conversions
- applied. Type conversions are specified with the type_ keyword argument to
- :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument`.
+ .. method:: format_usage()
-* ``option_string`` - The option string that was used to invoke this action.
- The ``option_string`` argument is optional, and will be absent if the action
- is associated with a positional argument.
+ :class:`!Action` subclasses can define a :meth:`!format_usage` method that takes no argument
+ and return a string which will be used when printing the usage of the program.
+ If such method is not provided, a sensible default will be used.
-The ``__call__`` method may perform arbitrary actions, but will typically set
-attributes on the ``namespace`` based on ``dest`` and ``values``.
+.. class:: BooleanOptionalAction
+
+ A subclass of :class:`Action` for handling boolean flags with positive
+ and negative options. Adding a single argument such as ``--foo`` automatically
+ creates both ``--foo`` and ``--no-foo`` options, storing ``True`` and ``False``
+ respectively::
+
+ >>> import argparse
+ >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+ >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=argparse.BooleanOptionalAction)
+ >>> parser.parse_args(['--no-foo'])
+ Namespace(foo=False)
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.9
-Action subclasses can define a ``format_usage`` method that takes no argument
-and return a string which will be used when printing the usage of the program.
-If such method is not provided, a sensible default will be used.
The parse_args() method
-----------------------
@@ -1526,7 +1381,7 @@ The parse_args() method
Previous calls to :meth:`add_argument` determine exactly what objects are
created and how they are assigned. See the documentation for
- :meth:`add_argument` for details.
+ :meth:`!add_argument` for details.
* args_ - List of strings to parse. The default is taken from
:data:`sys.argv`.
@@ -1594,12 +1449,12 @@ it exits and prints the error along with a usage message::
>>> # invalid option
>>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
- PROG: error: no such option: --bar
+ PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: --bar
>>> # wrong number of arguments
>>> parser.parse_args(['spam', 'badger'])
usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
- PROG: error: extra arguments found: badger
+ PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: badger
Arguments containing ``-``
@@ -1636,7 +1491,7 @@ there are no options in the parser that look like negative numbers::
>>> # negative number options present, so -2 is an option
>>> parser.parse_args(['-2'])
usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
- PROG: error: no such option: -2
+ PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: -2
>>> # negative number options present, so both -1s are options
>>> parser.parse_args(['-1', '-1'])
@@ -1682,7 +1537,7 @@ This feature can be disabled by setting :ref:`allow_abbrev` to ``False``.
Beyond ``sys.argv``
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-Sometimes it may be useful to have an ArgumentParser parse arguments other than those
+Sometimes it may be useful to have an :class:`ArgumentParser` parse arguments other than those
of :data:`sys.argv`. This can be accomplished by passing a list of strings to
:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args`. This is useful for testing at the
interactive prompt::
@@ -1709,74 +1564,74 @@ The Namespace object
Simple class used by default by :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` to create
an object holding attributes and return it.
-This class is deliberately simple, just an :class:`object` subclass with a
-readable string representation. If you prefer to have dict-like view of the
-attributes, you can use the standard Python idiom, :func:`vars`::
-
- >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
- >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
- >>> args = parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
- >>> vars(args)
- {'foo': 'BAR'}
+ This class is deliberately simple, just an :class:`object` subclass with a
+ readable string representation. If you prefer to have dict-like view of the
+ attributes, you can use the standard Python idiom, :func:`vars`::
-It may also be useful to have an :class:`ArgumentParser` assign attributes to an
-already existing object, rather than a new :class:`Namespace` object. This can
-be achieved by specifying the ``namespace=`` keyword argument::
-
- >>> class C:
- ... pass
- ...
- >>> c = C()
- >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
- >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
- >>> parser.parse_args(args=['--foo', 'BAR'], namespace=c)
- >>> c.foo
- 'BAR'
+ >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+ >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
+ >>> args = parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
+ >>> vars(args)
+ {'foo': 'BAR'}
+
+ It may also be useful to have an :class:`ArgumentParser` assign attributes to an
+ already existing object, rather than a new :class:`Namespace` object. This can
+ be achieved by specifying the ``namespace=`` keyword argument::
+
+ >>> class C:
+ ... pass
+ ...
+ >>> c = C()
+ >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+ >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
+ >>> parser.parse_args(args=['--foo', 'BAR'], namespace=c)
+ >>> c.foo
+ 'BAR'
Other utilities
---------------
-Sub-commands
+Subcommands
^^^^^^^^^^^^
-.. method:: ArgumentParser.add_subparsers([title], [description], [prog], \
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.add_subparsers(*, [title], [description], [prog], \
[parser_class], [action], \
- [option_strings], [dest], [required], \
+ [dest], [required], \
[help], [metavar])
- Many programs split up their functionality into a number of sub-commands,
- for example, the ``svn`` program can invoke sub-commands like ``svn
+ Many programs split up their functionality into a number of subcommands,
+ for example, the ``svn`` program can invoke subcommands like ``svn
checkout``, ``svn update``, and ``svn commit``. Splitting up functionality
this way can be a particularly good idea when a program performs several
different functions which require different kinds of command-line arguments.
- :class:`ArgumentParser` supports the creation of such sub-commands with the
- :meth:`add_subparsers` method. The :meth:`add_subparsers` method is normally
+ :class:`ArgumentParser` supports the creation of such subcommands with the
+ :meth:`!add_subparsers` method. The :meth:`!add_subparsers` method is normally
called with no arguments and returns a special action object. This object
has a single method, :meth:`~_SubParsersAction.add_parser`, which takes a
- command name and any :class:`ArgumentParser` constructor arguments, and
- returns an :class:`ArgumentParser` object that can be modified as usual.
+ command name and any :class:`!ArgumentParser` constructor arguments, and
+ returns an :class:`!ArgumentParser` object that can be modified as usual.
Description of parameters:
- * title - title for the sub-parser group in help output; by default
+ * *title* - title for the sub-parser group in help output; by default
"subcommands" if description is provided, otherwise uses title for
positional arguments
- * description - description for the sub-parser group in help output, by
+ * *description* - description for the sub-parser group in help output, by
default ``None``
- * prog - usage information that will be displayed with sub-command help,
+ * *prog* - usage information that will be displayed with subcommand help,
by default the name of the program and any positional arguments before the
subparser argument
- * parser_class - class which will be used to create sub-parser instances, by
- default the class of the current parser (e.g. ArgumentParser)
+ * *parser_class* - class which will be used to create sub-parser instances, by
+ default the class of the current parser (e.g. :class:`ArgumentParser`)
* action_ - the basic type of action to be taken when this argument is
encountered at the command line
- * dest_ - name of the attribute under which sub-command name will be
+ * dest_ - name of the attribute under which subcommand name will be
stored; by default ``None`` and no value is stored
* required_ - Whether or not a subcommand must be provided, by default
@@ -1784,15 +1639,15 @@ Sub-commands
* help_ - help for sub-parser group in help output, by default ``None``
- * metavar_ - string presenting available sub-commands in help; by default it
- is ``None`` and presents sub-commands in form {cmd1, cmd2, ..}
+ * metavar_ - string presenting available subcommands in help; by default it
+ is ``None`` and presents subcommands in form {cmd1, cmd2, ..}
Some example usage::
>>> # create the top-level parser
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true', help='foo help')
- >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(help='sub-command help')
+ >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(help='subcommand help')
>>>
>>> # create the parser for the "a" command
>>> parser_a = subparsers.add_parser('a', help='a help')
@@ -1800,7 +1655,7 @@ Sub-commands
>>>
>>> # create the parser for the "b" command
>>> parser_b = subparsers.add_parser('b', help='b help')
- >>> parser_b.add_argument('--baz', choices='XYZ', help='baz help')
+ >>> parser_b.add_argument('--baz', choices=('X', 'Y', 'Z'), help='baz help')
>>>
>>> # parse some argument lists
>>> parser.parse_args(['a', '12'])
@@ -1815,6 +1670,11 @@ Sub-commands
present, and when the ``b`` command is specified, only the ``foo`` and
``baz`` attributes are present.
+ If a subparser defines an argument with the same ``dest`` as the parent
+ parser, the two share a single namespace attribute, so the parent's value
+ won't be retained. Users should give them distinct ``dest`` values to
+ keep both.
+
Similarly, when a help message is requested from a subparser, only the help
for that particular parser will be printed. The help message will not
include parent parser or sibling parser messages. (A help message for each
@@ -1827,7 +1687,7 @@ Sub-commands
usage: PROG [-h] [--foo] {a,b} ...
positional arguments:
- {a,b} sub-command help
+ {a,b} subcommand help
a a help
b b help
@@ -1898,12 +1758,12 @@ Sub-commands
.. versionadded:: 3.13
- One particularly effective way of handling sub-commands is to combine the use
+ One particularly effective way of handling subcommands is to combine the use
of the :meth:`add_subparsers` method with calls to :meth:`set_defaults` so
that each subparser knows which Python function it should execute. For
example::
- >>> # sub-command functions
+ >>> # subcommand functions
>>> def foo(args):
... print(args.x * args.y)
...
@@ -1952,7 +1812,7 @@ Sub-commands
Namespace(subparser_name='2', y='frobble')
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- New *required* keyword argument.
+ New *required* keyword-only parameter.
FileType objects
@@ -1982,19 +1842,20 @@ FileType objects
Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' encoding='UTF-8'>)
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
- Added the *encodings* and *errors* parameters.
+ Added the *encoding* and *errors* parameters.
Argument groups
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-.. method:: ArgumentParser.add_argument_group(title=None, description=None)
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.add_argument_group(title=None, description=None, *, \
+ [argument_default], [conflict_handler])
By default, :class:`ArgumentParser` groups command-line arguments into
"positional arguments" and "options" when displaying help
messages. When there is a better conceptual grouping of arguments than this
default one, appropriate groups can be created using the
- :meth:`add_argument_group` method::
+ :meth:`!add_argument_group` method::
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
>>> group = parser.add_argument_group('group')
@@ -2011,7 +1872,7 @@ Argument groups
has an :meth:`~ArgumentParser.add_argument` method just like a regular
:class:`ArgumentParser`. When an argument is added to the group, the parser
treats it just like a normal argument, but displays the argument in a
- separate group for help messages. The :meth:`add_argument_group` method
+ separate group for help messages. The :meth:`!add_argument_group` method
accepts *title* and *description* arguments which can be used to
customize this display::
@@ -2033,9 +1894,17 @@ Argument groups
--bar BAR bar help
+ The optional, keyword-only parameters argument_default_ and conflict_handler_
+ allow for finer-grained control of the behavior of the argument group. These
+ parameters have the same meaning as in the :class:`ArgumentParser` constructor,
+ but apply specifically to the argument group rather than the entire parser.
+
Note that any arguments not in your user-defined groups will end up back
in the usual "positional arguments" and "optional arguments" sections.
+ Within each argument group, arguments are displayed in help output in the
+ order in which they are added.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Calling :meth:`add_argument_group` on an argument group is deprecated.
This feature was never supported and does not always work correctly.
@@ -2048,7 +1917,7 @@ Mutual exclusion
.. method:: ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=False)
- Create a mutually exclusive group. :mod:`argparse` will make sure that only
+ Create a mutually exclusive group. :mod:`!argparse` will make sure that only
one of the arguments in the mutually exclusive group was present on the
command line::
@@ -2123,7 +1992,9 @@ Parser defaults
>>> parser.parse_args(['736'])
Namespace(bar=42, baz='badger', foo=736)
- Note that parser-level defaults always override argument-level defaults::
+ Note that defaults can be set at both the parser level using :meth:`set_defaults`
+ and at the argument level using :meth:`add_argument`. If both are called for the
+ same argument, the last default set for an argument is used::
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='bar')
@@ -2185,20 +2056,23 @@ Partial parsing
.. method:: ArgumentParser.parse_known_args(args=None, namespace=None)
-Sometimes a script may only parse a few of the command-line arguments, passing
-the remaining arguments on to another script or program. In these cases, the
-:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_known_args` method can be useful. It works much like
-:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args` except that it does not produce an error when
-extra arguments are present. Instead, it returns a two item tuple containing
-the populated namespace and the list of remaining argument strings.
+ Sometimes a script only needs to handle a specific set of command-line
+ arguments, leaving any unrecognized arguments for another script or program.
+ In these cases, the :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_known_args` method can be
+ useful.
-::
+ This method works similarly to :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args`, but it does
+ not raise an error for extra, unrecognized arguments. Instead, it parses the
+ known arguments and returns a two item tuple that contains the populated
+ namespace and the list of any unrecognized arguments.
- >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
- >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
- >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
- >>> parser.parse_known_args(['--foo', '--badger', 'BAR', 'spam'])
- (Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=True), ['--badger', 'spam'])
+ ::
+
+ >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+ >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
+ >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
+ >>> parser.parse_known_args(['--foo', '--badger', 'BAR', 'spam'])
+ (Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=True), ['--badger', 'spam'])
.. warning::
:ref:`Prefix matching <prefix-matching>` rules apply to
@@ -2228,6 +2102,9 @@ Customizing file parsing
def convert_arg_line_to_args(self, arg_line):
return arg_line.split()
+ Note that with this override an argument can no longer contain spaces, since
+ each space-separated word becomes a separate argument.
+
Exiting methods
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
@@ -2235,8 +2112,8 @@ Exiting methods
.. method:: ArgumentParser.exit(status=0, message=None)
This method terminates the program, exiting with the specified *status*
- and, if given, it prints a *message* before that. The user can override
- this method to handle these steps differently::
+ and, if given, it prints a *message* to :data:`sys.stderr` before that.
+ The user can override this method to handle these steps differently::
class ErrorCatchingArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
def exit(self, status=0, message=None):
@@ -2246,8 +2123,8 @@ Exiting methods
.. method:: ArgumentParser.error(message)
- This method prints a usage message including the *message* to the
- standard error and terminates the program with a status code of 2.
+ This method prints a usage message, including the *message*, to
+ :data:`sys.stderr` and terminates the program with a status code of 2.
Intermixed parsing
@@ -2256,90 +2133,66 @@ Intermixed parsing
.. method:: ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args(args=None, namespace=None)
.. method:: ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args(args=None, namespace=None)
-A number of Unix commands allow the user to intermix optional arguments with
-positional arguments. The :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args`
-and :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args` methods
-support this parsing style.
-
-These parsers do not support all the argparse features, and will raise
-exceptions if unsupported features are used. In particular, subparsers,
-and mutually exclusive groups that include both
-optionals and positionals are not supported.
-
-The following example shows the difference between
-:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_known_args` and
-:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args`: the former returns ``['2',
-'3']`` as unparsed arguments, while the latter collects all the positionals
-into ``rest``. ::
-
- >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
- >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
- >>> parser.add_argument('cmd')
- >>> parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*', type=int)
- >>> parser.parse_known_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
- (Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1]), ['2', '3'])
- >>> parser.parse_intermixed_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
- Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1, 2, 3])
-
-:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args` returns a two item tuple
-containing the populated namespace and the list of remaining argument strings.
-:meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args` raises an error if there are any
-remaining unparsed argument strings.
+ A number of Unix commands allow the user to intermix optional arguments with
+ positional arguments. The :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args`
+ and :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args` methods
+ support this parsing style.
-.. versionadded:: 3.7
+ These parsers do not support all the :mod:`!argparse` features, and will raise
+ exceptions if unsupported features are used. In particular, subparsers,
+ and mutually exclusive groups that include both
+ optionals and positionals are not supported.
-.. _upgrading-optparse-code:
+ The following example shows the difference between
+ :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_known_args` and
+ :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args`: the former returns ``['2',
+ '3']`` as unparsed arguments, while the latter collects all the positionals
+ into ``rest``. ::
-Upgrading optparse code
------------------------
-
-Originally, the :mod:`argparse` module had attempted to maintain compatibility
-with :mod:`optparse`. However, :mod:`optparse` was difficult to extend
-transparently, particularly with the changes required to support the new
-``nargs=`` specifiers and better usage messages. When most everything in
-:mod:`optparse` had either been copy-pasted over or monkey-patched, it no
-longer seemed practical to try to maintain the backwards compatibility.
-
-The :mod:`argparse` module improves on the standard library :mod:`optparse`
-module in a number of ways including:
-
-* Handling positional arguments.
-* Supporting sub-commands.
-* Allowing alternative option prefixes like ``+`` and ``/``.
-* Handling zero-or-more and one-or-more style arguments.
-* Producing more informative usage messages.
-* Providing a much simpler interface for custom ``type`` and ``action``.
+ >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+ >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
+ >>> parser.add_argument('cmd')
+ >>> parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*', type=int)
+ >>> parser.parse_known_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
+ (Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1]), ['2', '3'])
+ >>> parser.parse_intermixed_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
+ Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1, 2, 3])
-A partial upgrade path from :mod:`optparse` to :mod:`argparse`:
+ :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args` returns a two item tuple
+ containing the populated namespace and the list of remaining argument strings.
+ :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args` raises an error if there are any
+ remaining unparsed argument strings.
-* Replace all :meth:`optparse.OptionParser.add_option` calls with
- :meth:`ArgumentParser.add_argument` calls.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.7
-* Replace ``(options, args) = parser.parse_args()`` with ``args =
- parser.parse_args()`` and add additional :meth:`ArgumentParser.add_argument`
- calls for the positional arguments. Keep in mind that what was previously
- called ``options``, now in the :mod:`argparse` context is called ``args``.
-* Replace :meth:`optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args`
- by using :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args` instead of
- :meth:`~ArgumentParser.parse_args`.
+Registering custom types or actions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-* Replace callback actions and the ``callback_*`` keyword arguments with
- ``type`` or ``action`` arguments.
+.. method:: ArgumentParser.register(registry_name, value, object)
-* Replace string names for ``type`` keyword arguments with the corresponding
- type objects (e.g. int, float, complex, etc).
+ Sometimes it's desirable to use a custom string in error messages to provide
+ more user-friendly output. In these cases, :meth:`!register` can be used to
+ register custom actions or types with a parser and allow you to reference the
+ type by their registered name instead of their callable name.
-* Replace :class:`optparse.Values` with :class:`Namespace` and
- :exc:`optparse.OptionError` and :exc:`optparse.OptionValueError` with
- :exc:`ArgumentError`.
+ The :meth:`!register` method accepts three arguments - a *registry_name*,
+ specifying the internal registry where the object will be stored (e.g.,
+ ``action``, ``type``), *value*, which is the key under which the object will
+ be registered, and object, the callable to be registered.
-* Replace strings with implicit arguments such as ``%default`` or ``%prog`` with
- the standard Python syntax to use dictionaries to format strings, that is,
- ``%(default)s`` and ``%(prog)s``.
+ The following example shows how to register a custom type with a parser::
-* Replace the OptionParser constructor ``version`` argument with a call to
- ``parser.add_argument('--version', action='version', version='<the version>')``.
+ >>> import argparse
+ >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+ >>> parser.register('type', 'hexadecimal integer', lambda s: int(s, 16))
+ >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type='hexadecimal integer')
+ _StoreAction(option_strings=['--foo'], dest='foo', nargs=None, const=None, default=None, type='hexadecimal integer', choices=None, required=False, help=None, metavar=None, deprecated=False)
+ >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '0xFA'])
+ Namespace(foo=250)
+ >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1.2'])
+ usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO]
+ PROG: error: argument --foo: invalid 'hexadecimal integer' value: '1.2'
Exceptions
----------
@@ -2354,3 +2207,12 @@ Exceptions
.. exception:: ArgumentTypeError
Raised when something goes wrong converting a command line string to a type.
+
+
+.. rubric:: Guides and Tutorials
+
+.. toctree::
+ :maxdepth: 1
+
+ ../howto/argparse.rst
+ ../howto/argparse-optparse.rst
diff --git a/Doc/library/array.rst b/Doc/library/array.rst
index cdf21db8779fe8f..f4e8d8fee714afc 100644
--- a/Doc/library/array.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/array.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`array` --- Efficient arrays of numeric values
-===================================================
+:mod:`!array` --- Efficient arrays of numeric values
+====================================================
.. module:: array
:synopsis: Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values.
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@
--------------
This module defines an object type which can compactly represent an array of
-basic values: characters, integers, floating point numbers. Arrays are sequence
+basic values: characters, integers, floating-point numbers. Arrays are mutable :term:`sequence`
types and behave very much like lists, except that the type of objects stored in
them is constrained. The type is specified at object creation time by using a
:dfn:`type code`, which is a single character. The following type codes are
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ defined:
+-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
| ``'u'`` | wchar_t | Unicode character | 2 | \(1) |
+-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
-| ``'w'`` | Py_UCS4 | Unicode character | 4 | |
+| ``'w'`` | Py_UCS4 | Unicode character | 4 | \(2) |
+-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
| ``'h'`` | signed short | int | 2 | |
+-----------+--------------------+-------------------+-----------------------+-------+
@@ -60,6 +60,9 @@ Notes:
.. deprecated-removed:: 3.3 3.16
Please migrate to ``'w'`` typecode.
+(2)
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
The actual representation of values is determined by the machine architecture
(strictly speaking, by the C implementation). The actual size can be accessed
@@ -90,12 +93,14 @@ The module defines the following type:
otherwise, the initializer's iterator is passed to the :meth:`extend` method
to add initial items to the array.
- Array objects support the ordinary sequence operations of indexing, slicing,
+ Array objects support the ordinary :ref:`mutable <typesseq-mutable>` :term:`sequence` operations of indexing, slicing,
concatenation, and multiplication. When using slice assignment, the assigned
value must be an array object with the same type code; in all other cases,
:exc:`TypeError` is raised. Array objects also implement the buffer interface,
and may be used wherever :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>` are supported.
+ Arrays are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the type of their contents.
+
.. audit-event:: array.__new__ typecode,initializer array.array
@@ -109,9 +114,9 @@ The module defines the following type:
The length in bytes of one array item in the internal representation.
- .. method:: append(x)
+ .. method:: append(value, /)
- Append a new item with value *x* to the end of the array.
+ Append a new item with the specified value to the end of the array.
.. method:: buffer_info()
@@ -141,12 +146,12 @@ The module defines the following type:
different byte order.
- .. method:: count(x)
+ .. method:: count(value, /)
- Return the number of occurrences of *x* in the array.
+ Return the number of occurrences of *value* in the array.
- .. method:: extend(iterable)
+ .. method:: extend(iterable, /)
Append items from *iterable* to the end of the array. If *iterable* is another
array, it must have *exactly* the same type code; if not, :exc:`TypeError` will
@@ -154,7 +159,7 @@ The module defines the following type:
must be the right type to be appended to the array.
- .. method:: frombytes(buffer)
+ .. method:: frombytes(buffer, /)
Appends items from the :term:`bytes-like object`, interpreting
its content as an array of machine values (as if it had been read
@@ -164,7 +169,7 @@ The module defines the following type:
:meth:`!fromstring` is renamed to :meth:`frombytes` for clarity.
- .. method:: fromfile(f, n)
+ .. method:: fromfile(f, n, /)
Read *n* items (as machine values) from the :term:`file object` *f* and append
them to the end of the array. If less than *n* items are available,
@@ -172,13 +177,13 @@ The module defines the following type:
inserted into the array.
- .. method:: fromlist(list)
+ .. method:: fromlist(list, /)
Append items from the list. This is equivalent to ``for x in list:
a.append(x)`` except that if there is a type error, the array is unchanged.
- .. method:: fromunicode(s)
+ .. method:: fromunicode(ustr, /)
Extends this array with data from the given Unicode string.
The array must have type code ``'u'`` or ``'w'``; otherwise a :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
@@ -186,33 +191,33 @@ The module defines the following type:
array of some other type.
- .. method:: index(x[, start[, stop]])
+ .. method:: index(value[, start[, stop]])
Return the smallest *i* such that *i* is the index of the first occurrence of
- *x* in the array. The optional arguments *start* and *stop* can be
- specified to search for *x* within a subsection of the array. Raise
- :exc:`ValueError` if *x* is not found.
+ *value* in the array. The optional arguments *start* and *stop* can be
+ specified to search for *value* within a subsection of the array. Raise
+ :exc:`ValueError` if *value* is not found.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
Added optional *start* and *stop* parameters.
- .. method:: insert(i, x)
+ .. method:: insert(index, value, /)
- Insert a new item with value *x* in the array before position *i*. Negative
+ Insert a new item *value* in the array before position *index*. Negative
values are treated as being relative to the end of the array.
- .. method:: pop([i])
+ .. method:: pop(index=-1, /)
Removes the item with the index *i* from the array and returns it. The optional
argument defaults to ``-1``, so that by default the last item is removed and
returned.
- .. method:: remove(x)
+ .. method:: remove(value, /)
- Remove the first occurrence of *x* from the array.
+ Remove the first occurrence of *value* from the array.
.. method:: clear()
@@ -237,7 +242,7 @@ The module defines the following type:
:meth:`!tostring` is renamed to :meth:`tobytes` for clarity.
- .. method:: tofile(f)
+ .. method:: tofile(f, /)
Write all items (as machine values) to the :term:`file object` *f*.
@@ -263,7 +268,7 @@ The string representation is guaranteed to be able to be converted back to an
array with the same type and value using :func:`eval`, so long as the
:class:`~array.array` class has been imported using ``from array import array``.
Variables ``inf`` and ``nan`` must also be defined if it contains
-corresponding floating point values.
+corresponding floating-point values.
Examples::
array('l')
diff --git a/Doc/library/ast.rst b/Doc/library/ast.rst
index 02dc7c86082502d..9de5f462fc28c6a 100644
--- a/Doc/library/ast.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/ast.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`ast` --- Abstract Syntax Trees
-====================================
+:mod:`!ast` --- Abstract Syntax Trees
+=====================================
.. module:: ast
:synopsis: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation.
@@ -120,7 +120,8 @@ Node classes
If a field that is optional in the grammar is omitted from the constructor,
it defaults to ``None``. If a list field is omitted, it defaults to the empty
- list. If any other field is omitted, a :exc:`DeprecationWarning` is raised
+ list. If a field of type :class:`!ast.expr_context` is omitted, it defaults to
+ :class:`Load() <ast.Load>`. If any other field is omitted, a :exc:`DeprecationWarning` is raised
and the AST node will not have this field. In Python 3.15, this condition will
raise an error.
@@ -133,6 +134,14 @@ Node classes
Simple indices are represented by their value, extended slices are
represented as tuples.
+.. versionchanged:: 3.13
+
+ AST node constructors were changed to provide sensible defaults for omitted
+ fields: optional fields now default to ``None``, list fields default to an
+ empty list, and fields of type :class:`!ast.expr_context` default to
+ :class:`Load() <ast.Load>`. Previously, omitted attributes would not exist on constructed
+ nodes (accessing them raised :exc:`AttributeError`).
+
.. deprecated:: 3.8
Old classes :class:`!ast.Num`, :class:`!ast.Str`, :class:`!ast.Bytes`,
@@ -172,9 +181,9 @@ Root nodes
A Python module, as with :ref:`file input <file-input>`.
Node type generated by :func:`ast.parse` in the default ``"exec"`` *mode*.
- *body* is a :class:`list` of the module's :ref:`ast-statements`.
+ ``body`` is a :class:`list` of the module's :ref:`ast-statements`.
- *type_ignores* is a :class:`list` of the module's type ignore comments;
+ ``type_ignores`` is a :class:`list` of the module's type ignore comments;
see :func:`ast.parse` for more details.
.. doctest::
@@ -193,7 +202,7 @@ Root nodes
A single Python :ref:`expression input <expression-input>`.
Node type generated by :func:`ast.parse` when *mode* is ``"eval"``.
- *body* is a single node,
+ ``body`` is a single node,
one of the :ref:`expression types <ast-expressions>`.
.. doctest::
@@ -208,7 +217,7 @@ Root nodes
A single :ref:`interactive input <interactive>`, like in :ref:`tut-interac`.
Node type generated by :func:`ast.parse` when *mode* is ``"single"``.
- *body* is a :class:`list` of :ref:`statement nodes <ast-statements>`.
+ ``body`` is a :class:`list` of :ref:`statement nodes <ast-statements>`.
.. doctest::
@@ -237,9 +246,9 @@ Root nodes
# type: (int, int) -> int
return a + b
- *argtypes* is a :class:`list` of :ref:`expression nodes <ast-expressions>`.
+ ``argtypes`` is a :class:`list` of :ref:`expression nodes <ast-expressions>`.
- *returns* is a single :ref:`expression node <ast-expressions>`.
+ ``returns`` is a single :ref:`expression node <ast-expressions>`.
.. doctest::
@@ -259,18 +268,25 @@ Root nodes
Literals
^^^^^^^^
-.. class:: Constant(value)
+.. class:: Constant(value, kind)
A constant value. The ``value`` attribute of the ``Constant`` literal contains the
- Python object it represents. The values represented can be simple types
- such as a number, string or ``None``, but also immutable container types
- (tuples and frozensets) if all of their elements are constant.
+ Python object it represents. The values represented can be instances of :class:`str`,
+ :class:`bytes`, :class:`int`, :class:`float`, :class:`complex`, and :class:`bool`,
+ and the constants :data:`None` and :data:`Ellipsis`.
+
+ The ``kind`` attribute is an optional string. For string literals with a
+ ``u`` prefix, ``kind`` is set to ``'u'``. For all other
+ constants, ``kind`` is ``None``.
.. doctest::
>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
body=Constant(value=123))
+ >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("u'hello'", mode='eval'), indent=4))
+ Expression(
+ body=Constant(value='hello', kind='u'))
.. class:: FormattedValue(value, conversion, format_spec)
@@ -596,8 +612,7 @@ Expressions
* ``keywords`` holds a list of :class:`.keyword` objects representing
arguments passed by keyword.
- When creating a ``Call`` node, ``args`` and ``keywords`` are required, but
- they can be empty lists.
+ The ``args`` and ``keywords`` arguments are optional and default to empty lists.
.. doctest::
@@ -889,11 +904,15 @@ Statements
.. class:: AnnAssign(target, annotation, value, simple)
An assignment with a type annotation. ``target`` is a single node and can
- be a :class:`Name`, a :class:`Attribute` or a :class:`Subscript`.
+ be a :class:`Name`, an :class:`Attribute` or a :class:`Subscript`.
``annotation`` is the annotation, such as a :class:`Constant` or :class:`Name`
- node. ``value`` is a single optional node. ``simple`` is a boolean integer
- set to True for a :class:`Name` node in ``target`` that do not appear in
- between parenthesis and are hence pure names and not expressions.
+ node. ``value`` is a single optional node.
+
+ ``simple`` is always either 0 (indicating a "complex" target) or 1
+ (indicating a "simple" target). A "simple" target consists solely of a
+ :class:`Name` node that does not appear between parentheses; all other
+ targets are considered complex. Only simple targets appear in
+ the :attr:`~object.__annotations__` dictionary of modules and classes.
.. doctest::
@@ -1181,7 +1200,7 @@ Control flow
.. doctest::
- >> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
+ >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... while x:
... ...
... else:
@@ -1282,7 +1301,7 @@ Control flow
``try`` blocks which are followed by ``except*`` clauses. The attributes are the
same as for :class:`Try` but the :class:`ExceptHandler` nodes in ``handlers``
- are interpreted as ``except*`` blocks rather then ``except``.
+ are interpreted as ``except*`` blocks rather than ``except``.
.. doctest::
@@ -1752,6 +1771,43 @@ Pattern matching
.. versionadded:: 3.10
+
+Type annotations
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: TypeIgnore(lineno, tag)
+
+ A ``# type: ignore`` comment located at *lineno*.
+ *tag* is the optional tag specified by the form ``# type: ignore <tag>``.
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1 # type: ignore', type_comments=True), indent=4))
+ Module(
+ body=[
+ Assign(
+ targets=[
+ Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
+ value=Constant(value=1))],
+ type_ignores=[
+ TypeIgnore(lineno=1, tag='')])
+ >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x: bool = 1 # type: ignore[assignment]', type_comments=True), indent=4))
+ Module(
+ body=[
+ AnnAssign(
+ target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
+ annotation=Name(id='bool', ctx=Load()),
+ value=Constant(value=1),
+ simple=1)],
+ type_ignores=[
+ TypeIgnore(lineno=1, tag='[assignment]')])
+
+ .. note::
+ :class:`!TypeIgnore` nodes are not generated when the *type_comments* parameter
+ is set to ``False`` (default). See :func:`ast.parse` for more details.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
.. _ast-type-params:
Type parameters
@@ -1762,9 +1818,9 @@ aliases.
.. class:: TypeVar(name, bound, default_value)
- A :class:`typing.TypeVar`. *name* is the name of the type variable.
- *bound* is the bound or constraints, if any. If *bound* is a :class:`Tuple`,
- it represents constraints; otherwise it represents the bound. *default_value*
+ A :class:`typing.TypeVar`. ``name`` is the name of the type variable.
+ ``bound`` is the bound or constraints, if any. If ``bound`` is a :class:`Tuple`,
+ it represents constraints; otherwise it represents the bound. ``default_value``
is the default value; if the :class:`!TypeVar` has no default, this
attribute will be set to ``None``.
@@ -1792,13 +1848,13 @@ aliases.
.. class:: ParamSpec(name, default_value)
- A :class:`typing.ParamSpec`. *name* is the name of the parameter specification.
- *default_value* is the default value; if the :class:`!ParamSpec` has no default,
+ A :class:`typing.ParamSpec`. ``name`` is the name of the parameter specification.
+ ``default_value`` is the default value; if the :class:`!ParamSpec` has no default,
this attribute will be set to ``None``.
.. doctest::
- >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[**P = (int, str)] = Callable[P, int]"), indent=4))
+ >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[**P = [int, str]] = Callable[P, int]"), indent=4))
Module(
body=[
TypeAlias(
@@ -1806,7 +1862,7 @@ aliases.
type_params=[
ParamSpec(
name='P',
- default_value=Tuple(
+ default_value=List(
elts=[
Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
Name(id='str', ctx=Load())],
@@ -1827,8 +1883,8 @@ aliases.
.. class:: TypeVarTuple(name, default_value)
- A :class:`typing.TypeVarTuple`. *name* is the name of the type variable tuple.
- *default_value* is the default value; if the :class:`!TypeVarTuple` has no
+ A :class:`typing.TypeVarTuple`. ``name`` is the name of the type variable tuple.
+ ``default_value`` is the default value; if the :class:`!TypeVarTuple` has no
default, this attribute will be set to ``None``.
.. doctest::
@@ -1977,7 +2033,7 @@ Function and class definitions
YieldFrom(value)
A ``yield`` or ``yield from`` expression. Because these are expressions, they
- must be wrapped in a :class:`Expr` node if the value sent back is not used.
+ must be wrapped in an :class:`Expr` node if the value sent back is not used.
.. doctest::
@@ -2029,8 +2085,7 @@ Function and class definitions
* ``name`` is a raw string for the class name
* ``bases`` is a list of nodes for explicitly specified base classes.
* ``keywords`` is a list of :class:`.keyword` nodes, principally for 'metaclass'.
- Other keywords will be passed to the metaclass, as per `PEP-3115
- <https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/>`_.
+ Other keywords will be passed to the metaclass, as per :pep:`3115`.
* ``body`` is a list of nodes representing the code within the class
definition.
* ``decorator_list`` is a list of nodes, as in :class:`FunctionDef`.
@@ -2130,7 +2185,7 @@ and classes for traversing abstract syntax trees:
If ``type_comments=True`` is given, the parser is modified to check
and return type comments as specified by :pep:`484` and :pep:`526`.
This is equivalent to adding :data:`ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS` to the
- flags passed to :func:`compile()`. This will report syntax errors
+ flags passed to :func:`compile`. This will report syntax errors
for misplaced type comments. Without this flag, type comments will
be ignored, and the ``type_comment`` field on selected AST nodes
will always be ``None``. In addition, the locations of ``# type:
@@ -2400,8 +2455,9 @@ and classes for traversing abstract syntax trees:
indents that many spaces per level. If *indent* is a string (such as ``"\t"``),
that string is used to indent each level.
- If *show_empty* is ``False`` (the default), empty lists and fields that are ``None``
- will be omitted from the output.
+ If *show_empty* is false (the default), optional empty lists will be
+ omitted from the output.
+ Optional ``None`` values are always omitted.
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
Added the *indent* option.
diff --git a/Doc/library/asynchat.rst b/Doc/library/asynchat.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..5e5c3a99fe66f1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/asynchat.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+:mod:`!asynchat` --- Asynchronous socket command/response handler
+=================================================================
+
+.. module:: asynchat
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.12.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.6 3.12
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.12 <whatsnew312-removed>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.6. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+Applications should use the :mod:`asyncio` module instead.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!asynchat` module was
+`Python 3.11 <https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/asynchat.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncio-dev.rst b/Doc/library/asyncio-dev.rst
index a9c3a0183bb72d2..c6f2c2495b38490 100644
--- a/Doc/library/asyncio-dev.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/asyncio-dev.rst
@@ -46,10 +46,6 @@ In addition to enabling the debug mode, consider also:
When the debug mode is enabled:
-* asyncio checks for :ref:`coroutines that were not awaited
- <asyncio-coroutine-not-scheduled>` and logs them; this mitigates
- the "forgotten await" pitfall.
-
* Many non-threadsafe asyncio APIs (such as :meth:`loop.call_soon` and
:meth:`loop.call_at` methods) raise an exception if they are called
from a wrong thread.
@@ -250,3 +246,225 @@ Output in debug mode::
File "../t.py", line 4, in bug
raise Exception("not consumed")
Exception: not consumed
+
+
+Asynchronous generators best practices
+======================================
+
+Writing correct and efficient asyncio code requires awareness of certain pitfalls.
+This section outlines essential best practices that can save you hours of debugging.
+
+
+Close asynchronous generators explicitly
+----------------------------------------
+
+It is recommended to manually close the
+:term:`asynchronous generator <asynchronous generator iterator>`. If a generator
+exits early - for example, due to an exception raised in the body of
+an ``async for`` loop - its asynchronous cleanup code may run in an
+unexpected context. This can occur after the tasks it depends on have completed,
+or during the event loop shutdown when the async-generator's garbage collection
+hook is called.
+
+To avoid this, explicitly close the generator by calling its
+:meth:`~agen.aclose` method, or use the :func:`contextlib.aclosing`
+context manager::
+
+ import asyncio
+ import contextlib
+
+ async def gen():
+ yield 1
+ yield 2
+
+ async def func():
+ async with contextlib.aclosing(gen()) as g:
+ async for x in g:
+ break # Don't iterate until the end
+
+ asyncio.run(func())
+
+As noted above, the cleanup code for these asynchronous generators is deferred.
+The following example demonstrates that the finalization of an asynchronous
+generator can occur in an unexpected order::
+
+ import asyncio
+ work_done = False
+
+ async def cursor():
+ try:
+ yield 1
+ finally:
+ assert work_done
+
+ async def rows():
+ global work_done
+ try:
+ yield 2
+ finally:
+ await asyncio.sleep(0.1) # imitate some async work
+ work_done = True
+
+
+ async def main():
+ async for c in cursor():
+ async for r in rows():
+ break
+ break
+
+ asyncio.run(main())
+
+For this example, we get the following output::
+
+ unhandled exception during asyncio.run() shutdown
+ task: <Task finished name='Task-3' coro=<<async_generator_athrow without __name__>()> exception=AssertionError()>
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "example.py", line 6, in cursor
+ yield 1
+ asyncio.exceptions.CancelledError
+
+ During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:
+
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "example.py", line 8, in cursor
+ assert work_done
+ ^^^^^^^^^
+ AssertionError
+
+The ``cursor()`` asynchronous generator was finalized before the ``rows``
+generator - an unexpected behavior.
+
+The example can be fixed by explicitly closing the
+``cursor`` and ``rows`` async-generators::
+
+ async def main():
+ async with contextlib.aclosing(cursor()) as cursor_gen:
+ async for c in cursor_gen:
+ async with contextlib.aclosing(rows()) as rows_gen:
+ async for r in rows_gen:
+ break
+ break
+
+
+Create asynchronous generators only when the event loop is running
+------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+It is recommended to create
+:term:`asynchronous generators <asynchronous generator iterator>` only after
+the event loop has been created.
+
+To ensure that asynchronous generators close reliably, the event loop uses the
+:func:`sys.set_asyncgen_hooks` function to register callback functions. These
+callbacks update the list of running asynchronous generators to keep it in a
+consistent state.
+
+When the :meth:`loop.shutdown_asyncgens() <asyncio.loop.shutdown_asyncgens>`
+function is called, the running generators are stopped gracefully and the
+list is cleared.
+
+The asynchronous generator invokes the corresponding system hook during its
+first iteration. At the same time, the generator records that the hook has
+been called and does not call it again.
+
+Therefore, if iteration begins before the event loop is created,
+the event loop will not be able to add the generator to its list of active
+generators because the hooks are set after the generator attempts to call them.
+Consequently, the event loop will not be able to terminate the generator
+if necessary.
+
+Consider the following example::
+
+ import asyncio
+
+ async def agenfn():
+ try:
+ yield 10
+ finally:
+ await asyncio.sleep(0)
+
+
+ with asyncio.Runner() as runner:
+ agen = agenfn()
+ print(runner.run(anext(agen)))
+ del agen
+
+Output::
+
+ 10
+ Exception ignored while closing generator <async_generator object agenfn at 0x000002F71CD10D70>:
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "example.py", line 13, in <module>
+ del agen
+ ^^^^
+ RuntimeError: async generator ignored GeneratorExit
+
+This example can be fixed as follows::
+
+ import asyncio
+
+ async def agenfn():
+ try:
+ yield 10
+ finally:
+ await asyncio.sleep(0)
+
+ async def main():
+ agen = agenfn()
+ print(await anext(agen))
+ del agen
+
+ asyncio.run(main())
+
+
+Avoid concurrent iteration and closure of the same generator
+------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Async generators may be reentered while another
+:meth:`~agen.__anext__` / :meth:`~agen.athrow` / :meth:`~agen.aclose` call is in
+progress. This may lead to an inconsistent state of the async generator and can
+cause errors.
+
+Let's consider the following example::
+
+ import asyncio
+
+ async def consumer():
+ for idx in range(100):
+ await asyncio.sleep(0)
+ message = yield idx
+ print('received', message)
+
+ async def amain():
+ agenerator = consumer()
+ await agenerator.asend(None)
+
+ fa = asyncio.create_task(agenerator.asend('A'))
+ fb = asyncio.create_task(agenerator.asend('B'))
+ await fa
+ await fb
+
+ asyncio.run(amain())
+
+Output::
+
+ received A
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "test.py", line 38, in <module>
+ asyncio.run(amain())
+ ~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^
+ File "Lib/asyncio/runners.py", line 204, in run
+ return runner.run(main)
+ ~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^
+ File "Lib/asyncio/runners.py", line 127, in run
+ return self._loop.run_until_complete(task)
+ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^
+ File "Lib/asyncio/base_events.py", line 719, in run_until_complete
+ return future.result()
+ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
+ File "test.py", line 36, in amain
+ await fb
+ RuntimeError: anext(): asynchronous generator is already running
+
+
+Therefore, it is recommended to avoid using asynchronous generators in parallel
+tasks or across multiple event loops.
diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncio-eventloop.rst b/Doc/library/asyncio-eventloop.rst
index d6ed817b13676fc..00bbe3a7ab1db31 100644
--- a/Doc/library/asyncio-eventloop.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/asyncio-eventloop.rst
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
.. _asyncio-event-loop:
==========
-Event Loop
+Event loop
==========
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/asyncio/events.py`,
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ This documentation page contains the following sections:
.. _asyncio-event-loop-methods:
-Event Loop Methods
+Event loop methods
==================
Event loops have **low-level** APIs for the following:
@@ -126,7 +126,7 @@ Running and stopping the loop
Run the event loop until :meth:`stop` is called.
- If :meth:`stop` is called before :meth:`run_forever()` is called,
+ If :meth:`stop` is called before :meth:`run_forever` is called,
the loop will poll the I/O selector once with a timeout of zero,
run all callbacks scheduled in response to I/O events (and
those that were already scheduled), and then exit.
@@ -162,10 +162,11 @@ Running and stopping the loop
This method is idempotent and irreversible. No other methods
should be called after the event loop is closed.
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.shutdown_asyncgens()
+.. method:: loop.shutdown_asyncgens()
+ :async:
Schedule all currently open :term:`asynchronous generator` objects to
- close with an :meth:`~agen.aclose()` call. After calling this method,
+ close with an :meth:`~agen.aclose` call. After calling this method,
the event loop will issue a warning if a new asynchronous generator
is iterated. This should be used to reliably finalize all scheduled
asynchronous generators.
@@ -183,7 +184,8 @@ Running and stopping the loop
.. versionadded:: 3.6
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.shutdown_default_executor(timeout=None)
+.. method:: loop.shutdown_default_executor(timeout=None)
+ :async:
Schedule the closure of the default executor and wait for it to join all of
the threads in the :class:`~concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor`.
@@ -236,6 +238,9 @@ Scheduling callbacks
another thread, this function *must* be used, since :meth:`call_soon` is not
thread-safe.
+ This function is safe to be called from a reentrant context or signal handler,
+ however, it is not safe or fruitful to use the returned handle in such contexts.
+
Raises :exc:`RuntimeError` if called on a loop that's been closed.
This can happen on a secondary thread when the main application is
shutting down.
@@ -286,13 +291,20 @@ clocks to track time.
are called is undefined.
The optional positional *args* will be passed to the callback when
- it is called. If you want the callback to be called with keyword
- arguments use :func:`functools.partial`.
+ it is called. Use :func:`functools.partial`
+ :ref:`to pass keyword arguments <asyncio-pass-keywords>` to
+ *callback*.
An optional keyword-only *context* argument allows specifying a
custom :class:`contextvars.Context` for the *callback* to run in.
The current context is used when no *context* is provided.
+ .. note::
+
+ For performance, callbacks scheduled with :meth:`loop.call_later`
+ may run up to one clock-resolution early (see
+ ``time.get_clock_info('monotonic').resolution``).
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
The *context* keyword-only parameter was added. See :pep:`567`
for more details.
@@ -313,6 +325,12 @@ clocks to track time.
An instance of :class:`asyncio.TimerHandle` is returned which can
be used to cancel the callback.
+ .. note::
+
+ For performance, callbacks scheduled with :meth:`loop.call_at`
+ may run up to one clock-resolution early (see
+ ``time.get_clock_info('monotonic').resolution``).
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
The *context* keyword-only parameter was added. See :pep:`567`
for more details.
@@ -337,7 +355,7 @@ clocks to track time.
The :func:`asyncio.sleep` function.
-Creating Futures and Tasks
+Creating futures and tasks
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
.. method:: loop.create_future()
@@ -350,7 +368,7 @@ Creating Futures and Tasks
.. versionadded:: 3.5.2
-.. method:: loop.create_task(coro, *, name=None, context=None)
+.. method:: loop.create_task(coro, *, name=None, context=None, **kwargs)
Schedule the execution of :ref:`coroutine <coroutine>` *coro*.
Return a :class:`Task` object.
@@ -359,6 +377,11 @@ Creating Futures and Tasks
for interoperability. In this case, the result type is a subclass
of :class:`Task`.
+ The full function signature is largely the same as that of the
+ :class:`Task` constructor (or factory) - all of the keyword arguments to
+ this function are passed through to that interface, except *name*,
+ or *context* if it is ``None``.
+
If the *name* argument is provided and not ``None``, it is set as
the name of the task using :meth:`Task.set_name`.
@@ -372,6 +395,13 @@ Creating Futures and Tasks
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Added the *context* parameter.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.3
+ Added ``kwargs`` which passes on arbitrary extra parameters, including ``name`` and ``context``.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.4
+ Rolled back the change that passes on *name* and *context* (if it is None),
+ while still passing on other arbitrary keyword arguments (to avoid breaking backwards compatibility with 3.13.3).
+
.. method:: loop.set_task_factory(factory)
Set a task factory that will be used by
@@ -379,9 +409,16 @@ Creating Futures and Tasks
If *factory* is ``None`` the default task factory will be set.
Otherwise, *factory* must be a *callable* with the signature matching
- ``(loop, coro, context=None)``, where *loop* is a reference to the active
+ ``(loop, coro, **kwargs)``, where *loop* is a reference to the active
event loop, and *coro* is a coroutine object. The callable
- must return a :class:`asyncio.Future`-compatible object.
+ must pass on all *kwargs*, and return a :class:`asyncio.Task`-compatible object.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.3
+ Required that all *kwargs* are passed on to :class:`asyncio.Task`.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.4
+ *name* is no longer passed to task factories. *context* is no longer passed
+ to task factories if it is ``None``.
.. method:: loop.get_task_factory()
@@ -391,14 +428,15 @@ Creating Futures and Tasks
Opening network connections
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.create_connection(protocol_factory, \
- host=None, port=None, *, ssl=None, \
- family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None, \
- local_addr=None, server_hostname=None, \
- ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
- ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, \
- happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None, \
- all_errors=False)
+.. method:: loop.create_connection(protocol_factory, \
+ host=None, port=None, *, ssl=None, \
+ family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None, \
+ local_addr=None, server_hostname=None, \
+ ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
+ ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, \
+ happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None, \
+ all_errors=False)
+ :async:
Open a streaming transport connection to a given
address specified by *host* and *port*.
@@ -544,11 +582,12 @@ Opening network connections
API. It returns a pair of (:class:`StreamReader`, :class:`StreamWriter`)
that can be used directly in async/await code.
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.create_datagram_endpoint(protocol_factory, \
- local_addr=None, remote_addr=None, *, \
- family=0, proto=0, flags=0, \
- reuse_port=None, \
- allow_broadcast=None, sock=None)
+.. method:: loop.create_datagram_endpoint(protocol_factory, \
+ local_addr=None, remote_addr=None, *, \
+ family=0, proto=0, flags=0, \
+ reuse_port=None, \
+ allow_broadcast=None, sock=None)
+ :async:
Create a datagram connection.
@@ -569,6 +608,12 @@ Opening network connections
to bind the socket locally. The *local_host* and *local_port*
are looked up using :meth:`getaddrinfo`.
+ .. note::
+
+ On Windows, when using the proactor event loop with ``local_addr=None``,
+ an :exc:`OSError` with :attr:`!errno.WSAEINVAL` will be raised
+ when running it.
+
* *remote_addr*, if given, is a ``(remote_host, remote_port)`` tuple used
to connect the socket to a remote address. The *remote_host* and
*remote_port* are looked up using :meth:`getaddrinfo`.
@@ -629,10 +674,11 @@ Opening network connections
The *reuse_address* parameter, disabled since Python 3.8.1,
3.7.6 and 3.6.10, has been entirely removed.
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.create_unix_connection(protocol_factory, \
- path=None, *, ssl=None, sock=None, \
- server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
- ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)
+.. method:: loop.create_unix_connection(protocol_factory, \
+ path=None, *, ssl=None, sock=None, \
+ server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
+ ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)
+ :async:
Create a Unix connection.
@@ -665,16 +711,17 @@ Creating network servers
.. _loop_create_server:
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.create_server(protocol_factory, \
- host=None, port=None, *, \
- family=socket.AF_UNSPEC, \
- flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, \
- sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None, \
- reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None, \
- keep_alive=None, \
- ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
- ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, \
- start_serving=True)
+.. method:: loop.create_server(protocol_factory, \
+ host=None, port=None, *, \
+ family=socket.AF_UNSPEC, \
+ flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, \
+ sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None, \
+ reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None, \
+ keep_alive=None, \
+ ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
+ ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, \
+ start_serving=True)
+ :async:
Create a TCP server (socket type :const:`~socket.SOCK_STREAM`) listening
on *port* of the *host* address.
@@ -782,11 +829,12 @@ Creating network servers
that can be used in an async/await code.
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.create_unix_server(protocol_factory, path=None, \
- *, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None, \
- ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
- ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, \
- start_serving=True, cleanup_socket=True)
+.. method:: loop.create_unix_server(protocol_factory, path=None, \
+ *, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None, \
+ ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
+ ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, \
+ start_serving=True, cleanup_socket=True)
+ :async:
Similar to :meth:`loop.create_server` but works with the
:py:const:`~socket.AF_UNIX` socket family.
@@ -796,7 +844,7 @@ Creating network servers
:class:`str`, :class:`bytes`, and :class:`~pathlib.Path` paths
are supported.
- If *cleanup_socket* is True then the Unix socket will automatically
+ If *cleanup_socket* is true then the Unix socket will automatically
be removed from the filesystem when the server is closed, unless the
socket has been replaced after the server has been created.
@@ -819,9 +867,10 @@ Creating network servers
Added the *cleanup_socket* parameter.
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.connect_accepted_socket(protocol_factory, \
- sock, *, ssl=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
- ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)
+.. method:: loop.connect_accepted_socket(protocol_factory, \
+ sock, *, ssl=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
+ ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)
+ :async:
Wrap an already accepted connection into a transport/protocol pair.
@@ -869,8 +918,9 @@ Creating network servers
Transferring files
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sendfile(transport, file, \
- offset=0, count=None, *, fallback=True)
+.. method:: loop.sendfile(transport, file, \
+ offset=0, count=None, *, fallback=True)
+ :async:
Send a *file* over a *transport*. Return the total number of bytes
sent.
@@ -896,13 +946,14 @@ Transferring files
.. versionadded:: 3.7
-TLS Upgrade
+TLS upgrade
^^^^^^^^^^^
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.start_tls(transport, protocol, \
- sslcontext, *, server_side=False, \
- server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
- ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)
+.. method:: loop.start_tls(transport, protocol, \
+ sslcontext, *, server_side=False, \
+ server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
+ ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)
+ :async:
Upgrade an existing transport-based connection to TLS.
@@ -957,6 +1008,9 @@ Watching file descriptors
invoke *callback* with the specified arguments once *fd* is available for
reading.
+ Any preexisting callback registered for *fd* is cancelled and replaced by
+ *callback*.
+
.. method:: loop.remove_reader(fd)
Stop monitoring the *fd* file descriptor for read availability. Returns
@@ -965,8 +1019,11 @@ Watching file descriptors
.. method:: loop.add_writer(fd, callback, *args)
Start monitoring the *fd* file descriptor for write availability and
- invoke *callback* with the specified arguments once *fd* is available for
- writing.
+ invoke *callback* with the specified arguments *args* once *fd* is
+ available for writing.
+
+ Any preexisting callback registered for *fd* is cancelled and replaced by
+ *callback*.
Use :func:`functools.partial` :ref:`to pass keyword arguments
<asyncio-pass-keywords>` to *callback*.
@@ -990,7 +1047,8 @@ However, there are some use cases when performance is not critical, and
working with :class:`~socket.socket` objects directly is more
convenient.
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_recv(sock, nbytes)
+.. method:: loop.sock_recv(sock, nbytes)
+ :async:
Receive up to *nbytes* from *sock*. Asynchronous version of
:meth:`socket.recv() <socket.socket.recv>`.
@@ -1004,7 +1062,8 @@ convenient.
method, releases before Python 3.7 returned a :class:`Future`.
Since Python 3.7 this is an ``async def`` method.
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_recv_into(sock, buf)
+.. method:: loop.sock_recv_into(sock, buf)
+ :async:
Receive data from *sock* into the *buf* buffer. Modeled after the blocking
:meth:`socket.recv_into() <socket.socket.recv_into>` method.
@@ -1015,7 +1074,8 @@ convenient.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_recvfrom(sock, bufsize)
+.. method:: loop.sock_recvfrom(sock, bufsize)
+ :async:
Receive a datagram of up to *bufsize* from *sock*. Asynchronous version of
:meth:`socket.recvfrom() <socket.socket.recvfrom>`.
@@ -1026,7 +1086,8 @@ convenient.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_recvfrom_into(sock, buf, nbytes=0)
+.. method:: loop.sock_recvfrom_into(sock, buf, nbytes=0)
+ :async:
Receive a datagram of up to *nbytes* from *sock* into *buf*.
Asynchronous version of
@@ -1038,7 +1099,8 @@ convenient.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_sendall(sock, data)
+.. method:: loop.sock_sendall(sock, data)
+ :async:
Send *data* to the *sock* socket. Asynchronous version of
:meth:`socket.sendall() <socket.socket.sendall>`.
@@ -1056,7 +1118,8 @@ convenient.
method, before Python 3.7 it returned a :class:`Future`.
Since Python 3.7, this is an ``async def`` method.
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_sendto(sock, data, address)
+.. method:: loop.sock_sendto(sock, data, address)
+ :async:
Send a datagram from *sock* to *address*.
Asynchronous version of
@@ -1068,7 +1131,8 @@ convenient.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_connect(sock, address)
+.. method:: loop.sock_connect(sock, address)
+ :async:
Connect *sock* to a remote socket at *address*.
@@ -1076,12 +1140,21 @@ convenient.
*sock* must be a non-blocking socket.
+ With :class:`SelectorEventLoop`, *address* does not need to be resolved:
+ for :const:`~socket.AF_INET` and :const:`~socket.AF_INET6` sockets,
+ ``sock_connect`` first checks whether *address* is already resolved by
+ calling :func:`socket.inet_pton`, and uses :meth:`loop.getaddrinfo` to
+ resolve it if it is not.
+
+ :class:`ProactorEventLoop`, the default event loop on Windows, does not
+ resolve *address*. The host must already be a numeric IP address; passing
+ a host name raises :exc:`OSError`. Resolve the address with
+ :meth:`loop.getaddrinfo` first, or use :meth:`loop.create_connection`,
+ which resolves the address on every platform.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.5.2
- ``address`` no longer needs to be resolved. ``sock_connect``
- will try to check if the *address* is already resolved by calling
- :func:`socket.inet_pton`. If not,
- :meth:`loop.getaddrinfo` will be used to resolve the
- *address*.
+ With :class:`SelectorEventLoop`, ``address`` no longer needs to be
+ resolved.
.. seealso::
@@ -1089,7 +1162,8 @@ convenient.
and :func:`asyncio.open_connection() <open_connection>`.
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_accept(sock)
+.. method:: loop.sock_accept(sock)
+ :async:
Accept a connection. Modeled after the blocking
:meth:`socket.accept() <socket.socket.accept>` method.
@@ -1111,8 +1185,9 @@ convenient.
:meth:`loop.create_server` and :func:`start_server`.
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.sock_sendfile(sock, file, offset=0, count=None, \
- *, fallback=True)
+.. method:: loop.sock_sendfile(sock, file, offset=0, count=None, \
+ *, fallback=True)
+ :async:
Send a file using high-performance :mod:`os.sendfile` if possible.
Return the total number of bytes sent.
@@ -1146,15 +1221,25 @@ convenient.
DNS
^^^
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.getaddrinfo(host, port, *, family=0, \
- type=0, proto=0, flags=0)
+.. method:: loop.getaddrinfo(host, port, *, family=0, \
+ type=0, proto=0, flags=0)
+ :async:
Asynchronous version of :meth:`socket.getaddrinfo`.
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.getnameinfo(sockaddr, flags=0)
+.. method:: loop.getnameinfo(sockaddr, flags=0)
+ :async:
Asynchronous version of :meth:`socket.getnameinfo`.
+.. note::
+ Both *getaddrinfo* and *getnameinfo* internally utilize their synchronous
+ versions through the loop's default thread pool executor.
+ When this executor is saturated, these methods may experience delays,
+ which higher-level networking libraries may report as increased timeouts.
+ To mitigate this, consider using a custom executor for other user tasks,
+ or setting a default executor with a larger number of workers.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Both *getaddrinfo* and *getnameinfo* methods were always documented
to return a coroutine, but prior to Python 3.7 they were, in fact,
@@ -1165,14 +1250,17 @@ DNS
Working with pipes
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.connect_read_pipe(protocol_factory, pipe)
+.. method:: loop.connect_read_pipe(protocol_factory, pipe)
+ :async:
Register the read end of *pipe* in the event loop.
*protocol_factory* must be a callable returning an
:ref:`asyncio protocol <asyncio-protocol>` implementation.
- *pipe* is a :term:`file-like object <file object>`.
+ *pipe* is a :term:`file-like object <file object>`. See
+ :ref:`Supported pipe objects <asyncio-pipe-objects>` for the objects
+ supported as *pipe*.
Return pair ``(transport, protocol)``, where *transport* supports
the :class:`ReadTransport` interface and *protocol* is an object
@@ -1181,14 +1269,17 @@ Working with pipes
With :class:`SelectorEventLoop` event loop, the *pipe* is set to
non-blocking mode.
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.connect_write_pipe(protocol_factory, pipe)
+.. method:: loop.connect_write_pipe(protocol_factory, pipe)
+ :async:
Register the write end of *pipe* in the event loop.
*protocol_factory* must be a callable returning an
:ref:`asyncio protocol <asyncio-protocol>` implementation.
- *pipe* is :term:`file-like object <file object>`.
+ *pipe* is a :term:`file-like object <file object>`. See
+ :ref:`Supported pipe objects <asyncio-pipe-objects>` for the objects
+ supported as *pipe*.
Return pair ``(transport, protocol)``, where *transport* supports
:class:`WriteTransport` interface and *protocol* is an object
@@ -1197,6 +1288,33 @@ Working with pipes
With :class:`SelectorEventLoop` event loop, the *pipe* is set to
non-blocking mode.
+.. _asyncio-pipe-objects:
+
+.. rubric:: Supported pipe objects
+
+These methods only work with objects the operating system can poll for
+readiness or perform overlapped I/O on. Regular files on disk are **not**
+supported on any platform. There is no asynchronous file I/O in asyncio;
+use :meth:`loop.run_in_executor` to read and write regular files without
+blocking the event loop.
+
+On Unix, with :class:`SelectorEventLoop`, *pipe* must wrap one of the
+following:
+
+* a pipe, such as an end of an :func:`os.pipe` pair or a FIFO created with
+ :func:`os.mkfifo`;
+* a socket;
+* a character device, such as a terminal.
+
+On Windows, where only :class:`ProactorEventLoop` implements these methods,
+*pipe* must wrap a handle opened for overlapped I/O (that is, created with the
+``FILE_FLAG_OVERLAPPED`` flag), since the handle has to be associated with an
+I/O completion port. Handles that were not opened for overlapped I/O are
+rejected. In particular, the standard streams (:data:`sys.stdin`,
+:data:`sys.stdout` and :data:`sys.stderr`), console handles, and the pipes
+created by :func:`os.pipe` are **not** opened for overlapped I/O and therefore
+cannot be used with these methods.
+
.. note::
:class:`SelectorEventLoop` does not support the above methods on
@@ -1215,7 +1333,8 @@ Unix signals
.. method:: loop.add_signal_handler(signum, callback, *args)
- Set *callback* as the handler for the *signum* signal.
+ Set *callback* as the handler for the *signum* signal,
+ passing *args* as positional arguments.
The callback will be invoked by *loop*, along with other queued callbacks
and runnable coroutines of that event loop. Unlike signal handlers
@@ -1250,10 +1369,14 @@ Executing code in thread or process pools
.. awaitablemethod:: loop.run_in_executor(executor, func, *args)
- Arrange for *func* to be called in the specified executor.
+ Arrange for *func* to be called in the specified executor
+ passing *args* as positional arguments.
The *executor* argument should be an :class:`concurrent.futures.Executor`
instance. The default executor is used if *executor* is ``None``.
+ The default executor can be set by :meth:`loop.set_default_executor`,
+ otherwise, a :class:`concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor` will be
+ lazy-initialized and used by :func:`run_in_executor` if needed.
Example::
@@ -1325,7 +1448,7 @@ Executing code in thread or process pools
:class:`~concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor`.
-Error Handling API
+Error handling API
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Allows customizing how exceptions are handled in the event loop.
@@ -1384,6 +1507,8 @@ Allows customizing how exceptions are handled in the event loop.
* 'protocol' (optional): :ref:`Protocol <asyncio-protocol>` instance;
* 'transport' (optional): :ref:`Transport <asyncio-transport>` instance;
* 'socket' (optional): :class:`socket.socket` instance;
+ * 'source_traceback' (optional): Traceback of the source;
+ * 'handle_traceback' (optional): Traceback of the handle;
* 'asyncgen' (optional): Asynchronous generator that caused
the exception.
@@ -1391,7 +1516,7 @@ Allows customizing how exceptions are handled in the event loop.
This method should not be overloaded in subclassed
event loops. For custom exception handling, use
- the :meth:`set_exception_handler()` method.
+ the :meth:`set_exception_handler` method.
Enabling debug mode
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
@@ -1426,7 +1551,7 @@ Enabling debug mode
The :ref:`debug mode of asyncio <asyncio-debug-mode>`.
-Running Subprocesses
+Running subprocesses
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Methods described in this subsections are low-level. In regular
@@ -1443,9 +1568,10 @@ async/await code consider using the high-level
.. _loop_subprocess_exec:
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.subprocess_exec(protocol_factory, *args, \
- stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, \
- stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)
+.. method:: loop.subprocess_exec(protocol_factory, *args, \
+ stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, \
+ stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)
+ :async:
Create a subprocess from one or more string arguments specified by
*args*.
@@ -1474,7 +1600,7 @@ async/await code consider using the high-level
* *stdin* can be any of these:
* a file-like object
- * an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), for example those created with :meth:`os.pipe()`
+ * an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), for example those created with :meth:`os.pipe`
* the :const:`subprocess.PIPE` constant (default) which will create a new
pipe and connect it,
* the value ``None`` which will make the subprocess inherit the file
@@ -1525,9 +1651,13 @@ async/await code consider using the high-level
conforms to the :class:`asyncio.SubprocessTransport` base class and
*protocol* is an object instantiated by the *protocol_factory*.
-.. coroutinemethod:: loop.subprocess_shell(protocol_factory, cmd, *, \
- stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, \
- stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)
+ If the transport is closed or is garbage collected, the child process
+ is killed if it is still running.
+
+.. method:: loop.subprocess_shell(protocol_factory, cmd, *, \
+ stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, \
+ stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)
+ :async:
Create a subprocess from *cmd*, which can be a :class:`str` or a
:class:`bytes` string encoded to the
@@ -1547,6 +1677,9 @@ async/await code consider using the high-level
conforms to the :class:`SubprocessTransport` base class and
*protocol* is an object instantiated by the *protocol_factory*.
+ If the transport is closed or is garbage collected, the child process
+ is killed if it is still running.
+
.. note::
It is the application's responsibility to ensure that all whitespace
and special characters are quoted appropriately to avoid `shell injection
@@ -1556,7 +1689,7 @@ async/await code consider using the high-level
are going to be used to construct shell commands.
-Callback Handles
+Callback handles
================
.. class:: Handle
@@ -1599,7 +1732,7 @@ Callback Handles
.. versionadded:: 3.7
-Server Objects
+Server objects
==============
Server objects are created by :meth:`loop.create_server`,
@@ -1672,7 +1805,8 @@ Do not instantiate the :class:`Server` class directly.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
- .. coroutinemethod:: start_serving()
+ .. method:: start_serving()
+ :async:
Start accepting connections.
@@ -1688,7 +1822,8 @@ Do not instantiate the :class:`Server` class directly.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
- .. coroutinemethod:: serve_forever()
+ .. method:: serve_forever()
+ :async:
Start accepting connections until the coroutine is cancelled.
Cancellation of ``serve_forever`` task causes the server
@@ -1720,11 +1855,18 @@ Do not instantiate the :class:`Server` class directly.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
- .. coroutinemethod:: wait_closed()
+ .. method:: wait_closed()
+ :async:
Wait until the :meth:`close` method completes and all active
connections have finished.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ ``wait_closed()`` now waits until the server is closed and
+ all active connections have finished. Previously, it returned
+ immediately if the server was already closed, even if
+ connections were still active.
+
.. attribute:: sockets
List of socket-like objects, ``asyncio.trsock.TransportSocket``, which
@@ -1739,7 +1881,7 @@ Do not instantiate the :class:`Server` class directly.
.. _asyncio-event-loops:
.. _asyncio-event-loop-implementations:
-Event Loop Implementations
+Event loop implementations
==========================
asyncio ships with two different event loop implementations:
@@ -1780,7 +1922,7 @@ By default asyncio is configured to use :class:`EventLoop`.
.. seealso::
`MSDN documentation on I/O Completion Ports
- <https://docs.microsoft.com/en-ca/windows/desktop/FileIO/i-o-completion-ports>`_.
+ <https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/fileio/i-o-completion-ports>`_.
.. class:: EventLoop
@@ -1853,10 +1995,10 @@ callback uses the :meth:`loop.call_later` method to reschedule itself
after 5 seconds, and then stops the event loop::
import asyncio
- import datetime
+ import datetime as dt
def display_date(end_time, loop):
- print(datetime.datetime.now())
+ print(dt.datetime.now())
if (loop.time() + 1.0) < end_time:
loop.call_later(1, display_date, end_time, loop)
else:
@@ -1937,7 +2079,7 @@ Wait until a file descriptor received some data using the
Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-(This ``signals`` example only works on Unix.)
+(This ``signal`` example only works on Unix.)
Register handlers for signals :const:`~signal.SIGINT` and :const:`~signal.SIGTERM`
using the :meth:`loop.add_signal_handler` method::
diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncio-future.rst b/Doc/library/asyncio-future.rst
index 893ae5518f757d8..cab9f6513b1d844 100644
--- a/Doc/library/asyncio-future.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/asyncio-future.rst
@@ -74,6 +74,7 @@ Future Functions
Deprecation warning is emitted if *future* is not a Future-like object
and *loop* is not specified and there is no running event loop.
+.. _asyncio-future-obj:
Future Object
=============
@@ -99,6 +100,8 @@ Future Object
implementations can inject their own optimized implementations
of a Future object.
+ Futures are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the type of their results.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Added support for the :mod:`contextvars` module.
@@ -120,20 +123,20 @@ Future Object
a :exc:`CancelledError` exception.
If the Future's result isn't yet available, this method raises
- a :exc:`InvalidStateError` exception.
+ an :exc:`InvalidStateError` exception.
.. method:: set_result(result)
Mark the Future as *done* and set its result.
- Raises a :exc:`InvalidStateError` error if the Future is
+ Raises an :exc:`InvalidStateError` error if the Future is
already *done*.
.. method:: set_exception(exception)
Mark the Future as *done* and set an exception.
- Raises a :exc:`InvalidStateError` error if the Future is
+ Raises an :exc:`InvalidStateError` error if the Future is
already *done*.
.. method:: done()
@@ -194,6 +197,10 @@ Future Object
Otherwise, change the Future's state to *cancelled*,
schedule the callbacks, and return ``True``.
+ The optional string argument *msg* is passed as the argument to the
+ :exc:`CancelledError` exception raised when a cancelled Future
+ is awaited.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
Added the *msg* parameter.
diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncio-llapi-index.rst b/Doc/library/asyncio-llapi-index.rst
index 67136ba69ec875b..3e21054aa4fe9e6 100644
--- a/Doc/library/asyncio-llapi-index.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/asyncio-llapi-index.rst
@@ -56,10 +56,10 @@ See also the main documentation section about the
* - :meth:`loop.close`
- Close the event loop.
- * - :meth:`loop.is_running()`
+ * - :meth:`loop.is_running`
- Return ``True`` if the event loop is running.
- * - :meth:`loop.is_closed()`
+ * - :meth:`loop.is_closed`
- Return ``True`` if the event loop is closed.
* - ``await`` :meth:`loop.shutdown_asyncgens`
diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncio-platforms.rst b/Doc/library/asyncio-platforms.rst
index 19ec726c1be0602..817315ee49f8bdc 100644
--- a/Doc/library/asyncio-platforms.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/asyncio-platforms.rst
@@ -19,6 +19,11 @@ All Platforms
* :meth:`loop.add_reader` and :meth:`loop.add_writer`
cannot be used to monitor file I/O.
+* :meth:`loop.connect_read_pipe` and :meth:`loop.connect_write_pipe`
+ cannot be used with regular files. See :ref:`Supported pipe objects
+ <asyncio-pipe-objects>` for the objects that are accepted on each
+ platform.
+
Windows
=======
@@ -62,6 +67,10 @@ All event loops on Windows do not support the following methods:
* The :meth:`loop.add_reader` and :meth:`loop.add_writer`
methods are not supported.
+* :meth:`loop.connect_read_pipe` and :meth:`loop.connect_write_pipe` only
+ accept a handle opened for overlapped I/O.
+ See :ref:`Supported pipe objects <asyncio-pipe-objects>` for which objects are supported.
+
The resolution of the monotonic clock on Windows is usually around 15.6
milliseconds. The best resolution is 0.5 milliseconds. The resolution depends on the
hardware (availability of `HPET
diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncio-protocol.rst b/Doc/library/asyncio-protocol.rst
index 7c08d65f26bc27e..58f77feb3119841 100644
--- a/Doc/library/asyncio-protocol.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/asyncio-protocol.rst
@@ -390,11 +390,11 @@ Subprocess Transports
Return the transport for the communication pipe corresponding to the
integer file descriptor *fd*:
- * ``0``: readable streaming transport of the standard input (*stdin*),
+ * ``0``: writable streaming transport of the standard input (*stdin*),
or :const:`None` if the subprocess was not created with ``stdin=PIPE``
- * ``1``: writable streaming transport of the standard output (*stdout*),
+ * ``1``: readable streaming transport of the standard output (*stdout*),
or :const:`None` if the subprocess was not created with ``stdout=PIPE``
- * ``2``: writable streaming transport of the standard error (*stderr*),
+ * ``2``: readable streaming transport of the standard error (*stderr*),
or :const:`None` if the subprocess was not created with ``stderr=PIPE``
* other *fd*: :const:`None`
@@ -1037,7 +1037,7 @@ The subprocess is created by the :meth:`loop.subprocess_exec` method::
# low-level APIs.
loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
- code = 'import datetime; print(datetime.datetime.now())'
+ code = 'import datetime as dt; print(dt.datetime.now())'
exit_future = asyncio.Future(loop=loop)
# Create the subprocess controlled by DateProtocol;
diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncio-queue.rst b/Doc/library/asyncio-queue.rst
index 9b579cc1d5fdfe5..5e3f531f4e482e4 100644
--- a/Doc/library/asyncio-queue.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/asyncio-queue.rst
@@ -55,9 +55,10 @@ Queue
Return ``True`` if there are :attr:`maxsize` items in the queue.
If the queue was initialized with ``maxsize=0`` (the default),
- then :meth:`full()` never returns ``True``.
+ then :meth:`full` never returns ``True``.
- .. coroutinemethod:: get()
+ .. method:: get()
+ :async:
Remove and return an item from the queue. If queue is empty,
wait until an item is available.
@@ -70,7 +71,10 @@ Queue
Return an item if one is immediately available, else raise
:exc:`QueueEmpty`.
- .. coroutinemethod:: join()
+ Raises :exc:`QueueShutDown` if the queue has been shut down and is empty.
+
+ .. method:: join()
+ :async:
Block until all items in the queue have been received and processed.
@@ -80,7 +84,8 @@ Queue
work on it is complete. When the count of unfinished tasks drops
to zero, :meth:`join` unblocks.
- .. coroutinemethod:: put(item)
+ .. method:: put(item)
+ :async:
Put an item into the queue. If the queue is full, wait until a
free slot is available before adding the item.
@@ -93,42 +98,58 @@ Queue
If no free slot is immediately available, raise :exc:`QueueFull`.
+ Raises :exc:`QueueShutDown` if the queue has been shut down.
+
.. method:: qsize()
Return the number of items in the queue.
.. method:: shutdown(immediate=False)
- Shut down the queue, making :meth:`~Queue.get` and :meth:`~Queue.put`
+ Put a :class:`Queue` instance into a shutdown mode.
+
+ The queue can no longer grow.
+ Future calls to :meth:`~Queue.put` raise :exc:`QueueShutDown`.
+ Currently blocked callers of :meth:`~Queue.put` will be unblocked
+ and will raise :exc:`QueueShutDown` in the formerly awaiting task.
+
+ If *immediate* is false (the default), the queue can be wound
+ down normally with :meth:`~Queue.get` calls to extract tasks
+ that have already been loaded.
+
+ And if :meth:`~Queue.task_done` is called for each remaining task, a
+ pending :meth:`~Queue.join` will be unblocked normally.
+
+ Once the queue is empty, future calls to :meth:`~Queue.get` will
raise :exc:`QueueShutDown`.
- By default, :meth:`~Queue.get` on a shut down queue will only
- raise once the queue is empty. Set *immediate* to true to make
- :meth:`~Queue.get` raise immediately instead.
+ If *immediate* is true, the queue is terminated immediately.
+ The queue is drained to be completely empty and the count
+ of unfinished tasks is reduced by the number of tasks drained.
+ If unfinished tasks is zero, callers of :meth:`~Queue.join`
+ are unblocked. Also, blocked callers of :meth:`~Queue.get`
+ are unblocked and will raise :exc:`QueueShutDown` because the
+ queue is empty.
- All blocked callers of :meth:`~Queue.put` and :meth:`~Queue.get`
- will be unblocked. If *immediate* is true, a task will be marked
- as done for each remaining item in the queue, which may unblock
- callers of :meth:`~Queue.join`.
+ Use caution when using :meth:`~Queue.join` with *immediate* set
+ to true. This unblocks the join even when no work has been done
+ on the tasks, violating the usual invariant for joining a queue.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
.. method:: task_done()
- Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete.
+ Indicate that a formerly enqueued work item is complete.
Used by queue consumers. For each :meth:`~Queue.get` used to
- fetch a task, a subsequent call to :meth:`task_done` tells the
- queue that the processing on the task is complete.
+ fetch a work item, a subsequent call to :meth:`task_done` tells the
+ queue that the processing on the work item is complete.
If a :meth:`join` is currently blocking, it will resume when all
items have been processed (meaning that a :meth:`task_done`
call was received for every item that had been :meth:`~Queue.put`
into the queue).
- ``shutdown(immediate=True)`` calls :meth:`task_done` for each
- remaining item in the queue.
-
Raises :exc:`ValueError` if called more times than there were
items placed in the queue.
@@ -171,8 +192,9 @@ Exceptions
.. exception:: QueueShutDown
- Exception raised when :meth:`~Queue.put` or :meth:`~Queue.get` is
- called on a queue which has been shut down.
+ Exception raised when :meth:`~Queue.put`, :meth:`~Queue.put_nowait`,
+ :meth:`~Queue.get` or :meth:`~Queue.get_nowait` is called
+ on a queue which has been shut down.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncio-runner.rst b/Doc/library/asyncio-runner.rst
index ec170dfde9e9aa2..8312e55126a7c52 100644
--- a/Doc/library/asyncio-runner.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/asyncio-runner.rst
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ Runner context manager
current one. By default :func:`asyncio.new_event_loop` is used and set as
current event loop with :func:`asyncio.set_event_loop` if *loop_factory* is ``None``.
- Basically, :func:`asyncio.run()` example can be rewritten with the runner usage::
+ Basically, :func:`asyncio.run` example can be rewritten with the runner usage::
async def main():
await asyncio.sleep(1)
diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncio-stream.rst b/Doc/library/asyncio-stream.rst
index 3fdc79b3c6896ca..0ccb0a590c28080 100644
--- a/Doc/library/asyncio-stream.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/asyncio-stream.rst
@@ -48,12 +48,13 @@ The following top-level asyncio functions can be used to create
and work with streams:
-.. coroutinefunction:: open_connection(host=None, port=None, *, \
- limit=None, ssl=None, family=0, proto=0, \
- flags=0, sock=None, local_addr=None, \
- server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
- ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, \
- happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None)
+.. function:: open_connection(host=None, port=None, *, \
+ limit=65536, ssl=None, family=0, proto=0, \
+ flags=0, sock=None, local_addr=None, \
+ server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
+ ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, \
+ happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None)
+ :async:
Establish a network connection and return a pair of
``(reader, writer)`` objects.
@@ -87,13 +88,15 @@ and work with streams:
Added the *ssl_shutdown_timeout* parameter.
-.. coroutinefunction:: start_server(client_connected_cb, host=None, \
- port=None, *, limit=None, \
- family=socket.AF_UNSPEC, \
- flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, \
- backlog=100, ssl=None, reuse_address=None, \
- reuse_port=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
- ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, start_serving=True)
+.. function:: start_server(client_connected_cb, host=None, \
+ port=None, *, limit=65536, \
+ family=socket.AF_UNSPEC, \
+ flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, \
+ backlog=100, ssl=None, reuse_address=None, \
+ reuse_port=None, keep_alive=None, \
+ ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
+ ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, start_serving=True)
+ :async:
Start a socket server.
@@ -128,12 +131,16 @@ and work with streams:
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Added the *ssl_shutdown_timeout* parameter.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Added the *keep_alive* parameter.
+
.. rubric:: Unix Sockets
-.. coroutinefunction:: open_unix_connection(path=None, *, limit=None, \
- ssl=None, sock=None, server_hostname=None, \
- ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)
+.. function:: open_unix_connection(path=None, *, limit=65536, \
+ ssl=None, sock=None, server_hostname=None, \
+ ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)
+ :async:
Establish a Unix socket connection and return a pair of
``(reader, writer)``.
@@ -161,15 +168,20 @@ and work with streams:
Added the *ssl_shutdown_timeout* parameter.
-.. coroutinefunction:: start_unix_server(client_connected_cb, path=None, \
- *, limit=None, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None, \
- ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
- ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, start_serving=True)
+.. function:: start_unix_server(client_connected_cb, path=None, \
+ *, limit=65536, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None, \
+ ssl_handshake_timeout=None, \
+ ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, start_serving=True, cleanup_socket=True)
+ :async:
Start a Unix socket server.
Similar to :func:`start_server` but works with Unix sockets.
+ If *cleanup_socket* is true then the Unix socket will automatically
+ be removed from the filesystem when the server is closed, unless the
+ socket has been replaced after the server has been created.
+
See also the documentation of :meth:`loop.create_unix_server`.
.. note::
@@ -190,6 +202,9 @@ and work with streams:
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Added the *ssl_shutdown_timeout* parameter.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Added the *cleanup_socket* parameter.
+
StreamReader
============
@@ -208,7 +223,8 @@ StreamReader
Acknowledge the EOF.
- .. coroutinemethod:: read(n=-1)
+ .. method:: read(n=-1)
+ :async:
Read up to *n* bytes from the stream.
@@ -224,7 +240,8 @@ StreamReader
If EOF is received before any byte is read, return an empty
``bytes`` object.
- .. coroutinemethod:: readline()
+ .. method:: readline()
+ :async:
Read one line, where "line" is a sequence of bytes
ending with ``\n``.
@@ -235,7 +252,8 @@ StreamReader
If EOF is received and the internal buffer is empty,
return an empty ``bytes`` object.
- .. coroutinemethod:: readexactly(n)
+ .. method:: readexactly(n)
+ :async:
Read exactly *n* bytes.
@@ -243,7 +261,8 @@ StreamReader
can be read. Use the :attr:`IncompleteReadError.partial`
attribute to get the partially read data.
- .. coroutinemethod:: readuntil(separator=b'\n')
+ .. method:: readuntil(separator=b'\n')
+ :async:
Read data from the stream until *separator* is found.
@@ -297,11 +316,15 @@ StreamWriter
If that fails, the data is queued in an internal write buffer until it can be
sent.
+ The *data* buffer should be a bytes, bytearray, or C-contiguous one-dimensional
+ memoryview object.
+
The method should be used along with the ``drain()`` method::
stream.write(data)
await stream.drain()
+
.. method:: writelines(data)
The method writes a list (or any iterable) of bytes to the underlying socket
@@ -343,7 +366,8 @@ StreamWriter
Access optional transport information; see
:meth:`BaseTransport.get_extra_info` for details.
- .. coroutinemethod:: drain()
+ .. method:: drain()
+ :async:
Wait until it is appropriate to resume writing to the stream.
Example::
@@ -358,8 +382,19 @@ StreamWriter
be resumed. When there is nothing to wait for, the :meth:`drain`
returns immediately.
- .. coroutinemethod:: start_tls(sslcontext, *, server_hostname=None, \
- ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)
+ .. note::
+
+ When the write buffer is below the high watermark,
+ :meth:`drain` returns immediately without yielding to
+ the event loop. As a result, code which repeatedly calls
+ ``write()`` followed by ``await drain()`` may prevent other
+ tasks from running. To prevent blocking behavior, yield
+ to the event loop explicitly with ``await asyncio.sleep(0)``
+ (see :func:`asyncio.sleep`).
+
+ .. method:: start_tls(sslcontext, *, server_hostname=None, \
+ ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)
+ :async:
Upgrade an existing stream-based connection to TLS.
@@ -391,7 +426,8 @@ StreamWriter
.. versionadded:: 3.7
- .. coroutinemethod:: wait_closed()
+ .. method:: wait_closed()
+ :async:
Wait until the stream is closed.
diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncio-subprocess.rst b/Doc/library/asyncio-subprocess.rst
index 817a6ff3052f4aa..d253bfdb4a97cd2 100644
--- a/Doc/library/asyncio-subprocess.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/asyncio-subprocess.rst
@@ -61,13 +61,14 @@ See also the `Examples`_ subsection.
Creating Subprocesses
=====================
-.. coroutinefunction:: create_subprocess_exec(program, *args, stdin=None, \
- stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=None, **kwds)
+.. function:: create_subprocess_exec(program, *args, stdin=None, \
+ stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=65536, **kwds)
+ :async:
Create a subprocess.
The *limit* argument sets the buffer limit for :class:`StreamReader`
- wrappers for :attr:`Process.stdout` and :attr:`Process.stderr`
+ wrappers for :attr:`~asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdout` and :attr:`~asyncio.subprocess.Process.stderr`
(if :const:`subprocess.PIPE` is passed to *stdout* and *stderr* arguments).
Return a :class:`~asyncio.subprocess.Process` instance.
@@ -75,17 +76,21 @@ Creating Subprocesses
See the documentation of :meth:`loop.subprocess_exec` for other
parameters.
+ If the process object is garbage collected while the process is still
+ running, the child process will be killed.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
Removed the *loop* parameter.
-.. coroutinefunction:: create_subprocess_shell(cmd, stdin=None, \
- stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=None, **kwds)
+.. function:: create_subprocess_shell(cmd, stdin=None, \
+ stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=65536, **kwds)
+ :async:
Run the *cmd* shell command.
The *limit* argument sets the buffer limit for :class:`StreamReader`
- wrappers for :attr:`Process.stdout` and :attr:`Process.stderr`
+ wrappers for :attr:`~asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdout` and :attr:`~asyncio.subprocess.Process.stderr`
(if :const:`subprocess.PIPE` is passed to *stdout* and *stderr* arguments).
Return a :class:`~asyncio.subprocess.Process` instance.
@@ -93,6 +98,9 @@ Creating Subprocesses
See the documentation of :meth:`loop.subprocess_shell` for other
parameters.
+ If the process object is garbage collected while the process is still
+ running, the child process will be killed.
+
.. important::
It is the application's responsibility to ensure that all whitespace and
@@ -130,12 +138,12 @@ Constants
If *PIPE* is passed to *stdin* argument, the
:attr:`Process.stdin <asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdin>` attribute
- will point to a :class:`StreamWriter` instance.
+ will point to a :class:`~asyncio.StreamWriter` instance.
If *PIPE* is passed to *stdout* or *stderr* arguments, the
:attr:`Process.stdout <asyncio.subprocess.Process.stdout>` and
:attr:`Process.stderr <asyncio.subprocess.Process.stderr>`
- attributes will point to :class:`StreamReader` instances.
+ attributes will point to :class:`~asyncio.StreamReader` instances.
.. data:: asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT
:module:
@@ -163,7 +171,7 @@ their completion.
:module:
An object that wraps OS processes created by the
- :func:`create_subprocess_exec` and :func:`create_subprocess_shell`
+ :func:`~asyncio.create_subprocess_exec` and :func:`~asyncio.create_subprocess_shell`
functions.
This class is designed to have a similar API to the
@@ -188,7 +196,8 @@ their completion.
See also the :ref:`Subprocess and Threads <asyncio-subprocess-threads>`
section.
- .. coroutinemethod:: wait()
+ .. method:: wait()
+ :async:
Wait for the child process to terminate.
@@ -202,7 +211,8 @@ their completion.
more data. Use the :meth:`communicate` method when using pipes
to avoid this condition.
- .. coroutinemethod:: communicate(input=None)
+ .. method:: communicate(input=None)
+ :async:
Interact with process:
@@ -232,7 +242,7 @@ their completion.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
- *stdin* gets closed when `input=None` too.
+ *stdin* gets closed when ``input=None`` too.
.. method:: send_signal(signal)
@@ -259,24 +269,24 @@ their completion.
Kill the child process.
- On POSIX systems this method sends :py:data:`SIGKILL` to the child
+ On POSIX systems this method sends :py:data:`~signal.SIGKILL` to the child
process.
On Windows this method is an alias for :meth:`terminate`.
.. attribute:: stdin
- Standard input stream (:class:`StreamWriter`) or ``None``
+ Standard input stream (:class:`~asyncio.StreamWriter`) or ``None``
if the process was created with ``stdin=None``.
.. attribute:: stdout
- Standard output stream (:class:`StreamReader`) or ``None``
+ Standard output stream (:class:`~asyncio.StreamReader`) or ``None``
if the process was created with ``stdout=None``.
.. attribute:: stderr
- Standard error stream (:class:`StreamReader`) or ``None``
+ Standard error stream (:class:`~asyncio.StreamReader`) or ``None``
if the process was created with ``stderr=None``.
.. warning::
@@ -292,7 +302,7 @@ their completion.
Process identification number (PID).
- Note that for processes created by the :func:`create_subprocess_shell`
+ Note that for processes created by the :func:`~asyncio.create_subprocess_shell`
function, this attribute is the PID of the spawned shell.
.. attribute:: returncode
@@ -301,8 +311,16 @@ their completion.
A ``None`` value indicates that the process has not terminated yet.
- A negative value ``-N`` indicates that the child was terminated
- by signal ``N`` (POSIX only).
+ For processes created with :func:`~asyncio.create_subprocess_exec`, a negative
+ value ``-N`` indicates that the child was terminated by signal ``N``
+ (POSIX only).
+
+ For processes created with :func:`~asyncio.create_subprocess_shell`, the
+ return code reflects the exit status of the shell itself (e.g. ``/bin/sh``),
+ which may map signals to codes such as ``128+N``. See the
+ documentation of the shell (for example, the Bash manual's Exit Status)
+ for details.
+
.. _asyncio-subprocess-threads:
@@ -353,7 +371,7 @@ function::
import sys
async def get_date():
- code = 'import datetime; print(datetime.datetime.now())'
+ code = 'import datetime as dt; print(dt.datetime.now())'
# Create the subprocess; redirect the standard output
# into a pipe.
diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncio-sync.rst b/Doc/library/asyncio-sync.rst
index 3cf8e2737e85dcd..f9e98e05cab7aca 100644
--- a/Doc/library/asyncio-sync.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/asyncio-sync.rst
@@ -67,7 +67,8 @@ Lock
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
Removed the *loop* parameter.
- .. coroutinemethod:: acquire()
+ .. method:: acquire()
+ :async:
Acquire the lock.
@@ -137,7 +138,8 @@ Event
asyncio.run(main())
- .. coroutinemethod:: wait()
+ .. method:: wait()
+ :async:
Wait until the event is set.
@@ -155,7 +157,7 @@ Event
Clear (unset) the event.
- Tasks awaiting on :meth:`~Event.wait` will now block until the
+ Subsequent tasks awaiting on :meth:`~Event.wait` will now block until the
:meth:`~Event.set` method is called again.
.. method:: is_set()
@@ -207,7 +209,8 @@ Condition
finally:
cond.release()
- .. coroutinemethod:: acquire()
+ .. method:: acquire()
+ :async:
Acquire the underlying lock.
@@ -245,7 +248,8 @@ Condition
When invoked on an unlocked lock, a :exc:`RuntimeError` is
raised.
- .. coroutinemethod:: wait()
+ .. method:: wait()
+ :async:
Wait until notified.
@@ -259,16 +263,17 @@ Condition
Note that a task *may* return from this call spuriously,
which is why the caller should always re-check the state
- and be prepared to :meth:`wait` again. For this reason, you may
- prefer to use :meth:`wait_for` instead.
+ and be prepared to :meth:`~Condition.wait` again. For this reason, you may
+ prefer to use :meth:`~Condition.wait_for` instead.
- .. coroutinemethod:: wait_for(predicate)
+ .. method:: wait_for(predicate)
+ :async:
Wait until a predicate becomes *true*.
The predicate must be a callable which result will be
interpreted as a boolean value. The method will repeatedly
- :meth:`wait` until the predicate evaluates to *true*. The final value is the
+ :meth:`~Condition.wait` until the predicate evaluates to *true*. The final value is the
return value.
@@ -312,7 +317,8 @@ Semaphore
finally:
sem.release()
- .. coroutinemethod:: acquire()
+ .. method:: acquire()
+ :async:
Acquire a semaphore.
@@ -400,7 +406,8 @@ Barrier
.. versionadded:: 3.11
- .. coroutinemethod:: wait()
+ .. method:: wait()
+ :async:
Pass the barrier. When all the tasks party to the barrier have called
this function, they are all unblocked simultaneously.
@@ -424,17 +431,19 @@ Barrier
barrier is broken or reset while a task is waiting.
It could raise a :exc:`CancelledError` if a task is cancelled.
- .. coroutinemethod:: reset()
+ .. method:: reset()
+ :async:
Return the barrier to the default, empty state. Any tasks waiting on it
will receive the :class:`BrokenBarrierError` exception.
If a barrier is broken it may be better to just leave it and create a new one.
- .. coroutinemethod:: abort()
+ .. method:: abort()
+ :async:
Put the barrier into a broken state. This causes any active or future
- calls to :meth:`wait` to fail with the :class:`BrokenBarrierError`.
+ calls to :meth:`~Barrier.wait` to fail with the :class:`BrokenBarrierError`.
Use this for example if one of the tasks needs to abort, to avoid infinite
waiting tasks.
diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncio-task.rst b/Doc/library/asyncio-task.rst
index 188649a2968df8c..6f5dd13545f6878 100644
--- a/Doc/library/asyncio-task.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/asyncio-task.rst
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
====================
-Coroutines and Tasks
+Coroutines and tasks
====================
This section outlines high-level asyncio APIs to work with coroutines
@@ -158,7 +158,7 @@ other coroutines::
# Nothing happens if we just call "nested()".
# A coroutine object is created but not awaited,
# so it *won't run at all*.
- nested()
+ nested() # will raise a "RuntimeWarning".
# Let's do it differently now and await it:
print(await nested()) # will print "42".
@@ -231,7 +231,7 @@ A good example of a low-level function that returns a Future object
is :meth:`loop.run_in_executor`.
-Creating Tasks
+Creating tasks
==============
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/asyncio/tasks.py`
@@ -282,6 +282,17 @@ Creating Tasks
# completion:
task.add_done_callback(background_tasks.discard)
+ Note that this approach never awaits the tasks, so if a task
+ fails, its exception is never retrieved and asyncio logs a
+ "Task exception was never retrieved" message when the task is
+ garbage collected. To avoid this, use :class:`asyncio.TaskGroup`
+ which keeps a strong reference to each task, awaits them and
+ propagates their exceptions::
+
+ async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
+ for i in range(10):
+ tg.create_task(some_coro(param=i))
+
.. versionadded:: 3.7
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
@@ -291,7 +302,7 @@ Creating Tasks
Added the *context* parameter.
-Task Cancellation
+Task cancellation
=================
Tasks can easily and safely be cancelled.
@@ -315,7 +326,7 @@ remove the cancellation state.
.. _taskgroups:
-Task Groups
+Task groups
===========
Task groups combine a task creation API with a convenient
@@ -336,7 +347,7 @@ and reliable way to wait for all tasks in the group to finish.
The signature matches that of :func:`asyncio.create_task`.
If the task group is inactive (e.g. not yet entered,
already finished, or in the process of shutting down),
- we will close the given ``coro``.
+ we will close the given ``coro`` and raise :exc:`RuntimeError`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
@@ -414,10 +425,58 @@ reported by :meth:`asyncio.Task.cancelling`.
Improved handling of simultaneous internal and external cancellations
and correct preservation of cancellation counts.
+Terminating a task group
+------------------------
+
+While terminating a task group is not natively supported by the standard
+library, termination can be achieved by adding an exception-raising task
+to the task group and ignoring the raised exception:
+
+.. code-block:: python
+
+ import asyncio
+ from asyncio import TaskGroup
+
+ class TerminateTaskGroup(Exception):
+ """Exception raised to terminate a task group."""
+
+ async def force_terminate_task_group():
+ """Used to force termination of a task group."""
+ raise TerminateTaskGroup()
+
+ async def job(task_id, sleep_time):
+ print(f'Task {task_id}: start')
+ await asyncio.sleep(sleep_time)
+ print(f'Task {task_id}: done')
+
+ async def main():
+ try:
+ async with TaskGroup() as group:
+ # spawn some tasks
+ group.create_task(job(1, 0.5))
+ group.create_task(job(2, 1.5))
+ # sleep for 1 second
+ await asyncio.sleep(1)
+ # add an exception-raising task to force the group to terminate
+ group.create_task(force_terminate_task_group())
+ except* TerminateTaskGroup:
+ pass
+
+ asyncio.run(main())
+
+Expected output:
+
+.. code-block:: text
+
+ Task 1: start
+ Task 2: start
+ Task 1: done
+
Sleeping
========
-.. coroutinefunction:: sleep(delay, result=None)
+.. function:: sleep(delay, result=None)
+ :async:
Block for *delay* seconds.
@@ -437,13 +496,13 @@ Sleeping
for 5 seconds::
import asyncio
- import datetime
+ import datetime as dt
async def display_date():
loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
while True:
- print(datetime.datetime.now())
+ print(dt.datetime.now())
if (loop.time() + 1.0) >= end_time:
break
await asyncio.sleep(1)
@@ -458,7 +517,7 @@ Sleeping
Raises :exc:`ValueError` if *delay* is :data:`~math.nan`.
-Running Tasks Concurrently
+Running tasks concurrently
==========================
.. awaitablefunction:: gather(*aws, return_exceptions=False)
@@ -496,7 +555,7 @@ Running Tasks Concurrently
provides stronger safety guarantees than *gather* for scheduling a nesting of subtasks:
if a task (or a subtask, a task scheduled by a task)
raises an exception, *TaskGroup* will, while *gather* will not,
- cancel the remaining scheduled tasks).
+ cancel the remaining scheduled tasks.
.. _asyncio_example_gather:
@@ -538,7 +597,7 @@ Running Tasks Concurrently
# [2, 6, 24]
.. note::
- If *return_exceptions* is False, cancelling gather() after it
+ If *return_exceptions* is false, cancelling gather() after it
has been marked done won't cancel any submitted awaitables.
For instance, gather can be marked done after propagating an
exception to the caller, therefore, calling ``gather.cancel()``
@@ -560,7 +619,7 @@ Running Tasks Concurrently
.. _eager-task-factory:
-Eager Task Factory
+Eager task factory
==================
.. function:: eager_task_factory(loop, coro, *, name=None, context=None)
@@ -603,7 +662,7 @@ Eager Task Factory
.. versionadded:: 3.12
-Shielding From Cancellation
+Shielding from cancellation
===========================
.. awaitablefunction:: shield(aw)
@@ -710,6 +769,9 @@ Timeouts
An :ref:`asynchronous context manager <async-context-managers>`
for cancelling overdue coroutines.
+ Prefer using :func:`asyncio.timeout` or :func:`asyncio.timeout_at`
+ rather than instantiating :class:`!Timeout` directly.
+
``when`` should be an absolute time at which the context should time out,
as measured by the event loop's clock:
@@ -772,22 +834,19 @@ Timeouts
.. versionadded:: 3.11
-.. coroutinefunction:: wait_for(aw, timeout)
+.. function:: wait_for(aw, timeout)
+ :async:
Wait for the *aw* :ref:`awaitable <asyncio-awaitables>`
to complete with a timeout.
- If *aw* is a coroutine it is automatically scheduled as a Task.
-
*timeout* can either be ``None`` or a float or int number of seconds
to wait for. If *timeout* is ``None``, block until the future
completes.
- If a timeout occurs, it cancels the task and raises
- :exc:`TimeoutError`.
+ If a timeout occurs, it cancels *aw* and raises :exc:`TimeoutError`.
- To avoid the task :meth:`cancellation <Task.cancel>`,
- wrap it in :func:`shield`.
+ To prevent *aw* from being cancelled, wrap it in :func:`shield`.
The function will wait until the future is actually cancelled,
so the total wait time may exceed the *timeout*. If an exception
@@ -828,11 +887,16 @@ Timeouts
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Raises :exc:`TimeoutError` instead of :exc:`asyncio.TimeoutError`.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ Implemented using :func:`asyncio.timeout`, a coroutine passed as *aw*
+ is no longer wrapped in a :class:`Task` when *timeout* is positive.
+
-Waiting Primitives
+Waiting primitives
==================
-.. coroutinefunction:: wait(aws, *, timeout=None, return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)
+.. function:: wait(aws, *, timeout=None, return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)
+ :async:
Run :class:`~asyncio.Future` and :class:`~asyncio.Task` instances in the *aws*
iterable concurrently and block until the condition specified
@@ -876,6 +940,9 @@ Waiting Primitives
Unlike :func:`~asyncio.wait_for`, ``wait()`` does not cancel the
futures when a timeout occurs.
+ If ``wait()`` is cancelled, the futures in *aws* are not cancelled
+ and continue to run.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
Removed the *loop* parameter.
@@ -933,6 +1000,10 @@ Waiting Primitives
are done. This is raised by the ``async for`` loop during asynchronous
iteration or by the coroutines yielded during plain iteration.
+ ``as_completed()`` does not cancel the tasks running the supplied
+ awaitables: if a timeout occurs or the iteration is cancelled, the
+ remaining tasks continue to run.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
Removed the *loop* parameter.
@@ -948,10 +1019,11 @@ Waiting Primitives
or as a plain :term:`iterator` (previously it was only a plain iterator).
-Running in Threads
+Running in threads
==================
-.. coroutinefunction:: to_thread(func, /, *args, **kwargs)
+.. function:: to_thread(func, /, *args, **kwargs)
+ :async:
Asynchronously run function *func* in a separate thread.
@@ -1007,7 +1079,7 @@ Running in Threads
.. versionadded:: 3.9
-Scheduling From Other Threads
+Scheduling from other threads
=============================
.. function:: run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro, loop)
@@ -1084,8 +1156,9 @@ Introspection
.. versionadded:: 3.4
+.. _asyncio-task-obj:
-Task Object
+Task object
===========
.. class:: Task(coro, *, loop=None, name=None, context=None, eager_start=False)
@@ -1135,6 +1208,9 @@ Task Object
blocks. If the coroutine returns or raises without blocking, the task
will be finished eagerly and will skip scheduling to the event loop.
+ Tasks are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the return type of their wrapped
+ coroutines.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Added support for the :mod:`contextvars` module.
@@ -1170,7 +1246,7 @@ Task Object
a :exc:`CancelledError` exception.
If the Task's result isn't yet available, this method raises
- a :exc:`InvalidStateError` exception.
+ an :exc:`InvalidStateError` exception.
.. method:: exception()
@@ -1285,7 +1361,10 @@ Task Object
Request the Task to be cancelled.
- This arranges for a :exc:`CancelledError` exception to be thrown
+ If the Task is already *done* or *cancelled*, return ``False``,
+ otherwise, return ``True``.
+
+ The method arranges for a :exc:`CancelledError` exception to be thrown
into the wrapped coroutine on the next cycle of the event loop.
The coroutine then has a chance to clean up or even deny the
diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncio.rst b/Doc/library/asyncio.rst
index 5f33c6813e74c0b..39298babea77078 100644
--- a/Doc/library/asyncio.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/asyncio.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`asyncio` --- Asynchronous I/O
-===================================
+:mod:`!asyncio` --- Asynchronous I/O
+====================================
.. module:: asyncio
:synopsis: Asynchronous I/O.
@@ -29,6 +29,11 @@ database connection libraries, distributed task queues, etc.
asyncio is often a perfect fit for IO-bound and high-level
**structured** network code.
+.. seealso::
+
+ :ref:`a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio`
+ Explanation of the fundamentals of asyncio.
+
asyncio provides a set of **high-level** APIs to:
* :ref:`run Python coroutines <coroutine>` concurrently and
@@ -56,9 +61,13 @@ Additionally, there are **low-level** APIs for
* :ref:`bridge <asyncio-futures>` callback-based libraries and code
with async/await syntax.
+.. include:: ../includes/wasm-notavail.rst
+
.. _asyncio-cli:
-You can experiment with an ``asyncio`` concurrent context in the REPL:
+.. rubric:: asyncio REPL
+
+You can experiment with an ``asyncio`` concurrent context in the :term:`REPL`:
.. code-block:: pycon
@@ -70,7 +79,18 @@ You can experiment with an ``asyncio`` concurrent context in the REPL:
>>> await asyncio.sleep(10, result='hello')
'hello'
-.. include:: ../includes/wasm-notavail.rst
+This REPL provides limited compatibility with :envvar:`PYTHON_BASIC_REPL`.
+It is recommended that the default REPL is used
+for full functionality and the latest features.
+
+.. audit-event:: cpython.run_stdin "" ""
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.12.5 (also 3.11.10, 3.10.15, 3.9.20, and 3.8.20)
+ Emits audit events.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Uses PyREPL if possible, in which case :envvar:`PYTHONSTARTUP` is
+ also executed. Emits audit events.
.. We use the "rubric" directive here to avoid creating
the "Reference" subsection in the TOC.
diff --git a/Doc/library/asyncore.rst b/Doc/library/asyncore.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..22c9881c3cca362
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/asyncore.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+:mod:`!asyncore` --- Asynchronous socket handler
+================================================
+
+.. module:: asyncore
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.12.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.6 3.12
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.12 <whatsnew312-removed>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.6. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+Applications should use the :mod:`asyncio` module instead.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!asyncore` module was
+`Python 3.11 <https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/asyncore.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/atexit.rst b/Doc/library/atexit.rst
index 43a8bd2d7cd1339..286f0917b0ab138 100644
--- a/Doc/library/atexit.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/atexit.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`atexit` --- Exit handlers
-===============================
+:mod:`!atexit` --- Exit handlers
+================================
.. module:: atexit
:synopsis: Register and execute cleanup functions.
@@ -9,59 +9,68 @@
--------------
-The :mod:`atexit` module defines functions to register and unregister cleanup
-functions. Functions thus registered are automatically executed upon normal
-interpreter termination. :mod:`atexit` runs these functions in the *reverse*
-order in which they were registered; if you register ``A``, ``B``, and ``C``,
-at interpreter termination time they will be run in the order ``C``, ``B``,
-``A``.
-
-**Note:** The functions registered via this module are not called when the
+The :mod:`!atexit` module defines functions to register and unregister
+:dfn:`exit handlers`: functions that are automatically executed
+"at exit", that is, upon normal program termination (for instance,
+if :func:`sys.exit` is called or the main module's execution completes)
+or, more generally, upon :term:`interpreter shutdown`.
+
+At exit, all registered exit handlers are called
+in the *reverse* order in which they were registered.
+If you register ``A``, ``B``, and ``C``, at interpreter shutdown time they
+will be run in the order ``C``, ``B``, ``A``.
+The assumption is that lower level modules will normally be imported before
+higher level modules and thus must be cleaned up later.
+
+If an exception is raised during execution of an exit handler, a traceback is
+printed (unless :exc:`SystemExit` is raised) and the exception information is
+saved. After all exit handlers have had a chance to run, the last exception to
+be raised is re-raised.
+
+In programs that use multiple interpreters, each interpreter has its own stack
+of exit handlers, which are executed when the interpreter shuts down
+(for example, with the C API function :c:func:`Py_EndInterpreter`).
+Registration functions in this module only affect the interpreter they are
+called from.
+
+**Note:** Exit handlers are not called when the
program is killed by a signal not handled by Python, when a Python fatal
internal error is detected, or when :func:`os._exit` is called.
**Note:** The effect of registering or unregistering functions from within
a cleanup function is undefined.
-.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- When used with C-API subinterpreters, registered functions
- are local to the interpreter they were registered in.
+.. warning::
+ When writing exit handlers, especially in C API extensions, keep in mind
+ that other exit handlers may still run arbitrary Python code after you
+ clean up.
+ Such code should succeed or fail with an exception, rather than crash.
-.. function:: register(func, *args, **kwargs)
+.. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ Attempts to start a new thread or :func:`os.fork` a new process
+ in an exit handler now leads to :exc:`RuntimeError`.
+ Previously, this could cause race conditions between the main Python
+ runtime thread freeing thread states while internal :mod:`threading`
+ routines or the new process try to use that state, which could lead to
+ crashes rather than clean shutdown.
- Register *func* as a function to be executed at termination. Any optional
- arguments that are to be passed to *func* must be passed as arguments to
- :func:`register`. It is possible to register the same function and arguments
- more than once.
+.. versionchanged:: 3.7
+ When used with subinterpreters, registered functions
+ are local to the interpreter they were registered in.
- At normal program termination (for instance, if :func:`sys.exit` is called or
- the main module's execution completes), all functions registered are called in
- last in, first out order. The assumption is that lower level modules will
- normally be imported before higher level modules and thus must be cleaned up
- later.
+.. function:: register(func, *args, **kwargs)
- If an exception is raised during execution of the exit handlers, a traceback is
- printed (unless :exc:`SystemExit` is raised) and the exception information is
- saved. After all exit handlers have had a chance to run, the last exception to
- be raised is re-raised.
+ Register *func* as an exit handler.
+ Any optional arguments that are to be passed to *func* must be passed as
+ arguments to :func:`register`.
+ It is possible to register the same function and arguments more than once.
This function returns *func*, which makes it possible to use it as a
decorator.
- .. warning::
- Starting new threads or calling :func:`os.fork` from a registered
- function can lead to race condition between the main Python
- runtime thread freeing thread states while internal :mod:`threading`
- routines or the new process try to use that state. This can lead to
- crashes rather than clean shutdown.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.12
- Attempts to start a new thread or :func:`os.fork` a new process
- in a registered function now leads to :exc:`RuntimeError`.
-
.. function:: unregister(func)
- Remove *func* from the list of functions to be run at interpreter shutdown.
+ Remove *func* from the list of exit handlers.
:func:`unregister` silently does nothing if *func* was not previously
registered. If *func* has been registered more than once, every occurrence
of that function in the :mod:`atexit` call stack will be removed. Equality
diff --git a/Doc/library/audioop.rst b/Doc/library/audioop.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..3bc580b0bd34332
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/audioop.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+:mod:`!audioop` --- Manipulate raw audio data
+=============================================
+
+.. module:: audioop
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!audioop` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/audioop.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/base64.rst b/Doc/library/base64.rst
index e596893358f3fb3..0248fa2f45f2f73 100644
--- a/Doc/library/base64.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/base64.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`base64` --- Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings
-===============================================================
+:mod:`!base64` --- Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings
+================================================================
.. module:: base64
:synopsis: RFC 4648: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings;
@@ -15,14 +15,11 @@
This module provides functions for encoding binary data to printable
ASCII characters and decoding such encodings back to binary data.
-It provides encoding and decoding functions for the encodings specified in
-:rfc:`4648`, which defines the Base16, Base32, and Base64 algorithms,
-and for the de-facto standard Ascii85 and Base85 encodings.
-
-The :rfc:`4648` encodings are suitable for encoding binary data so that it can be
-safely sent by email, used as parts of URLs, or included as part of an HTTP
-POST request. The encoding algorithm is not the same as the
-:program:`uuencode` program.
+This includes the :ref:`encodings specified in <base64-rfc-4648>`
+:rfc:`4648` (Base64, Base32 and Base16), the :ref:`Base85 encoding
+<base64-base-85>` specified in `PDF 2.0
+<https://pdfa.org/resource/iso-32000-2/>`_, and non-standard variants
+of Base85 used elsewhere.
There are two interfaces provided by this module. The modern interface
supports encoding :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>` to ASCII
@@ -30,7 +27,7 @@ supports encoding :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>` to ASCII
strings containing ASCII to :class:`bytes`. Both base-64 alphabets
defined in :rfc:`4648` (normal, and URL- and filesystem-safe) are supported.
-The legacy interface does not support decoding from strings, but it does
+The :ref:`legacy interface <base64-legacy>` does not support decoding from strings, but it does
provide functions for encoding and decoding to and from :term:`file objects
<file object>`. It only supports the Base64 standard alphabet, and it adds
newlines every 76 characters as per :rfc:`2045`. Note that if you are looking
@@ -46,7 +43,15 @@ package instead.
Any :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>` are now accepted by all
encoding and decoding functions in this module. Ascii85/Base85 support added.
-The modern interface provides:
+
+.. _base64-rfc-4648:
+
+RFC 4648 Encodings
+------------------
+
+The :rfc:`4648` encodings are suitable for encoding binary data so that it can be
+safely sent by email, used as parts of URLs, or included as part of an HTTP
+POST request.
.. function:: b64encode(s, altchars=None)
@@ -181,6 +186,35 @@ The modern interface provides:
incorrectly padded or if there are non-alphabet characters present in the
input.
+.. _base64-base-85:
+
+Base85 Encodings
+-----------------
+
+Base85 encoding is a family of algorithms which represent four bytes
+using five ASCII characters. Originally implemented in the Unix
+``btoa(1)`` utility, a version of it was later adopted by Adobe in the
+PostScript language and is standardized in PDF 2.0 (ISO 32000-2).
+This version, in both its ``btoa`` and PDF variants, is implemented by
+:func:`a85encode`.
+
+A separate version, using a different output character set, was
+defined as an April Fool's joke in :rfc:`1924` but is now used by Git
+and other software. This version is implemented by :func:`b85encode`.
+
+Finally, a third version, using yet another output character set
+designed for safe inclusion in programming language strings, is
+defined by ZeroMQ and implemented here by :func:`z85encode`.
+
+The functions present in this module differ in how they handle the following:
+
+* Whether to include and expect enclosing ``<~`` and ``~>`` markers.
+* Whether to fold the input into multiple lines.
+* The set of ASCII characters used for encoding.
+* Compact encodings of sequences of spaces and null bytes.
+* The encoding of zero-padding bytes applied to the input.
+
+Refer to the documentation of the individual functions for more information.
.. function:: a85encode(b, *, foldspaces=False, wrapcol=0, pad=False, adobe=False)
@@ -189,17 +223,22 @@ The modern interface provides:
*foldspaces* is an optional flag that uses the special short sequence 'y'
instead of 4 consecutive spaces (ASCII 0x20) as supported by 'btoa'. This
- feature is not supported by the "standard" Ascii85 encoding.
+ feature is not supported by the standard encoding used in PDF.
*wrapcol* controls whether the output should have newline (``b'\n'``)
characters added to it. If this is non-zero, each output line will be
- at most this many characters long.
+ at most this many characters long, excluding the trailing newline.
- *pad* controls whether the input is padded to a multiple of 4
- before encoding. Note that the ``btoa`` implementation always pads.
+ *pad* controls whether zero-padding applied to the end of the input
+ is fully retained in the output encoding, as done by ``btoa``,
+ producing an exact multiple of 5 bytes of output. This is not part
+ of the standard encoding used in PDF, as it does not preserve the
+ length of the data.
- *adobe* controls whether the encoded byte sequence is framed with ``<~``
- and ``~>``, which is used by the Adobe implementation.
+ *adobe* controls whether the encoded byte sequence is framed with
+ ``<~`` and ``~>``, as in a PostScript base-85 string literal. Note
+ that while ASCII85Decode streams in PDF documents *must* be
+ terminated with ``~>``, they *must not* use a leading ``<~``.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
@@ -211,13 +250,14 @@ The modern interface provides:
*foldspaces* is a flag that specifies whether the 'y' short sequence
should be accepted as shorthand for 4 consecutive spaces (ASCII 0x20).
- This feature is not supported by the "standard" Ascii85 encoding.
+ This feature is not supported by the standard Ascii85 encoding used in
+ PDF and PostScript.
- *adobe* controls whether the input sequence is in Adobe Ascii85 format
- (i.e. is framed with <~ and ~>).
+ *adobe* controls whether the ``<~`` and ``~>`` markers are
+ present. While the leading ``<~`` is not required, the input must
+ end with ``~>``, or a :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
- *ignorechars* should be a :term:`bytes-like object` or ASCII string
- containing characters to ignore
+ *ignorechars* should be a byte string containing characters to ignore
from the input. This should only contain whitespace characters, and by
default contains all whitespace characters in ASCII.
@@ -229,8 +269,11 @@ The modern interface provides:
Encode the :term:`bytes-like object` *b* using base85 (as used in e.g.
git-style binary diffs) and return the encoded :class:`bytes`.
- If *pad* is true, the input is padded with ``b'\0'`` so its length is a
- multiple of 4 bytes before encoding.
+ The input is padded with ``b'\0'`` so its length is a multiple of 4
+ bytes before encoding. If *pad* is true, all the resulting
+ characters are retained in the output, which will always be a
+ multiple of 5 bytes, and thus the length of the data may not be
+ preserved on decoding.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
@@ -238,8 +281,7 @@ The modern interface provides:
.. function:: b85decode(b)
Decode the base85-encoded :term:`bytes-like object` or ASCII string *b* and
- return the decoded :class:`bytes`. Padding is implicitly removed, if
- necessary.
+ return the decoded :class:`bytes`.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
@@ -247,8 +289,12 @@ The modern interface provides:
.. function:: z85encode(s)
Encode the :term:`bytes-like object` *s* using Z85 (as used in ZeroMQ)
- and return the encoded :class:`bytes`. See `Z85 specification
- <https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/>`_ for more information.
+ and return the encoded :class:`bytes`.
+
+ The `ZeroMQ specification <https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/>`_
+ requires the length of Z85-encoded data to be a multiple of 5
+ bytes. To produce compliant data frames, you must pad the input
+ data to this function to a multiple of 4 bytes.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
@@ -256,13 +302,15 @@ The modern interface provides:
.. function:: z85decode(s)
Decode the Z85-encoded :term:`bytes-like object` or ASCII string *s* and
- return the decoded :class:`bytes`. See `Z85 specification
- <https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/>`_ for more information.
+ return the decoded :class:`bytes`.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
-The legacy interface:
+.. _base64-legacy:
+
+Legacy Interface
+----------------
.. function:: decode(input, output)
@@ -327,3 +375,11 @@ recommended to review the security section for any code deployed to production.
Section 5.2, "Base64 Content-Transfer-Encoding," provides the definition of the
base64 encoding.
+ `ISO 32000-2 Portable document format - Part 2: PDF 2.0 <https://pdfa.org/resource/iso-32000-2/>`_
+ Section 7.4.3, "ASCII85Decode Filter," provides the definition
+ of the Ascii85 encoding used in PDF and PostScript, including
+ the output character set and the details of data length preservation
+ using zero-padding and partial output groups.
+
+ `ZeroMQ RFC 32/Z85 <https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/>`_
+ The "Formal Specification" section provides the character set used in Z85.
diff --git a/Doc/library/bdb.rst b/Doc/library/bdb.rst
index 504fbd0464515ba..b377b90557c2554 100644
--- a/Doc/library/bdb.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/bdb.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`bdb` --- Debugger framework
-=================================
+:mod:`!bdb` --- Debugger framework
+==================================
.. module:: bdb
:synopsis: Debugger framework.
@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ The :mod:`bdb` module also defines two classes:
.. attribute:: temporary
- True if a :class:`Breakpoint` at (file, line) is temporary.
+ ``True`` if a :class:`Breakpoint` at (file, line) is temporary.
.. attribute:: cond
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ The :mod:`bdb` module also defines two classes:
.. attribute:: enabled
- True if :class:`Breakpoint` is enabled.
+ ``True`` if :class:`Breakpoint` is enabled.
.. attribute:: bpbynumber
@@ -213,24 +213,24 @@ The :mod:`bdb` module also defines two classes:
Normally derived classes don't override the following methods, but they may
if they want to redefine the definition of stopping and breakpoints.
- .. method:: is_skipped_line(module_name)
+ .. method:: is_skipped_module(module_name)
- Return True if *module_name* matches any skip pattern.
+ Return ``True`` if *module_name* matches any skip pattern.
.. method:: stop_here(frame)
- Return True if *frame* is below the starting frame in the stack.
+ Return ``True`` if *frame* is below the starting frame in the stack.
.. method:: break_here(frame)
- Return True if there is an effective breakpoint for this line.
+ Return ``True`` if there is an effective breakpoint for this line.
Check whether a line or function breakpoint exists and is in effect. Delete temporary
breakpoints based on information from :func:`effective`.
.. method:: break_anywhere(frame)
- Return True if any breakpoint exists for *frame*'s filename.
+ Return ``True`` if any breakpoint exists for *frame*'s filename.
Derived classes should override these methods to gain control over debugger
operation.
@@ -348,7 +348,7 @@ The :mod:`bdb` module also defines two classes:
.. method:: get_break(filename, lineno)
- Return True if there is a breakpoint for *lineno* in *filename*.
+ Return ``True`` if there is a breakpoint for *lineno* in *filename*.
.. method:: get_breaks(filename, lineno)
@@ -412,7 +412,7 @@ Finally, the module defines the following functions:
.. function:: checkfuncname(b, frame)
- Return True if we should break here, depending on the way the
+ Return ``True`` if we should break here, depending on the way the
:class:`Breakpoint` *b* was set.
If it was set via line number, it checks if
@@ -431,14 +431,14 @@ Finally, the module defines the following functions:
:attr:`bplist <bdb.Breakpoint.bplist>` for the
(:attr:`file <bdb.Breakpoint.file>`, :attr:`line <bdb.Breakpoint.line>`)
(which must exist) that is :attr:`enabled <bdb.Breakpoint.enabled>`, for
- which :func:`checkfuncname` is True, and that has neither a False
+ which :func:`checkfuncname` is true, and that has neither a false
:attr:`condition <bdb.Breakpoint.cond>` nor positive
:attr:`ignore <bdb.Breakpoint.ignore>` count. The *flag*, meaning that a
- temporary breakpoint should be deleted, is False only when the
+ temporary breakpoint should be deleted, is ``False`` only when the
:attr:`cond <bdb.Breakpoint.cond>` cannot be evaluated (in which case,
:attr:`ignore <bdb.Breakpoint.ignore>` count is ignored).
- If no such entry exists, then (None, None) is returned.
+ If no such entry exists, then ``(None, None)`` is returned.
.. function:: set_trace()
diff --git a/Doc/library/binascii.rst b/Doc/library/binascii.rst
index 39fabb59bb19844..1bab785684bbabe 100644
--- a/Doc/library/binascii.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/binascii.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`binascii` --- Convert between binary and ASCII
-====================================================
+:mod:`!binascii` --- Convert between binary and ASCII
+=====================================================
.. module:: binascii
:synopsis: Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary
diff --git a/Doc/library/bisect.rst b/Doc/library/bisect.rst
index 31c79b910615915..732c219d55039ac 100644
--- a/Doc/library/bisect.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/bisect.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`bisect` --- Array bisection algorithm
-===========================================
+:mod:`!bisect` --- Array bisection algorithm
+============================================
.. module:: bisect
:synopsis: Array bisection algorithms for binary searching.
@@ -24,6 +24,16 @@ method to determine whether a value has been found. Instead, the
functions only call the :meth:`~object.__lt__` method and will return an insertion
point between values in an array.
+.. note::
+
+ The functions in this module are not thread-safe. If multiple threads
+ concurrently use :mod:`bisect` functions on the same sequence, this
+ may result in undefined behaviour. Likewise, if the provided sequence
+ is mutated by a different thread while a :mod:`bisect` function
+ is operating on it, the result is undefined. For example, using
+ :py:func:`~bisect.insort_left` on the same list from multiple threads
+ may result in the list becoming unsorted.
+
.. _bisect functions:
The following functions are provided:
@@ -73,7 +83,7 @@ The following functions are provided:
Insert *x* in *a* in sorted order.
This function first runs :py:func:`~bisect.bisect_left` to locate an insertion point.
- Next, it runs the :meth:`!insert` method on *a* to insert *x* at the
+ Next, it runs the :meth:`~sequence.insert` method on *a* to insert *x* at the
appropriate position to maintain sort order.
To support inserting records in a table, the *key* function (if any) is
@@ -93,7 +103,7 @@ The following functions are provided:
entries of *x*.
This function first runs :py:func:`~bisect.bisect_right` to locate an insertion point.
- Next, it runs the :meth:`!insert` method on *a* to insert *x* at the
+ Next, it runs the :meth:`~sequence.insert` method on *a* to insert *x* at the
appropriate position to maintain sort order.
To support inserting records in a table, the *key* function (if any) is
@@ -122,7 +132,7 @@ thoughts in mind:
they are used. Consequently, if the search functions are used in a loop,
the key function may be called again and again on the same array elements.
If the key function isn't fast, consider wrapping it with
- :py:func:`functools.cache` to avoid duplicate computations. Alternatively,
+ :py:deco:`functools.cache` to avoid duplicate computations. Alternatively,
consider searching an array of precomputed keys to locate the insertion
point (as shown in the examples section below).
@@ -193,9 +203,9 @@ example uses :py:func:`~bisect.bisect` to look up a letter grade for an exam sco
based on a set of ordered numeric breakpoints: 90 and up is an 'A', 80 to 89 is
a 'B', and so on::
- >>> def grade(score, breakpoints=[60, 70, 80, 90], grades='FDCBA'):
- ... i = bisect(breakpoints, score)
- ... return grades[i]
+ >>> def grade(score):
+ ... i = bisect([60, 70, 80, 90], score)
+ ... return "FDCBA"[i]
...
>>> [grade(score) for score in [33, 99, 77, 70, 89, 90, 100]]
['F', 'A', 'C', 'C', 'B', 'A', 'A']
diff --git a/Doc/library/builtins.rst b/Doc/library/builtins.rst
index 7e4f8fe0531567d..c4979db52d2aedb 100644
--- a/Doc/library/builtins.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/builtins.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`builtins` --- Built-in objects
-====================================
+:mod:`!builtins` --- Built-in objects
+=====================================
.. module:: builtins
:synopsis: The module that provides the built-in namespace.
@@ -7,10 +7,7 @@
--------------
This module provides direct access to all 'built-in' identifiers of Python; for
-example, ``builtins.open`` is the full name for the built-in function
-:func:`open`. See :ref:`built-in-funcs` and :ref:`built-in-consts` for
-documentation.
-
+example, ``builtins.open`` is the full name for the built-in function :func:`open`.
This module is not normally accessed explicitly by most applications, but can be
useful in modules that provide objects with the same name as a built-in value,
@@ -40,3 +37,10 @@ available as part of their globals. The value of ``__builtins__`` is normally
either this module or the value of this module's :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute.
Since this is an implementation detail, it may not be used by alternate
implementations of Python.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+ * :ref:`built-in-consts`
+ * :ref:`bltin-exceptions`
+ * :ref:`built-in-funcs`
+ * :ref:`bltin-types`
diff --git a/Doc/library/bz2.rst b/Doc/library/bz2.rst
index eaf0a096455fadb..ebe2e43febaefa0 100644
--- a/Doc/library/bz2.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/bz2.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`bz2` --- Support for :program:`bzip2` compression
-=======================================================
+:mod:`!bz2` --- Support for :program:`bzip2` compression
+========================================================
.. module:: bz2
:synopsis: Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression.
diff --git a/Doc/library/calendar.rst b/Doc/library/calendar.rst
index e699a7284ac8023..3349703f5da2535 100644
--- a/Doc/library/calendar.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/calendar.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`calendar` --- General calendar-related functions
-======================================================
+:mod:`!calendar` --- General calendar-related functions
+=======================================================
.. module:: calendar
:synopsis: Functions for working with calendars, including some emulation
@@ -38,13 +38,33 @@ interpreted as prescribed by the ISO 8601 standard. Year 0 is 1 BC, year -1 is
itself. This is the job of subclasses.
- :class:`Calendar` instances have the following methods:
+ :class:`Calendar` instances have the following methods and attributes:
+
+ .. attribute:: firstweekday
+
+ The first weekday as an integer (0--6).
+
+ This property can also be set and read using
+ :meth:`~Calendar.setfirstweekday` and
+ :meth:`~Calendar.getfirstweekday` respectively.
+
+ .. method:: getfirstweekday()
+
+ Return an :class:`int` for the current first weekday (0--6).
+
+ Identical to reading the :attr:`~Calendar.firstweekday` property.
+
+ .. method:: setfirstweekday(firstweekday)
+
+ Set the first weekday to *firstweekday*, passed as an :class:`int` (0--6).
+
+ Identical to setting the :attr:`~Calendar.firstweekday` property.
.. method:: iterweekdays()
- Return an iterator for the week day numbers that will be used for one
+ Return an iterator for the weekday numbers that will be used for one
week. The first value from the iterator will be the same as the value of
- the :attr:`firstweekday` property.
+ the :attr:`~Calendar.firstweekday` property.
.. method:: itermonthdates(year, month)
@@ -68,7 +88,7 @@ interpreted as prescribed by the ISO 8601 standard. Year 0 is 1 BC, year -1 is
Return an iterator for the month *month* in the year *year* similar to
:meth:`itermonthdates`, but not restricted by the :class:`datetime.date`
range. Days returned will be tuples consisting of a day of the month
- number and a week day number.
+ number and a weekday number.
.. method:: itermonthdays3(year, month)
@@ -138,6 +158,33 @@ interpreted as prescribed by the ISO 8601 standard. Year 0 is 1 BC, year -1 is
:class:`TextCalendar` instances have the following methods:
+
+ .. method:: formatday(theday, weekday, width)
+
+ Return a string representing a single day formatted with the given *width*.
+ If *theday* is ``0``, return a string of spaces of
+ the specified width, representing an empty day. The *weekday* parameter
+ is unused.
+
+ .. method:: formatweek(theweek, w=0)
+
+ Return a single week in a string with no newline. If *w* is provided, it
+ specifies the width of the date columns, which are centered. Depends
+ on the first weekday as specified in the constructor or set by the
+ :meth:`setfirstweekday` method.
+
+ .. method:: formatweekday(weekday, width)
+
+ Return a string representing the name of a single weekday formatted to
+ the specified *width*. The *weekday* parameter is an integer representing
+ the day of the week, where ``0`` is Monday and ``6`` is Sunday.
+
+ .. method:: formatweekheader(width)
+
+ Return a string containing the header row of weekday names, formatted
+ with the given *width* for each column. The names depend on the locale
+ settings and are padded to the specified width.
+
.. method:: formatmonth(theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)
Return a month's calendar in a multi-line string. If *w* is provided, it
@@ -146,6 +193,12 @@ interpreted as prescribed by the ISO 8601 standard. Year 0 is 1 BC, year -1 is
on the first weekday as specified in the constructor or set by the
:meth:`setfirstweekday` method.
+ .. method:: formatmonthname(theyear, themonth, width=0, withyear=True)
+
+ Return a string representing the month's name centered within the
+ specified *width*. If *withyear* is ``True``, include the year in the
+ output. The *theyear* and *themonth* parameters specify the year
+ and month for the name to be formatted respectively.
.. method:: prmonth(theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)
@@ -304,7 +357,7 @@ interpreted as prescribed by the ISO 8601 standard. Year 0 is 1 BC, year -1 is
For simple text calendars this module provides the following functions.
-.. function:: setfirstweekday(weekday)
+.. function:: setfirstweekday(firstweekday)
Sets the weekday (``0`` is Monday, ``6`` is Sunday) to start each week. The
values :const:`MONDAY`, :const:`TUESDAY`, :const:`WEDNESDAY`, :const:`THURSDAY`,
@@ -339,15 +392,15 @@ For simple text calendars this module provides the following functions.
*month* (``1``--``12``), *day* (``1``--``31``).
-.. function:: weekheader(n)
+.. function:: weekheader(width)
- Return a header containing abbreviated weekday names. *n* specifies the width in
+ Return a header containing abbreviated weekday names. *width* specifies the width in
characters for one weekday.
.. function:: monthrange(year, month)
- Returns weekday of first day of the month and number of days in month, for the
+ Returns weekday of first day of the month and number of days in month, for the
specified *year* and *month*.
@@ -369,12 +422,12 @@ For simple text calendars this module provides the following functions.
of the :class:`TextCalendar` class.
-.. function:: prcal(year, w=0, l=0, c=6, m=3)
+.. function:: prcal(theyear, w=0, l=0, c=6, m=3)
Prints the calendar for an entire year as returned by :func:`calendar`.
-.. function:: calendar(year, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)
+.. function:: calendar(theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)
Returns a 3-column calendar for an entire year as a multi-line string using
the :meth:`~TextCalendar.formatyear` of the :class:`TextCalendar` class.
@@ -385,7 +438,7 @@ For simple text calendars this module provides the following functions.
An unrelated but handy function that takes a time tuple such as returned by
the :func:`~time.gmtime` function in the :mod:`time` module, and returns the
corresponding Unix timestamp value, assuming an epoch of 1970, and the POSIX
- encoding. In fact, :func:`time.gmtime` and :func:`timegm` are each others'
+ encoding. In fact, :func:`time.gmtime` and :func:`timegm` are each other's
inverse.
@@ -393,13 +446,22 @@ The :mod:`calendar` module exports the following data attributes:
.. data:: day_name
- An array that represents the days of the week in the current locale.
+ A sequence that represents the days of the week in the current locale,
+ where Monday is day number 0.
+
+ >>> import calendar
+ >>> list(calendar.day_name)
+ ['Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Friday', 'Saturday', 'Sunday']
.. data:: day_abbr
- An array that represents the abbreviated days of the week in the current locale.
+ A sequence that represents the abbreviated days of the week in the current locale,
+ where Mon is day number 0.
+ >>> import calendar
+ >>> list(calendar.day_abbr)
+ ['Mon', 'Tue', 'Wed', 'Thu', 'Fri', 'Sat', 'Sun']
.. data:: MONDAY
TUESDAY
@@ -426,17 +488,24 @@ The :mod:`calendar` module exports the following data attributes:
.. data:: month_name
- An array that represents the months of the year in the current locale. This
+ A sequence that represents the months of the year in the current locale. This
follows normal convention of January being month number 1, so it has a length of
- 13 and ``month_name[0]`` is the empty string.
+ 13 and ``month_name[0]`` is the empty string.
+
+ >>> import calendar
+ >>> list(calendar.month_name)
+ ['', 'January', 'February', 'March', 'April', 'May', 'June', 'July', 'August', 'September', 'October', 'November', 'December']
.. data:: month_abbr
- An array that represents the abbreviated months of the year in the current
+ A sequence that represents the abbreviated months of the year in the current
locale. This follows normal convention of January being month number 1, so it
has a length of 13 and ``month_abbr[0]`` is the empty string.
+ >>> import calendar
+ >>> list(calendar.month_abbr)
+ ['', 'Jan', 'Feb', 'Mar', 'Apr', 'May', 'Jun', 'Jul', 'Aug', 'Sep', 'Oct', 'Nov', 'Dec']
.. data:: JANUARY
FEBRUARY
@@ -470,9 +539,14 @@ The :mod:`calendar` module defines the following exceptions:
.. exception:: IllegalMonthError(month)
- A subclass of :exc:`ValueError`,
+ A subclass of :exc:`ValueError` and :exc:`IndexError`,
raised when the given month number is outside of the range 1-12 (inclusive).
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ :exc:`IllegalMonthError` is now also a subclass of
+ :exc:`ValueError`. New code should avoid catching
+ :exc:`IndexError`.
+
.. attribute:: month
The invalid month number.
diff --git a/Doc/library/cgi.rst b/Doc/library/cgi.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..f9108fa954a906f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/cgi.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+:mod:`!cgi` --- Common Gateway Interface support
+================================================
+
+.. module:: cgi
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+A fork of the module on PyPI can be used instead: :pypi:`legacy-cgi`.
+This is a copy of the cgi module, no longer maintained or supported by the core
+Python team.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!cgi` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/cgi.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/cgitb.rst b/Doc/library/cgitb.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..fc646aa4c48acd0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/cgitb.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+:mod:`!cgitb` --- Traceback manager for CGI scripts
+===================================================
+
+.. module:: cgitb
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+A fork of the module on PyPI can now be used instead: :pypi:`legacy-cgi`.
+This is a copy of the cgi module, no longer maintained or supported by the core
+Python team.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!cgitb` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/cgitb.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/chunk.rst b/Doc/library/chunk.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..9950a0ea70649a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/chunk.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+:mod:`!chunk` --- Read IFF chunked data
+=======================================
+
+.. module:: chunk
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!chunk` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/chunk.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/cmath.rst b/Doc/library/cmath.rst
index fdac51d9603cebe..0f0b823cf36847e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/cmath.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/cmath.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`cmath` --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers
-===========================================================
+:mod:`!cmath` --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers
+============================================================
.. module:: cmath
:synopsis: Mathematical functions for complex numbers.
@@ -38,15 +38,63 @@ the function is then applied to the result of the conversion.
1.4142135623730951j
+==================================================== ============================================
+**Conversions to and from polar coordinates**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:func:`phase(z) <phase>` Return the phase of *z*
+:func:`polar(z) <polar>` Return the representation of *z* in polar coordinates
+:func:`rect(r, phi) <rect>` Return the complex number *z* with polar coordinates *r* and *phi*
+
+**Power and logarithmic functions**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:func:`exp(z) <exp>` Return *e* raised to the power *z*
+:func:`log(z[, base]) <log>` Return the logarithm of *z* to the given *base* (*e* by default)
+:func:`log10(z) <log10>` Return the base-10 logarithm of *z*
+:func:`sqrt(z) <sqrt>` Return the square root of *z*
+
+**Trigonometric functions**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:func:`acos(z) <acos>` Return the arc cosine of *z*
+:func:`asin(z) <asin>` Return the arc sine of *z*
+:func:`atan(z) <atan>` Return the arc tangent of *z*
+:func:`cos(z) <cos>` Return the cosine of *z*
+:func:`sin(z) <sin>` Return the sine of *z*
+:func:`tan(z) <tan>` Return the tangent of *z*
+
+**Hyperbolic functions**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:func:`acosh(z) <acosh>` Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of *z*
+:func:`asinh(z) <asinh>` Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of *z*
+:func:`atanh(z) <atanh>` Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of *z*
+:func:`cosh(z) <cosh>` Return the hyperbolic cosine of *z*
+:func:`sinh(z) <sinh>` Return the hyperbolic sine of *z*
+:func:`tanh(z) <tanh>` Return the hyperbolic tangent of *z*
+
+**Classification functions**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:func:`isfinite(z) <isfinite>` Check if all components of *z* are finite
+:func:`isinf(z) <isinf>` Check if any component of *z* is infinite
+:func:`isnan(z) <isnan>` Check if any component of *z* is a NaN
+:func:`isclose(a, b, *, rel_tol, abs_tol) <isclose>` Check if the values *a* and *b* are close to each other
+
+**Constants**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:data:`pi` *π* = 3.141592...
+:data:`e` *e* = 2.718281...
+:data:`tau` *τ* = 2\ *π* = 6.283185...
+:data:`inf` Positive infinity
+:data:`infj` Pure imaginary infinity
+:data:`nan` "Not a number" (NaN)
+:data:`nanj` Pure imaginary NaN
+==================================================== ============================================
+
+
Conversions to and from polar coordinates
-----------------------------------------
A Python complex number ``z`` is stored internally using *rectangular*
or *Cartesian* coordinates. It is completely determined by its *real
-part* ``z.real`` and its *imaginary part* ``z.imag``. In other
-words::
-
- z == z.real + z.imag*1j
+part* ``z.real`` and its *imaginary part* ``z.imag``.
*Polar coordinates* give an alternative way to represent a complex
number. In polar coordinates, a complex number *z* is defined by the
@@ -58,13 +106,13 @@ segment that joins the origin to *z*.
The following functions can be used to convert from the native
rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates and back.
-.. function:: phase(x)
+.. function:: phase(z)
- Return the phase of *x* (also known as the *argument* of *x*), as a float.
- ``phase(x)`` is equivalent to ``math.atan2(x.imag, x.real)``. The result
+ Return the phase of *z* (also known as the *argument* of *z*), as a float.
+ ``phase(z)`` is equivalent to ``math.atan2(z.imag, z.real)``. The result
lies in the range [-\ *π*, *π*], and the branch cut for this operation lies
along the negative real axis. The sign of the result is the same as the
- sign of ``x.imag``, even when ``x.imag`` is zero::
+ sign of ``z.imag``, even when ``z.imag`` is zero::
>>> phase(complex(-1.0, 0.0))
3.141592653589793
@@ -74,147 +122,147 @@ rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates and back.
.. note::
- The modulus (absolute value) of a complex number *x* can be
+ The modulus (absolute value) of a complex number *z* can be
computed using the built-in :func:`abs` function. There is no
separate :mod:`cmath` module function for this operation.
-.. function:: polar(x)
+.. function:: polar(z)
- Return the representation of *x* in polar coordinates. Returns a
- pair ``(r, phi)`` where *r* is the modulus of *x* and phi is the
- phase of *x*. ``polar(x)`` is equivalent to ``(abs(x),
- phase(x))``.
+ Return the representation of *z* in polar coordinates. Returns a
+ pair ``(r, phi)`` where *r* is the modulus of *z* and *phi* is the
+ phase of *z*. ``polar(z)`` is equivalent to ``(abs(z),
+ phase(z))``.
.. function:: rect(r, phi)
- Return the complex number *x* with polar coordinates *r* and *phi*.
- Equivalent to ``r * (math.cos(phi) + math.sin(phi)*1j)``.
+ Return the complex number *z* with polar coordinates *r* and *phi*.
+ Equivalent to ``complex(r * math.cos(phi), r * math.sin(phi))``.
Power and logarithmic functions
-------------------------------
-.. function:: exp(x)
+.. function:: exp(z)
- Return *e* raised to the power *x*, where *e* is the base of natural
+ Return *e* raised to the power *z*, where *e* is the base of natural
logarithms.
-.. function:: log(x[, base])
+.. function:: log(z[, base])
- Returns the logarithm of *x* to the given *base*. If the *base* is not
- specified, returns the natural logarithm of *x*. There is one branch cut,
+ Return the logarithm of *z* to the given *base*. If the *base* is not
+ specified, returns the natural logarithm of *z*. There is one branch cut,
from 0 along the negative real axis to -∞.
-.. function:: log10(x)
+.. function:: log10(z)
- Return the base-10 logarithm of *x*. This has the same branch cut as
+ Return the base-10 logarithm of *z*. This has the same branch cut as
:func:`log`.
-.. function:: sqrt(x)
+.. function:: sqrt(z)
- Return the square root of *x*. This has the same branch cut as :func:`log`.
+ Return the square root of *z*. This has the same branch cut as :func:`log`.
Trigonometric functions
-----------------------
-.. function:: acos(x)
+.. function:: acos(z)
- Return the arc cosine of *x*. There are two branch cuts: One extends right
+ Return the arc cosine of *z*. There are two branch cuts: One extends right
from 1 along the real axis to ∞. The other extends left from -1 along the
real axis to -∞.
-.. function:: asin(x)
+.. function:: asin(z)
- Return the arc sine of *x*. This has the same branch cuts as :func:`acos`.
+ Return the arc sine of *z*. This has the same branch cuts as :func:`acos`.
-.. function:: atan(x)
+.. function:: atan(z)
- Return the arc tangent of *x*. There are two branch cuts: One extends from
+ Return the arc tangent of *z*. There are two branch cuts: One extends from
``1j`` along the imaginary axis to ``∞j``. The other extends from ``-1j``
along the imaginary axis to ``-∞j``.
-.. function:: cos(x)
+.. function:: cos(z)
- Return the cosine of *x*.
+ Return the cosine of *z*.
-.. function:: sin(x)
+.. function:: sin(z)
- Return the sine of *x*.
+ Return the sine of *z*.
-.. function:: tan(x)
+.. function:: tan(z)
- Return the tangent of *x*.
+ Return the tangent of *z*.
Hyperbolic functions
--------------------
-.. function:: acosh(x)
+.. function:: acosh(z)
- Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of *x*. There is one branch cut,
+ Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of *z*. There is one branch cut,
extending left from 1 along the real axis to -∞.
-.. function:: asinh(x)
+.. function:: asinh(z)
- Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of *x*. There are two branch cuts:
+ Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of *z*. There are two branch cuts:
One extends from ``1j`` along the imaginary axis to ``∞j``. The other
extends from ``-1j`` along the imaginary axis to ``-∞j``.
-.. function:: atanh(x)
+.. function:: atanh(z)
- Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of *x*. There are two branch cuts: One
+ Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of *z*. There are two branch cuts: One
extends from ``1`` along the real axis to ``∞``. The other extends from
``-1`` along the real axis to ``-∞``.
-.. function:: cosh(x)
+.. function:: cosh(z)
- Return the hyperbolic cosine of *x*.
+ Return the hyperbolic cosine of *z*.
-.. function:: sinh(x)
+.. function:: sinh(z)
- Return the hyperbolic sine of *x*.
+ Return the hyperbolic sine of *z*.
-.. function:: tanh(x)
+.. function:: tanh(z)
- Return the hyperbolic tangent of *x*.
+ Return the hyperbolic tangent of *z*.
Classification functions
------------------------
-.. function:: isfinite(x)
+.. function:: isfinite(z)
- Return ``True`` if both the real and imaginary parts of *x* are finite, and
+ Return ``True`` if both the real and imaginary parts of *z* are finite, and
``False`` otherwise.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
-.. function:: isinf(x)
+.. function:: isinf(z)
- Return ``True`` if either the real or the imaginary part of *x* is an
+ Return ``True`` if either the real or the imaginary part of *z* is an
infinity, and ``False`` otherwise.
-.. function:: isnan(x)
+.. function:: isnan(z)
- Return ``True`` if either the real or the imaginary part of *x* is a NaN,
+ Return ``True`` if either the real or the imaginary part of *z* is a NaN,
and ``False`` otherwise.
@@ -224,19 +272,21 @@ Classification functions
``False`` otherwise.
Whether or not two values are considered close is determined according to
- given absolute and relative tolerances.
+ given absolute and relative tolerances. If no errors occur, the result will
+ be: ``abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a), abs(b)), abs_tol)``.
*rel_tol* is the relative tolerance -- it is the maximum allowed difference
between *a* and *b*, relative to the larger absolute value of *a* or *b*.
For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass ``rel_tol=0.05``. The default
tolerance is ``1e-09``, which assures that the two values are the same
- within about 9 decimal digits. *rel_tol* must be greater than zero.
-
- *abs_tol* is the minimum absolute tolerance -- useful for comparisons near
- zero. *abs_tol* must be at least zero.
+ within about 9 decimal digits. *rel_tol* must be nonnegative and less
+ than ``1.0``.
- If no errors occur, the result will be:
- ``abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a), abs(b)), abs_tol)``.
+ *abs_tol* is the absolute tolerance; it defaults to ``0.0`` and it must be
+ nonnegative. When comparing ``x`` to ``0.0``, ``isclose(x, 0)`` is computed
+ as ``abs(x) <= rel_tol * abs(x)``, which is ``False`` for any ``x`` and
+ rel_tol less than ``1.0``. So add an appropriate positive abs_tol argument
+ to the call.
The IEEE 754 special values of ``NaN``, ``inf``, and ``-inf`` will be
handled according to IEEE rules. Specifically, ``NaN`` is not considered
@@ -288,7 +338,7 @@ Constants
.. data:: nan
A floating-point "not a number" (NaN) value. Equivalent to
- ``float('nan')``.
+ ``float('nan')``. See also :data:`math.nan`.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
diff --git a/Doc/library/cmd.rst b/Doc/library/cmd.rst
index 39ef4b481478d1f..66544f82f6ff3f2 100644
--- a/Doc/library/cmd.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/cmd.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`cmd` --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters
-=============================================================
+:mod:`!cmd` --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters
+==============================================================
.. module:: cmd
:synopsis: Build line-oriented command interpreters.
diff --git a/Doc/library/cmdline.rst b/Doc/library/cmdline.rst
index 5174515ffc23edd..5eca161e2282aa1 100644
--- a/Doc/library/cmdline.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/cmdline.rst
@@ -13,22 +13,22 @@ The following modules have a command-line interface.
* :mod:`cProfile`: see :ref:`profile <profile-cli>`
* :ref:`difflib <difflib-interface>`
* :ref:`dis <dis-cli>`
-* :mod:`doctest`
+* :ref:`doctest <doctest-cli>`
* :mod:`!encodings.rot_13`
-* :mod:`ensurepip`
+* :ref:`ensurepip <ensurepip-cli>`
* :mod:`filecmp`
* :mod:`fileinput`
* :mod:`ftplib`
* :ref:`gzip <gzip-cli>`
* :ref:`http.server <http-server-cli>`
-* :mod:`!idlelib`
+* :ref:`idlelib <idlelib-cli>`
* :ref:`inspect <inspect-module-cli>`
* :ref:`json.tool <json-commandline>`
* :mod:`mimetypes`
-* :mod:`pdb`
+* :ref:`pdb <pdb-cli>`
* :mod:`pickle`
* :ref:`pickletools <pickletools-cli>`
-* :mod:`platform`
+* :ref:`platform <platform-cli>`
* :mod:`poplib`
* :ref:`profile <profile-cli>`
* :mod:`pstats`
@@ -40,6 +40,7 @@ The following modules have a command-line interface.
* :mod:`runpy`
* :ref:`site <site-commandline>`
* :ref:`sqlite3 <sqlite3-cli>`
+* :ref:`symtable <symtable-cli>`
* :ref:`sysconfig <sysconfig-cli>`
* :mod:`tabnanny`
* :ref:`tarfile <tarfile-commandline>`
@@ -50,8 +51,8 @@ The following modules have a command-line interface.
* :mod:`turtledemo`
* :ref:`unittest <unittest-command-line-interface>`
* :ref:`uuid <uuid-cli>`
-* :mod:`venv`
-* :mod:`webbrowser`
+* :ref:`venv <venv-cli>`
+* :ref:`webbrowser <webbrowser-cli>`
* :ref:`zipapp <zipapp-command-line-interface>`
* :ref:`zipfile <zipfile-commandline>`
diff --git a/Doc/library/cmdlinelibs.rst b/Doc/library/cmdlinelibs.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..32f8c2c9f4ae326
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/cmdlinelibs.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+.. _cmdlinelibs:
+
+********************************
+Command-line interface libraries
+********************************
+
+The modules described in this chapter assist with implementing
+command line and terminal interfaces for applications.
+
+Here's an overview:
+
+.. toctree::
+ :maxdepth: 1
+
+ argparse.rst
+ optparse.rst
+ getpass.rst
+ fileinput.rst
+ curses.rst
+ curses.ascii.rst
+ curses.panel.rst
+ cmd.rst
diff --git a/Doc/library/code.rst b/Doc/library/code.rst
index 8cb604cf48ff0b8..52587c4dd8f8e87 100644
--- a/Doc/library/code.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/code.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`code` --- Interpreter base classes
-========================================
+:mod:`!code` --- Interpreter base classes
+=========================================
.. module:: code
:synopsis: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops.
@@ -18,16 +18,22 @@ build applications which provide an interactive interpreter prompt.
This class deals with parsing and interpreter state (the user's namespace); it
does not deal with input buffering or prompting or input file naming (the
filename is always passed in explicitly). The optional *locals* argument
- specifies the dictionary in which code will be executed; it defaults to a newly
- created dictionary with key ``'__name__'`` set to ``'__console__'`` and key
- ``'__doc__'`` set to ``None``.
+ specifies a mapping to use as the namespace in which code will be executed;
+ it defaults to a newly created dictionary with key ``'__name__'`` set to
+ ``'__console__'`` and key ``'__doc__'`` set to ``None``.
+
+ Note that functions and classes objects created under an
+ :class:`!InteractiveInterpreter` instance will belong to the namespace
+ specified by *locals*.
+ They are only pickleable if *locals* is the namespace of an existing
+ module.
.. class:: InteractiveConsole(locals=None, filename="<console>", local_exit=False)
Closely emulate the behavior of the interactive Python interpreter. This class
builds on :class:`InteractiveInterpreter` and adds prompting using the familiar
- ``sys.ps1`` and ``sys.ps2``, and input buffering. If *local_exit* is True,
+ ``sys.ps1`` and ``sys.ps2``, and input buffering. If *local_exit* is true,
``exit()`` and ``quit()`` in the console will not raise :exc:`SystemExit`, but
instead return to the calling code.
diff --git a/Doc/library/codecs.rst b/Doc/library/codecs.rst
index 010ae25557a9c95..417b4546c1f1eb8 100644
--- a/Doc/library/codecs.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/codecs.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`codecs` --- Codec registry and base classes
-=================================================
+:mod:`!codecs` --- Codec registry and base classes
+==================================================
.. module:: codecs
:synopsis: Encode and decode data and streams.
@@ -53,6 +53,14 @@ any codec:
:exc:`UnicodeDecodeError`). Refer to :ref:`codec-base-classes` for more
information on codec error handling.
+.. function:: charmap_build(string)
+
+ Return a mapping suitable for encoding with a custom single-byte encoding.
+ Given a :class:`str` *string* of up to 256 characters representing a
+ decoding table, returns either a compact internal mapping object
+ ``EncodingMap`` or a :class:`dictionary <dict>` mapping character ordinals
+ to byte values. Raises a :exc:`TypeError` on invalid input.
+
The full details for each codec can also be looked up directly:
.. function:: lookup(encoding)
@@ -231,8 +239,8 @@ wider range of codecs when working with binary files:
.. function:: iterencode(iterator, encoding, errors='strict', **kwargs)
Uses an incremental encoder to iteratively encode the input provided by
- *iterator*. This function is a :term:`generator`.
- The *errors* argument (as well as any
+ *iterator*. *iterator* must yield :class:`str` objects.
+ This function is a :term:`generator`. The *errors* argument (as well as any
other keyword argument) is passed through to the incremental encoder.
This function requires that the codec accept text :class:`str` objects
@@ -243,8 +251,8 @@ wider range of codecs when working with binary files:
.. function:: iterdecode(iterator, encoding, errors='strict', **kwargs)
Uses an incremental decoder to iteratively decode the input provided by
- *iterator*. This function is a :term:`generator`.
- The *errors* argument (as well as any
+ *iterator*. *iterator* must yield :class:`bytes` objects.
+ This function is a :term:`generator`. The *errors* argument (as well as any
other keyword argument) is passed through to the incremental decoder.
This function requires that the codec accept :class:`bytes` objects
@@ -253,6 +261,20 @@ wider range of codecs when working with binary files:
:func:`iterencode`.
+.. function:: readbuffer_encode(buffer, errors=None, /)
+
+ Return a :class:`tuple` containing the raw bytes of *buffer*, a
+ :ref:`buffer-compatible object <bufferobjects>` or :class:`str`
+ (encoded to UTF-8 before processing), and their length in bytes.
+
+ The *errors* argument is ignored.
+
+ .. code-block:: pycon
+
+ >>> codecs.readbuffer_encode(b"Zito")
+ (b'Zito', 4)
+
+
The module also provides the following constants which are useful for reading
and writing to platform dependent files:
@@ -956,17 +978,22 @@ defined in Unicode. A simple and straightforward way that can store each Unicode
code point, is to store each code point as four consecutive bytes. There are two
possibilities: store the bytes in big endian or in little endian order. These
two encodings are called ``UTF-32-BE`` and ``UTF-32-LE`` respectively. Their
-disadvantage is that if e.g. you use ``UTF-32-BE`` on a little endian machine you
-will always have to swap bytes on encoding and decoding. ``UTF-32`` avoids this
-problem: bytes will always be in natural endianness. When these bytes are read
-by a CPU with a different endianness, then bytes have to be swapped though. To
-be able to detect the endianness of a ``UTF-16`` or ``UTF-32`` byte sequence,
-there's the so called BOM ("Byte Order Mark"). This is the Unicode character
-``U+FEFF``. This character can be prepended to every ``UTF-16`` or ``UTF-32``
-byte sequence. The byte swapped version of this character (``0xFFFE``) is an
-illegal character that may not appear in a Unicode text. So when the
-first character in a ``UTF-16`` or ``UTF-32`` byte sequence
-appears to be a ``U+FFFE`` the bytes have to be swapped on decoding.
+disadvantage is that if, for example, you use ``UTF-32-BE`` on a little endian
+machine you will always have to swap bytes on encoding and decoding.
+Python's ``UTF-16`` and ``UTF-32`` codecs avoid this problem by using the
+platform's native byte order when no BOM is present.
+Python follows prevailing platform
+practice, so native-endian data round-trips without redundant byte swapping,
+even though the Unicode Standard defaults to big-endian when the byte order is
+unspecified. When these bytes are read by a CPU with a different endianness,
+the bytes have to be swapped. To be able to detect the endianness of a
+``UTF-16`` or ``UTF-32`` byte sequence, a BOM ("Byte Order Mark") is used.
+This is the Unicode character ``U+FEFF``. This character can be prepended to every
+``UTF-16`` or ``UTF-32`` byte sequence. The byte swapped version of this character
+(``0xFFFE``) is an illegal character that may not appear in a Unicode text.
+When the first character of a ``UTF-16`` or ``UTF-32`` byte sequence is
+``U+FFFE``, the bytes have to be swapped on decoding.
+
Unfortunately the character ``U+FEFF`` had a second purpose as
a ``ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE``: a character that has no width and doesn't allow
a word to be split. It can e.g. be used to give hints to a ligature algorithm.
@@ -1039,8 +1066,15 @@ or with dictionaries as mapping tables. The following table lists the codecs by
name, together with a few common aliases, and the languages for which the
encoding is likely used. Neither the list of aliases nor the list of languages
is meant to be exhaustive. Notice that spelling alternatives that only differ in
-case or use a hyphen instead of an underscore are also valid aliases; therefore,
-e.g. ``'utf-8'`` is a valid alias for the ``'utf_8'`` codec.
+case or use a hyphen instead of an underscore are also valid aliases
+because they are equivalent when normalized by
+:func:`~encodings.normalize_encoding`. For example, ``'utf-8'`` is a valid
+alias for the ``'utf_8'`` codec.
+
+.. note::
+
+ The below table lists the most common aliases, for a complete list
+ refer to the source :source:`aliases.py <Lib/encodings/aliases.py>` file.
.. impl-detail::
@@ -1103,14 +1137,14 @@ particular, the following variants typically exist:
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
| cp852 | 852, IBM852 | Central and Eastern Europe |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
-| cp855 | 855, IBM855 | Bulgarian, Byelorussian, |
+| cp855 | 855, IBM855 | Belarusian, Bulgarian, |
| | | Macedonian, Russian, Serbian |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
| cp856 | | Hebrew |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
| cp857 | 857, IBM857 | Turkish |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
-| cp858 | 858, IBM858 | Western Europe |
+| cp858 | 858, IBM00858 | Western Europe |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
| cp860 | 860, IBM860 | Portuguese |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
@@ -1147,11 +1181,11 @@ particular, the following variants typically exist:
| | | |
| | | .. versionadded:: 3.4 |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
-| cp1140 | ibm1140 | Western Europe |
+| cp1140 | IBM01140 | Western Europe |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
| cp1250 | windows-1250 | Central and Eastern Europe |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
-| cp1251 | windows-1251 | Bulgarian, Byelorussian, |
+| cp1251 | windows-1251 | Belarusian, Bulgarian, |
| | | Macedonian, Russian, Serbian |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
| cp1252 | windows-1252 | Western Europe |
@@ -1214,9 +1248,9 @@ particular, the following variants typically exist:
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
| iso8859_3 | iso-8859-3, latin3, L3 | Esperanto, Maltese |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
-| iso8859_4 | iso-8859-4, latin4, L4 | Baltic languages |
+| iso8859_4 | iso-8859-4, latin4, L4 | Northern Europe |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
-| iso8859_5 | iso-8859-5, cyrillic | Bulgarian, Byelorussian, |
+| iso8859_5 | iso-8859-5, cyrillic | Belarusian, Bulgarian, |
| | | Macedonian, Russian, Serbian |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
| iso8859_6 | iso-8859-6, arabic | Arabic |
@@ -1253,7 +1287,7 @@ particular, the following variants typically exist:
| | | |
| | | .. versionadded:: 3.5 |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
-| mac_cyrillic | maccyrillic | Bulgarian, Byelorussian, |
+| mac_cyrillic | maccyrillic | Belarusian, Bulgarian, |
| | | Macedonian, Russian, Serbian |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
| mac_greek | macgreek | Greek |
@@ -1335,6 +1369,15 @@ encodings.
| | | :mod:`encodings.idna`. |
| | | Only ``errors='strict'`` |
| | | is supported. |
+| | | |
+| | | .. warning:: |
+| | | |
+| | | This codec builds on |
+| | | ``punycode``, whose |
+| | | algorithms scale |
+| | | poorly, so limit the |
+| | | length of untrusted |
+| | | input. |
+--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
| mbcs | ansi, | Windows only: Encode the |
| | dbcs | operand according to the |
@@ -1351,6 +1394,14 @@ encodings.
| punycode | | Implement :rfc:`3492`. |
| | | Stateful codecs are not |
| | | supported. |
+| | | |
+| | | .. warning:: |
+| | | |
+| | | The decoding and |
+| | | encoding algorithms |
+| | | scale poorly, so |
+| | | limit the length of |
+| | | untrusted input. |
+--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
| raw_unicode_escape | | Latin-1 encoding with |
| | | :samp:`\\u{XXXX}` and |
@@ -1362,7 +1413,11 @@ encodings.
| | | It is used in the Python |
| | | pickle protocol. |
+--------------------+---------+---------------------------+
-| undefined | | Raise an exception for |
+| undefined | | This Codec should only |
+| | | be used for testing |
+| | | purposes. |
+| | | |
+| | | Raise an exception for |
| | | all conversions, even |
| | | empty strings. The error |
| | | handler is ignored. |
@@ -1439,6 +1494,36 @@ to :class:`bytes` mappings. They are not supported by :meth:`bytes.decode`
Restoration of the aliases for the binary transforms.
+.. _standalone-codec-functions:
+
+Standalone Codec Functions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following functions provide encoding and decoding functionality similar to codecs,
+but are not available as named codecs through :func:`codecs.encode` or :func:`codecs.decode`.
+They are used internally (for example, by :mod:`pickle`) and behave similarly to the
+``string_escape`` codec that was removed in Python 3.
+
+.. function:: codecs.escape_encode(input, errors=None)
+
+ Encode *input* using escape sequences. Similar to how :func:`repr` on bytes
+ produces escaped byte values.
+
+ *input* must be a :class:`bytes` object.
+
+ Returns a tuple ``(output, length)`` where *output* is a :class:`bytes`
+ object and *length* is the number of bytes consumed.
+
+.. function:: codecs.escape_decode(input, errors=None)
+
+ Decode *input* from escape sequences back to the original bytes.
+
+ *input* must be a :term:`bytes-like object`.
+
+ Returns a tuple ``(output, length)`` where *output* is a :class:`bytes`
+ object and *length* is the number of bytes consumed.
+
+
.. _text-transforms:
Text Transforms
@@ -1465,6 +1550,54 @@ mapping. It is not supported by :meth:`str.encode` (which only produces
Restoration of the ``rot13`` alias.
+:mod:`encodings` --- Encodings package
+--------------------------------------
+
+.. module:: encodings
+ :synopsis: Encodings package
+
+This module implements the following functions:
+
+.. function:: normalize_encoding(encoding)
+
+ Normalize encoding name *encoding*.
+
+ Normalization works as follows: all non-alphanumeric characters except the
+ dot used for Python package names are collapsed and replaced with a single
+ underscore, leading and trailing underscores are removed.
+ For example, ``' -;#'`` becomes ``'_'``.
+
+ Note that *encoding* should be ASCII only.
+
+
+.. note::
+ The following function should not be used directly, except for testing
+ purposes; :func:`codecs.lookup` should be used instead.
+
+
+.. function:: search_function(encoding)
+
+ Search for the codec module corresponding to the given encoding name
+ *encoding*.
+
+ This function first normalizes the *encoding* using
+ :func:`normalize_encoding`, then looks for a corresponding alias.
+ It attempts to import a codec module from the encodings package using either
+ the alias or the normalized name. If the module is found and defines a valid
+ ``getregentry()`` function that returns a :class:`codecs.CodecInfo` object,
+ the codec is cached and returned.
+
+ If the codec module defines a ``getaliases()`` function any returned aliases
+ are registered for future use.
+
+
+This module implements the following exception:
+
+.. exception:: CodecRegistryError
+
+ Raised when a codec is invalid or incompatible.
+
+
:mod:`encodings.idna` --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications
------------------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -1477,6 +1610,11 @@ Applications) and :rfc:`3492` (Nameprep: A Stringprep Profile for
Internationalized Domain Names (IDN)). It builds upon the ``punycode`` encoding
and :mod:`stringprep`.
+.. warning::
+
+ This module builds on ``punycode``, whose algorithms scale poorly, so limit
+ the length of untrusted input.
+
If you need the IDNA 2008 standard from :rfc:`5891` and :rfc:`5895`, use the
third-party :pypi:`idna` module.
diff --git a/Doc/library/codeop.rst b/Doc/library/codeop.rst
index 55606e1c5f09ac2..16f674adb4b22bb 100644
--- a/Doc/library/codeop.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/codeop.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`codeop` --- Compile Python code
-=====================================
+:mod:`!codeop` --- Compile Python code
+======================================
.. module:: codeop
:synopsis: Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code.
diff --git a/Doc/library/collections.abc.rst b/Doc/library/collections.abc.rst
index 7bcaba60c6ddbd9..213c79cc41494c5 100644
--- a/Doc/library/collections.abc.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/collections.abc.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`collections.abc` --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers
-===============================================================
+:mod:`!collections.abc` --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers
+================================================================
.. module:: collections.abc
:synopsis: Abstract base classes for containers
@@ -28,81 +28,80 @@ An :func:`issubclass` or :func:`isinstance` test for an interface works in one
of three ways.
1) A newly written class can inherit directly from one of the
-abstract base classes. The class must supply the required abstract
-methods. The remaining mixin methods come from inheritance and can be
-overridden if desired. Other methods may be added as needed:
+ abstract base classes. The class must supply the required abstract
+ methods. The remaining mixin methods come from inheritance and can be
+ overridden if desired. Other methods may be added as needed:
-.. testcode::
+ .. testcode::
- class C(Sequence): # Direct inheritance
- def __init__(self): ... # Extra method not required by the ABC
- def __getitem__(self, index): ... # Required abstract method
- def __len__(self): ... # Required abstract method
- def count(self, value): ... # Optionally override a mixin method
+ class C(Sequence): # Direct inheritance
+ def __init__(self): ... # Extra method not required by the ABC
+ def __getitem__(self, index): ... # Required abstract method
+ def __len__(self): ... # Required abstract method
+ def count(self, value): ... # Optionally override a mixin method
-.. doctest::
+ .. doctest::
- >>> issubclass(C, Sequence)
- True
- >>> isinstance(C(), Sequence)
- True
+ >>> issubclass(C, Sequence)
+ True
+ >>> isinstance(C(), Sequence)
+ True
2) Existing classes and built-in classes can be registered as "virtual
-subclasses" of the ABCs. Those classes should define the full API
-including all of the abstract methods and all of the mixin methods.
-This lets users rely on :func:`issubclass` or :func:`isinstance` tests
-to determine whether the full interface is supported. The exception to
-this rule is for methods that are automatically inferred from the rest
-of the API:
+ subclasses" of the ABCs. Those classes should define the full API
+ including all of the abstract methods and all of the mixin methods.
+ This lets users rely on :func:`issubclass` or :func:`isinstance` tests
+ to determine whether the full interface is supported. The exception to
+ this rule is for methods that are automatically inferred from the rest
+ of the API:
-.. testcode::
+ .. testcode::
- class D: # No inheritance
- def __init__(self): ... # Extra method not required by the ABC
- def __getitem__(self, index): ... # Abstract method
- def __len__(self): ... # Abstract method
- def count(self, value): ... # Mixin method
- def index(self, value): ... # Mixin method
+ class D: # No inheritance
+ def __init__(self): ... # Extra method not required by the ABC
+ def __getitem__(self, index): ... # Abstract method
+ def __len__(self): ... # Abstract method
+ def count(self, value): ... # Mixin method
+ def index(self, value): ... # Mixin method
- Sequence.register(D) # Register instead of inherit
+ Sequence.register(D) # Register instead of inherit
-.. doctest::
+ .. doctest::
- >>> issubclass(D, Sequence)
- True
- >>> isinstance(D(), Sequence)
- True
+ >>> issubclass(D, Sequence)
+ True
+ >>> isinstance(D(), Sequence)
+ True
-In this example, class :class:`!D` does not need to define
-``__contains__``, ``__iter__``, and ``__reversed__`` because the
-:ref:`in-operator <comparisons>`, the :term:`iteration <iterable>`
-logic, and the :func:`reversed` function automatically fall back to
-using ``__getitem__`` and ``__len__``.
+ In this example, class :class:`!D` does not need to define
+ ``__contains__``, ``__iter__``, and ``__reversed__`` because the
+ :ref:`in-operator <comparisons>`, the :term:`iteration <iterable>`
+ logic, and the :func:`reversed` function automatically fall back to
+ using ``__getitem__`` and ``__len__``.
3) Some simple interfaces are directly recognizable by the presence of
-the required methods (unless those methods have been set to
-:const:`None`):
+ the required methods (unless those methods have been set to :const:`None`):
-.. testcode::
+ .. testcode::
- class E:
- def __iter__(self): ...
- def __next__(self): ...
+ class E:
+ def __iter__(self): ...
+ def __next__(self): ...
-.. doctest::
+ .. doctest::
- >>> issubclass(E, Iterable)
- True
- >>> isinstance(E(), Iterable)
- True
+ >>> issubclass(E, Iterable)
+ True
+ >>> isinstance(E(), Iterable)
+ True
-Complex interfaces do not support this last technique because an
-interface is more than just the presence of method names. Interfaces
-specify semantics and relationships between methods that cannot be
-inferred solely from the presence of specific method names. For
-example, knowing that a class supplies ``__getitem__``, ``__len__``, and
-``__iter__`` is insufficient for distinguishing a :class:`Sequence` from
-a :class:`Mapping`.
+ Complex interfaces do not support this last technique because an
+ interface is more than just the presence of method names. Interfaces
+ specify semantics and relationships between methods that cannot be
+ inferred solely from the presence of specific method names. For
+ example, knowing that a class supplies ``__getitem__``, ``__len__``, and
+ ``__iter__`` is insufficient for distinguishing a :class:`Sequence` from
+ a :class:`Mapping`.
.. versionadded:: 3.9
These abstract classes now support ``[]``. See :ref:`types-genericalias`
@@ -146,7 +145,8 @@ ABC Inherits from Abstract Methods Mi
:class:`Set` :class:`Collection` ``__contains__``, ``__le__``, ``__lt__``, ``__eq__``, ``__ne__``,
``__iter__``, ``__gt__``, ``__ge__``, ``__and__``, ``__or__``,
- ``__len__`` ``__sub__``, ``__xor__``, and ``isdisjoint``
+ ``__len__`` ``__sub__``, ``__rsub__``, ``__xor__``, ``__rxor__``
+ and ``isdisjoint``
:class:`MutableSet` :class:`Set` ``__contains__``, Inherited :class:`Set` methods and
``__iter__``, ``clear``, ``pop``, ``remove``, ``__ior__``,
@@ -165,7 +165,7 @@ ABC Inherits from Abstract Methods Mi
``__len__``
-:class:`MappingView` :class:`Sized` ``__len__``
+:class:`MappingView` :class:`Sized` ``__init__``, ``__len__`` and ``__repr__``
:class:`ItemsView` :class:`MappingView`, ``__contains__``,
:class:`Set` ``__iter__``
:class:`KeysView` :class:`MappingView`, ``__contains__``,
@@ -216,6 +216,9 @@ Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions
ABC for classes that provide the :meth:`~object.__call__` method.
+ See :ref:`annotating-callables` for details on how to use
+ :class:`!Callable` in type annotations.
+
.. class:: Iterable
ABC for classes that provide the :meth:`~container.__iter__` method.
@@ -253,6 +256,9 @@ Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions
:meth:`~generator.send`,
:meth:`~generator.throw` and :meth:`~generator.close` methods.
+ See :ref:`annotating-generators-and-coroutines`
+ for details on using :class:`!Generator` in type annotations.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. class:: Sequence
@@ -262,23 +268,45 @@ Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions
ABCs for read-only and mutable :term:`sequences <sequence>`.
Implementation note: Some of the mixin methods, such as
- :meth:`~container.__iter__`, :meth:`~object.__reversed__` and :meth:`index`, make
- repeated calls to the underlying :meth:`~object.__getitem__` method.
+ :meth:`~container.__iter__`, :meth:`~object.__reversed__`,
+ and :meth:`~sequence.index` make repeated calls to the underlying
+ :meth:`~object.__getitem__` method.
Consequently, if :meth:`~object.__getitem__` is implemented with constant
access speed, the mixin methods will have linear performance;
however, if the underlying method is linear (as it would be with a
linked list), the mixins will have quadratic performance and will
likely need to be overridden.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.5
- The index() method added support for *stop* and *start*
- arguments.
+ .. method:: index(value, start=0, stop=None)
+
+ Return first index of *value*.
+
+ Raises :exc:`ValueError` if the value is not present.
+
+ Supporting the *start* and *stop* arguments is optional, but recommended.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ The :meth:`~sequence.index` method gained support for
+ the *stop* and *start* arguments.
- .. deprecated-removed:: 3.12 3.14
+ .. deprecated-removed:: 3.12 3.17
The :class:`ByteString` ABC has been deprecated.
- For use in typing, prefer a union, like ``bytes | bytearray``, or
- :class:`collections.abc.Buffer`.
- For use as an ABC, prefer :class:`Sequence` or :class:`collections.abc.Buffer`.
+
+ Use ``isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)`` to test if ``obj``
+ implements the :ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>` at runtime. For use
+ in type annotations, either use :class:`Buffer` or a union that
+ explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g.,
+ ``bytes | bytearray | memoryview``).
+
+ :class:`!ByteString` was originally intended to be an abstract class that
+ would serve as a supertype of both :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`.
+ However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was
+ an instance of :class:`!ByteString` never actually told you anything
+ useful about the object. Other common buffer types such as
+ :class:`memoryview` were also never understood as subtypes of
+ :class:`!ByteString` (either at runtime or by static type checkers).
+
+ See :pep:`PEP 688 <688#current-options>` for more details.
.. class:: Set
MutableSet
@@ -308,7 +336,7 @@ Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions
.. note::
In CPython, generator-based coroutines (:term:`generators <generator>`
- decorated with :func:`@types.coroutine <types.coroutine>`) are
+ decorated with :deco:`types.coroutine`) are
*awaitables*, even though they do not have an :meth:`~object.__await__` method.
Using ``isinstance(gencoro, Awaitable)`` for them will return ``False``.
Use :func:`inspect.isawaitable` to detect them.
@@ -326,11 +354,16 @@ Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions
.. note::
In CPython, generator-based coroutines (:term:`generators <generator>`
- decorated with :func:`@types.coroutine <types.coroutine>`) are
+ decorated with :deco:`types.coroutine`) are
*awaitables*, even though they do not have an :meth:`~object.__await__` method.
Using ``isinstance(gencoro, Coroutine)`` for them will return ``False``.
Use :func:`inspect.isawaitable` to detect them.
+ See :ref:`annotating-generators-and-coroutines`
+ for details on using :class:`!Coroutine` in type annotations.
+ The variance and order of type parameters correspond to those of
+ :class:`Generator`.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. class:: AsyncIterable
@@ -352,6 +385,9 @@ Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions
ABC for :term:`asynchronous generator` classes that implement the protocol
defined in :pep:`525` and :pep:`492`.
+ See :ref:`annotating-generators-and-coroutines`
+ for details on using :class:`!AsyncGenerator` in type annotations.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.6
.. class:: Buffer
@@ -423,7 +459,7 @@ Notes on using :class:`Set` and :class:`MutableSet` as a mixin:
The :class:`Set` mixin provides a :meth:`!_hash` method to compute a hash value
for the set; however, :meth:`~object.__hash__` is not defined because not all sets
are :term:`hashable` or immutable. To add set hashability using mixins,
- inherit from both :meth:`Set` and :meth:`Hashable`, then define
+ inherit from both :class:`Set` and :class:`Hashable`, then define
``__hash__ = Set._hash``.
.. seealso::
diff --git a/Doc/library/collections.rst b/Doc/library/collections.rst
index 19b89ad79c74140..db5c49c026c17ab 100644
--- a/Doc/library/collections.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/collections.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`collections` --- Container datatypes
-==========================================
+:mod:`!collections` --- Container datatypes
+===========================================
.. module:: collections
:synopsis: Container datatypes
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ The class can be used to simulate nested scopes and is useful in templating.
:func:`super` function. A reference to ``d.parents`` is equivalent to:
``ChainMap(*d.maps[1:])``.
- Note, the iteration order of a :class:`ChainMap()` is determined by
+ Note, the iteration order of a :class:`ChainMap` is determined by
scanning the mappings last to first::
>>> baseline = {'music': 'bach', 'art': 'rembrandt'}
@@ -240,7 +240,9 @@ For example::
[('the', 1143), ('and', 966), ('to', 762), ('of', 669), ('i', 631),
('you', 554), ('a', 546), ('my', 514), ('hamlet', 471), ('in', 451)]
-.. class:: Counter([iterable-or-mapping])
+.. class:: Counter(**kwargs)
+ Counter(iterable, /, **kwargs)
+ Counter(mapping, /, **kwargs)
A :class:`Counter` is a :class:`dict` subclass for counting :term:`hashable` objects.
It is a collection where elements are stored as dictionary keys
@@ -290,7 +292,7 @@ For example::
>>> sorted(c.elements())
['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b']
- .. method:: most_common([n])
+ .. method:: most_common(n=None)
Return a list of the *n* most common elements and their counts from the
most common to the least. If *n* is omitted or ``None``,
@@ -300,7 +302,9 @@ For example::
>>> Counter('abracadabra').most_common(3)
[('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('r', 2)]
- .. method:: subtract([iterable-or-mapping])
+ .. method:: subtract(**kwargs)
+ subtract(iterable, /, **kwargs)
+ subtract(mapping, /, **kwargs)
Elements are subtracted from an *iterable* or from another *mapping*
(or counter). Like :meth:`dict.update` but subtracts counts instead
@@ -331,7 +335,9 @@ For example::
This class method is not implemented for :class:`Counter` objects.
- .. method:: update([iterable-or-mapping])
+ .. method:: update(**kwargs)
+ update(iterable, /, **kwargs)
+ update(mapping, /, **kwargs)
Elements are counted from an *iterable* or added-in from another
*mapping* (or counter). Like :meth:`dict.update` but adds counts
@@ -474,17 +480,19 @@ or subtracting from an empty counter.
Unix. They are also useful for tracking transactions and other pools of data
where only the most recent activity is of interest.
+ Deques are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the type of their contents.
+
Deque objects support the following methods:
- .. method:: append(x)
+ .. method:: append(item, /)
- Add *x* to the right side of the deque.
+ Add *item* to the right side of the deque.
- .. method:: appendleft(x)
+ .. method:: appendleft(item, /)
- Add *x* to the left side of the deque.
+ Add *item* to the left side of the deque.
.. method:: clear()
@@ -499,38 +507,38 @@ or subtracting from an empty counter.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
- .. method:: count(x)
+ .. method:: count(value, /)
- Count the number of deque elements equal to *x*.
+ Count the number of deque elements equal to *value*.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
- .. method:: extend(iterable)
+ .. method:: extend(iterable, /)
Extend the right side of the deque by appending elements from the iterable
argument.
- .. method:: extendleft(iterable)
+ .. method:: extendleft(iterable, /)
Extend the left side of the deque by appending elements from *iterable*.
Note, the series of left appends results in reversing the order of
elements in the iterable argument.
- .. method:: index(x[, start[, stop]])
+ .. method:: index(value[, start[, stop]])
- Return the position of *x* in the deque (at or after index *start*
+ Return the position of *value* in the deque (at or after index *start*
and before index *stop*). Returns the first match or raises
:exc:`ValueError` if not found.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
- .. method:: insert(i, x)
+ .. method:: insert(index, value, /)
- Insert *x* into the deque at position *i*.
+ Insert *value* into the deque at position *index*.
If the insertion would cause a bounded deque to grow beyond *maxlen*,
an :exc:`IndexError` is raised.
@@ -550,7 +558,7 @@ or subtracting from an empty counter.
elements are present, raises an :exc:`IndexError`.
- .. method:: remove(value)
+ .. method:: remove(value, /)
Remove the first occurrence of *value*. If not found, raises a
:exc:`ValueError`.
@@ -563,7 +571,7 @@ or subtracting from an empty counter.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
- .. method:: rotate(n=1)
+ .. method:: rotate(n=1, /)
Rotate the deque *n* steps to the right. If *n* is negative, rotate
to the left.
@@ -715,7 +723,9 @@ stack manipulations such as ``dup``, ``drop``, ``swap``, ``over``, ``pick``,
:class:`defaultdict` objects
----------------------------
-.. class:: defaultdict(default_factory=None, /, [...])
+.. class:: defaultdict(default_factory=None, /, **kwargs)
+ defaultdict(default_factory, mapping, /, **kwargs)
+ defaultdict(default_factory, iterable, /, **kwargs)
Return a new dictionary-like object. :class:`defaultdict` is a subclass of the
built-in :class:`dict` class. It overrides one method and adds one writable
@@ -727,11 +737,14 @@ stack manipulations such as ``dup``, ``drop``, ``swap``, ``over``, ``pick``,
as if they were passed to the :class:`dict` constructor, including keyword
arguments.
+ :class:`!defaultdict`\s are :ref:`generic <generics>` over two types,
+ signifying (respectively) the types of the dictionary's keys and values.
+
:class:`defaultdict` objects support the following method in addition to the
standard :class:`dict` operations:
- .. method:: __missing__(key)
+ .. method:: __missing__(key, /)
If the :attr:`default_factory` attribute is ``None``, this raises a
:exc:`KeyError` exception with the *key* as argument.
@@ -748,8 +761,8 @@ stack manipulations such as ``dup``, ``drop``, ``swap``, ``over``, ``pick``,
returns or raises is then returned or raised by :meth:`~object.__getitem__`.
Note that :meth:`__missing__` is *not* called for any operations besides
- :meth:`~object.__getitem__`. This means that :meth:`get` will, like normal
- dictionaries, return ``None`` as a default rather than using
+ :meth:`~object.__getitem__`. This means that :meth:`~dict.get` will, like
+ normal dictionaries, return ``None`` as a default rather than using
:attr:`default_factory`.
@@ -758,9 +771,9 @@ stack manipulations such as ``dup``, ``drop``, ``swap``, ``over``, ``pick``,
.. attribute:: default_factory
- This attribute is used by the :meth:`__missing__` method; it is
- initialized from the first argument to the constructor, if present, or to
- ``None``, if absent.
+ This attribute is used by the :meth:`~defaultdict.__missing__` method;
+ it is initialized from the first argument to the constructor, if present,
+ or to ``None``, if absent.
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
Added merge (``|``) and update (``|=``) operators, specified in
@@ -849,8 +862,9 @@ they add the ability to access fields by name instead of position index.
Returns a new tuple subclass named *typename*. The new subclass is used to
create tuple-like objects that have fields accessible by attribute lookup as
well as being indexable and iterable. Instances of the subclass also have a
- helpful docstring (with typename and field_names) and a helpful :meth:`__repr__`
- method which lists the tuple contents in a ``name=value`` format.
+ helpful docstring (with *typename* and *field_names*) and a helpful
+ :meth:`~object.__repr__` method which lists the tuple contents in a ``name=value``
+ format.
The *field_names* are a sequence of strings such as ``['x', 'y']``.
Alternatively, *field_names* can be a single string with each fieldname
@@ -874,8 +888,8 @@ they add the ability to access fields by name instead of position index.
``(1, 2)``, then ``x`` will be a required argument, ``y`` will default to
``1``, and ``z`` will default to ``2``.
- If *module* is defined, the ``__module__`` attribute of the named tuple is
- set to that value.
+ If *module* is defined, the :attr:`~type.__module__` attribute of the
+ named tuple is set to that value.
Named tuple instances do not have per-instance dictionaries, so they are
lightweight and require no more memory than regular tuples.
@@ -894,10 +908,10 @@ they add the ability to access fields by name instead of position index.
Added the *module* parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- Removed the *verbose* parameter and the :attr:`_source` attribute.
+ Removed the *verbose* parameter and the :attr:`!_source` attribute.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- Added the *defaults* parameter and the :attr:`_field_defaults`
+ Added the *defaults* parameter and the :attr:`~somenamedtuple._field_defaults`
attribute.
.. doctest::
@@ -936,7 +950,7 @@ In addition to the methods inherited from tuples, named tuples support
three additional methods and two attributes. To prevent conflicts with
field names, the method and attribute names start with an underscore.
-.. classmethod:: somenamedtuple._make(iterable)
+.. classmethod:: somenamedtuple._make(iterable, /)
Class method that makes a new instance from an existing sequence or iterable.
@@ -1109,7 +1123,7 @@ Some differences from :class:`dict` still remain:
A regular :class:`dict` can emulate the order sensitive equality test with
``p == q and all(k1 == k2 for k1, k2 in zip(p, q))``.
-* The :meth:`popitem` method of :class:`OrderedDict` has a different
+* The :meth:`~OrderedDict.popitem` method of :class:`OrderedDict` has a different
signature. It accepts an optional argument to specify which item is popped.
A regular :class:`dict` can emulate OrderedDict's ``od.popitem(last=True)``
@@ -1119,7 +1133,7 @@ Some differences from :class:`dict` still remain:
with ``(k := next(iter(d)), d.pop(k))`` which will return and remove the
leftmost (first) item if it exists.
-* :class:`OrderedDict` has a :meth:`move_to_end` method to efficiently
+* :class:`OrderedDict` has a :meth:`~OrderedDict.move_to_end` method to efficiently
reposition an element to an endpoint.
A regular :class:`dict` can emulate OrderedDict's ``od.move_to_end(k,
@@ -1130,10 +1144,12 @@ Some differences from :class:`dict` still remain:
OrderedDict's ``od.move_to_end(k, last=False)`` which moves the key
and its associated value to the leftmost (first) position.
-* Until Python 3.8, :class:`dict` lacked a :meth:`__reversed__` method.
+* Until Python 3.8, :class:`dict` lacked a :meth:`~object.__reversed__` method.
-.. class:: OrderedDict([items])
+.. class:: OrderedDict(**kwargs)
+ OrderedDict(mapping, /, **kwargs)
+ OrderedDict(iterable, /, **kwargs)
Return an instance of a :class:`dict` subclass that has methods
specialized for rearranging dictionary order.
@@ -1169,8 +1185,11 @@ Some differences from :class:`dict` still remain:
In addition to the usual mapping methods, ordered dictionaries also support
reverse iteration using :func:`reversed`.
+.. _collections_OrderedDict__eq__:
+
Equality tests between :class:`OrderedDict` objects are order-sensitive
-and are implemented as ``list(od1.items())==list(od2.items())``.
+and are roughly equivalent to ``list(od1.items())==list(od2.items())``.
+
Equality tests between :class:`OrderedDict` objects and other
:class:`~collections.abc.Mapping` objects are order-insensitive like regular
dictionaries. This allows :class:`OrderedDict` objects to be substituted
@@ -1182,11 +1201,11 @@ anywhere a regular dictionary is used.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
With the acceptance of :pep:`468`, order is retained for keyword arguments
- passed to the :class:`OrderedDict` constructor and its :meth:`update`
+ passed to the :class:`OrderedDict` constructor and its :meth:`~dict.update`
method.
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
- Added merge (``|``) and update (``|=``) operators, specified in :pep:`584`.
+ Added merge (``|``) and update (``|=``) operators, specified in :pep:`584`.
:class:`OrderedDict` Examples and Recipes
@@ -1205,12 +1224,12 @@ original insertion position is changed and moved to the end::
self.move_to_end(key)
An :class:`OrderedDict` would also be useful for implementing
-variants of :func:`functools.lru_cache`:
+variants of :deco:`functools.lru_cache`:
.. testcode::
from collections import OrderedDict
- from time import time
+ from time import monotonic
class TimeBoundedLRU:
"LRU Cache that invalidates and refreshes old entries."
@@ -1225,10 +1244,10 @@ variants of :func:`functools.lru_cache`:
if args in self.cache:
self.cache.move_to_end(args)
timestamp, result = self.cache[args]
- if time() - timestamp <= self.maxage:
+ if monotonic() - timestamp <= self.maxage:
return result
result = self.func(*args)
- self.cache[args] = time(), result
+ self.cache[args] = monotonic(), result
if len(self.cache) > self.maxsize:
self.cache.popitem(last=False)
return result
@@ -1311,16 +1330,17 @@ subclass directly from :class:`dict`; however, this class can be easier
to work with because the underlying dictionary is accessible as an
attribute.
-.. class:: UserDict([initialdata])
+.. class:: UserDict(**kwargs)
+ UserDict(mapping, /, **kwargs)
+ UserDict(iterable, /, **kwargs)
Class that simulates a dictionary. The instance's contents are kept in a
regular dictionary, which is accessible via the :attr:`data` attribute of
- :class:`UserDict` instances. If *initialdata* is provided, :attr:`data` is
- initialized with its contents; note that a reference to *initialdata* will not
- be kept, allowing it to be used for other purposes.
+ :class:`!UserDict` instances. If arguments are provided, they are used to
+ initialize :attr:`data`, like a regular dictionary.
In addition to supporting the methods and operations of mappings,
- :class:`UserDict` instances provide the following attribute:
+ :class:`!UserDict` instances provide the following attribute:
.. attribute:: data
diff --git a/Doc/library/colorsys.rst b/Doc/library/colorsys.rst
index b672a05b39145d4..78b126ebfa6fb4c 100644
--- a/Doc/library/colorsys.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/colorsys.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`colorsys` --- Conversions between color systems
-=====================================================
+:mod:`!colorsys` --- Conversions between color systems
+======================================================
.. module:: colorsys
:synopsis: Conversion functions between RGB and other color systems.
@@ -14,14 +14,14 @@ The :mod:`colorsys` module defines bidirectional conversions of color values
between colors expressed in the RGB (Red Green Blue) color space used in
computer monitors and three other coordinate systems: YIQ, HLS (Hue Lightness
Saturation) and HSV (Hue Saturation Value). Coordinates in all of these color
-spaces are floating point values. In the YIQ space, the Y coordinate is between
+spaces are floating-point values. In the YIQ space, the Y coordinate is between
0 and 1, but the I and Q coordinates can be positive or negative. In all other
spaces, the coordinates are all between 0 and 1.
.. seealso::
More information about color spaces can be found at
- https://poynton.ca/ColorFAQ.html and
+ https://www.poynton.ca/pdf/ColourFAQ.pdf and
https://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/color-spaces.htm.
The :mod:`colorsys` module defines the following functions:
diff --git a/Doc/library/compileall.rst b/Doc/library/compileall.rst
index df1eefab839cc16..ebbbf857e717a4f 100644
--- a/Doc/library/compileall.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/compileall.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`compileall` --- Byte-compile Python libraries
-===================================================
+:mod:`!compileall` --- Byte-compile Python libraries
+====================================================
.. module:: compileall
:synopsis: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree.
@@ -56,11 +56,18 @@ compile Python sources.
executed.
.. option:: -s strip_prefix
+
+ Remove the given prefix from paths recorded in the ``.pyc`` files.
+ Paths are made relative to the prefix.
+
+ This option can be used with ``-p`` but not with ``-d``.
+
.. option:: -p prepend_prefix
- Remove (``-s``) or append (``-p``) the given prefix of paths
- recorded in the ``.pyc`` files.
- Cannot be combined with ``-d``.
+ Prepend the given prefix to paths recorded in the ``.pyc`` files.
+ Use ``-p /`` to make the paths absolute.
+
+ This option can be used with ``-s`` but not with ``-d``.
.. option:: -x regex
@@ -90,7 +97,7 @@ compile Python sources.
.. option:: -j N
Use *N* workers to compile the files within the given directory.
- If ``0`` is used, then the result of :func:`os.process_cpu_count()`
+ If ``0`` is used, then the result of :func:`os.process_cpu_count`
will be used.
.. option:: --invalidation-mode [timestamp|checked-hash|unchecked-hash]
@@ -226,7 +233,7 @@ Public functions
The *invalidation_mode* parameter was added.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7.2
- The *invalidation_mode* parameter's default value is updated to None.
+ The *invalidation_mode* parameter's default value is updated to ``None``.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
Setting *workers* to 0 now chooses the optimal number of cores.
@@ -289,7 +296,7 @@ Public functions
The *invalidation_mode* parameter was added.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7.2
- The *invalidation_mode* parameter's default value is updated to None.
+ The *invalidation_mode* parameter's default value is updated to ``None``.
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
Added *stripdir*, *prependdir*, *limit_sl_dest* and *hardlink_dupes* arguments.
@@ -318,7 +325,7 @@ Public functions
The *invalidation_mode* parameter was added.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7.2
- The *invalidation_mode* parameter's default value is updated to None.
+ The *invalidation_mode* parameter's default value is updated to ``None``.
To force a recompile of all the :file:`.py` files in the :file:`Lib/`
subdirectory and all its subdirectories::
diff --git a/Doc/library/concurrent.futures.rst b/Doc/library/concurrent.futures.rst
index d3c7a40aa9d390d..d4c05f16889c3e0 100644
--- a/Doc/library/concurrent.futures.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/concurrent.futures.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`concurrent.futures` --- Launching parallel tasks
-======================================================
+:mod:`!concurrent.futures` --- Launching parallel tasks
+=======================================================
.. module:: concurrent.futures
:synopsis: Execute computations concurrently using threads or processes.
@@ -19,6 +19,11 @@ The asynchronous execution can be performed with threads, using
:class:`ProcessPoolExecutor`. Both implement the same interface, which is
defined by the abstract :class:`Executor` class.
+:class:`concurrent.futures.Future` must not be confused with
+:class:`asyncio.Future`, which is designed for use with :mod:`asyncio`
+tasks and coroutines. See the :doc:`asyncio's Future <asyncio-future>`
+documentation for a detailed comparison of the two.
+
.. include:: ../includes/wasm-notavail.rst
Executor Objects
@@ -92,10 +97,10 @@ Executor Objects
executor has started running will be completed prior to this method
returning. The remaining futures are cancelled.
- You can avoid having to call this method explicitly if you use the
- :keyword:`with` statement, which will shutdown the :class:`Executor`
- (waiting as if :meth:`Executor.shutdown` were called with *wait* set to
- ``True``)::
+ You can avoid having to call this method explicitly if you use the executor
+ as a :term:`context manager` via the :keyword:`with` statement, which
+ will shutdown the :class:`Executor` (waiting as if :meth:`Executor.shutdown`
+ were called with *wait* set to ``True``)::
import shutil
with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
@@ -142,7 +147,9 @@ And::
print(f.result())
executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1)
- executor.submit(wait_on_future)
+ future = executor.submit(wait_on_future)
+ # Note: calling future.result() would also cause a deadlock because
+ # the single worker thread is already waiting for wait_on_future().
.. class:: ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=None, thread_name_prefix='', initializer=None, initargs=())
@@ -206,7 +213,7 @@ ThreadPoolExecutor Example
'http://www.cnn.com/',
'http://europe.wsj.com/',
'http://www.bbc.co.uk/',
- 'http://nonexistant-subdomain.python.org/']
+ 'http://nonexistent-subdomain.python.org/']
# Retrieve a single page and report the URL and contents
def load_url(url, timeout):
@@ -243,6 +250,11 @@ that :class:`ProcessPoolExecutor` will not work in the interactive interpreter.
Calling :class:`Executor` or :class:`Future` methods from a callable submitted
to a :class:`ProcessPoolExecutor` will result in deadlock.
+Note that the restrictions on functions and arguments needing to picklable as
+per :class:`multiprocessing.Process` apply when using :meth:`~Executor.submit`
+and :meth:`~Executor.map` on a :class:`ProcessPoolExecutor`. A function defined
+in a REPL or a lambda should not be expected to work.
+
.. class:: ProcessPoolExecutor(max_workers=None, mp_context=None, initializer=None, initargs=(), max_tasks_per_child=None)
An :class:`Executor` subclass that executes calls asynchronously using a pool
@@ -310,6 +322,11 @@ to a :class:`ProcessPoolExecutor` will result in deadlock.
*max_workers* uses :func:`os.process_cpu_count` by default, instead of
:func:`os.cpu_count`.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.15
+ Fixed a deadlock (:gh:`115634`) where the executor could hang after
+ a worker process exited upon reaching its *max_tasks_per_child*
+ limit while tasks remained queued.
+
.. _processpoolexecutor-example:
ProcessPoolExecutor Example
diff --git a/Doc/library/configparser.rst b/Doc/library/configparser.rst
index 9e7638d087a7ce3..47477bc06bdce9a 100644
--- a/Doc/library/configparser.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/configparser.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`configparser` --- Configuration file parser
-=================================================
+:mod:`!configparser` --- Configuration file parser
+==================================================
.. module:: configparser
:synopsis: Configuration file parser.
@@ -54,6 +54,7 @@ can be customized by end users easily.
import os
os.remove("example.ini")
+ os.remove("override.ini")
Quick Start
@@ -147,23 +148,28 @@ case-insensitive and stored in lowercase [1]_.
It is possible to read several configurations into a single
:class:`ConfigParser`, where the most recently added configuration has the
highest priority. Any conflicting keys are taken from the more recent
-configuration while the previously existing keys are retained.
+configuration while the previously existing keys are retained. The example
+below reads in an ``override.ini`` file, which will override any conflicting
+keys from the ``example.ini`` file.
+
+.. code-block:: ini
+
+ [DEFAULT]
+ ServerAliveInterval = -1
.. doctest::
- >>> another_config = configparser.ConfigParser()
- >>> another_config.read('example.ini')
- ['example.ini']
- >>> another_config['topsecret.server.example']['Port']
- '50022'
- >>> another_config.read_string("[topsecret.server.example]\nPort=48484")
- >>> another_config['topsecret.server.example']['Port']
- '48484'
- >>> another_config.read_dict({"topsecret.server.example": {"Port": 21212}})
- >>> another_config['topsecret.server.example']['Port']
- '21212'
- >>> another_config['topsecret.server.example']['ForwardX11']
- 'no'
+ >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
+ >>> config_override['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '-1'}
+ >>> with open('override.ini', 'w') as configfile:
+ ... config_override.write(configfile)
+ ...
+ >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
+ >>> config_override.read(['example.ini', 'override.ini'])
+ ['example.ini', 'override.ini']
+ >>> print(config_override.get('DEFAULT', 'ServerAliveInterval'))
+ -1
+
This behaviour is equivalent to a :meth:`ConfigParser.read` call with several
files passed to the *filenames* parameter.
@@ -936,7 +942,13 @@ interpolation if an option used is not defined elsewhere. ::
ConfigParser Objects
--------------------
-.. class:: ConfigParser(defaults=None, dict_type=dict, allow_no_value=False, delimiters=('=', ':'), comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), inline_comment_prefixes=None, strict=True, empty_lines_in_values=True, default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT, interpolation=BasicInterpolation(), converters={})
+.. class:: ConfigParser(defaults=None, dict_type=dict, allow_no_value=False, *, \
+ delimiters=('=', ':'), comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), \
+ inline_comment_prefixes=None, strict=True, \
+ empty_lines_in_values=True, \
+ default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT, \
+ interpolation=BasicInterpolation(), converters={}, \
+ allow_unnamed_section=False)
The main configuration parser. When *defaults* is given, it is initialized
into the dictionary of intrinsic defaults. When *dict_type* is given, it
@@ -981,9 +993,38 @@ ConfigParser Objects
When *converters* is given, it should be a dictionary where each key
represents the name of a type converter and each value is a callable
implementing the conversion from string to the desired datatype. Every
- converter gets its own corresponding :meth:`!get*()` method on the parser
+ converter gets its own corresponding :meth:`!get*` method on the parser
object and section proxies.
+ When *allow_unnamed_section* is ``True`` (default: ``False``),
+ the first section name can be omitted. See the
+ `"Unnamed Sections" section <#unnamed-sections>`_.
+
+ It is possible to read several configurations into a single
+ :class:`ConfigParser`, where the most recently added configuration has the
+ highest priority. Any conflicting keys are taken from the more recent
+ configuration while the previously existing keys are retained. The example
+ below reads in an ``override.ini`` file, which will override any conflicting
+ keys from the ``example.ini`` file.
+
+ .. code-block:: ini
+
+ [DEFAULT]
+ ServerAliveInterval = -1
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
+ >>> config_override['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '-1'}
+ >>> with open('override.ini', 'w') as configfile:
+ ... config_override.write(configfile)
+ ...
+ >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
+ >>> config_override.read(['example.ini', 'override.ini'])
+ ['example.ini', 'override.ini']
+ >>> print(config_override.get('DEFAULT', 'ServerAliveInterval'))
+ -1
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.1
The default *dict_type* is :class:`collections.OrderedDict`.
@@ -996,7 +1037,7 @@ ConfigParser Objects
The *converters* argument was added.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- The *defaults* argument is read with :meth:`read_dict()`,
+ The *defaults* argument is read with :meth:`read_dict`,
providing consistent behavior across the parser: non-string
keys and values are implicitly converted to strings.
@@ -1008,6 +1049,9 @@ ConfigParser Objects
Raise a :exc:`MultilineContinuationError` when *allow_no_value* is
``True``, and a key without a value is continued with an indented line.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ The *allow_unnamed_section* argument was added.
+
.. method:: defaults()
Return a dictionary containing the instance-wide defaults.
@@ -1153,7 +1197,7 @@ ConfigParser Objects
.. method:: getfloat(section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[, fallback])
A convenience method which coerces the *option* in the specified *section*
- to a floating point number. See :meth:`get` for explanation of *raw*,
+ to a floating-point number. See :meth:`get` for explanation of *raw*,
*vars* and *fallback*.
@@ -1264,18 +1308,30 @@ RawConfigParser Objects
comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), \
inline_comment_prefixes=None, strict=True, \
empty_lines_in_values=True, \
- default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT[, \
- interpolation])
+ default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT, \
+ interpolation=BasicInterpolation(), converters={}, \
+ allow_unnamed_section=False)
Legacy variant of the :class:`ConfigParser`. It has interpolation
disabled by default and allows for non-string section names, option
names, and values via its unsafe ``add_section`` and ``set`` methods,
as well as the legacy ``defaults=`` keyword argument handling.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+ *allow_no_value*, *delimiters*, *comment_prefixes*, *strict*,
+ *empty_lines_in_values*, *default_section* and *interpolation* were
+ added.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ The *converters* argument was added.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
The default *dict_type* is :class:`dict`, since it now preserves
insertion order.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ The *allow_unnamed_section* argument was added.
+
.. note::
Consider using :class:`ConfigParser` instead which checks types of
the values to be stored internally. If you don't want interpolation, you
diff --git a/Doc/library/contextlib.rst b/Doc/library/contextlib.rst
index 73e53aec9cbf1c1..03a92cbbe71fad4 100644
--- a/Doc/library/contextlib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/contextlib.rst
@@ -21,9 +21,9 @@ Functions and classes provided:
.. class:: AbstractContextManager
An :term:`abstract base class` for classes that implement
- :meth:`object.__enter__` and :meth:`object.__exit__`. A default
- implementation for :meth:`object.__enter__` is provided which returns
- ``self`` while :meth:`object.__exit__` is an abstract method which by default
+ :meth:`~object.__enter__` and :meth:`~object.__exit__`. A default
+ implementation for :meth:`~object.__enter__` is provided which returns
+ ``self`` while :meth:`~object.__exit__` is an abstract method which by default
returns ``None``. See also the definition of :ref:`typecontextmanager`.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
@@ -32,9 +32,9 @@ Functions and classes provided:
.. class:: AbstractAsyncContextManager
An :term:`abstract base class` for classes that implement
- :meth:`object.__aenter__` and :meth:`object.__aexit__`. A default
- implementation for :meth:`object.__aenter__` is provided which returns
- ``self`` while :meth:`object.__aexit__` is an abstract method which by default
+ :meth:`~object.__aenter__` and :meth:`~object.__aexit__`. A default
+ implementation for :meth:`~object.__aenter__` is provided which returns
+ ``self`` while :meth:`~object.__aexit__` is an abstract method which by default
returns ``None``. See also the definition of
:ref:`async-context-managers`.
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ Functions and classes provided:
While many objects natively support use in with statements, sometimes a
resource needs to be managed that isn't a context manager in its own right,
- and doesn't implement a ``close()`` method for use with ``contextlib.closing``
+ and doesn't implement a ``close()`` method for use with ``contextlib.closing``.
An abstract example would be the following to ensure correct resource
management::
@@ -88,11 +88,11 @@ Functions and classes provided:
the exception has been handled, and execution will resume with the statement
immediately following the :keyword:`!with` statement.
- :func:`contextmanager` uses :class:`ContextDecorator` so the context managers
+ :deco:`contextmanager` uses :class:`ContextDecorator` so the context managers
it creates can be used as decorators as well as in :keyword:`with` statements.
When used as a decorator, a new generator instance is implicitly created on
each function call (this allows the otherwise "one-shot" context managers
- created by :func:`contextmanager` to meet the requirement that context
+ created by :deco:`contextmanager` to meet the requirement that context
managers support multiple invocations in order to be used as decorators).
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
@@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ Functions and classes provided:
.. decorator:: asynccontextmanager
- Similar to :func:`~contextlib.contextmanager`, but creates an
+ Similar to :deco:`~contextlib.contextmanager`, but creates an
:ref:`asynchronous context manager <async-context-managers>`.
This function is a :term:`decorator` that can be used to define a factory
@@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ Functions and classes provided:
.. versionadded:: 3.7
- Context managers defined with :func:`asynccontextmanager` can be used
+ Context managers defined with :deco:`asynccontextmanager` can be used
either as decorators or with :keyword:`async with` statements::
import time
@@ -148,12 +148,12 @@ Functions and classes provided:
When used as a decorator, a new generator instance is implicitly created on
each function call. This allows the otherwise "one-shot" context managers
- created by :func:`asynccontextmanager` to meet the requirement that context
+ created by :deco:`asynccontextmanager` to meet the requirement that context
managers support multiple invocations in order to be used as decorators.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.10
- Async context managers created with :func:`asynccontextmanager` can
- be used as decorators.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ Async context managers created with :deco:`asynccontextmanager` can
+ be used as decorators.
.. function:: closing(thing)
@@ -228,7 +228,7 @@ Functions and classes provided:
.. function:: nullcontext(enter_result=None)
- Return a context manager that returns *enter_result* from ``__enter__``, but
+ Return a context manager that returns *enter_result* from :meth:`~object.__enter__`, but
otherwise does nothing. It is intended to be used as a stand-in for an
optional context manager, for example::
@@ -314,13 +314,15 @@ Functions and classes provided:
If the code within the :keyword:`!with` block raises a
:exc:`BaseExceptionGroup`, suppressed exceptions are removed from the
- group. If any exceptions in the group are not suppressed, a group containing them is re-raised.
+ group. Any exceptions of the group which are not suppressed are re-raised in
+ a new group which is created using the original group's :meth:`~BaseExceptionGroup.derive`
+ method.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
``suppress`` now supports suppressing exceptions raised as
- part of an :exc:`BaseExceptionGroup`.
+ part of a :exc:`BaseExceptionGroup`.
.. function:: redirect_stdout(new_target)
@@ -333,7 +335,7 @@ Functions and classes provided:
For example, the output of :func:`help` normally is sent to *sys.stdout*.
You can capture that output in a string by redirecting the output to an
:class:`io.StringIO` object. The replacement stream is returned from the
- ``__enter__`` method and so is available as the target of the
+ :meth:`~object.__enter__` method and so is available as the target of the
:keyword:`with` statement::
with redirect_stdout(io.StringIO()) as f:
@@ -394,10 +396,11 @@ Functions and classes provided:
A base class that enables a context manager to also be used as a decorator.
Context managers inheriting from ``ContextDecorator`` have to implement
- ``__enter__`` and ``__exit__`` as normal. ``__exit__`` retains its optional
+ :meth:`~object.__enter__` and :meth:`~object.__exit__` as normal.
+ ``__exit__`` retains its optional
exception handling even when used as a decorator.
- ``ContextDecorator`` is used by :func:`contextmanager`, so you get this
+ ``ContextDecorator`` is used by :deco:`contextmanager`, so you get this
functionality automatically.
Example of ``ContextDecorator``::
@@ -627,7 +630,8 @@ Functions and classes provided:
The :meth:`~ExitStack.close` method is not implemented; :meth:`aclose` must be used
instead.
- .. coroutinemethod:: enter_async_context(cm)
+ .. method:: enter_async_context(cm)
+ :async:
Similar to :meth:`ExitStack.enter_context` but expects an asynchronous context
manager.
@@ -645,11 +649,12 @@ Functions and classes provided:
Similar to :meth:`ExitStack.callback` but expects a coroutine function.
- .. coroutinemethod:: aclose()
+ .. method:: aclose()
+ :async:
Similar to :meth:`ExitStack.close` but properly handles awaitables.
- Continuing the example for :func:`asynccontextmanager`::
+ Continuing the example for :deco:`asynccontextmanager`::
async with AsyncExitStack() as stack:
connections = [await stack.enter_async_context(get_connection())
@@ -693,9 +698,9 @@ context management protocol.
Catching exceptions from ``__enter__`` methods
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-It is occasionally desirable to catch exceptions from an ``__enter__``
+It is occasionally desirable to catch exceptions from an :meth:`~object.__enter__`
method implementation, *without* inadvertently catching exceptions from
-the :keyword:`with` statement body or the context manager's ``__exit__``
+the :keyword:`with` statement body or the context manager's :meth:`~object.__exit__`
method. By using :class:`ExitStack` the steps in the context management
protocol can be separated slightly in order to allow this::
@@ -796,7 +801,7 @@ executing that callback::
if result:
stack.pop_all()
-This allows the intended cleanup up behaviour to be made explicit up front,
+This allows the intended cleanup behaviour to be made explicit up front,
rather than requiring a separate flag variable.
If a particular application uses this pattern a lot, it can be simplified
@@ -907,7 +912,7 @@ Files are an example of effectively single use context managers, since
the first :keyword:`with` statement will close the file, preventing any
further IO operations using that file object.
-Context managers created using :func:`contextmanager` are also single use
+Context managers created using :deco:`contextmanager` are also single use
context managers, and will complain about the underlying generator failing
to yield if an attempt is made to use them a second time::
diff --git a/Doc/library/contextvars.rst b/Doc/library/contextvars.rst
index 647832447de9460..c5d22240e57ccf5 100644
--- a/Doc/library/contextvars.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/contextvars.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`contextvars` --- Context Variables
-========================================
+:mod:`!contextvars` --- Context Variables
+=========================================
.. module:: contextvars
:synopsis: Context Variables
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ function and the :class:`~contextvars.Context` class should be used to
manage the current context in asynchronous frameworks.
Context managers that have state should use Context Variables
-instead of :func:`threading.local()` to prevent their state from
+instead of :func:`threading.local` to prevent their state from
bleeding to other code unexpectedly, when used in concurrent code.
See also :pep:`567` for additional details.
@@ -44,6 +44,9 @@ Context Variables
references to context variables which prevents context variables
from being properly garbage collected.
+ :class:`!ContextVar`\s are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the type of
+ their contained value.
+
.. attribute:: ContextVar.name
The name of the variable. This is a read-only property.
@@ -93,13 +96,18 @@ Context Variables
# After the reset call the var has no value again, so
# var.get() would raise a LookupError.
+ The same *token* cannot be used twice.
+
.. class:: Token
*Token* objects are returned by the :meth:`ContextVar.set` method.
They can be passed to the :meth:`ContextVar.reset` method to revert
the value of the variable to what it was before the corresponding
- *set*.
+ *set*. A single token cannot reset a context variable more than once.
+
+ Tokens are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the same type as the
+ :class:`ContextVar` which created them.
.. attribute:: Token.var
@@ -144,51 +152,89 @@ Manual Context Management
To get a copy of the current context use the
:func:`~contextvars.copy_context` function.
- Every thread will have a different top-level :class:`~contextvars.Context`
- object. This means that a :class:`ContextVar` object behaves in a similar
- fashion to :func:`threading.local()` when values are assigned in different
- threads.
+ Each thread has its own effective stack of :class:`!Context` objects. The
+ :term:`current context` is the :class:`!Context` object at the top of the
+ current thread's stack. All :class:`!Context` objects in the stacks are
+ considered to be *entered*.
+
+ *Entering* a context, which can be done by calling its :meth:`~Context.run`
+ method, makes the context the current context by pushing it onto the top of
+ the current thread's context stack.
+
+ *Exiting* from the current context, which can be done by returning from the
+ callback passed to the :meth:`~Context.run` method, restores the current
+ context to what it was before the context was entered by popping the context
+ off the top of the context stack.
+
+ Since each thread has its own context stack, :class:`ContextVar` objects
+ behave in a similar fashion to :func:`threading.local` when values are
+ assigned in different threads.
+
+ Attempting to enter an already entered context, including contexts entered in
+ other threads, raises a :exc:`RuntimeError`.
+
+ After exiting a context, it can later be re-entered (from any thread).
+
+ Any changes to :class:`ContextVar` values via the :meth:`ContextVar.set`
+ method are recorded in the current context. The :meth:`ContextVar.get`
+ method returns the value associated with the current context. Exiting a
+ context effectively reverts any changes made to context variables while the
+ context was entered (if needed, the values can be restored by re-entering the
+ context).
Context implements the :class:`collections.abc.Mapping` interface.
.. method:: run(callable, *args, **kwargs)
- Execute ``callable(*args, **kwargs)`` code in the context object
- the *run* method is called on. Return the result of the execution
- or propagate an exception if one occurred.
+ Enters the Context, executes ``callable(*args, **kwargs)``, then exits the
+ Context. Returns *callable*'s return value, or propagates an exception if
+ one occurred.
+
+ Example:
+
+ .. testcode::
+
+ import contextvars
- Any changes to any context variables that *callable* makes will
- be contained in the context object::
+ var = contextvars.ContextVar('var')
+ var.set('spam')
+ print(var.get()) # 'spam'
- var = ContextVar('var')
- var.set('spam')
+ ctx = contextvars.copy_context()
- def main():
- # 'var' was set to 'spam' before
- # calling 'copy_context()' and 'ctx.run(main)', so:
- # var.get() == ctx[var] == 'spam'
+ def main():
+ # 'var' was set to 'spam' before
+ # calling 'copy_context()' and 'ctx.run(main)', so:
+ print(var.get()) # 'spam'
+ print(ctx[var]) # 'spam'
- var.set('ham')
+ var.set('ham')
- # Now, after setting 'var' to 'ham':
- # var.get() == ctx[var] == 'ham'
+ # Now, after setting 'var' to 'ham':
+ print(var.get()) # 'ham'
+ print(ctx[var]) # 'ham'
- ctx = copy_context()
+ # Any changes that the 'main' function makes to 'var'
+ # will be contained in 'ctx'.
+ ctx.run(main)
- # Any changes that the 'main' function makes to 'var'
- # will be contained in 'ctx'.
- ctx.run(main)
+ # The 'main()' function was run in the 'ctx' context,
+ # so changes to 'var' are contained in it:
+ print(ctx[var]) # 'ham'
- # The 'main()' function was run in the 'ctx' context,
- # so changes to 'var' are contained in it:
- # ctx[var] == 'ham'
+ # However, outside of 'ctx', 'var' is still set to 'spam':
+ print(var.get()) # 'spam'
- # However, outside of 'ctx', 'var' is still set to 'spam':
- # var.get() == 'spam'
+ .. testoutput::
+ :hide:
- The method raises a :exc:`RuntimeError` when called on the same
- context object from more than one OS thread, or when called
- recursively.
+ spam
+ spam
+ spam
+ ham
+ ham
+ ham
+ spam
.. method:: copy()
@@ -254,7 +300,7 @@ client::
# without passing it explicitly to this function.
client_addr = client_addr_var.get()
- return f'Good bye, client @ {client_addr}\n'.encode()
+ return f'Good bye, client @ {client_addr}\r\n'.encode()
async def handle_request(reader, writer):
addr = writer.transport.get_extra_info('socket').getpeername()
@@ -268,9 +314,10 @@ client::
print(line)
if not line.strip():
break
- writer.write(line)
- writer.write(render_goodbye())
+ writer.write(b'HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n') # status line
+ writer.write(b'\r\n') # headers
+ writer.write(render_goodbye()) # body
writer.close()
async def main():
@@ -282,5 +329,6 @@ client::
asyncio.run(main())
- # To test it you can use telnet:
+ # To test it you can use telnet or curl:
# telnet 127.0.0.1 8081
+ # curl 127.0.0.1:8081
diff --git a/Doc/library/copy.rst b/Doc/library/copy.rst
index 74333b2e934814d..9a0772de509a5a8 100644
--- a/Doc/library/copy.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/copy.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`copy` --- Shallow and deep copy operations
-================================================
+:mod:`!copy` --- Shallow and deep copy operations
+=================================================
.. module:: copy
:synopsis: Shallow and deep copy operations.
@@ -72,9 +72,13 @@ file, socket, window, or any similar types. It does "copy" functions and
classes (shallow and deeply), by returning the original object unchanged; this
is compatible with the way these are treated by the :mod:`pickle` module.
-Shallow copies of dictionaries can be made using :meth:`dict.copy`, and
-of lists by assigning a slice of the entire list, for example,
-``copied_list = original_list[:]``.
+Shallow copies of many collections can be made using the corresponding
+:meth:`!copy` method (such as :meth:`list.copy`, :meth:`dict.copy` or
+:meth:`set.copy`), and of sequences (such as lists or bytearrays) by making
+a slice of the entire sequence (``sequence[:]``).
+However, these methods and slicing can create an instance of the base type
+when copying an instance of a subclass, whereas :func:`copy.copy` normally
+returns an instance of the same type.
.. index:: pair: module; pickle
@@ -122,6 +126,8 @@ and only supports named tuples created by :func:`~collections.namedtuple`,
This method should create a new object of the same type,
replacing fields with values from *changes*.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
.. seealso::
diff --git a/Doc/library/copyreg.rst b/Doc/library/copyreg.rst
index 2a28c043f807233..6e3144824ebe91f 100644
--- a/Doc/library/copyreg.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/copyreg.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`copyreg` --- Register :mod:`pickle` support functions
-===========================================================
+:mod:`!copyreg` --- Register :mod:`!pickle` support functions
+=============================================================
.. module:: copyreg
:synopsis: Register pickle support functions.
diff --git a/Doc/library/crypt.rst b/Doc/library/crypt.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..647cb4925f31dad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/crypt.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+:mod:`!crypt` --- Function to check Unix passwords
+==================================================
+
+.. module:: crypt
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+Applications can use the :mod:`hashlib` module from the standard library.
+Other possible replacements are third-party libraries from PyPI:
+:pypi:`legacycrypt`, :pypi:`bcrypt`, or :pypi:`argon2-cffi`.
+These are not supported or maintained by the Python core team.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!crypt` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/crypt.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/csv.rst b/Doc/library/csv.rst
index d17468023c6de1f..ccc07e1aba7750b 100644
--- a/Doc/library/csv.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/csv.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`csv` --- CSV File Reading and Writing
-===========================================
+:mod:`!csv` --- CSV File Reading and Writing
+============================================
.. module:: csv
:synopsis: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files.
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ The :mod:`csv` module defines the following functions:
.. index::
single: universal newlines; csv.reader function
-.. function:: reader(csvfile, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)
+.. function:: reader(csvfile, /, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)
Return a :ref:`reader object <reader-objects>` that will process
lines from the given *csvfile*. A csvfile must be an iterable of
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ The :mod:`csv` module defines the following functions:
section :ref:`csv-fmt-params`.
Each row read from the csv file is returned as a list of strings. No
- automatic data type conversion is performed unless the ``QUOTE_NONNUMERIC`` format
+ automatic data type conversion is performed unless the :data:`QUOTE_NONNUMERIC` format
option is specified (in which case unquoted fields are transformed into floats).
A short usage example::
@@ -83,8 +83,15 @@ The :mod:`csv` module defines the following functions:
Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Baked Beans
Spam, Lovely Spam, Wonderful Spam
+ where :file:`eggs.csv` contains:
-.. function:: writer(csvfile, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)
+ .. code-block:: text
+
+ Spam Spam Spam Spam Spam |Baked Beans|
+ Spam |Lovely Spam| |Wonderful Spam|
+
+
+.. function:: writer(csvfile, /, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)
Return a writer object responsible for converting the user's data into delimited
strings on the given file-like object. *csvfile* can be any object with a
@@ -112,8 +119,15 @@ The :mod:`csv` module defines the following functions:
spamwriter.writerow(['Spam'] * 5 + ['Baked Beans'])
spamwriter.writerow(['Spam', 'Lovely Spam', 'Wonderful Spam'])
+ which writes :file:`eggs.csv` containing:
+
+ .. code-block:: text
+
+ Spam Spam Spam Spam Spam |Baked Beans|
+ Spam |Lovely Spam| |Wonderful Spam|
-.. function:: register_dialect(name[, dialect[, **fmtparams]])
+
+.. function:: register_dialect(name, /, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)
Associate *dialect* with *name*. *name* must be a string. The
dialect can be specified either by passing a sub-class of :class:`Dialect`, or
@@ -139,7 +153,8 @@ The :mod:`csv` module defines the following functions:
Return the names of all registered dialects.
-.. function:: field_size_limit([new_limit])
+.. function:: field_size_limit()
+ field_size_limit(new_limit)
Returns the current maximum field size allowed by the parser. If *new_limit* is
given, this becomes the new limit.
@@ -192,6 +207,14 @@ The :mod:`csv` module defines the following classes:
>>> print(row)
{'first_name': 'John', 'last_name': 'Cleese'}
+ where :file:`names.csv` contains:
+
+ .. code-block:: text
+
+ first_name,last_name
+ Eric,Idle
+ John,Cleese
+
.. class:: DictWriter(f, fieldnames, restval='', extrasaction='raise', \
dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)
@@ -229,6 +252,15 @@ The :mod:`csv` module defines the following classes:
writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Lovely', 'last_name': 'Spam'})
writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Wonderful', 'last_name': 'Spam'})
+ which writes :file:`names.csv` containing:
+
+ .. code-block:: text
+
+ first_name,last_name
+ Baked,Beans
+ Lovely,Spam
+ Wonderful,Spam
+
.. class:: Dialect
@@ -282,6 +314,11 @@ The :mod:`csv` module defines the following classes:
is given, it is interpreted as a string containing possible valid
delimiter characters.
+ If several delimiters fit the sample equally well ---
+ for example if both ``','`` and ``';'`` split every row consistently ---
+ the delimiters listed in the :attr:`~Sniffer.preferred` attribute
+ are preferred, in that order,
+ no matter how many times each of them occurs.
.. method:: has_header(sample)
@@ -294,14 +331,23 @@ The :mod:`csv` module defines the following classes:
- the second through n-th rows contain strings where at least one value's
length differs from that of the putative header of that column.
- Twenty rows after the first row are sampled; if more than half of columns +
- rows meet the criteria, :const:`True` is returned.
+ Twenty-one rows after the header are sampled; if more than half of the
+ columns + rows meet the criteria, :const:`True` is returned.
.. note::
This method is a rough heuristic and may produce both false positives and
negatives.
+ The :class:`Sniffer` class has the following attribute:
+
+ .. attribute:: preferred
+
+ The list of the delimiters preferred for breaking ties,
+ in the order of preference.
+ It can be modified.
+ Its initial value is ``[',', '\t', ';', ' ', ':']``.
+
An example for :class:`Sniffer` use::
with open('example.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
@@ -323,23 +369,34 @@ The :mod:`csv` module defines the following constants:
.. data:: QUOTE_MINIMAL
Instructs :class:`writer` objects to only quote those fields which contain
- special characters such as *delimiter*, *quotechar* or any of the characters in
- *lineterminator*.
+ special characters such as *delimiter*, *quotechar*, ``'\r'``, ``'\n'``
+ or any of the characters in *lineterminator*.
+ If *doublequote* is :const:`False` and *escapechar* is set,
+ the *quotechar* is escaped instead of causing the field to be quoted.
.. data:: QUOTE_NONNUMERIC
Instructs :class:`writer` objects to quote all non-numeric fields.
- Instructs :class:`reader` objects to convert all non-quoted fields to type *float*.
+ Instructs :class:`reader` objects to convert all non-quoted fields to type :class:`float`.
+ .. note::
+ Some numeric types, such as :class:`bool`, :class:`~fractions.Fraction`,
+ or :class:`~enum.IntEnum`, have a string representation that cannot be
+ converted to :class:`float`.
+ They cannot be read in the :data:`QUOTE_NONNUMERIC` and
+ :data:`QUOTE_STRINGS` modes.
.. data:: QUOTE_NONE
- Instructs :class:`writer` objects to never quote fields. When the current
- *delimiter* occurs in output data it is preceded by the current *escapechar*
- character. If *escapechar* is not set, the writer will raise :exc:`Error` if
+ Instructs :class:`writer` objects to never quote fields.
+ When the current *delimiter*, *quotechar*, *escapechar*, ``'\r'``, ``'\n'``
+ or any of the characters in *lineterminator* occurs in output data
+ it is preceded by the current *escapechar* character.
+ If *escapechar* is not set, the writer will raise :exc:`Error` if
any characters that require escaping are encountered.
+ Set *quotechar* to ``None`` to prevent its escaping.
Instructs :class:`reader` objects to perform no special processing of quote characters.
@@ -349,8 +406,8 @@ The :mod:`csv` module defines the following constants:
``None``. This is similar to :data:`QUOTE_ALL`, except that if a
field value is ``None`` an empty (unquoted) string is written.
- Instructs :class:`reader` objects to interpret an empty (unquoted) field as None and
- to otherwise behave as :data:`QUOTE_ALL`.
+ Instructs :class:`reader` objects to interpret an empty (unquoted) field
+ as ``None`` and to otherwise behave as :data:`QUOTE_ALL`.
.. versionadded:: 3.12
@@ -408,11 +465,22 @@ Dialects support the following attributes:
.. attribute:: Dialect.escapechar
- A one-character string used by the writer to escape the *delimiter* if *quoting*
- is set to :const:`QUOTE_NONE` and the *quotechar* if *doublequote* is
- :const:`False`. On reading, the *escapechar* removes any special meaning from
+ A one-character string used by the writer to escape characters that
+ require escaping:
+
+ * the *delimiter*, the *quotechar*, ``'\r'``, ``'\n'`` and any of the
+ characters in *lineterminator* are escaped if *quoting* is set to
+ :const:`QUOTE_NONE`;
+ * the *quotechar* is escaped if *doublequote* is :const:`False`;
+ * the *escapechar* itself.
+
+ On reading, the *escapechar* removes any special meaning from
the following character. It defaults to :const:`None`, which disables escaping.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ Previously the *escapechar* itself was not escaped,
+ which lost it on reading.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
An empty *escapechar* is not allowed.
@@ -430,9 +498,12 @@ Dialects support the following attributes:
.. attribute:: Dialect.quotechar
- A one-character string used to quote fields containing special characters, such
- as the *delimiter* or *quotechar*, or which contain new-line characters. It
- defaults to ``'"'``.
+ A one-character string used to quote fields containing special characters,
+ such as the *delimiter* or the *quotechar*, or which contain new-line
+ characters (``'\r'``, ``'\n'`` or any of the characters in *lineterminator*).
+ It defaults to ``'"'``.
+ Can be set to ``None`` to prevent escaping ``'"'`` if *quoting* is set
+ to :const:`QUOTE_NONE`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
An empty *quotechar* is not allowed.
@@ -441,13 +512,15 @@ Dialects support the following attributes:
Controls when quotes should be generated by the writer and recognised by the
reader. It can take on any of the :ref:`QUOTE_\* constants <csv-constants>`
- and defaults to :const:`QUOTE_MINIMAL`.
+ and defaults to :const:`QUOTE_MINIMAL` if *quotechar* is not ``None``,
+ and :const:`QUOTE_NONE` otherwise.
.. attribute:: Dialect.skipinitialspace
When :const:`True`, spaces immediately following the *delimiter* are ignored.
- The default is :const:`False`.
+ The default is :const:`False`. When combining ``delimiter=' '`` with
+ ``skipinitialspace=True``, unquoted empty fields are not allowed.
.. attribute:: Dialect.strict
@@ -506,7 +579,7 @@ out surrounded by parens. This may cause some problems for other programs which
read CSV files (assuming they support complex numbers at all).
-.. method:: csvwriter.writerow(row)
+.. method:: csvwriter.writerow(row, /)
Write the *row* parameter to the writer's file object, formatted according
to the current :class:`Dialect`. Return the return value of the call to the
@@ -515,7 +588,7 @@ read CSV files (assuming they support complex numbers at all).
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
Added support of arbitrary iterables.
-.. method:: csvwriter.writerows(rows)
+.. method:: csvwriter.writerows(rows, /)
Write all elements in *rows* (an iterable of *row* objects as described
above) to the writer's file object, formatted according to the current
@@ -603,7 +676,7 @@ A slightly more advanced use of the reader --- catching and reporting errors::
for row in reader:
print(row)
except csv.Error as e:
- sys.exit('file {}, line {}: {}'.format(filename, reader.line_num, e))
+ sys.exit(f'file {filename}, line {reader.line_num}: {e}')
And while the module doesn't directly support parsing strings, it can easily be
done::
@@ -616,7 +689,7 @@ done::
.. rubric:: Footnotes
.. [1] If ``newline=''`` is not specified, newlines embedded inside quoted fields
- will not be interpreted correctly, and on platforms that use ``\r\n`` linendings
+ will not be interpreted correctly, and on platforms that use ``\r\n`` line endings
on write an extra ``\r`` will be added. It should always be safe to specify
``newline=''``, since the csv module does its own
(:term:`universal <universal newlines>`) newline handling.
diff --git a/Doc/library/ctypes.rst b/Doc/library/ctypes.rst
index 1deaa3a0f3899f2..99d25aef2573348 100644
--- a/Doc/library/ctypes.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/ctypes.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`ctypes` --- A foreign function library for Python
-=======================================================
+:mod:`!ctypes` --- A foreign function library for Python
+========================================================
.. module:: ctypes
:synopsis: A foreign function library for Python.
@@ -14,6 +14,14 @@
data types, and allows calling functions in DLLs or shared libraries. It can be
used to wrap these libraries in pure Python.
+.. warning::
+
+ :mod:`!ctypes` provides low-level access to native libraries and the
+ process's memory, bypassing Python's safety mechanisms and allowing
+ execution of arbitrary native code.
+ Incorrect use can corrupt data and objects, reveal sensitive information,
+ cause crashes, or otherwise compromise the running process.
+
.. _ctypes-ctypes-tutorial:
@@ -51,7 +59,7 @@ function call fails.
Here are some examples for Windows. Note that ``msvcrt`` is the MS standard C
-library containing most standard C functions, and uses the cdecl calling
+library containing most standard C functions, and uses the ``cdecl`` calling
convention::
>>> from ctypes import *
@@ -107,7 +115,7 @@ Functions are accessed as attributes of dll objects::
Note that win32 system dlls like ``kernel32`` and ``user32`` often export ANSI
as well as UNICODE versions of a function. The UNICODE version is exported with
-an ``W`` appended to the name, while the ANSI version is exported with an ``A``
+a ``W`` appended to the name, while the ANSI version is exported with an ``A``
appended to the name. The win32 ``GetModuleHandle`` function, which returns a
*module handle* for a given module name, has the following C prototype, and a
macro is used to expose one of them as ``GetModuleHandle`` depending on whether
@@ -190,10 +198,8 @@ argument values::
OSError: exception: access violation reading 0x00000020
>>>
-There are, however, enough ways to crash Python with :mod:`ctypes`, so you
-should be careful anyway. The :mod:`faulthandler` module can be helpful in
-debugging crashes (e.g. from segmentation faults produced by erroneous C library
-calls).
+The :mod:`faulthandler` module can help debug crashes,
+such as segmentation faults produced by erroneous C library calls.
``None``, integers, bytes objects and (unicode) strings are the only native
Python objects that can directly be used as parameters in these function calls.
@@ -232,8 +238,24 @@ Fundamental data types
+----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
| :class:`c_int` | :c:expr:`int` | int |
+----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_int8` | :c:type:`int8_t` | int |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_int16` | :c:type:`int16_t` | int |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_int32` | :c:type:`int32_t` | int |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_int64` | :c:type:`int64_t` | int |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
| :class:`c_uint` | :c:expr:`unsigned int` | int |
+----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_uint8` | :c:type:`uint8_t` | int |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_uint16` | :c:type:`uint16_t` | int |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_uint32` | :c:type:`uint32_t` | int |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
+| :class:`c_uint64` | :c:type:`uint64_t` | int |
++----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
| :class:`c_long` | :c:expr:`long` | int |
+----------------------+------------------------------------------+----------------------------+
| :class:`c_ulong` | :c:expr:`unsigned long` | int |
@@ -292,7 +314,7 @@ Since these types are mutable, their value can also be changed afterwards::
Assigning a new value to instances of the pointer types :class:`c_char_p`,
:class:`c_wchar_p`, and :class:`c_void_p` changes the *memory location* they
point to, *not the contents* of the memory block (of course not, because Python
-bytes objects are immutable)::
+string objects are immutable)::
>>> s = "Hello, World"
>>> c_s = c_wchar_p(s)
@@ -383,7 +405,7 @@ as calling functions with a fixed number of parameters. On some platforms, and i
particular ARM64 for Apple Platforms, the calling convention for variadic functions
is different than that for regular functions.
-On those platforms it is required to specify the :attr:`~_FuncPtr.argtypes`
+On those platforms it is required to specify the :attr:`~_CFuncPtr.argtypes`
attribute for the regular, non-variadic, function arguments:
.. code-block:: python3
@@ -391,7 +413,7 @@ attribute for the regular, non-variadic, function arguments:
libc.printf.argtypes = [ctypes.c_char_p]
Because specifying the attribute does not inhibit portability it is advised to always
-specify :attr:`~_FuncPtr.argtypes` for all variadic functions.
+specify :attr:`~_CFuncPtr.argtypes` for all variadic functions.
.. _ctypes-calling-functions-with-own-custom-data-types:
@@ -416,7 +438,7 @@ object with an :attr:`!_as_parameter_` attribute::
>>>
If you don't want to store the instance's data in the :attr:`!_as_parameter_`
-instance variable, you could define a :class:`property` which makes the
+instance variable, you could define a :deco:`property` which makes the
attribute available on request.
@@ -426,9 +448,9 @@ Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
It is possible to specify the required argument types of functions exported from
-DLLs by setting the :attr:`~_FuncPtr.argtypes` attribute.
+DLLs by setting the :attr:`~_CFuncPtr.argtypes` attribute.
-:attr:`~_FuncPtr.argtypes` must be a sequence of C data types (the :func:`!printf` function is
+:attr:`~_CFuncPtr.argtypes` must be a sequence of C data types (the :func:`!printf` function is
probably not a good example here, because it takes a variable number and
different types of parameters depending on the format string, on the other hand
this is quite handy to experiment with this feature)::
@@ -453,7 +475,7 @@ prototype for a C function), and tries to convert the arguments to valid types::
If you have defined your own classes which you pass to function calls, you have
to implement a :meth:`~_CData.from_param` class method for them to be able to use them
-in the :attr:`~_FuncPtr.argtypes` sequence. The :meth:`~_CData.from_param` class method receives
+in the :attr:`~_CFuncPtr.argtypes` sequence. The :meth:`~_CData.from_param` class method receives
the Python object passed to the function call, it should do a typecheck or
whatever is needed to make sure this object is acceptable, and then return the
object itself, its :attr:`!_as_parameter_` attribute, or whatever you want to
@@ -476,7 +498,7 @@ Return types
By default functions are assumed to return the C :c:expr:`int` type. Other
-return types can be specified by setting the :attr:`~_FuncPtr.restype` attribute of the
+return types can be specified by setting the :attr:`~_CFuncPtr.restype` attribute of the
function object.
The C prototype of :c:func:`time` is ``time_t time(time_t *)``. Because :c:type:`time_t`
@@ -485,7 +507,7 @@ specify the :attr:`!restype` attribute::
>>> libc.time.restype = c_time_t
-The argument types can be specified using :attr:`~_FuncPtr.argtypes`::
+The argument types can be specified using :attr:`~_CFuncPtr.argtypes`::
>>> libc.time.argtypes = (POINTER(c_time_t),)
@@ -508,7 +530,7 @@ a string pointer and a char, and returns a pointer to a string::
>>>
If you want to avoid the :func:`ord("x") <ord>` calls above, you can set the
-:attr:`~_FuncPtr.argtypes` attribute, and the second argument will be converted from a
+:attr:`~_CFuncPtr.argtypes` attribute, and the second argument will be converted from a
single character Python bytes object into a C char:
.. doctest::
@@ -527,7 +549,7 @@ single character Python bytes object into a C char:
>>>
You can also use a callable Python object (a function or a class for example) as
-the :attr:`~_FuncPtr.restype` attribute, if the foreign function returns an integer. The
+the :attr:`~_CFuncPtr.restype` attribute, if the foreign function returns an integer. The
callable will be called with the *integer* the C function returns, and the
result of this call will be used as the result of your function call. This is
useful to check for error return values and automatically raise an exception::
@@ -555,7 +577,7 @@ get the string representation of an error code, and *returns* an exception.
:func:`GetLastError` to retrieve it.
Please note that a much more powerful error checking mechanism is available
-through the :attr:`~_FuncPtr.errcheck` attribute;
+through the :attr:`~_CFuncPtr.errcheck` attribute;
see the reference manual for details.
@@ -671,7 +693,7 @@ This must be set to a positive integer and specifies the maximum alignment for t
This is what ``#pragma pack(n)`` also does in MSVC.
It is also possible to set a minimum alignment for how the subclass itself is packed in the
same way ``#pragma align(n)`` works in MSVC.
-This can be achieved by specifying a ::attr:`~Structure._align_` class attribute
+This can be achieved by specifying a :attr:`~Structure._align_` class attribute
in the subclass definition.
:mod:`ctypes` uses the native byte order for Structures and Unions. To build
@@ -859,7 +881,7 @@ Type conversions
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Usually, ctypes does strict type checking. This means, if you have
-``POINTER(c_int)`` in the :attr:`~_FuncPtr.argtypes` list of a function or as the type of
+``POINTER(c_int)`` in the :attr:`~_CFuncPtr.argtypes` list of a function or as the type of
a member field in a structure definition, only instances of exactly the same
type are accepted. There are some exceptions to this rule, where ctypes accepts
other objects. For example, you can pass compatible array instances instead of
@@ -880,7 +902,7 @@ pointer types. So, for ``POINTER(c_int)``, ctypes accepts an array of c_int::
>>>
In addition, if a function argument is explicitly declared to be a pointer type
-(such as ``POINTER(c_int)``) in :attr:`~_FuncPtr.argtypes`, an object of the pointed
+(such as ``POINTER(c_int)``) in :attr:`~_CFuncPtr.argtypes`, an object of the pointed
type (``c_int`` in this case) can be passed to the function. ctypes will apply
the required :func:`byref` conversion in this case automatically.
@@ -1319,6 +1341,9 @@ On Linux, :func:`~ctypes.util.find_library` tries to run external programs
(``/sbin/ldconfig``, ``gcc``, ``objdump`` and ``ld``) to find the library file.
It returns the filename of the library file.
+Note that if the output of these programs does not correspond to the dynamic
+linker used by Python, the result of this function may be misleading.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
On Linux, the value of the environment variable ``LD_LIBRARY_PATH`` is used
when searching for libraries, if a library cannot be found by any other means.
@@ -1395,13 +1420,15 @@ way is to instantiate one of the following classes:
.. class:: OleDLL(name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None, use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)
- Windows only: Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries,
+ Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries,
functions in these libraries use the ``stdcall`` calling convention, and are
assumed to return the windows specific :class:`HRESULT` code. :class:`HRESULT`
values contain information specifying whether the function call failed or
succeeded, together with additional error code. If the return value signals a
failure, an :class:`OSError` is automatically raised.
+ .. availability:: Windows
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
:exc:`WindowsError` used to be raised,
which is now an alias of :exc:`OSError`.
@@ -1413,14 +1440,17 @@ way is to instantiate one of the following classes:
.. class:: WinDLL(name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None, use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)
- Windows only: Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries,
+ Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries,
functions in these libraries use the ``stdcall`` calling convention, and are
assumed to return :c:expr:`int` by default.
+ .. availability:: Windows
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
The *name* parameter can now be a :term:`path-like object`.
+
The Python :term:`global interpreter lock` is released before calling any
function exported by these libraries, and reacquired afterwards.
@@ -1556,13 +1586,17 @@ These prefabricated library loaders are available:
.. data:: windll
:noindex:
- Windows only: Creates :class:`WinDLL` instances.
+ Creates :class:`WinDLL` instances.
+
+ .. availability:: Windows
.. data:: oledll
:noindex:
- Windows only: Creates :class:`OleDLL` instances.
+ Creates :class:`OleDLL` instances.
+
+ .. availability:: Windows
.. data:: pydll
@@ -1609,10 +1643,20 @@ As explained in the previous section, foreign functions can be accessed as
attributes of loaded shared libraries. The function objects created in this way
by default accept any number of arguments, accept any ctypes data instances as
arguments, and return the default result type specified by the library loader.
-They are instances of a private class:
+They are instances of a private local class :class:`!_FuncPtr` (not exposed
+in :mod:`!ctypes`) which inherits from the private :class:`_CFuncPtr` class:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+ >>> import ctypes
+ >>> lib = ctypes.CDLL(None)
+ >>> issubclass(lib._FuncPtr, ctypes._CFuncPtr)
+ True
+ >>> lib._FuncPtr is ctypes._CFuncPtr
+ False
-.. class:: _FuncPtr
+.. class:: _CFuncPtr
Base class for C callable foreign functions.
@@ -1724,11 +1768,13 @@ See :ref:`ctypes-callback-functions` for examples.
.. function:: WINFUNCTYPE(restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False, use_last_error=False)
- Windows only: The returned function prototype creates functions that use the
+ The returned function prototype creates functions that use the
``stdcall`` calling convention. The function will
release the GIL during the call. *use_errno* and *use_last_error* have the
same meaning as above.
+ .. availability:: Windows
+
.. function:: PYFUNCTYPE(restype, *argtypes)
@@ -1778,7 +1824,7 @@ different ways, depending on the type and number of the parameters in the call:
The optional *paramflags* parameter creates foreign function wrappers with much
more functionality than the features described above.
-*paramflags* must be a tuple of the same length as :attr:`~_FuncPtr.argtypes`.
+*paramflags* must be a tuple of the same length as :attr:`~_CFuncPtr.argtypes`.
Each item in this tuple contains further information about a parameter, it must
be a tuple containing one, two, or three items.
@@ -1849,7 +1895,7 @@ value if there is a single one, or a tuple containing the output parameter
values when there are more than one, so the GetWindowRect function now returns a
RECT instance, when called.
-Output parameters can be combined with the :attr:`~_FuncPtr.errcheck` protocol to do
+Output parameters can be combined with the :attr:`~_CFuncPtr.errcheck` protocol to do
further output processing and error checking. The win32 ``GetWindowRect`` api
function returns a ``BOOL`` to signal success or failure, so this function could
do the error checking, and raises an exception when the api call failed::
@@ -1862,7 +1908,7 @@ do the error checking, and raises an exception when the api call failed::
>>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
>>>
-If the :attr:`~_FuncPtr.errcheck` function returns the argument tuple it receives
+If the :attr:`~_CFuncPtr.errcheck` function returns the argument tuple it receives
unchanged, :mod:`ctypes` continues the normal processing it does on the output
parameters. If you want to return a tuple of window coordinates instead of a
``RECT`` instance, you can retrieve the fields in the function and return them
@@ -1919,52 +1965,76 @@ Utility functions
pointer.
-.. function:: create_string_buffer(init_or_size, size=None)
+.. function:: create_string_buffer(init, size=None)
+ create_string_buffer(size)
This function creates a mutable character buffer. The returned object is a
ctypes array of :class:`c_char`.
- *init_or_size* must be an integer which specifies the size of the array, or a
- bytes object which will be used to initialize the array items.
+ If *size* is given (and not ``None``), it must be an :class:`int`.
+ It specifies the size of the returned array.
+
+ If the *init* argument is given, it must be :class:`bytes`. It is used
+ to initialize the array items. Bytes not initialized this way are
+ set to zero (NUL).
- If a bytes object is specified as first argument, the buffer is made one item
- larger than its length so that the last element in the array is a NUL
- termination character. An integer can be passed as second argument which allows
- specifying the size of the array if the length of the bytes should not be used.
+ If *size* is not given (or if it is ``None``), the buffer is made one element
+ larger than *init*, effectively adding a NUL terminator.
+
+ If both arguments are given, *size* must not be less than ``len(init)``.
+
+ .. warning::
+
+ If *size* is equal to ``len(init)``, a NUL terminator is
+ not added. Do not treat such a buffer as a C string.
+
+ For example::
+
+ >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(2))
+ b'\x00\x00'
+ >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'ab'))
+ b'ab\x00'
+ >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'ab', 2))
+ b'ab'
+ >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'ab', 4))
+ b'ab\x00\x00'
+ >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'abcdef', 2))
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ ...
+ ValueError: byte string too long
.. audit-event:: ctypes.create_string_buffer init,size ctypes.create_string_buffer
-.. function:: create_unicode_buffer(init_or_size, size=None)
+.. function:: create_unicode_buffer(init, size=None)
+ create_unicode_buffer(size)
This function creates a mutable unicode character buffer. The returned object is
a ctypes array of :class:`c_wchar`.
- *init_or_size* must be an integer which specifies the size of the array, or a
- string which will be used to initialize the array items.
-
- If a string is specified as first argument, the buffer is made one item
- larger than the length of the string so that the last element in the array is a
- NUL termination character. An integer can be passed as second argument which
- allows specifying the size of the array if the length of the string should not
- be used.
+ The function takes the same arguments as :func:`~create_string_buffer` except
+ *init* must be a string and *size* counts :class:`c_wchar`.
.. audit-event:: ctypes.create_unicode_buffer init,size ctypes.create_unicode_buffer
.. function:: DllCanUnloadNow()
- Windows only: This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process
+ This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process
COM servers with ctypes. It is called from the DllCanUnloadNow function that
the _ctypes extension dll exports.
+ .. availability:: Windows
+
.. function:: DllGetClassObject()
- Windows only: This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process
+ This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process
COM servers with ctypes. It is called from the DllGetClassObject function
that the ``_ctypes`` extension dll exports.
+ .. availability:: Windows
+
.. function:: find_library(name)
:module: ctypes.util
@@ -1976,11 +2046,13 @@ Utility functions
The exact functionality is system dependent.
+ See :ref:`ctypes-finding-shared-libraries` for complete documentation.
+
.. function:: find_msvcrt()
:module: ctypes.util
- Windows only: return the filename of the VC runtime library used by Python,
+ Returns the filename of the VC runtime library used by Python,
and by the extension modules. If the name of the library cannot be
determined, ``None`` is returned.
@@ -1988,20 +2060,27 @@ Utility functions
with a call to the ``free(void *)``, it is important that you use the
function in the same library that allocated the memory.
+ .. availability:: Windows
+
.. function:: FormatError([code])
- Windows only: Returns a textual description of the error code *code*. If no
+ Returns a textual description of the error code *code*. If no
error code is specified, the last error code is used by calling the Windows
api function GetLastError.
+ .. availability:: Windows
+
.. function:: GetLastError()
- Windows only: Returns the last error code set by Windows in the calling thread.
+ Returns the last error code set by Windows in the calling thread.
This function calls the Windows ``GetLastError()`` function directly,
it does not return the ctypes-private copy of the error code.
+ .. availability:: Windows
+
+
.. function:: get_errno()
Returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
@@ -2011,11 +2090,14 @@ Utility functions
.. function:: get_last_error()
- Windows only: returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
+ Returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
:data:`!LastError` variable in the calling thread.
+ .. availability:: Windows
+
.. audit-event:: ctypes.get_last_error "" ctypes.get_last_error
+
.. function:: memmove(dst, src, count)
Same as the standard C memmove library function: copies *count* bytes from
@@ -2064,10 +2146,12 @@ Utility functions
.. function:: set_last_error(value)
- Windows only: set the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
+ Sets the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
:data:`!LastError` variable in the calling thread to *value* and return the
previous value.
+ .. availability:: Windows
+
.. audit-event:: ctypes.set_last_error error ctypes.set_last_error
@@ -2088,12 +2172,14 @@ Utility functions
.. function:: WinError(code=None, descr=None)
- Windows only: this function is probably the worst-named thing in ctypes. It
+ This function is probably the worst-named thing in ctypes. It
creates an instance of :exc:`OSError`. If *code* is not specified,
``GetLastError`` is called to determine the error code. If *descr* is not
specified, :func:`FormatError` is called to get a textual description of the
error.
+ .. availability:: Windows
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
An instance of :exc:`WindowsError` used to be created, which is now an
alias of :exc:`OSError`.
@@ -2162,7 +2248,7 @@ Data types
This method adapts *obj* to a ctypes type. It is called with the actual
object used in a foreign function call when the type is present in the
- foreign function's :attr:`~_FuncPtr.argtypes` tuple;
+ foreign function's :attr:`~_CFuncPtr.argtypes` tuple;
it must return an object that can be used as a function call parameter.
All ctypes data types have a default implementation of this classmethod
@@ -2228,7 +2314,7 @@ Fundamental data types
Fundamental data types, when returned as foreign function call results, or, for
example, by retrieving structure field members or array items, are transparently
converted to native Python types. In other words, if a foreign function has a
-:attr:`~_FuncPtr.restype` of :class:`c_char_p`, you will always receive a Python bytes
+:attr:`~_CFuncPtr.restype` of :class:`c_char_p`, you will always receive a Python bytes
object, *not* a :class:`c_char_p` instance.
.. XXX above is false, it actually returns a Unicode string
@@ -2289,7 +2375,7 @@ These are the fundamental ctypes data types:
.. class:: c_int8
- Represents the C 8-bit :c:expr:`signed int` datatype. Usually an alias for
+ Represents the C 8-bit :c:expr:`signed int` datatype. It is an alias for
:class:`c_byte`.
@@ -2364,7 +2450,7 @@ These are the fundamental ctypes data types:
.. class:: c_uint8
- Represents the C 8-bit :c:expr:`unsigned int` datatype. Usually an alias for
+ Represents the C 8-bit :c:expr:`unsigned int` datatype. It is an alias for
:class:`c_ubyte`.
@@ -2433,9 +2519,11 @@ These are the fundamental ctypes data types:
.. class:: HRESULT
- Windows only: Represents a :c:type:`!HRESULT` value, which contains success or
+ Represents a :c:type:`!HRESULT` value, which contains success or
error information for a function or method call.
+ .. availability:: Windows
+
.. class:: py_object
@@ -2540,6 +2628,8 @@ fields, or any other data types containing pointer type fields.
the structure when being packed or unpacked to/from memory.
Setting this attribute to 0 is the same as not setting it at all.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
.. attribute:: _anonymous_
An optional sequence that lists the names of unnamed (anonymous) fields.
@@ -2605,6 +2695,8 @@ Arrays and pointers
subscript and slice accesses; for slice reads, the resulting object is
*not* itself an :class:`Array`.
+ Arrays are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the type of their elements.
+
.. attribute:: _length_
@@ -2621,6 +2713,15 @@ Arrays and pointers
Array subclass constructors accept positional arguments, used to
initialize the elements in order.
+.. function:: ARRAY(type, length)
+
+ Create an array.
+ Equivalent to ``type * length``, where *type* is a
+ :mod:`ctypes` data type and *length* an integer.
+
+ This function is :term:`soft deprecated` in favor of multiplication.
+ There are no plans to remove it.
+
.. class:: _Pointer
diff --git a/Doc/library/curses.ascii.rst b/Doc/library/curses.ascii.rst
index 410b76e77c025ba..cacd7fac197ec95 100644
--- a/Doc/library/curses.ascii.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/curses.ascii.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`curses.ascii` --- Utilities for ASCII characters
-======================================================
+:mod:`!curses.ascii` --- Utilities for ASCII characters
+=======================================================
.. module:: curses.ascii
:synopsis: Constants and set-membership functions for ASCII characters.
@@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ C library:
.. function:: isblank(c)
- Checks for an ASCII whitespace character; space or horizontal tab.
+ Checks for an ASCII blank character; space or horizontal tab.
.. function:: iscntrl(c)
@@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ C library:
.. function:: isgraph(c)
- Checks for ASCII any printable character except space.
+ Checks for any ASCII printable character except space.
.. function:: islower(c)
@@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ C library:
.. function:: ispunct(c)
- Checks for any printable ASCII character which is not a space or an alphanumeric
+ Checks for any ASCII printable character which is not a space or an alphanumeric
character.
@@ -171,7 +171,8 @@ C library:
.. function:: isctrl(c)
- Checks for an ASCII control character (ordinal values 0 to 31).
+ Checks for an ASCII control character (ordinal values 0 to 31). Unlike
+ :func:`iscntrl`, this does not include the delete character (0x7f).
.. function:: ismeta(c)
diff --git a/Doc/library/curses.panel.rst b/Doc/library/curses.panel.rst
index d770c03c8375f46..58505827e33cb5b 100644
--- a/Doc/library/curses.panel.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/curses.panel.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`curses.panel` --- A panel stack extension for curses
-==========================================================
+:mod:`!curses.panel` --- A panel stack extension for curses
+===========================================================
.. module:: curses.panel
:synopsis: A panel stack extension that adds depth to curses windows.
@@ -18,7 +18,15 @@ displayed. Panels can be added, moved up or down in the stack, and removed.
Functions
---------
-The module :mod:`curses.panel` defines the following functions:
+The module :mod:`!curses.panel` defines the following exception:
+
+
+.. exception:: error
+
+ Exception raised when a curses panel library function returns an error.
+
+
+The module :mod:`!curses.panel` defines the following functions:
.. function:: bottom_panel()
@@ -28,7 +36,8 @@ The module :mod:`curses.panel` defines the following functions:
.. function:: new_panel(win)
- Returns a panel object, associating it with the given window *win*. Be aware
+ Returns a panel object, associating it with the given window *win* and
+ placing the new panel on top of the panel stack. Be aware
that you need to keep the returned panel object referenced explicitly. If you
don't, the panel object is garbage collected and removed from the panel stack.
@@ -46,75 +55,94 @@ The module :mod:`curses.panel` defines the following functions:
.. _curses-panel-objects:
-Panel Objects
+Panel objects
-------------
-Panel objects, as returned by :func:`new_panel` above, are windows with a
-stacking order. There's always a window associated with a panel which determines
-the content, while the panel methods are responsible for the window's depth in
-the panel stack.
+.. raw:: html
+
+ <!-- Keep the old URL fragments working (see gh-89554) -->
+ <span id='curses.panel.Panel.above'></span>
+ <span id='curses.panel.Panel.below'></span>
+ <span id='curses.panel.Panel.bottom'></span>
+ <span id='curses.panel.Panel.hidden'></span>
+ <span id='curses.panel.Panel.hide'></span>
+ <span id='curses.panel.Panel.move'></span>
+ <span id='curses.panel.Panel.replace'></span>
+ <span id='curses.panel.Panel.set_userptr'></span>
+ <span id='curses.panel.Panel.show'></span>
+ <span id='curses.panel.Panel.top'></span>
+ <span id='curses.panel.Panel.userptr'></span>
+ <span id='curses.panel.Panel.window'></span>
+
+.. class:: panel
+
+ Panel objects, as returned by :func:`new_panel` above, are windows with a
+ stacking order. There's always a window associated with a panel which
+ determines the content, while the panel methods are responsible for the
+ window's depth in the panel stack.
-Panel objects have the following methods:
+ Panel objects have the following methods:
-.. method:: Panel.above()
+.. method:: panel.above()
Returns the panel above the current panel.
-.. method:: Panel.below()
+.. method:: panel.below()
Returns the panel below the current panel.
-.. method:: Panel.bottom()
+.. method:: panel.bottom()
Push the panel to the bottom of the stack.
-.. method:: Panel.hidden()
+.. method:: panel.hidden()
Returns ``True`` if the panel is hidden (not visible), ``False`` otherwise.
-.. method:: Panel.hide()
+.. method:: panel.hide()
Hide the panel. This does not delete the object, it just makes the window on
screen invisible.
-.. method:: Panel.move(y, x)
+.. method:: panel.move(y, x)
Move the panel to the screen coordinates ``(y, x)``.
-.. method:: Panel.replace(win)
+.. method:: panel.replace(win)
Change the window associated with the panel to the window *win*.
-.. method:: Panel.set_userptr(obj)
+.. method:: panel.set_userptr(obj)
Set the panel's user pointer to *obj*. This is used to associate an arbitrary
piece of data with the panel, and can be any Python object.
-.. method:: Panel.show()
+.. method:: panel.show()
- Display the panel (which might have been hidden).
+ Display the panel (which might have been hidden), placing it on top of
+ the panel stack.
-.. method:: Panel.top()
+.. method:: panel.top()
Push panel to the top of the stack.
-.. method:: Panel.userptr()
+.. method:: panel.userptr()
Returns the user pointer for the panel. This might be any Python object.
-.. method:: Panel.window()
+.. method:: panel.window()
Returns the window object associated with the panel.
diff --git a/Doc/library/curses.rst b/Doc/library/curses.rst
index 550872ce2ca59ee..72e88b308d9ac7e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/curses.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/curses.rst
@@ -1,10 +1,9 @@
-:mod:`curses` --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays
-===============================================================
+:mod:`!curses` --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays
+================================================================
.. module:: curses
:synopsis: An interface to the curses library, providing portable
terminal handling.
- :platform: Unix
.. sectionauthor:: Moshe Zadka <moshez@zadka.site.co.il>
.. sectionauthor:: Eric Raymond <esr@thyrsus.com>
@@ -21,16 +20,32 @@ for Windows, DOS, and possibly other systems as well. This extension module is
designed to match the API of ncurses, an open-source curses library hosted on
Linux and the BSD variants of Unix.
-.. include:: ../includes/wasm-ios-notavail.rst
+.. include:: ../includes/wasm-mobile-notavail.rst
+
+.. availability:: Unix.
.. note::
Whenever the documentation mentions a *character* it can be specified
as an integer, a one-character Unicode string or a one-byte byte string.
+ An integer is the code of a single encoded byte, optionally combined with
+ attributes and a color pair, as returned by :meth:`window.inch`.
Whenever the documentation mentions a *character string* it can be specified
as a Unicode string or a byte string.
+.. note::
+
+ Whether curses may be used from several threads
+ depends on the underlying library and how it was built.
+ In many implementations, including the default build of ncurses,
+ the screen state is shared and not thread-safe;
+ since the blocking and refresh methods
+ (such as :meth:`~window.getch` and :meth:`~window.refresh`)
+ release the :term:`GIL`,
+ unsynchronized use from several threads can then crash the interpreter.
+ Serialize the calls.
+
.. seealso::
Module :mod:`curses.ascii`
@@ -101,7 +116,8 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
Return the intensity of the red, green, and blue (RGB) components in the color
*color_number*, which must be between ``0`` and ``COLORS - 1``. Return a 3-tuple,
containing the R,G,B values for the given color, which will be between
- ``0`` (no component) and ``1000`` (maximum amount of component).
+ ``0`` (no component) and ``1000`` (maximum amount of component). Raise an
+ exception if the color is not supported.
.. function:: color_pair(pair_number)
@@ -147,7 +163,7 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
Update the physical screen. The curses library keeps two data structures, one
representing the current physical screen contents and a virtual screen
- representing the desired next state. The :func:`doupdate` ground updates the
+ representing the desired next state. The :func:`doupdate` function updates the
physical screen to match the virtual screen.
The virtual screen may be updated by a :meth:`~window.noutrefresh` call after write
@@ -179,7 +195,7 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
.. function:: filter()
The :func:`.filter` routine, if used, must be called before :func:`initscr` is
- called. The effect is that, during those calls, :envvar:`LINES` is set to ``1``; the
+ called. The effect is that, during the initialization, :envvar:`LINES` is set to ``1``; the
capabilities ``clear``, ``cup``, ``cud``, ``cud1``, ``cuu1``, ``cuu``, ``vpa`` are disabled; and the ``home``
string is set to the value of ``cr``. The effect is that the cursor is confined to
the current line, and so are screen updates. This may be used for enabling
@@ -225,9 +241,10 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
.. function:: getwin(file)
- Read window related data stored in the file by an earlier :func:`window.putwin` call.
+ Read window-related data stored in the file by an earlier :meth:`window.putwin` call.
The routine then creates and initializes a new window using that data, returning
- the new window object.
+ the new window object. The *file* argument must be a file object opened for
+ reading in binary mode.
.. function:: has_colors()
@@ -238,7 +255,7 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
Return ``True`` if the module supports extended colors; otherwise, return
``False``. Extended color support allows more than 256 color pairs for
- terminals that support more than 16 colors (e.g. xterm-256color).
+ terminals that support more than 16 colors (for example, xterm-256color).
Extended color support requires ncurses version 6.1 or later.
@@ -303,12 +320,21 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
Initialize the library. Return a :ref:`window <curses-window-objects>` object
which represents the whole screen.
+ See :func:`setupterm` for a caveat about calling it before this function.
+
.. note::
If there is an error opening the terminal, the underlying curses library may
cause the interpreter to exit.
+.. function:: intrflush(flag)
+
+ If *flag* is ``True``, pressing an interrupt key (interrupt, break, or quit)
+ will flush all output in the terminal driver queue. If *flag* is ``False``,
+ no flushing is done.
+
+
.. function:: is_term_resized(nlines, ncols)
Return ``True`` if :func:`resize_term` would modify the window structure,
@@ -330,6 +356,8 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
bytes object consisting of the prefix ``b'M-'`` followed by the name of the corresponding
ASCII character.
+ Raise a :exc:`ValueError` if *k* is negative.
+
.. function:: killchar()
@@ -355,7 +383,8 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
Set the maximum time in milliseconds that can elapse between press and release
events in order for them to be recognized as a click, and return the previous
- interval value. The default value is 200 milliseconds, or one fifth of a second.
+ interval value. The default value is 166 milliseconds, or one sixth of a second.
+ Use a negative *interval* to obtain the interval value without changing it.
.. function:: mousemask(mousemask)
@@ -363,7 +392,7 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
Set the mouse events to be reported, and return a tuple ``(availmask,
oldmask)``. *availmask* indicates which of the specified mouse events can be
reported; on complete failure it returns ``0``. *oldmask* is the previous value of
- the given window's mouse event mask. If this function is never called, no mouse
+ the mouse event mask. If this function is never called, no mouse
events are ever reported.
@@ -385,7 +414,7 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
methods of a pad require 6 arguments to specify the part of the pad to be
displayed and the location on the screen to be used for the display. The
arguments are *pminrow*, *pmincol*, *sminrow*, *smincol*, *smaxrow*, *smaxcol*; the *p*
- arguments refer to the upper left corner of the pad region to be displayed and
+ arguments refer to the upper-left corner of the pad region to be displayed and
the *s* arguments define a clipping box on the screen within which the pad region
is to be displayed.
@@ -400,12 +429,14 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
right corner of the screen.
-.. function:: nl()
+.. function:: nl(flag=True)
Enter newline mode. This mode translates the return key into newline on input,
and translates newline into return and line-feed on output. Newline mode is
initially on.
+ If *flag* is ``False``, the effect is the same as calling :func:`nonl`.
+
.. function:: nocbreak()
@@ -455,8 +486,10 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
.. function:: putp(str)
Equivalent to ``tputs(str, 1, putchar)``; emit the value of a specified
- terminfo capability for the current terminal. Note that the output of :func:`putp`
- always goes to standard output.
+ terminfo capability, a bytes object, for the current terminal.
+ Note that the output of :func:`putp` always goes to standard output.
+
+ :func:`setupterm` (or :func:`initscr`) must be called first.
.. function:: qiflush([flag])
@@ -554,6 +587,17 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
file descriptor to which any initialization sequences will be sent; if not
supplied or ``-1``, the file descriptor for ``sys.stdout`` will be used.
+ Raise a :exc:`curses.error` if the terminal could not be found or its
+ terminfo database entry could not be read. If the terminal has already
+ been initialized, this function has no effect.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ Calling :func:`initscr` after :func:`setupterm`
+ leaks the terminal that :func:`setupterm` allocated:
+ the curses library keeps only a single current terminal
+ and does not free the previously allocated one.
+
.. function:: start_color()
@@ -588,6 +632,8 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
Boolean capability, or ``0`` if it is canceled or absent from the terminal
description.
+ :func:`setupterm` (or :func:`initscr`) must be called first.
+
.. function:: tigetnum(capname)
@@ -596,6 +642,8 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
numeric capability, or ``-1`` if it is canceled or absent from the terminal
description.
+ :func:`setupterm` (or :func:`initscr`) must be called first.
+
.. function:: tigetstr(capname)
@@ -604,13 +652,17 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
is not a terminfo "string capability", or is canceled or absent from the
terminal description.
+ :func:`setupterm` (or :func:`initscr`) must be called first.
+
.. function:: tparm(str[, ...])
Instantiate the bytes object *str* with the supplied parameters, where *str* should
- be a parameterized string obtained from the terminfo database. E.g.
+ be a parameterized byte string obtained from the terminfo database. For example,
``tparm(tigetstr("cup"), 5, 3)`` could result in ``b'\033[6;4H'``, the exact
- result depending on terminal type.
+ result depending on terminal type. Up to nine integer parameters may be supplied.
+
+ :func:`setupterm` (or :func:`initscr`) must be called first.
.. function:: typeahead(fd)
@@ -627,7 +679,8 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
.. function:: unctrl(ch)
- Return a bytes object which is a printable representation of the character *ch*.
+ Return a bytes object which is a printable representation of the character *ch*;
+ any attributes and color pair are ignored.
Control characters are represented as a caret followed by the character, for
example as ``b'^C'``. Printing characters are left as they are.
@@ -636,6 +689,9 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
Push *ch* so the next :meth:`~window.getch` will return it.
+ *ch* may be an integer (a key code or the code of an encoded byte), a byte,
+ or a string of length 1 which encodes to a single byte.
+
.. note::
Only one *ch* can be pushed before :meth:`!getch` is called.
@@ -653,6 +709,9 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
Push *ch* so the next :meth:`~window.get_wch` will return it.
+ *ch* may be an integer (a character code, not a key code) or a string of
+ length 1.
+
.. note::
Only one *ch* can be pushed before :meth:`!get_wch` is called.
@@ -700,11 +759,13 @@ The module :mod:`curses` defines the following functions:
.. _curses-window-objects:
-Window Objects
+Window objects
--------------
-Window objects, as returned by :func:`initscr` and :func:`newwin` above, have
-the following methods and attributes:
+.. class:: window
+
+ Window objects, as returned by :func:`initscr` and :func:`newwin` above, have
+ the following methods and attributes:
.. method:: window.addch(ch[, attr])
@@ -717,7 +778,7 @@ the following methods and attributes:
.. note::
Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises a :exc:`curses.error`.
- Attempting to write to the lower right corner of a window, subwindow,
+ Attempting to write to the lower-right corner of a window, subwindow,
or pad will cause an exception to be raised after the character is printed.
@@ -738,7 +799,7 @@ the following methods and attributes:
.. note::
* Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises :exc:`curses.error`.
- Attempting to write to the lower right corner of a window, subwindow,
+ Attempting to write to the lower-right corner of a window, subwindow,
or pad will cause an exception to be raised after the string is printed.
* A `bug in ncurses <https://bugs.python.org/issue35924>`_, the backend
@@ -757,7 +818,7 @@ the following methods and attributes:
.. method:: window.attron(attr)
- Add attribute *attr* from the "background" set applied to all writes to the
+ Add attribute *attr* to the "background" set applied to all writes to the
current window.
@@ -873,7 +934,8 @@ the following methods and attributes:
.. method:: window.delch([y, x])
- Delete any character at ``(y, x)``.
+ Delete the character under the cursor, or at ``(y, x)`` if specified. All
+ characters to the right on the same line are shifted one position left.
.. method:: window.deleteln()
@@ -909,7 +971,8 @@ the following methods and attributes:
.. attribute:: window.encoding
- Encoding used to encode method arguments (Unicode strings and characters).
+ Encoding used to encode the string arguments of the methods and to decode
+ their results on a build without wide-character support.
The encoding attribute is inherited from the parent window when a subwindow
is created, for example with :meth:`window.subwin`.
By default, current locale encoding is used (see :func:`locale.getencoding`).
@@ -924,37 +987,69 @@ the following methods and attributes:
.. method:: window.getbegyx()
- Return a tuple ``(y, x)`` of co-ordinates of upper-left corner.
+ Return a tuple ``(y, x)`` of coordinates of upper-left corner.
.. method:: window.getbkgd()
Return the given window's current background character/attribute pair.
+ Its components can be extracted like those of :meth:`inch`.
.. method:: window.getch([y, x])
- Get a character. Note that the integer returned does *not* have to be in ASCII
- range: function keys, keypad keys and so on are represented by numbers higher
- than 255. In no-delay mode, return ``-1`` if there is no input, otherwise
- wait until a key is pressed.
+ Read a key press, after moving the cursor to *y*, *x* if specified,
+ and return it as an integer.
+ The window is refreshed first if it is not a pad and was modified since
+ the last refresh.
+ Wait until a key is pressed, or return ``-1`` if the read is non-blocking
+ or times out (see :meth:`nodelay` and :meth:`timeout`).
+
+ An ordinary key is returned as the code of a single byte of its encoding
+ in the current locale,
+ so a character encoded with several bytes takes several calls.
+ For example, in a UTF-8 locale ``'é'`` is read as ``195``, then ``169``.
+ Use :meth:`get_wch` to read it as a single character.
+
+ In keypad mode (see :meth:`keypad`) function keys and other special keys
+ are returned as one of the :ref:`KEY_* constants <curses-key-constants>`,
+ which cannot be mistaken for an ordinary key.
+ Otherwise, or if their escape sequence does not arrive in time
+ (see :meth:`notimeout` and :func:`set_escdelay`),
+ their bytes are returned one at a time.
+
+ In echo mode (see :func:`echo`) the key is added to the window as by
+ :meth:`addch`; special keys are not echoed.
.. method:: window.get_wch([y, x])
- Get a wide character. Return a character for most keys, or an integer for
- function keys, keypad keys, and other special keys.
- In no-delay mode, raise an exception if there is no input.
+ Read a key press, after moving the cursor to *y*, *x* if specified,
+ and return it as a one-character :class:`str`.
+ The window is refreshed first if it is not a pad and was modified since
+ the last refresh.
+ Wait until a key is pressed, or raise :exc:`error` if the read is
+ non-blocking or times out (see :meth:`nodelay` and :meth:`timeout`).
+
+ In keypad mode (see :meth:`keypad`) function keys and other special keys
+ are returned as one of the :ref:`KEY_* constants <curses-key-constants>`,
+ an integer.
+ Otherwise, or if their escape sequence does not arrive in time
+ (see :meth:`notimeout` and :func:`set_escdelay`),
+ their characters are returned one at a time.
+
+ In echo mode (see :func:`echo`) the key is added to the window as by
+ :meth:`addch`; special keys are not echoed.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. method:: window.getkey([y, x])
- Get a character, returning a string instead of an integer, as :meth:`getch`
- does. Function keys, keypad keys and other special keys return a multibyte
- string containing the key name. In no-delay mode, raise an exception if
- there is no input.
+ Read a key press as :meth:`getch` does, but return it as a :class:`str`:
+ an ordinary key as a one-character string, the byte decoded as Latin-1,
+ and a special key as its name, such as ``'KEY_UP'`` (see :func:`keyname`).
+ Raise :exc:`error` instead of returning ``-1`` if there is no input.
.. method:: window.getmaxyx()
@@ -974,7 +1069,12 @@ the following methods and attributes:
window.getstr(y, x)
window.getstr(y, x, n)
- Read a bytes object from the user, with primitive line editing capacity.
+ Read a line of input from the user, with primitive line editing capacity,
+ after moving the cursor to *y*, *x* if specified.
+ Return it as a bytes object, in the encoding of the current locale
+ and without the terminating newline.
+ At most *n* bytes are read;
+ *n* defaults to and cannot exceed 1023.
.. method:: window.getyx()
@@ -983,11 +1083,12 @@ the following methods and attributes:
upper-left corner.
-.. method:: window.hline(ch, n)
- window.hline(y, x, ch, n)
+.. method:: window.hline(ch, n[, attr])
+ window.hline(y, x, ch, n[, attr])
Display a horizontal line starting at ``(y, x)`` with length *n* consisting of
- the character *ch*.
+ the character *ch* with attributes *attr*. The line stops at the right edge
+ of the window if fewer than *n* cells are available.
.. method:: window.idcok(flag)
@@ -1014,15 +1115,24 @@ the following methods and attributes:
.. method:: window.inch([y, x])
- Return the character at the given position in the window. The bottom 8 bits are
- the character proper, and upper bits are the attributes.
+ Return the character at the given position in the window.
+ The bottom 8 bits are the character proper and the upper bits are the attributes;
+ extract them with the :data:`A_CHARTEXT` and :data:`A_ATTRIBUTES` bit-masks,
+ and the color pair with :func:`pair_number`.
+ The character byte is the locale-encoded byte of the cell's character,
+ consistent with :meth:`instr`.
+ On a wide-character build, a character that does not fit in a single byte
+ in the current locale has a character byte of ``0``;
+ use :meth:`instr` to read such characters.
.. method:: window.insch(ch[, attr])
window.insch(y, x, ch[, attr])
- Paint character *ch* at ``(y, x)`` with attributes *attr*, moving the line from
- position *x* right by one character.
+ Insert character *ch* with attributes *attr* before the character under the
+ cursor, or at ``(y, x)`` if specified. All characters to the right of the
+ cursor are shifted one position right, with the rightmost character on the
+ line being lost. The cursor position does not change.
.. method:: window.insdelln(nlines)
@@ -1062,10 +1172,11 @@ the following methods and attributes:
.. method:: window.instr([n])
window.instr(y, x[, n])
- Return a bytes object of characters, extracted from the window starting at the
- current cursor position, or at *y*, *x* if specified. Attributes are stripped
- from the characters. If *n* is specified, :meth:`instr` returns a string
- at most *n* characters long (exclusive of the trailing NUL).
+ Read the text of the window from the current cursor position,
+ or from *y*, *x* if specified, to the end of the line,
+ and return it as a bytes object, in the encoding of the current locale.
+ Attributes and color pairs are stripped.
+ At most *n* bytes are read; *n* defaults to and cannot exceed 1023.
.. method:: window.is_linetouched(line)
@@ -1086,13 +1197,14 @@ the following methods and attributes:
If *flag* is ``True``, escape sequences generated by some keys (keypad, function keys)
will be interpreted by :mod:`curses`. If *flag* is ``False``, escape sequences will be
left as is in the input stream.
+ Keypad mode is disabled by default, but :func:`wrapper` enables it for the
+ main window.
.. method:: window.leaveok(flag)
If *flag* is ``True``, cursor is left where it is on update, instead of being at "cursor
- position." This reduces cursor movement where possible. If possible the cursor
- will be made invisible.
+ position." This reduces cursor movement where possible.
If *flag* is ``False``, cursor will always be at "cursor position" after an update.
@@ -1113,6 +1225,9 @@ the following methods and attributes:
Move the window so its upper-left corner is at ``(new_y, new_x)``.
+ Moving the window so that any part of it would be off the screen is an error:
+ the window is not moved and :exc:`curses.error` is raised.
+
.. method:: window.nodelay(flag)
@@ -1128,11 +1243,16 @@ the following methods and attributes:
.. method:: window.noutrefresh()
+ window.noutrefresh(pminrow, pmincol, sminrow, smincol, smaxrow, smaxcol)
Mark for refresh but wait. This function updates the data structure
representing the desired state of the window, but does not force an update of
the physical screen. To accomplish that, call :func:`doupdate`.
+ The 6 arguments can only be specified, and are then required, when the window
+ is a pad created with :func:`newpad`; they have the same meaning as for
+ :meth:`refresh`.
+
.. method:: window.overlay(destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow, dmincol, dmaxrow, dmaxcol])
@@ -1183,12 +1303,12 @@ the following methods and attributes:
Update the display immediately (sync actual screen with previous
drawing/deleting methods).
- The 6 optional arguments can only be specified when the window is a pad created
- with :func:`newpad`. The additional parameters are needed to indicate what part
- of the pad and screen are involved. *pminrow* and *pmincol* specify the upper
- left-hand corner of the rectangle to be displayed in the pad. *sminrow*,
+ The 6 arguments can only be specified, and are then required, when the window
+ is a pad created with :func:`newpad`. The additional parameters are needed to indicate what part
+ of the pad and screen are involved. *pminrow* and *pmincol* specify the
+ upper-left corner of the rectangle to be displayed in the pad. *sminrow*,
*smincol*, *smaxrow*, and *smaxcol* specify the edges of the rectangle to be
- displayed on the screen. The lower right-hand corner of the rectangle to be
+ displayed on the screen. The lower-right corner of the rectangle to be
displayed in the pad is calculated from the screen coordinates, since the
rectangles must be the same size. Both rectangles must be entirely contained
within their respective structures. Negative values of *pminrow*, *pmincol*,
@@ -1205,7 +1325,9 @@ the following methods and attributes:
.. method:: window.scroll([lines=1])
- Scroll the screen or scrolling region upward by *lines* lines.
+ Scroll the screen or scrolling region. Scroll upward by *lines* lines if
+ *lines* is positive, or downward if it is negative. Scrolling has no effect
+ unless it has been enabled for the window with :meth:`scrollok`.
.. method:: window.scrollok(flag)
@@ -1238,15 +1360,17 @@ the following methods and attributes:
.. method:: window.subpad(begin_y, begin_x)
window.subpad(nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)
- Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at ``(begin_y, begin_x)``, and
- whose width/height is *ncols*/*nlines*.
+ Return a sub-pad, whose upper-left corner is at ``(begin_y, begin_x)``, and
+ whose width/height is *ncols*/*nlines*. The coordinates are relative to the
+ parent pad (unlike :meth:`subwin`, which uses screen coordinates). This
+ method is only available for pads created with :func:`newpad`.
.. method:: window.subwin(begin_y, begin_x)
window.subwin(nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)
- Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at ``(begin_y, begin_x)``, and
- whose width/height is *ncols*/*nlines*.
+ Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at the screen-relative
+ coordinates ``(begin_y, begin_x)``, and whose width/height is *ncols*/*nlines*.
By default, the sub-window will extend from the specified position to the lower
right corner of the window.
@@ -1326,7 +1450,6 @@ The :mod:`curses` module defines the following data members:
.. data:: version
-.. data:: __version__
A bytes object representing the current version of the module.
@@ -1354,14 +1477,14 @@ The :mod:`curses` module defines the following data members:
.. data:: COLS
- The width of the screen, i.e., the number of columns.
+ The width of the screen, that is, the number of columns.
It is defined only after the call to :func:`initscr`.
Updated by :func:`update_lines_cols`, :func:`resizeterm` and
:func:`resize_term`.
.. data:: LINES
- The height of the screen, i.e., the number of lines.
+ The height of the screen, that is, the number of lines.
It is defined only after the call to :func:`initscr`.
Updated by :func:`update_lines_cols`, :func:`resizeterm` and
:func:`resize_term`.
@@ -1428,6 +1551,8 @@ by some methods.
| | color-pair field information |
+-------------------------+-------------------------------+
+.. _curses-key-constants:
+
Keys are referred to by integer constants with names starting with ``KEY_``.
The exact keycaps available are system dependent.
@@ -1664,7 +1789,7 @@ falls back on a crude printable ASCII approximation.
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| ACS code | Meaning |
+========================+==========================================+
-| .. data:: ACS_BBSS | alternate name for upper right corner |
+| .. data:: ACS_BBSS | alternate name for upper-right corner |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| .. data:: ACS_BLOCK | solid square block |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
@@ -1672,7 +1797,7 @@ falls back on a crude printable ASCII approximation.
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| .. data:: ACS_BSBS | alternate name for horizontal line |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
-| .. data:: ACS_BSSB | alternate name for upper left corner |
+| .. data:: ACS_BSSB | alternate name for upper-left corner |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| .. data:: ACS_BSSS | alternate name for top tee |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
@@ -1698,9 +1823,9 @@ falls back on a crude printable ASCII approximation.
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| .. data:: ACS_LEQUAL | less-than-or-equal-to |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
-| .. data:: ACS_LLCORNER | lower left-hand corner |
+| .. data:: ACS_LLCORNER | lower-left corner |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
-| .. data:: ACS_LRCORNER | lower right-hand corner |
+| .. data:: ACS_LRCORNER | lower-right corner |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| .. data:: ACS_LTEE | left tee |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
@@ -1724,13 +1849,13 @@ falls back on a crude printable ASCII approximation.
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| .. data:: ACS_S9 | scan line 9 |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
-| .. data:: ACS_SBBS | alternate name for lower right corner |
+| .. data:: ACS_SBBS | alternate name for lower-right corner |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| .. data:: ACS_SBSB | alternate name for vertical line |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| .. data:: ACS_SBSS | alternate name for right tee |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
-| .. data:: ACS_SSBB | alternate name for lower left corner |
+| .. data:: ACS_SSBB | alternate name for lower-left corner |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| .. data:: ACS_SSBS | alternate name for bottom tee |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
@@ -1744,9 +1869,9 @@ falls back on a crude printable ASCII approximation.
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| .. data:: ACS_UARROW | up arrow |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
-| .. data:: ACS_ULCORNER | upper left corner |
+| .. data:: ACS_ULCORNER | upper-left corner |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
-| .. data:: ACS_URCORNER | upper right corner |
+| .. data:: ACS_URCORNER | upper-right corner |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| .. data:: ACS_VLINE | vertical line |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------+
@@ -1770,7 +1895,7 @@ The following table lists mouse button constants used by :meth:`getmouse`:
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| .. data:: BUTTON_CTRL | Control was down during button state change |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
-| .. data:: BUTTON_ALT | Control was down during button state change |
+| .. data:: BUTTON_ALT | Alt was down during button state change |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
@@ -1822,9 +1947,9 @@ The module :mod:`curses.textpad` defines the following function:
Draw a rectangle. The first argument must be a window object; the remaining
arguments are coordinates relative to that window. The second and third
- arguments are the y and x coordinates of the upper left hand corner of the
+ arguments are the y and x coordinates of the upper-left corner of the
rectangle to be drawn; the fourth and fifth arguments are the y and x
- coordinates of the lower right hand corner. The rectangle will be drawn using
+ coordinates of the lower-right corner. The rectangle will be drawn using
VT100/IBM PC forms characters on terminals that make this possible (including
xterm and most other software terminal emulators). Otherwise it will be drawn
with ASCII dashes, vertical bars, and plus signs.
@@ -1838,32 +1963,36 @@ Textbox objects
You can instantiate a :class:`Textbox` object as follows:
-.. class:: Textbox(win)
+.. class:: Textbox(win, insert_mode=False)
Return a textbox widget object. The *win* argument should be a curses
:ref:`window <curses-window-objects>` object in which the textbox is to
- be contained. The edit cursor of the textbox is initially located at the
- upper left hand corner of the containing window, with coordinates ``(0, 0)``.
+ be contained. If *insert_mode* is true, the textbox inserts typed
+ characters, shifting existing text to the right, rather than overwriting it.
+ The edit cursor of the textbox is initially located at the
+ upper-left corner of the containing window, with coordinates ``(0, 0)``.
The instance's :attr:`stripspaces` flag is initially on.
:class:`Textbox` objects have the following methods:
- .. method:: edit([validator])
+ .. method:: edit(validate=None)
This is the entry point you will normally use. It accepts editing
keystrokes until one of the termination keystrokes is entered. If
- *validator* is supplied, it must be a function. It will be called for
+ *validate* is supplied, it must be a function. It will be called for
each keystroke entered with the keystroke as a parameter; command dispatch
- is done on the result. This method returns the window contents as a
+ is done on the result. If it returns a false value, the keystroke is
+ ignored. This method returns the window contents as a
string; whether blanks in the window are included is affected by the
:attr:`stripspaces` attribute.
.. method:: do_command(ch)
- Process a single command keystroke. Here are the supported special
- keystrokes:
+ Process a single command keystroke. Returns ``1`` to continue editing,
+ or ``0`` if a termination keystroke was processed. Here are the supported
+ special keystrokes:
+------------------+-------------------------------------------+
| Keystroke | Action |
@@ -1886,7 +2015,8 @@ You can instantiate a :class:`Textbox` object as follows:
| :kbd:`Control-H` | Delete character backward. |
+------------------+-------------------------------------------+
| :kbd:`Control-J` | Terminate if the window is 1 line, |
- | | otherwise insert newline. |
+ | | otherwise move to the start of the next |
+ | | line. |
+------------------+-------------------------------------------+
| :kbd:`Control-K` | If line is blank, delete it, otherwise |
| | clear to end of line. |
diff --git a/Doc/library/dataclasses.rst b/Doc/library/dataclasses.rst
index 7a8b83e1384e5f3..455dd4c469d9e88 100644
--- a/Doc/library/dataclasses.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/dataclasses.rst
@@ -103,12 +103,25 @@ Module contents
ignored.
- *eq*: If true (the default), an :meth:`~object.__eq__` method will be
- generated. This method compares the class as if it were a tuple
- of its fields, in order. Both instances in the comparison must
- be of the identical type.
+ generated.
- If the class already defines :meth:`!__eq__`, this parameter is
- ignored.
+ This method compares the class by comparing each field in order. Both
+ instances in the comparison must be of the identical type.
+
+ If the class already defines :meth:`!__eq__`, this parameter is ignored.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ The generated ``__eq__`` method now compares each field individually
+ (for example, ``self.a == other.a and self.b == other.b``), rather than
+ comparing tuples of fields as in previous versions.
+
+ This change makes the comparison faster but it may alter results in cases
+ where attributes compare equal by identity but not by value (such as
+ ``float('nan')``).
+
+ In Python 3.12 and earlier, the comparison was performed by creating
+ tuples of the fields and comparing them (for example,
+ ``(self.a, self.b) == (other.a, other.b)``).
- *order*: If true (the default is ``False``), :meth:`~object.__lt__`,
:meth:`~object.__le__`, :meth:`~object.__gt__`, and :meth:`~object.__ge__` methods will be
@@ -121,10 +134,13 @@ Module contents
:meth:`!__le__`, :meth:`!__gt__`, or :meth:`!__ge__`, then
:exc:`TypeError` is raised.
- - *unsafe_hash*: If ``False`` (the default), a :meth:`~object.__hash__` method
- is generated according to how *eq* and *frozen* are set.
+ - *unsafe_hash*: If true, force ``dataclasses`` to create a
+ :meth:`~object.__hash__` method, even though it may not be safe to do so.
+ Otherwise, generate a :meth:`~object.__hash__` method according to how
+ *eq* and *frozen* are set.
+ The default value is ``False``.
- :meth:`!__hash__` is used by built-in :meth:`hash()`, and when objects are
+ :meth:`!__hash__` is used by built-in :meth:`hash`, and when objects are
added to hashed collections such as dictionaries and sets. Having a
:meth:`!__hash__` implies that instances of the class are immutable.
Mutability is a complicated property that depends on the programmer's
@@ -158,13 +174,15 @@ Module contents
:class:`object`, this means it will fall back to id-based hashing).
- *frozen*: If true (the default is ``False``), assigning to fields will
- generate an exception. This emulates read-only frozen instances. If
- :meth:`~object.__setattr__` or :meth:`~object.__delattr__` is defined in the class, then
- :exc:`TypeError` is raised. See the discussion below.
+ generate an exception. This emulates read-only frozen instances.
+ See the :ref:`discussion <dataclasses-frozen>` below.
+
+ If :meth:`~object.__setattr__` or :meth:`~object.__delattr__` is defined in the class
+ and *frozen* is true, then :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
- *match_args*: If true (the default is ``True``), the
:attr:`~object.__match_args__` tuple will be created from the list of
- parameters to the generated :meth:`~object.__init__` method (even if
+ non keyword-only parameters to the generated :meth:`~object.__init__` method (even if
:meth:`!__init__` is not generated, see above). If false, or if
:attr:`!__match_args__` is already defined in the class, then
:attr:`!__match_args__` will not be generated.
@@ -175,11 +193,12 @@ Module contents
fields will be marked as keyword-only. If a field is marked as
keyword-only, then the only effect is that the :meth:`~object.__init__`
parameter generated from a keyword-only field must be specified
- with a keyword when :meth:`!__init__` is called. There is no
- effect on any other aspect of dataclasses. See the
- :term:`parameter` glossary entry for details. Also see the
+ with a keyword when :meth:`!__init__` is called. See the :term:`parameter`
+ glossary entry for details. Also see the
:const:`KW_ONLY` section.
+ Keyword-only fields are not included in :attr:`!__match_args__`.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.10
- *slots*: If true (the default is ``False``), :attr:`~object.__slots__` attribute
@@ -187,6 +206,20 @@ Module contents
If :attr:`!__slots__` is already defined in the class, then :exc:`TypeError`
is raised.
+ .. warning::
+ Calling no-arg :func:`super` in dataclasses using ``slots=True``
+ will result in the following exception being raised:
+ ``TypeError: super(type, obj): obj must be an instance or subtype of type``.
+ The two-arg :func:`super` is a valid workaround.
+ See :gh:`90562` for full details.
+
+ .. warning::
+ Passing parameters to a base class :meth:`~object.__init_subclass__`
+ when using ``slots=True`` will result in a :exc:`TypeError`.
+ Either use ``__init_subclass__`` with no parameters
+ or use default values as a workaround.
+ See :gh:`91126` for full details.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.10
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
@@ -201,7 +234,8 @@ Module contents
- *weakref_slot*: If true (the default is ``False``), add a slot
named "__weakref__", which is required to make an instance
- weakref-able. It is an error to specify ``weakref_slot=True``
+ :func:`weakref-able <weakref.ref>`.
+ It is an error to specify ``weakref_slot=True``
without also specifying ``slots=True``.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
@@ -262,10 +296,11 @@ Module contents
string returned by the generated :meth:`~object.__repr__` method.
- *hash*: This can be a bool or ``None``. If true, this field is
- included in the generated :meth:`~object.__hash__` method. If ``None`` (the
- default), use the value of *compare*: this would normally be
- the expected behavior. A field should be considered in the hash
- if it's used for comparisons. Setting this value to anything
+ included in the generated :meth:`~object.__hash__` method. If false,
+ this field is excluded from the generated :meth:`~object.__hash__`.
+ If ``None`` (the default), use the value of *compare*: this would
+ normally be the expected behavior, since a field should be included
+ in the hash if it's used for comparisons. Setting this value to anything
other than ``None`` is discouraged.
One possible reason to set ``hash=False`` but ``compare=True``
@@ -278,7 +313,7 @@ Module contents
generated equality and comparison methods (:meth:`~object.__eq__`,
:meth:`~object.__gt__`, et al.).
- - *metadata*: This can be a mapping or None. None is treated as
+ - *metadata*: This can be a mapping or ``None``. ``None`` is treated as
an empty dict. This value is wrapped in
:func:`~types.MappingProxyType` to make it read-only, and exposed
on the :class:`Field` object. It is not used at all by Data
@@ -290,13 +325,15 @@ Module contents
This is used when the generated :meth:`~object.__init__` method's
parameters are computed.
+ Keyword-only fields are also not included in :attr:`!__match_args__`.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.10
If the default value of a field is specified by a call to
:func:`!field`, then the class attribute for this field will be
replaced by the specified *default* value. If *default* is not
provided, then the class attribute will be deleted. The intent is
- that after the :func:`@dataclass <dataclass>` decorator runs, the class
+ that after the :deco:`dataclass` decorator runs, the class
attributes will all contain the default values for the fields, just
as if the default value itself were specified. For example,
after::
@@ -328,6 +365,15 @@ Module contents
Other attributes may exist, but they are private and must not be
inspected or relied on.
+.. class:: InitVar
+
+ ``InitVar[T]`` type annotations describe variables that are :ref:`init-only
+ <dataclasses-init-only-variables>`. Fields annotated with :class:`!InitVar`
+ are considered pseudo-fields, and thus are neither returned by the
+ :func:`fields` function nor used in any way except adding them as
+ parameters to :meth:`~object.__init__` and an optional
+ :meth:`__post_init__`.
+
.. function:: fields(class_or_instance)
Returns a tuple of :class:`Field` objects that define the fields for this
@@ -397,7 +443,7 @@ Module contents
:data:`typing.Any` is used for ``type``. The values of *init*,
*repr*, *eq*, *order*, *unsafe_hash*, *frozen*,
*match_args*, *kw_only*, *slots*, and *weakref_slot* have
- the same meaning as they do in :func:`@dataclass <dataclass>`.
+ the same meaning as they do in :deco:`dataclass`.
If *module* is defined, the :attr:`!__module__` attribute
of the dataclass is set to that value.
@@ -405,7 +451,7 @@ Module contents
This function is not strictly required, because any Python
mechanism for creating a new class with :attr:`!__annotations__` can
- then apply the :func:`@dataclass <dataclass>` function to convert that class to
+ then apply the :deco:`dataclass` function to convert that class to
a dataclass. This function is provided as a convenience. For
example::
@@ -458,8 +504,9 @@ Module contents
.. function:: is_dataclass(obj)
- Return ``True`` if its parameter is a dataclass or an instance of one,
- otherwise return ``False``.
+ Return ``True`` if its parameter is a dataclass (including subclasses of a
+ dataclass, but not including :ref:`generic aliases <types-genericalias>`)
+ or an instance of one, otherwise return ``False``.
If you need to know if a class is an instance of a dataclass (and
not a dataclass itself), then add a further check for ``not
@@ -531,7 +578,7 @@ Post-init processing
def __post_init__(self):
self.c = self.a + self.b
-The :meth:`~object.__init__` method generated by :func:`@dataclass <dataclass>` does not call base
+The :meth:`~object.__init__` method generated by :deco:`dataclass` does not call base
class :meth:`!__init__` methods. If the base class has an :meth:`!__init__` method
that has to be called, it is common to call this method in a
:meth:`__post_init__` method::
@@ -561,7 +608,7 @@ parameters to :meth:`!__post_init__`. Also see the warning about how
Class variables
---------------
-One of the few places where :func:`@dataclass <dataclass>` actually inspects the type
+One of the few places where :deco:`dataclass` actually inspects the type
of a field is to determine if a field is a class variable as defined
in :pep:`526`. It does this by checking if the type of the field is
:data:`typing.ClassVar`. If a field is a ``ClassVar``, it is excluded
@@ -574,10 +621,10 @@ module-level :func:`fields` function.
Init-only variables
-------------------
-Another place where :func:`@dataclass <dataclass>` inspects a type annotation is to
+Another place where :deco:`dataclass` inspects a type annotation is to
determine if a field is an init-only variable. It does this by seeing
-if the type of a field is of type ``dataclasses.InitVar``. If a field
-is an ``InitVar``, it is considered a pseudo-field called an init-only
+if the type of a field is of type :class:`InitVar`. If a field
+is an :class:`InitVar`, it is considered a pseudo-field called an init-only
field. As it is not a true field, it is not returned by the
module-level :func:`fields` function. Init-only fields are added as
parameters to the generated :meth:`~object.__init__` method, and are passed to
@@ -608,21 +655,23 @@ Frozen instances
----------------
It is not possible to create truly immutable Python objects. However,
-by passing ``frozen=True`` to the :func:`@dataclass <dataclass>` decorator you can
+by passing ``frozen=True`` to the :deco:`dataclass` decorator you can
emulate immutability. In that case, dataclasses will add
:meth:`~object.__setattr__` and :meth:`~object.__delattr__` methods to the class. These
methods will raise a :exc:`FrozenInstanceError` when invoked.
There is a tiny performance penalty when using ``frozen=True``:
:meth:`~object.__init__` cannot use simple assignment to initialize fields, and
-must use :meth:`!__setattr__`.
+must use :meth:`!object.__setattr__`.
+
+.. Make sure to not remove "object" from "object.__setattr__" in the above markup!
.. _dataclasses-inheritance:
Inheritance
-----------
-When the dataclass is being created by the :func:`@dataclass <dataclass>` decorator,
+When the dataclass is being created by the :deco:`dataclass` decorator,
it looks through all of the class's base classes in reverse MRO (that
is, starting at :class:`object`) and, for each dataclass that it finds,
adds the fields from that base class to an ordered mapping of fields.
@@ -746,7 +795,7 @@ for :attr:`!x` when creating a class instance will share the same copy
of :attr:`!x`. Because dataclasses just use normal Python class
creation they also share this behavior. There is no general way
for Data Classes to detect this condition. Instead, the
-:func:`@dataclass <dataclass>` decorator will raise a :exc:`ValueError` if it
+:deco:`dataclass` decorator will raise a :exc:`ValueError` if it
detects an unhashable default parameter. The assumption is that if
a value is unhashable, it is mutable. This is a partial solution,
but it does protect against many common errors.
@@ -780,7 +829,7 @@ default value have the following special behaviors:
:meth:`~object.__get__` or :meth:`!__set__` method is called rather than returning or
overwriting the descriptor object.
-* To determine whether a field contains a default value, :func:`@dataclass <dataclass>`
+* To determine whether a field contains a default value, :deco:`dataclass`
will call the descriptor's :meth:`!__get__` method using its class access
form: ``descriptor.__get__(obj=None, type=cls)``. If the
descriptor returns a value in this case, it will be used as the
diff --git a/Doc/library/datetime.rst b/Doc/library/datetime.rst
index b20b2027cfcc93c..b1131f480ff36e0 100644
--- a/Doc/library/datetime.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/datetime.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`datetime` --- Basic date and time types
-=============================================
+:mod:`!datetime` --- Basic date and time types
+==============================================
.. module:: datetime
:synopsis: Basic date and time types.
@@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ Aware and Naive Objects
-----------------------
Date and time objects may be categorized as "aware" or "naive" depending on
-whether or not they include timezone information.
+whether or not they include time zone information.
With sufficient knowledge of applicable algorithmic and political time
adjustments, such as time zone and daylight saving time information,
@@ -58,21 +58,21 @@ interpretation. [#]_
A **naive** object does not contain enough information to unambiguously locate
itself relative to other date/time objects. Whether a naive object represents
-Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), local time, or time in some other timezone is
+Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), local time, or time in some other time zone is
purely up to the program, just like it is up to the program whether a
particular number represents metres, miles, or mass. Naive objects are easy to
understand and to work with, at the cost of ignoring some aspects of reality.
For applications requiring aware objects, :class:`.datetime` and :class:`.time`
objects have an optional time zone information attribute, :attr:`!tzinfo`, that
-can be set to an instance of a subclass of the abstract :class:`tzinfo` class.
+can be set to an instance of a subclass of the abstract :class:`!tzinfo` class.
These :class:`tzinfo` objects capture information about the offset from UTC
time, the time zone name, and whether daylight saving time is in effect.
Only one concrete :class:`tzinfo` class, the :class:`timezone` class, is
-supplied by the :mod:`!datetime` module. The :class:`timezone` class can
-represent simple timezones with fixed offsets from UTC, such as UTC itself or
-North American EST and EDT timezones. Supporting timezones at deeper levels of
+supplied by the :mod:`!datetime` module. The :class:`!timezone` class can
+represent simple time zones with fixed offsets from UTC, such as UTC itself or
+North American EST and EDT time zones. Supporting time zones at deeper levels of
detail is up to the application. The rules for time adjustment across the
world are more political than rational, change frequently, and there is no
standard suitable for every application aside from UTC.
@@ -93,9 +93,9 @@ The :mod:`!datetime` module exports the following constants:
The largest year number allowed in a :class:`date` or :class:`.datetime` object.
:const:`MAXYEAR` is 9999.
-.. attribute:: UTC
+.. data:: UTC
- Alias for the UTC timezone singleton :attr:`datetime.timezone.utc`.
+ Alias for the UTC time zone singleton :attr:`datetime.timezone.utc`.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
@@ -180,19 +180,19 @@ Objects of the :class:`date` type are always naive.
An object of type :class:`.time` or :class:`.datetime` may be aware or naive.
-A :class:`.datetime` object *d* is aware if both of the following hold:
+A :class:`.datetime` object ``d`` is aware if both of the following hold:
1. ``d.tzinfo`` is not ``None``
2. ``d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d)`` does not return ``None``
-Otherwise, *d* is naive.
+Otherwise, ``d`` is naive.
-A :class:`.time` object *t* is aware if both of the following hold:
+A :class:`.time` object ``t`` is aware if both of the following hold:
1. ``t.tzinfo`` is not ``None``
2. ``t.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)`` does not return ``None``.
-Otherwise, *t* is naive.
+Otherwise, ``t`` is naive.
The distinction between aware and naive doesn't apply to :class:`timedelta`
objects.
@@ -229,8 +229,8 @@ A :class:`timedelta` object represents a duration, the difference between two
*days*, *seconds* and *microseconds* are "merged" and normalized into those
three resulting attributes::
- >>> from datetime import timedelta
- >>> delta = timedelta(
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> delta = dt.timedelta(
... days=50,
... seconds=27,
... microseconds=10,
@@ -243,6 +243,12 @@ A :class:`timedelta` object represents a duration, the difference between two
>>> delta
datetime.timedelta(days=64, seconds=29156, microseconds=10)
+ .. tip::
+ ``import datetime as dt`` instead of ``import datetime`` or
+ ``from datetime import datetime`` to avoid confusion between the module
+ and the class. See `How I Import Python’s datetime Module
+ <https://adamj.eu/tech/2019/09/12/how-i-import-pythons-datetime-module/>`__.
+
If any argument is a float and there are fractional microseconds,
the fractional microseconds left over from all arguments are
combined and their sum is rounded to the nearest microsecond using
@@ -256,11 +262,27 @@ A :class:`timedelta` object represents a duration, the difference between two
Note that normalization of negative values may be surprising at first. For
example::
- >>> from datetime import timedelta
- >>> d = timedelta(microseconds=-1)
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> d = dt.timedelta(microseconds=-1)
>>> (d.days, d.seconds, d.microseconds)
(-1, 86399, 999999)
+ Since the string representation of :class:`!timedelta` objects can be confusing,
+ use the following recipe to produce a more readable format:
+
+ .. code-block:: pycon
+
+ >>> def pretty_timedelta(td):
+ ... if td.days >= 0:
+ ... return str(td)
+ ... return f'-({-td!s})'
+ ...
+ >>> d = timedelta(hours=-1)
+ >>> str(d) # not human-friendly
+ '-1 day, 23:00:00'
+ >>> pretty_timedelta(d)
+ '-(1:00:00)'
+
Class attributes:
@@ -283,17 +305,37 @@ Class attributes:
Note that, because of normalization, ``timedelta.max`` is greater than ``-timedelta.min``.
``-timedelta.max`` is not representable as a :class:`timedelta` object.
+
Instance attributes (read-only):
-+------------------+--------------------------------------------+
-| Attribute | Value |
-+==================+============================================+
-| ``days`` | Between -999999999 and 999999999 inclusive |
-+------------------+--------------------------------------------+
-| ``seconds`` | Between 0 and 86399 inclusive |
-+------------------+--------------------------------------------+
-| ``microseconds`` | Between 0 and 999999 inclusive |
-+------------------+--------------------------------------------+
+.. attribute:: timedelta.days
+
+ Between -999,999,999 and 999,999,999 inclusive.
+
+
+.. attribute:: timedelta.seconds
+
+ Between 0 and 86,399 inclusive.
+
+ .. caution::
+
+ It is a somewhat common bug for code to unintentionally use this attribute
+ when it is actually intended to get a :meth:`~timedelta.total_seconds`
+ value instead:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> duration = dt.timedelta(seconds=11235813)
+ >>> duration.days, duration.seconds
+ (130, 3813)
+ >>> duration.total_seconds()
+ 11235813.0
+
+.. attribute:: timedelta.microseconds
+
+ Between 0 and 999,999 inclusive.
+
Supported operations:
@@ -338,14 +380,14 @@ Supported operations:
+--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| ``q, r = divmod(t1, t2)`` | Computes the quotient and the remainder: |
| | ``q = t1 // t2`` (3) and ``r = t1 % t2``. |
-| | q is an integer and r is a :class:`timedelta` |
-| | object. |
+| | ``q`` is an integer and ``r`` is a |
+| | :class:`timedelta` object. |
+--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| ``+t1`` | Returns a :class:`timedelta` object with the |
| | same value. (2) |
+--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| ``-t1`` | Equivalent to ``timedelta(-t1.days, |
-| | -t1.seconds*, -t1.microseconds)``, |
+| | -t1.seconds, -t1.microseconds)``, |
| | and to ``t1 * -1``. (1)(4) |
+--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| ``abs(t)`` | Equivalent to ``+t`` when ``t.days >= 0``, |
@@ -396,9 +438,9 @@ objects (see below).
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
Floor division and true division of a :class:`timedelta` object by another
- :class:`timedelta` object are now supported, as are remainder operations and
+ :class:`!timedelta` object are now supported, as are remainder operations and
the :func:`divmod` function. True division and multiplication of a
- :class:`timedelta` object by a :class:`float` object are now supported.
+ :class:`!timedelta` object by a :class:`float` object are now supported.
:class:`timedelta` objects support equality and order comparisons.
@@ -424,10 +466,10 @@ Examples of usage: :class:`timedelta`
An additional example of normalization::
>>> # Components of another_year add up to exactly 365 days
- >>> from datetime import timedelta
- >>> year = timedelta(days=365)
- >>> another_year = timedelta(weeks=40, days=84, hours=23,
- ... minutes=50, seconds=600)
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> year = dt.timedelta(days=365)
+ >>> another_year = dt.timedelta(weeks=40, days=84, hours=23,
+ ... minutes=50, seconds=600)
>>> year == another_year
True
>>> year.total_seconds()
@@ -435,8 +477,8 @@ An additional example of normalization::
Examples of :class:`timedelta` arithmetic::
- >>> from datetime import timedelta
- >>> year = timedelta(days=365)
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> year = dt.timedelta(days=365)
>>> ten_years = 10 * year
>>> ten_years
datetime.timedelta(days=3650)
@@ -506,7 +548,7 @@ Other constructors, all class methods:
January 1 of year 1 has ordinal 1.
:exc:`ValueError` is raised unless ``1 <= ordinal <=
- date.max.toordinal()``. For any date *d*,
+ date.max.toordinal()``. For any date ``d``,
``date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d``.
@@ -523,12 +565,12 @@ Other constructors, all class methods:
Examples::
- >>> from datetime import date
- >>> date.fromisoformat('2019-12-04')
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> dt.date.fromisoformat('2019-12-04')
datetime.date(2019, 12, 4)
- >>> date.fromisoformat('20191204')
+ >>> dt.date.fromisoformat('20191204')
datetime.date(2019, 12, 4)
- >>> date.fromisoformat('2021-W01-1')
+ >>> dt.date.fromisoformat('2021-W01-1')
datetime.date(2021, 1, 4)
.. versionadded:: 3.7
@@ -628,7 +670,7 @@ Notes:
In other words, ``date1 < date2`` if and only if ``date1.toordinal() <
date2.toordinal()``.
- Order comparison between a :class:`!date` object that is not also a
+ Order comparison between a :class:`date` object that is not also a
:class:`.datetime` instance and a :class:`!datetime` object raises
:exc:`TypeError`.
@@ -646,18 +688,18 @@ Instance methods:
.. method:: date.replace(year=self.year, month=self.month, day=self.day)
- Return a date with the same value, except for those parameters given new
- values by whichever keyword arguments are specified.
+ Return a new :class:`date` object with the same values, but with specified
+ parameters updated.
Example::
- >>> from datetime import date
- >>> d = date(2002, 12, 31)
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> d = dt.date(2002, 12, 31)
>>> d.replace(day=26)
datetime.date(2002, 12, 26)
- :class:`date` objects are also supported by generic function
- :func:`copy.replace`.
+ The generic function :func:`copy.replace` also supports :class:`date`
+ objects.
.. method:: date.timetuple()
@@ -677,7 +719,7 @@ Instance methods:
.. method:: date.toordinal()
Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date, where January 1 of year 1
- has ordinal 1. For any :class:`date` object *d*,
+ has ordinal 1. For any :class:`date` object ``d``,
``date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d``.
@@ -710,10 +752,10 @@ Instance methods:
For example, 2004 begins on a Thursday, so the first week of ISO year 2004
begins on Monday, 29 Dec 2003 and ends on Sunday, 4 Jan 2004::
- >>> from datetime import date
- >>> date(2003, 12, 29).isocalendar()
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> dt.date(2003, 12, 29).isocalendar()
datetime.IsoCalendarDate(year=2004, week=1, weekday=1)
- >>> date(2004, 1, 4).isocalendar()
+ >>> dt.date(2004, 1, 4).isocalendar()
datetime.IsoCalendarDate(year=2004, week=1, weekday=7)
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
@@ -723,21 +765,21 @@ Instance methods:
Return a string representing the date in ISO 8601 format, ``YYYY-MM-DD``::
- >>> from datetime import date
- >>> date(2002, 12, 4).isoformat()
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> dt.date(2002, 12, 4).isoformat()
'2002-12-04'
.. method:: date.__str__()
- For a date *d*, ``str(d)`` is equivalent to ``d.isoformat()``.
+ For a date ``d``, ``str(d)`` is equivalent to ``d.isoformat()``.
.. method:: date.ctime()
Return a string representing the date::
- >>> from datetime import date
- >>> date(2002, 12, 4).ctime()
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> dt.date(2002, 12, 4).ctime()
'Wed Dec 4 00:00:00 2002'
``d.ctime()`` is equivalent to::
@@ -769,13 +811,13 @@ Examples of Usage: :class:`date`
Example of counting days to an event::
>>> import time
- >>> from datetime import date
- >>> today = date.today()
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> today = dt.date.today()
>>> today
datetime.date(2007, 12, 5)
- >>> today == date.fromtimestamp(time.time())
+ >>> today == dt.date.fromtimestamp(time.time())
True
- >>> my_birthday = date(today.year, 6, 24)
+ >>> my_birthday = dt.date(today.year, 6, 24)
>>> if my_birthday < today:
... my_birthday = my_birthday.replace(year=today.year + 1)
...
@@ -789,8 +831,8 @@ More examples of working with :class:`date`:
.. doctest::
- >>> from datetime import date
- >>> d = date.fromordinal(730920) # 730920th day after 1. 1. 0001
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> d = dt.date.fromordinal(730920) # 730920th day after 1. 1. 0001
>>> d
datetime.date(2002, 3, 11)
@@ -841,7 +883,7 @@ from a :class:`date` object and a :class:`.time` object.
Like a :class:`date` object, :class:`.datetime` assumes the current Gregorian
calendar extended in both directions; like a :class:`.time` object,
-:class:`.datetime` assumes there are exactly 3600\*24 seconds in every day.
+:class:`!datetime` assumes there are exactly 3600\*24 seconds in every day.
Constructor:
@@ -869,7 +911,7 @@ Other constructors, all class methods:
.. classmethod:: datetime.today()
- Return the current local datetime, with :attr:`.tzinfo` ``None``.
+ Return the current local date and time, with :attr:`.tzinfo` ``None``.
Equivalent to::
@@ -895,6 +937,10 @@ Other constructors, all class methods:
This function is preferred over :meth:`today` and :meth:`utcnow`.
+ .. note::
+
+ Subsequent calls to :meth:`!datetime.now` may return the same
+ instant depending on the precision of the underlying clock.
.. classmethod:: datetime.utcnow()
@@ -913,7 +959,7 @@ Other constructors, all class methods:
.. deprecated:: 3.12
- Use :meth:`datetime.now` with :attr:`UTC` instead.
+ Use :meth:`datetime.now` with :const:`UTC` instead.
.. classmethod:: datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=None)
@@ -985,7 +1031,7 @@ Other constructors, all class methods:
.. deprecated:: 3.12
- Use :meth:`datetime.fromtimestamp` with :attr:`UTC` instead.
+ Use :meth:`datetime.fromtimestamp` with :const:`UTC` instead.
.. classmethod:: datetime.fromordinal(ordinal)
@@ -1003,10 +1049,10 @@ Other constructors, all class methods:
are equal to the given :class:`.time` object's. If the *tzinfo*
argument is provided, its value is used to set the :attr:`.tzinfo` attribute
of the result, otherwise the :attr:`~.time.tzinfo` attribute of the *time* argument
- is used. If the *date* argument is a :class:`.datetime` object, its time components
+ is used. If the *date* argument is a :class:`!datetime` object, its time components
and :attr:`.tzinfo` attributes are ignored.
- For any :class:`.datetime` object *d*,
+ For any :class:`.datetime` object ``d``,
``d == datetime.combine(d.date(), d.time(), d.tzinfo)``.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
@@ -1029,31 +1075,31 @@ Other constructors, all class methods:
Examples::
- >>> from datetime import datetime
- >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04')
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 0)
- >>> datetime.fromisoformat('20111104')
+ >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('20111104')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 0)
- >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23')
+ >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23)
- >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23Z')
+ >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23Z')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
- >>> datetime.fromisoformat('20111104T000523')
+ >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('20111104T000523')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23)
- >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-W01-2T00:05:23.283')
+ >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-W01-2T00:05:23.283')
datetime.datetime(2011, 1, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000)
- >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283')
+ >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000)
- >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283+00:00')
+ >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283+00:00')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
- >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23+04:00') # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
+ >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23+04:00') # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23,
tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(seconds=14400)))
.. versionadded:: 3.7
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Previously, this method only supported formats that could be emitted by
- :meth:`date.isoformat()` or :meth:`datetime.isoformat()`.
+ :meth:`date.isoformat` or :meth:`datetime.isoformat`.
.. classmethod:: datetime.fromisocalendar(year, week, day)
@@ -1070,7 +1116,7 @@ Other constructors, all class methods:
Return a :class:`.datetime` corresponding to *date_string*, parsed according to
*format*.
- If *format* does not contain microseconds or timezone information, this is equivalent to::
+ If *format* does not contain microseconds or time zone information, this is equivalent to::
datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))
@@ -1092,9 +1138,9 @@ Other constructors, all class methods:
.. doctest::
- >>> from datetime import datetime
+ >>> import datetime as dt
>>> date_string = "02/29"
- >>> when = datetime.strptime(f"{date_string};1984", "%m/%d;%Y") # Avoids leap year bug.
+ >>> when = dt.datetime.strptime(f"{date_string};1984", "%m/%d;%Y") # Avoids leap year bug.
>>> when.strftime("%B %d") # doctest: +SKIP
'February 29'
@@ -1207,17 +1253,17 @@ Supported operations:
datetime, and no time zone adjustments are done even if the input is aware.
(3)
- Subtraction of a :class:`.datetime` from a :class:`.datetime` is defined only if
+ Subtraction of a :class:`.datetime` from a :class:`!datetime` is defined only if
both operands are naive, or if both are aware. If one is aware and the other is
naive, :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
If both are naive, or both are aware and have the same :attr:`~.datetime.tzinfo` attribute,
the :attr:`~.datetime.tzinfo` attributes are ignored, and the result is a :class:`timedelta`
- object *t* such that ``datetime2 + t == datetime1``. No time zone adjustments
+ object ``t`` such that ``datetime2 + t == datetime1``. No time zone adjustments
are done in this case.
If both are aware and have different :attr:`~.datetime.tzinfo` attributes, ``a-b`` acts
- as if *a* and *b* were first converted to naive UTC datetimes. The
+ as if ``a`` and ``b`` were first converted to naive UTC datetimes. The
result is ``(a.replace(tzinfo=None) - a.utcoffset()) - (b.replace(tzinfo=None)
- b.utcoffset())`` except that the implementation never overflows.
@@ -1225,7 +1271,7 @@ Supported operations:
:class:`.datetime` objects are equal if they represent the same date
and time, taking into account the time zone.
- Naive and aware :class:`!datetime` objects are never equal.
+ Naive and aware :class:`.datetime` objects are never equal.
If both comparands are aware, and have the same :attr:`!tzinfo` attribute,
the :attr:`!tzinfo` and :attr:`~.datetime.fold` attributes are ignored and
@@ -1233,7 +1279,7 @@ Supported operations:
If both comparands are aware and have different :attr:`~.datetime.tzinfo`
attributes, the comparison acts as comparands were first converted to UTC
datetimes except that the implementation never overflows.
- :class:`!datetime` instances in a repeated interval are never equal to
+ :class:`.datetime` instances in a repeated interval are never equal to
:class:`!datetime` instances in other time zone.
(5)
@@ -1291,10 +1337,10 @@ Instance methods:
hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute, second=self.second, microsecond=self.microsecond, \
tzinfo=self.tzinfo, *, fold=0)
- Return a datetime with the same attributes, except for those attributes given
- new values by whichever keyword arguments are specified. Note that
- ``tzinfo=None`` can be specified to create a naive datetime from an aware
- datetime with no conversion of date and time data.
+ Return a new :class:`datetime` object with the same attributes, but with
+ specified parameters updated. Note that ``tzinfo=None`` can be specified to
+ create a naive datetime from an aware datetime with no conversion of date
+ and time data.
:class:`.datetime` objects are also supported by generic function
:func:`copy.replace`.
@@ -1311,22 +1357,22 @@ Instance methods:
If provided, *tz* must be an instance of a :class:`tzinfo` subclass, and its
:meth:`utcoffset` and :meth:`dst` methods must not return ``None``. If *self*
- is naive, it is presumed to represent time in the system timezone.
+ is naive, it is presumed to represent time in the system time zone.
If called without arguments (or with ``tz=None``) the system local
- timezone is assumed for the target timezone. The ``.tzinfo`` attribute of the converted
+ time zone is assumed for the target time zone. The ``.tzinfo`` attribute of the converted
datetime instance will be set to an instance of :class:`timezone`
with the zone name and offset obtained from the OS.
If ``self.tzinfo`` is *tz*, ``self.astimezone(tz)`` is equal to *self*: no
adjustment of date or time data is performed. Else the result is local
- time in the timezone *tz*, representing the same UTC time as *self*: after
+ time in the time zone *tz*, representing the same UTC time as *self*: after
``astz = dt.astimezone(tz)``, ``astz - astz.utcoffset()`` will have
the same date and time data as ``dt - dt.utcoffset()``.
- If you merely want to attach a time zone object *tz* to a datetime *dt* without
+ If you merely want to attach a :class:`timezone` object *tz* to a datetime *dt* without
adjustment of date and time data, use ``dt.replace(tzinfo=tz)``. If you
- merely want to remove the time zone object from an aware datetime *dt* without
+ merely want to remove the :class:`!timezone` object from an aware datetime *dt* without
conversion of date and time data, use ``dt.replace(tzinfo=None)``.
Note that the default :meth:`tzinfo.fromutc` method can be overridden in a
@@ -1336,7 +1382,7 @@ Instance methods:
def astimezone(self, tz):
if self.tzinfo is tz:
return self
- # Convert self to UTC, and attach the new time zone object.
+ # Convert self to UTC, and attach the new timezone object.
utc = (self - self.utcoffset()).replace(tzinfo=tz)
# Convert from UTC to tz's local time.
return tz.fromutc(utc)
@@ -1397,11 +1443,11 @@ Instance methods:
.. method:: datetime.utctimetuple()
- If :class:`.datetime` instance *d* is naive, this is the same as
+ If :class:`.datetime` instance ``d`` is naive, this is the same as
``d.timetuple()`` except that :attr:`~.time.struct_time.tm_isdst` is forced to 0 regardless of what
``d.dst()`` returns. DST is never in effect for a UTC time.
- If *d* is aware, *d* is normalized to UTC time, by subtracting
+ If ``d`` is aware, ``d`` is normalized to UTC time, by subtracting
``d.utcoffset()``, and a :class:`time.struct_time` for the
normalized time is returned. :attr:`!tm_isdst` is forced to 0. Note
that an :exc:`OverflowError` may be raised if ``d.year`` was
@@ -1429,11 +1475,11 @@ Instance methods:
returned by :func:`time.time`.
Naive :class:`.datetime` instances are assumed to represent local
- time and this method relies on the platform C :c:func:`mktime`
- function to perform the conversion. Since :class:`.datetime`
- supports wider range of values than :c:func:`mktime` on many
- platforms, this method may raise :exc:`OverflowError` or :exc:`OSError`
- for times far in the past or far in the future.
+ time and this method relies on platform C functions to perform
+ the conversion. Since :class:`!datetime` supports a wider range of
+ values than the platform C functions on many platforms, this
+ method may raise :exc:`OverflowError` or :exc:`OSError` for times
+ far in the past or far in the future.
For aware :class:`.datetime` instances, the return value is computed
as::
@@ -1446,11 +1492,15 @@ Instance methods:
The :meth:`timestamp` method uses the :attr:`.fold` attribute to
disambiguate the times during a repeated interval.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+ This method no longer relies on the platform C :c:func:`mktime`
+ function to perform conversions.
+
.. note::
There is no method to obtain the POSIX timestamp directly from a
naive :class:`.datetime` instance representing UTC time. If your
- application uses this convention and your system timezone is not
+ application uses this convention and your system time zone is not
set to UTC, you can obtain the POSIX timestamp by supplying
``tzinfo=timezone.utc``::
@@ -1495,24 +1545,24 @@ Instance methods:
Examples::
- >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone
- >>> datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, 8, 132263).isoformat()
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> dt.datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, 8, 132263).isoformat()
'2019-05-18T15:17:08.132263'
- >>> datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, tzinfo=timezone.utc).isoformat()
+ >>> dt.datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc).isoformat()
'2019-05-18T15:17:00+00:00'
The optional argument *sep* (default ``'T'``) is a one-character separator,
placed between the date and time portions of the result. For example::
- >>> from datetime import tzinfo, timedelta, datetime
- >>> class TZ(tzinfo):
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> class TZ(dt.tzinfo):
... """A time zone with an arbitrary, constant -06:39 offset."""
- ... def utcoffset(self, dt):
- ... return timedelta(hours=-6, minutes=-39)
+ ... def utcoffset(self, when):
+ ... return dt.timedelta(hours=-6, minutes=-39)
...
- >>> datetime(2002, 12, 25, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat(' ')
+ >>> dt.datetime(2002, 12, 25, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat(' ')
'2002-12-25 00:00:00-06:39'
- >>> datetime(2009, 11, 27, microsecond=100, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat()
+ >>> dt.datetime(2009, 11, 27, microsecond=100, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat()
'2009-11-27T00:00:00.000100-06:39'
The optional argument *timespec* specifies the number of additional
@@ -1536,11 +1586,11 @@ Instance methods:
:exc:`ValueError` will be raised on an invalid *timespec* argument::
- >>> from datetime import datetime
- >>> datetime.now().isoformat(timespec='minutes') # doctest: +SKIP
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> dt.datetime.now().isoformat(timespec='minutes') # doctest: +SKIP
'2002-12-25T00:00'
- >>> dt = datetime(2015, 1, 1, 12, 30, 59, 0)
- >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
+ >>> my_datetime = dt.datetime(2015, 1, 1, 12, 30, 59, 0)
+ >>> my_datetime.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
'2015-01-01T12:30:59.000000'
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
@@ -1549,7 +1599,7 @@ Instance methods:
.. method:: datetime.__str__()
- For a :class:`.datetime` instance *d*, ``str(d)`` is equivalent to
+ For a :class:`.datetime` instance ``d``, ``str(d)`` is equivalent to
``d.isoformat(' ')``.
@@ -1557,8 +1607,8 @@ Instance methods:
Return a string representing the date and time::
- >>> from datetime import datetime
- >>> datetime(2002, 12, 4, 20, 30, 40).ctime()
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> dt.datetime(2002, 12, 4, 20, 30, 40).ctime()
'Wed Dec 4 20:30:40 2002'
The output string will *not* include time zone information, regardless
@@ -1595,27 +1645,27 @@ Examples of working with :class:`.datetime` objects:
.. doctest::
- >>> from datetime import datetime, date, time, timezone
+ >>> import datetime as dt
>>> # Using datetime.combine()
- >>> d = date(2005, 7, 14)
- >>> t = time(12, 30)
- >>> datetime.combine(d, t)
+ >>> d = dt.date(2005, 7, 14)
+ >>> t = dt.time(12, 30)
+ >>> dt.datetime.combine(d, t)
datetime.datetime(2005, 7, 14, 12, 30)
>>> # Using datetime.now()
- >>> datetime.now() # doctest: +SKIP
+ >>> dt.datetime.now() # doctest: +SKIP
datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 16, 29, 43, 79043) # GMT +1
- >>> datetime.now(timezone.utc) # doctest: +SKIP
+ >>> dt.datetime.now(dt.timezone.utc) # doctest: +SKIP
datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 15, 29, 43, 79060, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
>>> # Using datetime.strptime()
- >>> dt = datetime.strptime("21/11/06 16:30", "%d/%m/%y %H:%M")
- >>> dt
+ >>> my_datetime = dt.datetime.strptime("21/11/06 16:30", "%d/%m/%y %H:%M")
+ >>> my_datetime
datetime.datetime(2006, 11, 21, 16, 30)
>>> # Using datetime.timetuple() to get tuple of all attributes
- >>> tt = dt.timetuple()
+ >>> tt = my_datetime.timetuple()
>>> for it in tt: # doctest: +SKIP
... print(it)
...
@@ -1630,7 +1680,7 @@ Examples of working with :class:`.datetime` objects:
-1 # dst - method tzinfo.dst() returned None
>>> # Date in ISO format
- >>> ic = dt.isocalendar()
+ >>> ic = my_datetime.isocalendar()
>>> for it in ic: # doctest: +SKIP
... print(it)
...
@@ -1639,55 +1689,55 @@ Examples of working with :class:`.datetime` objects:
2 # ISO weekday
>>> # Formatting a datetime
- >>> dt.strftime("%A, %d. %B %Y %I:%M%p")
+ >>> my_datetime.strftime("%A, %d. %B %Y %I:%M%p")
'Tuesday, 21. November 2006 04:30PM'
- >>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}, the {3} is {0:%I:%M%p}.'.format(dt, "day", "month", "time")
+ >>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}, the {3} is {0:%I:%M%p}.'.format(my_datetime, "day", "month", "time")
'The day is 21, the month is November, the time is 04:30PM.'
The example below defines a :class:`tzinfo` subclass capturing time zone
information for Kabul, Afghanistan, which used +4 UTC until 1945
and then +4:30 UTC thereafter::
- from datetime import timedelta, datetime, tzinfo, timezone
+ import datetime as dt
- class KabulTz(tzinfo):
+ class KabulTz(dt.tzinfo):
# Kabul used +4 until 1945, when they moved to +4:30
- UTC_MOVE_DATE = datetime(1944, 12, 31, 20, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
+ UTC_MOVE_DATE = dt.datetime(1944, 12, 31, 20, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc)
- def utcoffset(self, dt):
- if dt.year < 1945:
- return timedelta(hours=4)
- elif (1945, 1, 1, 0, 0) <= dt.timetuple()[:5] < (1945, 1, 1, 0, 30):
+ def utcoffset(self, when):
+ if when.year < 1945:
+ return dt.timedelta(hours=4)
+ elif (1945, 1, 1, 0, 0) <= when.timetuple()[:5] < (1945, 1, 1, 0, 30):
# An ambiguous ("imaginary") half-hour range representing
# a 'fold' in time due to the shift from +4 to +4:30.
- # If dt falls in the imaginary range, use fold to decide how
- # to resolve. See PEP495.
- return timedelta(hours=4, minutes=(30 if dt.fold else 0))
+ # If when falls in the imaginary range, use fold to decide how
+ # to resolve. See PEP 495.
+ return dt.timedelta(hours=4, minutes=(30 if when.fold else 0))
else:
- return timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)
+ return dt.timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)
- def fromutc(self, dt):
+ def fromutc(self, when):
# Follow same validations as in datetime.tzinfo
- if not isinstance(dt, datetime):
+ if not isinstance(when, dt.datetime):
raise TypeError("fromutc() requires a datetime argument")
- if dt.tzinfo is not self:
- raise ValueError("dt.tzinfo is not self")
+ if when.tzinfo is not self:
+ raise ValueError("when.tzinfo is not self")
# A custom implementation is required for fromutc as
# the input to this function is a datetime with utc values
# but with a tzinfo set to self.
# See datetime.astimezone or fromtimestamp.
- if dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc) >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
- return dt + timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)
+ if when.replace(tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc) >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
+ return when + dt.timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)
else:
- return dt + timedelta(hours=4)
+ return when + dt.timedelta(hours=4)
- def dst(self, dt):
+ def dst(self, when):
# Kabul does not observe daylight saving time.
- return timedelta(0)
+ return dt.timedelta(0)
- def tzname(self, dt):
- if dt >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
+ def tzname(self, when):
+ if when >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
return "+04:30"
return "+04"
@@ -1696,17 +1746,17 @@ Usage of ``KabulTz`` from above::
>>> tz1 = KabulTz()
>>> # Datetime before the change
- >>> dt1 = datetime(1900, 11, 21, 16, 30, tzinfo=tz1)
+ >>> dt1 = dt.datetime(1900, 11, 21, 16, 30, tzinfo=tz1)
>>> print(dt1.utcoffset())
4:00:00
>>> # Datetime after the change
- >>> dt2 = datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=tz1)
+ >>> dt2 = dt.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=tz1)
>>> print(dt2.utcoffset())
4:30:00
>>> # Convert datetime to another time zone
- >>> dt3 = dt2.astimezone(timezone.utc)
+ >>> dt3 = dt2.astimezone(dt.timezone.utc)
>>> dt3
datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 8, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
>>> dt2
@@ -1796,7 +1846,7 @@ Instance attributes (read-only):
.. versionadded:: 3.6
:class:`.time` objects support equality and order comparisons,
-where *a* is considered less than *b* when *a* precedes *b* in time.
+where ``a`` is considered less than ``b`` when ``a`` precedes ``b`` in time.
Naive and aware :class:`!time` objects are never equal.
Order comparison between naive and aware :class:`!time` objects raises
@@ -1839,29 +1889,29 @@ Other constructor:
.. doctest::
- >>> from datetime import time
- >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01')
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
- >>> time.fromisoformat('T04:23:01')
+ >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('T04:23:01')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
- >>> time.fromisoformat('T042301')
+ >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('T042301')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
- >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01.000384')
+ >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01.000384')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1, 384)
- >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01,000384')
+ >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01,000384')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1, 384)
- >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+04:00')
+ >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+04:00')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(seconds=14400)))
- >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01Z')
+ >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01Z')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
- >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+00:00')
+ >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+00:00')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
.. versionadded:: 3.7
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Previously, this method only supported formats that could be emitted by
- :meth:`time.isoformat()`.
+ :meth:`time.isoformat`.
Instance methods:
@@ -1869,10 +1919,10 @@ Instance methods:
.. method:: time.replace(hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute, second=self.second, \
microsecond=self.microsecond, tzinfo=self.tzinfo, *, fold=0)
- Return a :class:`.time` with the same value, except for those attributes given
- new values by whichever keyword arguments are specified. Note that
- ``tzinfo=None`` can be specified to create a naive :class:`.time` from an
- aware :class:`.time`, without conversion of the time data.
+ Return a new :class:`.time` with the same values, but with specified
+ parameters updated. Note that ``tzinfo=None`` can be specified to create a
+ naive :class:`!time` from an aware :class:`!time`, without conversion of the
+ time data.
:class:`.time` objects are also supported by generic function
:func:`copy.replace`.
@@ -1912,13 +1962,13 @@ Instance methods:
Example::
- >>> from datetime import time
- >>> time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=123456).isoformat(timespec='minutes')
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> dt.time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=123456).isoformat(timespec='minutes')
'12:34'
- >>> dt = time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=0)
- >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
+ >>> my_time = dt.time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=0)
+ >>> my_time.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
'12:34:56.000000'
- >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='auto')
+ >>> my_time.isoformat(timespec='auto')
'12:34:56'
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
@@ -1927,7 +1977,7 @@ Instance methods:
.. method:: time.__str__()
- For a time *t*, ``str(t)`` is equivalent to ``t.isoformat()``.
+ For a time ``t``, ``str(t)`` is equivalent to ``t.isoformat()``.
.. method:: time.strftime(format)
@@ -1974,18 +2024,18 @@ Examples of Usage: :class:`.time`
Examples of working with a :class:`.time` object::
- >>> from datetime import time, tzinfo, timedelta
- >>> class TZ1(tzinfo):
- ... def utcoffset(self, dt):
- ... return timedelta(hours=1)
- ... def dst(self, dt):
- ... return timedelta(0)
- ... def tzname(self,dt):
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> class TZ1(dt.tzinfo):
+ ... def utcoffset(self, when):
+ ... return dt.timedelta(hours=1)
+ ... def dst(self, when):
+ ... return dt.timedelta(0)
+ ... def tzname(self, when):
... return "+01:00"
... def __repr__(self):
... return f"{self.__class__.__name__}()"
...
- >>> t = time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
+ >>> t = dt.time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
>>> t
datetime.time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
>>> t.isoformat()
@@ -2013,15 +2063,15 @@ Examples of working with a :class:`.time` object::
An instance of (a concrete subclass of) :class:`tzinfo` can be passed to the
constructors for :class:`.datetime` and :class:`.time` objects. The latter objects
- view their attributes as being in local time, and the :class:`tzinfo` object
+ view their attributes as being in local time, and the :class:`!tzinfo` object
supports methods revealing offset of local time from UTC, the name of the time
zone, and DST offset, all relative to a date or time object passed to them.
You need to derive a concrete subclass, and (at least)
supply implementations of the standard :class:`tzinfo` methods needed by the
:class:`.datetime` methods you use. The :mod:`!datetime` module provides
- :class:`timezone`, a simple concrete subclass of :class:`tzinfo` which can
- represent timezones with fixed offset from UTC such as UTC itself or North
+ :class:`timezone`, a simple concrete subclass of :class:`!tzinfo` which can
+ represent time zones with fixed offset from UTC such as UTC itself or North
American EST and EDT.
Special requirement for pickling: A :class:`tzinfo` subclass must have an
@@ -2083,31 +2133,35 @@ Examples of working with a :class:`.time` object::
``tz.utcoffset(dt) - tz.dst(dt)``
must return the same result for every :class:`.datetime` *dt* with ``dt.tzinfo ==
- tz``. For sane :class:`tzinfo` subclasses, this expression yields the time
+ tz``. For sane :class:`!tzinfo` subclasses, this expression yields the time
zone's "standard offset", which should not depend on the date or the time, but
only on geographic location. The implementation of :meth:`datetime.astimezone`
relies on this, but cannot detect violations; it's the programmer's
- responsibility to ensure it. If a :class:`tzinfo` subclass cannot guarantee
+ responsibility to ensure it. If a :class:`!tzinfo` subclass cannot guarantee
this, it may be able to override the default implementation of
:meth:`tzinfo.fromutc` to work correctly with :meth:`~.datetime.astimezone` regardless.
Most implementations of :meth:`dst` will probably look like one of these two::
- def dst(self, dt):
+ import datetime as dt
+
+ def dst(self, when):
# a fixed-offset class: doesn't account for DST
- return timedelta(0)
+ return dt.timedelta(0)
or::
- def dst(self, dt):
+ import datetime as dt
+
+ def dst(self, when):
# Code to set dston and dstoff to the time zone's DST
- # transition times based on the input dt.year, and expressed
+ # transition times based on the input when.year, and expressed
# in standard local time.
- if dston <= dt.replace(tzinfo=None) < dstoff:
- return timedelta(hours=1)
+ if dston <= when.replace(tzinfo=None) < dstoff:
+ return dt.timedelta(hours=1)
else:
- return timedelta(0)
+ return dt.timedelta(0)
The default implementation of :meth:`dst` raises :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
@@ -2124,17 +2178,17 @@ Examples of working with a :class:`.time` object::
valid replies. Return ``None`` if a string name isn't known. Note that this is
a method rather than a fixed string primarily because some :class:`tzinfo`
subclasses will wish to return different names depending on the specific value
- of *dt* passed, especially if the :class:`tzinfo` class is accounting for
+ of *dt* passed, especially if the :class:`!tzinfo` class is accounting for
daylight time.
The default implementation of :meth:`tzname` raises :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
These methods are called by a :class:`.datetime` or :class:`.time` object, in
-response to their methods of the same names. A :class:`.datetime` object passes
-itself as the argument, and a :class:`.time` object passes ``None`` as the
+response to their methods of the same names. A :class:`!datetime` object passes
+itself as the argument, and a :class:`!time` object passes ``None`` as the
argument. A :class:`tzinfo` subclass's methods should therefore be prepared to
-accept a *dt* argument of ``None``, or of class :class:`.datetime`.
+accept a *dt* argument of ``None``, or of class :class:`!datetime`.
When ``None`` is passed, it's up to the class designer to decide the best
response. For example, returning ``None`` is appropriate if the class wishes to
@@ -2142,18 +2196,18 @@ say that time objects don't participate in the :class:`tzinfo` protocols. It
may be more useful for ``utcoffset(None)`` to return the standard UTC offset, as
there is no other convention for discovering the standard offset.
-When a :class:`.datetime` object is passed in response to a :class:`.datetime`
+When a :class:`.datetime` object is passed in response to a :class:`!datetime`
method, ``dt.tzinfo`` is the same object as *self*. :class:`tzinfo` methods can
-rely on this, unless user code calls :class:`tzinfo` methods directly. The
-intent is that the :class:`tzinfo` methods interpret *dt* as being in local
-time, and not need worry about objects in other timezones.
+rely on this, unless user code calls :class:`!tzinfo` methods directly. The
+intent is that the :class:`!tzinfo` methods interpret *dt* as being in local
+time, and not need worry about objects in other time zones.
There is one more :class:`tzinfo` method that a subclass may wish to override:
.. method:: tzinfo.fromutc(dt)
- This is called from the default :class:`datetime.astimezone()`
+ This is called from the default :meth:`datetime.astimezone`
implementation. When called from that, ``dt.tzinfo`` is *self*, and *dt*'s
date and time data are to be viewed as expressing a UTC time. The purpose
of :meth:`fromutc` is to adjust the date and time data, returning an
@@ -2173,20 +2227,22 @@ There is one more :class:`tzinfo` method that a subclass may wish to override:
Skipping code for error cases, the default :meth:`fromutc` implementation acts
like::
- def fromutc(self, dt):
- # raise ValueError error if dt.tzinfo is not self
- dtoff = dt.utcoffset()
- dtdst = dt.dst()
+ import datetime as dt
+
+ def fromutc(self, when):
+ # raise ValueError error if when.tzinfo is not self
+ dtoff = when.utcoffset()
+ dtdst = when.dst()
# raise ValueError if dtoff is None or dtdst is None
delta = dtoff - dtdst # this is self's standard offset
if delta:
- dt += delta # convert to standard local time
- dtdst = dt.dst()
+ when += delta # convert to standard local time
+ dtdst = when.dst()
# raise ValueError if dtdst is None
if dtdst:
- return dt + dtdst
+ return when + dtdst
else:
- return dt
+ return when
In the following :download:`tzinfo_examples.py
<../includes/tzinfo_examples.py>` file there are some examples of
@@ -2213,9 +2269,9 @@ When DST starts (the "start" line), the local wall clock leaps from 1:59 to
``astimezone(Eastern)`` won't deliver a result with ``hour == 2`` on the day DST
begins. For example, at the Spring forward transition of 2016, we get::
- >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone
+ >>> import datetime as dt
>>> from tzinfo_examples import HOUR, Eastern
- >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 3, 13, 5, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
+ >>> u0 = dt.datetime(2016, 3, 13, 5, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc)
>>> for i in range(4):
... u = u0 + i*HOUR
... t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
@@ -2238,7 +2294,9 @@ form 5:MM and 6:MM both map to 1:MM when converted to Eastern, but earlier times
have the :attr:`~.datetime.fold` attribute set to 0 and the later times have it set to 1.
For example, at the Fall back transition of 2016, we get::
- >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> from tzinfo_examples import HOUR, Eastern
+ >>> u0 = dt.datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc)
>>> for i in range(4):
... u = u0 + i*HOUR
... t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
@@ -2255,7 +2313,7 @@ Note that the :class:`.datetime` instances that differ only by the value of the
Applications that can't bear wall-time ambiguities should explicitly check the
value of the :attr:`~.datetime.fold` attribute or avoid using hybrid
:class:`tzinfo` subclasses; there are no ambiguities when using :class:`timezone`,
-or any other fixed-offset :class:`tzinfo` subclass (such as a class representing
+or any other fixed-offset :class:`!tzinfo` subclass (such as a class representing
only EST (fixed offset -5 hours), or only EDT (fixed offset -4 hours)).
.. seealso::
@@ -2263,12 +2321,12 @@ only EST (fixed offset -5 hours), or only EDT (fixed offset -4 hours)).
:mod:`zoneinfo`
The :mod:`!datetime` module has a basic :class:`timezone` class (for
handling arbitrary fixed offsets from UTC) and its :attr:`timezone.utc`
- attribute (a UTC timezone instance).
+ attribute (a UTC :class:`!timezone` instance).
- ``zoneinfo`` brings the *IANA timezone database* (also known as the Olson
+ ``zoneinfo`` brings the *IANA time zone database* (also known as the Olson
database) to Python, and its usage is recommended.
- `IANA timezone database <https://www.iana.org/time-zones>`_
+ `IANA time zone database <https://www.iana.org/time-zones>`_
The Time Zone Database (often called tz, tzdata or zoneinfo) contains code
and data that represent the history of local time for many representative
locations around the globe. It is updated periodically to reflect changes
@@ -2282,10 +2340,10 @@ only EST (fixed offset -5 hours), or only EDT (fixed offset -4 hours)).
-------------------------
The :class:`timezone` class is a subclass of :class:`tzinfo`, each
-instance of which represents a timezone defined by a fixed offset from
+instance of which represents a time zone defined by a fixed offset from
UTC.
-Objects of this class cannot be used to represent timezone information in the
+Objects of this class cannot be used to represent time zone information in the
locations where different offsets are used in different days of the year or
where historical changes have been made to civil time.
@@ -2346,7 +2404,7 @@ Class attributes:
.. attribute:: timezone.utc
- The UTC timezone, ``timezone(timedelta(0))``.
+ The UTC time zone, ``timezone(timedelta(0))``.
.. index::
@@ -2388,8 +2446,9 @@ versus :meth:`~.datetime.strptime`:
These methods accept format codes that can be used to parse and format dates::
- >>> datetime.strptime('31/01/22 23:59:59.999999',
- ... '%d/%m/%y %H:%M:%S.%f')
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> dt.datetime.strptime('31/01/22 23:59:59.999999',
+ ... '%d/%m/%y %H:%M:%S.%f')
datetime.datetime(2022, 1, 31, 23, 59, 59, 999999)
>>> _.strftime('%a %d %b %Y, %I:%M%p')
'Mon 31 Jan 2022, 11:59PM'
@@ -2549,13 +2608,52 @@ Broadly speaking, ``d.strftime(fmt)`` acts like the :mod:`time` module's
For the :meth:`.datetime.strptime` class method, the default value is
``1900-01-01T00:00:00.000``: any components not specified in the format string
-will be pulled from the default value. [#]_
+will be pulled from the default value.
+
+.. note::
+ Format strings without separators can be ambiguous for parsing. For
+ example, with ``%Y%m%d``, the string ``2026111`` may be parsed either as
+ ``2026-11-01`` or as ``2026-01-11``.
+ Use separators to ensure the input is parsed as intended.
+
+.. note::
+ When used to parse partial dates lacking a year, :meth:`.datetime.strptime`
+ will raise when encountering February 29 because the default year of 1900 is
+ *not* a leap year. Always add a default leap year to partial date strings
+ before parsing.
+
+
+.. testsetup::
+
+ # doctest seems to turn the warning into an error which makes it
+ # show up and require matching and prevents the actual interesting
+ # exception from being raised.
+ # Manually apply the catch_warnings context manager
+ import warnings
+ catch_warnings = warnings.catch_warnings()
+ catch_warnings.__enter__()
+ warnings.simplefilter("ignore")
+
+.. testcleanup::
+
+ catch_warnings.__exit__()
+
+.. doctest::
+
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> value = "2/29"
+ >>> dt.datetime.strptime(value, "%m/%d")
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ ...
+ ValueError: day 29 must be in range 1..28 for month 2 in year 1900
+ >>> dt.datetime.strptime(f"1904 {value}", "%Y %m/%d")
+ datetime.datetime(1904, 2, 29, 0, 0)
Using ``datetime.strptime(date_string, format)`` is equivalent to::
datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))
-except when the format includes sub-second components or timezone offset
+except when the format includes sub-second components or time zone offset
information, which are supported in ``datetime.strptime`` but are discarded by
``time.strptime``.
@@ -2680,12 +2778,12 @@ Notes:
include a year in the format. If the value you need to parse lacks a year,
append an explicit dummy leap year. Otherwise your code will raise an
exception when it encounters leap day because the default year used by the
- parser is not a leap year. Users run into this bug every four years...
+ parser (1900) is not a leap year. Users run into that bug every leap year.
.. doctest::
>>> month_day = "02/29"
- >>> datetime.strptime(f"{month_day};1984", "%m/%d;%Y") # No leap year bug.
+ >>> dt.datetime.strptime(f"{month_day};1984", "%m/%d;%Y") # No leap year bug.
datetime.datetime(1984, 2, 29, 0, 0)
.. deprecated-removed:: 3.13 3.15
@@ -2696,7 +2794,7 @@ Notes:
.. rubric:: Footnotes
-.. [#] If, that is, we ignore the effects of Relativity
+.. [#] If, that is, we ignore the effects of relativity.
.. [#] This matches the definition of the "proleptic Gregorian" calendar in
Dershowitz and Reingold's book *Calendrical Calculations*,
@@ -2707,5 +2805,3 @@ Notes:
.. [#] See R. H. van Gent's `guide to the mathematics of the ISO 8601 calendar
<https://web.archive.org/web/20220531051136/https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/calendar/isocalendar.htm>`_
for a good explanation.
-
-.. [#] Passing ``datetime.strptime('Feb 29', '%b %d')`` will fail since 1900 is not a leap year.
diff --git a/Doc/library/dbm.rst b/Doc/library/dbm.rst
index 54627363ba76aea..ddfe73a86b77f6e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/dbm.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/dbm.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`dbm` --- Interfaces to Unix "databases"
-=============================================
+:mod:`!dbm` --- Interfaces to Unix "databases"
+==============================================
.. module:: dbm
:synopsis: Interfaces to various Unix "database" formats.
@@ -19,8 +19,6 @@ slow-but-simple implementation in module :mod:`dbm.dumb` will be used. There
is a `third party interface <https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm>`_ to
the Oracle Berkeley DB.
-.. include:: ../includes/wasm-ios-notavail.rst
-
.. exception:: error
A tuple containing the exceptions that can be raised by each of the supported
@@ -86,10 +84,13 @@ the Oracle Berkeley DB.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
*file* accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-The object returned by :func:`~dbm.open` supports the same basic functionality as a
-:class:`dict`; keys and their corresponding values can be stored, retrieved, and
-deleted, and the :keyword:`in` operator and the :meth:`!keys` method are
-available, as well as :meth:`!get` and :meth:`!setdefault` methods.
+The object returned by :func:`~dbm.open` supports the basic
+functionality of mutable :term:`mappings <mapping>`;
+keys and their corresponding values can be stored, retrieved, and
+deleted, and iteration, the :keyword:`in` operator and methods :meth:`!keys`,
+:meth:`!get`, :meth:`!setdefault` and :meth:`!clear` are available.
+The :meth:`!keys` method returns a list instead of a view object.
+The :meth:`!setdefault` method requires two arguments.
Key and values are always stored as :class:`bytes`. This means that when
strings are used they are implicitly converted to the default encoding before
@@ -110,6 +111,10 @@ will automatically close them when done.
Deleting a key from a read-only database raises a database module specific exception
instead of :exc:`KeyError`.
+.. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ :meth:`!clear` methods are now available for all :mod:`dbm` backends.
+
+
The following example records some hostnames and a corresponding title, and
then prints out the contents of the database::
@@ -150,7 +155,6 @@ The individual submodules are described in the following sections.
---------------------------------------------
.. module:: dbm.sqlite3
- :platform: All
:synopsis: SQLite backend for dbm
.. versionadded:: 3.13
@@ -164,12 +168,11 @@ SQLite backend for the :mod:`dbm` module.
The files created by :mod:`dbm.sqlite3` can thus be opened by :mod:`sqlite3`,
or any other SQLite browser, including the SQLite CLI.
+.. include:: ../includes/wasm-notavail.rst
+
.. function:: open(filename, /, flag="r", mode=0o666)
Open an SQLite database.
- The returned object behaves like a :term:`mapping`,
- implements a :meth:`!close` method,
- and supports a "closing" context manager via the :keyword:`with` keyword.
:param filename:
The path to the database to be opened.
@@ -186,12 +189,22 @@ or any other SQLite browser, including the SQLite CLI.
The Unix file access mode of the file (default: octal ``0o666``),
used only when the database has to be created.
+ The returned database object behaves similar to a mutable :term:`mapping`,
+ but the :meth:`!keys` method returns a list, and
+ the :meth:`!setdefault` method requires two arguments.
+ It also supports a "closing" context manager via the :keyword:`with` keyword.
+
+ The following method is also provided:
+
+ .. method:: sqlite3.close()
+
+ Close the SQLite database.
+
:mod:`dbm.gnu` --- GNU database manager
---------------------------------------
.. module:: dbm.gnu
- :platform: Unix
:synopsis: GNU database manager
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/dbm/gnu.py`
@@ -207,12 +220,21 @@ functionality like crash tolerance.
The file formats created by :mod:`dbm.gnu` and :mod:`dbm.ndbm` are incompatible
and can not be used interchangeably.
+.. include:: ../includes/wasm-mobile-notavail.rst
+
+.. availability:: Unix.
+
.. exception:: error
Raised on :mod:`dbm.gnu`-specific errors, such as I/O errors. :exc:`KeyError` is
raised for general mapping errors like specifying an incorrect key.
+.. data:: open_flags
+
+ A string of characters the *flag* parameter of :meth:`~dbm.gnu.open` supports.
+
+
.. function:: open(filename, flag="r", mode=0o666, /)
Open a GDBM database and return a :class:`!gdbm` object.
@@ -248,14 +270,25 @@ functionality like crash tolerance.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
*filename* accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
- .. data:: open_flags
+ :class:`!gdbm` objects behave similar to mutable :term:`mappings <mapping>`,
+ but methods :meth:`!items`, :meth:`!values`, :meth:`!pop`, :meth:`!popitem`,
+ and :meth:`!update` are not supported,
+ the :meth:`!keys` method returns a list, and
+ the :meth:`!setdefault` method requires two arguments.
+ It also supports a "closing" context manager via the :keyword:`with` keyword.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+ Added the :meth:`!get` and :meth:`!setdefault` methods.
- A string of characters the *flag* parameter of :meth:`~dbm.gnu.open` supports.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Added the :meth:`!clear` method.
- :class:`!gdbm` objects behave similar to :term:`mappings <mapping>`,
- but :meth:`!items` and :meth:`!values` methods are not supported.
The following methods are also provided:
+ .. method:: gdbm.close()
+
+ Close the GDBM database.
+
.. method:: gdbm.firstkey()
It's possible to loop over every key in the database using this method and the
@@ -287,22 +320,11 @@ functionality like crash tolerance.
When the database has been opened in fast mode, this method forces any
unwritten data to be written to the disk.
- .. method:: gdbm.close()
-
- Close the GDBM database.
-
- .. method:: gdbm.clear()
-
- Remove all items from the GDBM database.
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.13
-
:mod:`dbm.ndbm` --- New Database Manager
----------------------------------------
.. module:: dbm.ndbm
- :platform: Unix
:synopsis: The New Database Manager
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/dbm/ndbm.py`
@@ -326,6 +348,10 @@ This module can be used with the "classic" NDBM interface or the
when storing values larger than this limit. Reading such corrupted files can
result in a hard crash (segmentation fault).
+.. include:: ../includes/wasm-mobile-notavail.rst
+
+.. availability:: Unix.
+
.. exception:: error
Raised on :mod:`dbm.ndbm`-specific errors, such as I/O errors. :exc:`KeyError` is raised
@@ -355,22 +381,27 @@ This module can be used with the "classic" NDBM interface or the
:param int mode:
|mode_param_doc|
- :class:`!ndbm` objects behave similar to :term:`mappings <mapping>`,
- but :meth:`!items` and :meth:`!values` methods are not supported.
- The following methods are also provided:
-
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Accepts :term:`path-like object` for filename.
- .. method:: ndbm.close()
+ :class:`!ndbm` objects behave similar to mutable :term:`mappings <mapping>`,
+ but methods :meth:`!items`, :meth:`!values`, :meth:`!pop`, :meth:`!popitem`,
+ and :meth:`!update` are not supported,
+ the :meth:`!keys` method returns a list, and
+ the :meth:`!setdefault` method requires two arguments.
+ It also supports a "closing" context manager via the :keyword:`with` keyword.
- Close the NDBM database.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+ Added the :meth:`!get` and :meth:`!setdefault` methods.
- .. method:: ndbm.clear()
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Added the :meth:`!clear` method.
- Remove all items from the NDBM database.
+ The following method is also provided:
- .. versionadded:: 3.13
+ .. method:: ndbm.close()
+
+ Close the NDBM database.
:mod:`dbm.dumb` --- Portable DBM implementation
@@ -408,9 +439,6 @@ The :mod:`!dbm.dumb` module defines the following:
.. function:: open(filename, flag="c", mode=0o666)
Open a :mod:`!dbm.dumb` database.
- The returned database object behaves similar to a :term:`mapping`,
- in addition to providing :meth:`~dumbdbm.sync` and :meth:`~dumbdbm.close`
- methods.
:param filename:
The basename of the database file (without extensions).
@@ -444,15 +472,18 @@ The :mod:`!dbm.dumb` module defines the following:
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
*filename* accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
- In addition to the methods provided by the
- :class:`collections.abc.MutableMapping` class,
- the following methods are provided:
+ The returned database object behaves similar to a mutable :term:`mapping`,
+ but the :meth:`!keys` and :meth:`!items` methods return lists, and
+ the :meth:`!setdefault` method requires two arguments.
+ It also supports a "closing" context manager via the :keyword:`with` keyword.
- .. method:: dumbdbm.sync()
-
- Synchronize the on-disk directory and data files. This method is called
- by the :meth:`Shelve.sync` method.
+ The following methods are also provided:
.. method:: dumbdbm.close()
Close the database.
+
+ .. method:: dumbdbm.sync()
+
+ Synchronize the on-disk directory and data files. This method is called
+ by the :meth:`shelve.Shelf.sync` method.
diff --git a/Doc/library/decimal.rst b/Doc/library/decimal.rst
index 3c51dbc04dc92e1..01c00604251fa96 100644
--- a/Doc/library/decimal.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/decimal.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
-:mod:`decimal` --- Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic
-====================================================================
+:mod:`!decimal` --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic
+=====================================================================
.. module:: decimal
- :synopsis: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic Specification.
+ :synopsis: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic Specification.
.. moduleauthor:: Eric Price <eprice at tjhsst.edu>
.. moduleauthor:: Facundo Batista <facundo at taniquetil.com.ar>
@@ -31,13 +31,15 @@
--------------
The :mod:`decimal` module provides support for fast correctly rounded
-decimal floating point arithmetic. It offers several advantages over the
+decimal floating-point arithmetic. It offers several advantages over the
:class:`float` datatype:
-* Decimal "is based on a floating-point model which was designed with people
- in mind, and necessarily has a paramount guiding principle -- computers must
- provide an arithmetic that works in the same way as the arithmetic that
- people learn at school." -- excerpt from the decimal arithmetic specification.
+* Decimal "is based on a `floating-point model
+ <https://speleotrove.com/decimal/damodel.html#refnumber>`__ which was designed
+ with people in mind, and necessarily has a paramount guiding principle --
+ computers must provide an arithmetic that works in the same way as the
+ arithmetic that people learn at school." -- excerpt from the decimal
+ arithmetic specification.
* Decimal numbers can be represented exactly. In contrast, numbers like
``1.1`` and ``2.2`` do not have exact representations in binary
@@ -121,7 +123,7 @@ reset them before monitoring a calculation.
.. _decimal-tutorial:
-Quick-start Tutorial
+Quick-start tutorial
--------------------
The usual start to using decimals is importing the module, viewing the current
@@ -207,7 +209,7 @@ a decimal raises :class:`InvalidOperation`::
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
Decimals interact well with much of the rest of Python. Here is a small decimal
-floating point flying circus:
+floating-point flying circus:
.. doctest::
:options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
@@ -238,6 +240,26 @@ floating point flying circus:
>>> c % a
Decimal('0.77')
+Decimals can be formatted (with :func:`format` built-in or :ref:`f-strings`) in
+fixed-point or scientific notation, using the same formatting syntax (see
+:ref:`formatspec`) as builtin :class:`float` type:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+ >>> format(Decimal('2.675'), "f")
+ '2.675'
+ >>> format(Decimal('2.675'), ".2f")
+ '2.68'
+ >>> f"{Decimal('2.675'):.2f}"
+ '2.68'
+ >>> format(Decimal('2.675'), ".2e")
+ '2.68e+0'
+ >>> with localcontext() as ctx:
+ ... ctx.rounding = ROUND_DOWN
+ ... print(format(Decimal('2.675'), ".2f"))
+ ...
+ 2.67
+
And some mathematical functions are also available to Decimal:
>>> getcontext().prec = 28
@@ -264,7 +286,7 @@ allows the settings to be changed. This approach meets the needs of most
applications.
For more advanced work, it may be useful to create alternate contexts using the
-Context() constructor. To make an alternate active, use the :func:`setcontext`
+:meth:`Context` constructor. To make an alternate active, use the :func:`setcontext`
function.
In accordance with the standard, the :mod:`decimal` module provides two ready to
@@ -367,13 +389,15 @@ Decimal objects
appears above. These include decimal digits from various other
alphabets (for example, Arabic-Indic and Devanāgarī digits) along
with the fullwidth digits ``'\uff10'`` through ``'\uff19'``.
+ Case is not significant, so, for example, ``inf``, ``Inf``, ``INFINITY``,
+ and ``iNfINity`` are all acceptable spellings for positive infinity.
If *value* is a :class:`tuple`, it should have three components, a sign
(``0`` for positive or ``1`` for negative), a :class:`tuple` of
digits, and an integer exponent. For example, ``Decimal((0, (1, 4, 1, 4), -3))``
returns ``Decimal('1.414')``.
- If *value* is a :class:`float`, the binary floating point value is losslessly
+ If *value* is a :class:`float`, the binary floating-point value is losslessly
converted to its exact decimal equivalent. This conversion can often require
53 or more digits of precision. For example, ``Decimal(float('1.1'))``
converts to
@@ -403,7 +427,7 @@ Decimal objects
Underscores are allowed for grouping, as with integral and floating-point
literals in code.
- Decimal floating point objects share many properties with the other built-in
+ Decimal floating-point objects share many properties with the other built-in
numeric types such as :class:`float` and :class:`int`. All of the usual math
operations and special methods apply. Likewise, decimal objects can be
copied, pickled, printed, used as dictionary keys, used as set elements,
@@ -445,7 +469,7 @@ Decimal objects
Mixed-type comparisons between :class:`Decimal` instances and other
numeric types are now fully supported.
- In addition to the standard numeric properties, decimal floating point
+ In addition to the standard numeric properties, decimal floating-point
objects also have a number of specialized methods:
@@ -571,7 +595,7 @@ Decimal objects
>>> Decimal(321).exp()
Decimal('2.561702493119680037517373933E+139')
- .. classmethod:: from_float(f)
+ .. classmethod:: from_float(f, /)
Alternative constructor that only accepts instances of :class:`float` or
:class:`int`.
@@ -897,6 +921,48 @@ Decimal objects
:const:`Rounded`. If given, applies *rounding*; otherwise, uses the
rounding method in either the supplied *context* or the current context.
+ Decimal numbers can be rounded using the :func:`.round` function:
+
+ .. describe:: round(number)
+ .. describe:: round(number, ndigits)
+
+ If *ndigits* is not given or ``None``,
+ returns the nearest :class:`int` to *number*,
+ rounding ties to even, and ignoring the rounding mode of the
+ :class:`Decimal` context. Raises :exc:`OverflowError` if *number* is an
+ infinity or :exc:`ValueError` if it is a (quiet or signaling) NaN.
+
+ If *ndigits* is an :class:`int`, the context's rounding mode is respected
+ and a :class:`Decimal` representing *number* rounded to the nearest
+ multiple of ``Decimal('1E-ndigits')`` is returned; in this case,
+ ``round(number, ndigits)`` is equivalent to
+ ``self.quantize(Decimal('1E-ndigits'))``. Returns ``Decimal('NaN')`` if
+ *number* is a quiet NaN. Raises :class:`InvalidOperation` if *number*
+ is an infinity, a signaling NaN, or if the length of the coefficient after
+ the quantize operation would be greater than the current context's
+ precision. In other words, for the non-corner cases:
+
+ * if *ndigits* is positive, return *number* rounded to *ndigits* decimal
+ places;
+ * if *ndigits* is zero, return *number* rounded to the nearest integer;
+ * if *ndigits* is negative, return *number* rounded to the nearest
+ multiple of ``10**abs(ndigits)``.
+
+ For example::
+
+ >>> from decimal import Decimal, getcontext, ROUND_DOWN
+ >>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_DOWN
+ >>> round(Decimal('3.75')) # context rounding ignored
+ 4
+ >>> round(Decimal('3.5')) # round-ties-to-even
+ 4
+ >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), 0) # uses the context rounding
+ Decimal('3')
+ >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), 1)
+ Decimal('3.7')
+ >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), -1)
+ Decimal('0E+1')
+
.. _logical_operands_label:
@@ -930,7 +996,7 @@ Each thread has its own current context which is accessed or changed using the
Return the current context for the active thread.
-.. function:: setcontext(c)
+.. function:: setcontext(c, /)
Set the current context for the active thread to *c*.
@@ -974,7 +1040,7 @@ New contexts can also be created using the :class:`Context` constructor
described below. In addition, the module provides three pre-made contexts:
-.. class:: BasicContext
+.. data:: BasicContext
This is a standard context defined by the General Decimal Arithmetic
Specification. Precision is set to nine. Rounding is set to
@@ -985,7 +1051,7 @@ described below. In addition, the module provides three pre-made contexts:
Because many of the traps are enabled, this context is useful for debugging.
-.. class:: ExtendedContext
+.. data:: ExtendedContext
This is a standard context defined by the General Decimal Arithmetic
Specification. Precision is set to nine. Rounding is set to
@@ -998,7 +1064,7 @@ described below. In addition, the module provides three pre-made contexts:
presence of conditions that would otherwise halt the program.
-.. class:: DefaultContext
+.. data:: DefaultContext
This context is used by the :class:`Context` constructor as a prototype for new
contexts. Changing a field (such a precision) has the effect of changing the
@@ -1027,40 +1093,52 @@ In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with the
default values are copied from the :const:`DefaultContext`. If the *flags*
field is not specified or is :const:`None`, all flags are cleared.
- *prec* is an integer in the range [``1``, :const:`MAX_PREC`] that sets
- the precision for arithmetic operations in the context.
+ .. attribute:: prec
+
+ An integer in the range [``1``, :const:`MAX_PREC`] that sets
+ the precision for arithmetic operations in the context.
+
+ .. attribute:: rounding
+
+ One of the constants listed in the section `Rounding Modes`_.
+
+ .. attribute:: traps
+ flags
+
+ Lists of any signals to be set. Generally, new contexts should only set
+ traps and leave the flags clear.
+
+ .. attribute:: Emin
+ Emax
- The *rounding* option is one of the constants listed in the section
- `Rounding Modes`_.
+ Integers specifying the outer limits allowable for exponents. *Emin* must
+ be in the range [:const:`MIN_EMIN`, ``0``], *Emax* in the range
+ [``0``, :const:`MAX_EMAX`].
- The *traps* and *flags* fields list any signals to be set. Generally, new
- contexts should only set traps and leave the flags clear.
+ .. attribute:: capitals
- The *Emin* and *Emax* fields are integers specifying the outer limits allowable
- for exponents. *Emin* must be in the range [:const:`MIN_EMIN`, ``0``],
- *Emax* in the range [``0``, :const:`MAX_EMAX`].
+ Either ``0`` or ``1`` (the default). If set to
+ ``1``, exponents are printed with a capital ``E``; otherwise, a
+ lowercase ``e`` is used: ``Decimal('6.02e+23')``.
- The *capitals* field is either ``0`` or ``1`` (the default). If set to
- ``1``, exponents are printed with a capital ``E``; otherwise, a
- lowercase ``e`` is used: ``Decimal('6.02e+23')``.
+ .. attribute:: clamp
- The *clamp* field is either ``0`` (the default) or ``1``.
- If set to ``1``, the exponent ``e`` of a :class:`Decimal`
- instance representable in this context is strictly limited to the
- range ``Emin - prec + 1 <= e <= Emax - prec + 1``. If *clamp* is
- ``0`` then a weaker condition holds: the adjusted exponent of
- the :class:`Decimal` instance is at most :attr:`~Context.Emax`. When *clamp* is
- ``1``, a large normal number will, where possible, have its
- exponent reduced and a corresponding number of zeros added to its
- coefficient, in order to fit the exponent constraints; this
- preserves the value of the number but loses information about
- significant trailing zeros. For example::
+ Either ``0`` (the default) or ``1``. If set to ``1``, the exponent ``e``
+ of a :class:`Decimal` instance representable in this context is strictly
+ limited to the range ``Emin - prec + 1 <= e <= Emax - prec + 1``.
+ If *clamp* is ``0`` then a weaker condition holds: the adjusted exponent of
+ the :class:`Decimal` instance is at most :attr:`~Context.Emax`. When *clamp* is
+ ``1``, a large normal number will, where possible, have its
+ exponent reduced and a corresponding number of zeros added to its
+ coefficient, in order to fit the exponent constraints; this
+ preserves the value of the number but loses information about
+ significant trailing zeros. For example::
- >>> Context(prec=6, Emax=999, clamp=1).create_decimal('1.23e999')
- Decimal('1.23000E+999')
+ >>> Context(prec=6, Emax=999, clamp=1).create_decimal('1.23e999')
+ Decimal('1.23000E+999')
- A *clamp* value of ``1`` allows compatibility with the
- fixed-width decimal interchange formats specified in IEEE 754.
+ A *clamp* value of ``1`` allows compatibility with the
+ fixed-width decimal interchange formats specified in IEEE 754.
The :class:`Context` class defines several general purpose methods as well as
a large number of methods for doing arithmetic directly in a given context.
@@ -1087,11 +1165,11 @@ In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with the
Return a duplicate of the context.
- .. method:: copy_decimal(num)
+ .. method:: copy_decimal(num, /)
Return a copy of the Decimal instance num.
- .. method:: create_decimal(num)
+ .. method:: create_decimal(num='0', /)
Creates a new Decimal instance from *num* but using *self* as
context. Unlike the :class:`Decimal` constructor, the context precision,
@@ -1115,7 +1193,7 @@ In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with the
If the argument is a string, no leading or trailing whitespace or
underscores are permitted.
- .. method:: create_decimal_from_float(f)
+ .. method:: create_decimal_from_float(f, /)
Creates a new Decimal instance from a float *f* but rounding using *self*
as the context. Unlike the :meth:`Decimal.from_float` class method,
@@ -1153,222 +1231,222 @@ In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with the
recounted here.
- .. method:: abs(x)
+ .. method:: abs(x, /)
Returns the absolute value of *x*.
- .. method:: add(x, y)
+ .. method:: add(x, y, /)
Return the sum of *x* and *y*.
- .. method:: canonical(x)
+ .. method:: canonical(x, /)
Returns the same Decimal object *x*.
- .. method:: compare(x, y)
+ .. method:: compare(x, y, /)
Compares *x* and *y* numerically.
- .. method:: compare_signal(x, y)
+ .. method:: compare_signal(x, y, /)
Compares the values of the two operands numerically.
- .. method:: compare_total(x, y)
+ .. method:: compare_total(x, y, /)
Compares two operands using their abstract representation.
- .. method:: compare_total_mag(x, y)
+ .. method:: compare_total_mag(x, y, /)
Compares two operands using their abstract representation, ignoring sign.
- .. method:: copy_abs(x)
+ .. method:: copy_abs(x, /)
Returns a copy of *x* with the sign set to 0.
- .. method:: copy_negate(x)
+ .. method:: copy_negate(x, /)
Returns a copy of *x* with the sign inverted.
- .. method:: copy_sign(x, y)
+ .. method:: copy_sign(x, y, /)
Copies the sign from *y* to *x*.
- .. method:: divide(x, y)
+ .. method:: divide(x, y, /)
Return *x* divided by *y*.
- .. method:: divide_int(x, y)
+ .. method:: divide_int(x, y, /)
Return *x* divided by *y*, truncated to an integer.
- .. method:: divmod(x, y)
+ .. method:: divmod(x, y, /)
Divides two numbers and returns the integer part of the result.
- .. method:: exp(x)
+ .. method:: exp(x, /)
Returns ``e ** x``.
- .. method:: fma(x, y, z)
+ .. method:: fma(x, y, z, /)
Returns *x* multiplied by *y*, plus *z*.
- .. method:: is_canonical(x)
+ .. method:: is_canonical(x, /)
Returns ``True`` if *x* is canonical; otherwise returns ``False``.
- .. method:: is_finite(x)
+ .. method:: is_finite(x, /)
Returns ``True`` if *x* is finite; otherwise returns ``False``.
- .. method:: is_infinite(x)
+ .. method:: is_infinite(x, /)
Returns ``True`` if *x* is infinite; otherwise returns ``False``.
- .. method:: is_nan(x)
+ .. method:: is_nan(x, /)
Returns ``True`` if *x* is a qNaN or sNaN; otherwise returns ``False``.
- .. method:: is_normal(x)
+ .. method:: is_normal(x, /)
Returns ``True`` if *x* is a normal number; otherwise returns ``False``.
- .. method:: is_qnan(x)
+ .. method:: is_qnan(x, /)
Returns ``True`` if *x* is a quiet NaN; otherwise returns ``False``.
- .. method:: is_signed(x)
+ .. method:: is_signed(x, /)
Returns ``True`` if *x* is negative; otherwise returns ``False``.
- .. method:: is_snan(x)
+ .. method:: is_snan(x, /)
Returns ``True`` if *x* is a signaling NaN; otherwise returns ``False``.
- .. method:: is_subnormal(x)
+ .. method:: is_subnormal(x, /)
Returns ``True`` if *x* is subnormal; otherwise returns ``False``.
- .. method:: is_zero(x)
+ .. method:: is_zero(x, /)
Returns ``True`` if *x* is a zero; otherwise returns ``False``.
- .. method:: ln(x)
+ .. method:: ln(x, /)
Returns the natural (base e) logarithm of *x*.
- .. method:: log10(x)
+ .. method:: log10(x, /)
Returns the base 10 logarithm of *x*.
- .. method:: logb(x)
+ .. method:: logb(x, /)
Returns the exponent of the magnitude of the operand's MSD.
- .. method:: logical_and(x, y)
+ .. method:: logical_and(x, y, /)
Applies the logical operation *and* between each operand's digits.
- .. method:: logical_invert(x)
+ .. method:: logical_invert(x, /)
Invert all the digits in *x*.
- .. method:: logical_or(x, y)
+ .. method:: logical_or(x, y, /)
Applies the logical operation *or* between each operand's digits.
- .. method:: logical_xor(x, y)
+ .. method:: logical_xor(x, y, /)
Applies the logical operation *xor* between each operand's digits.
- .. method:: max(x, y)
+ .. method:: max(x, y, /)
Compares two values numerically and returns the maximum.
- .. method:: max_mag(x, y)
+ .. method:: max_mag(x, y, /)
Compares the values numerically with their sign ignored.
- .. method:: min(x, y)
+ .. method:: min(x, y, /)
Compares two values numerically and returns the minimum.
- .. method:: min_mag(x, y)
+ .. method:: min_mag(x, y, /)
Compares the values numerically with their sign ignored.
- .. method:: minus(x)
+ .. method:: minus(x, /)
Minus corresponds to the unary prefix minus operator in Python.
- .. method:: multiply(x, y)
+ .. method:: multiply(x, y, /)
Return the product of *x* and *y*.
- .. method:: next_minus(x)
+ .. method:: next_minus(x, /)
Returns the largest representable number smaller than *x*.
- .. method:: next_plus(x)
+ .. method:: next_plus(x, /)
Returns the smallest representable number larger than *x*.
- .. method:: next_toward(x, y)
+ .. method:: next_toward(x, y, /)
Returns the number closest to *x*, in direction towards *y*.
- .. method:: normalize(x)
+ .. method:: normalize(x, /)
Reduces *x* to its simplest form.
- .. method:: number_class(x)
+ .. method:: number_class(x, /)
Returns an indication of the class of *x*.
- .. method:: plus(x)
+ .. method:: plus(x, /)
Plus corresponds to the unary prefix plus operator in Python. This
operation applies the context precision and rounding, so it is *not* an
@@ -1409,7 +1487,7 @@ In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with the
always exact.
- .. method:: quantize(x, y)
+ .. method:: quantize(x, y, /)
Returns a value equal to *x* (rounded), having the exponent of *y*.
@@ -1419,7 +1497,7 @@ In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with the
Just returns 10, as this is Decimal, :)
- .. method:: remainder(x, y)
+ .. method:: remainder(x, y, /)
Returns the remainder from integer division.
@@ -1427,43 +1505,43 @@ In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with the
dividend.
- .. method:: remainder_near(x, y)
+ .. method:: remainder_near(x, y, /)
Returns ``x - y * n``, where *n* is the integer nearest the exact value
of ``x / y`` (if the result is 0 then its sign will be the sign of *x*).
- .. method:: rotate(x, y)
+ .. method:: rotate(x, y, /)
Returns a rotated copy of *x*, *y* times.
- .. method:: same_quantum(x, y)
+ .. method:: same_quantum(x, y, /)
Returns ``True`` if the two operands have the same exponent.
- .. method:: scaleb (x, y)
+ .. method:: scaleb (x, y, /)
Returns the first operand after adding the second value its exp.
- .. method:: shift(x, y)
+ .. method:: shift(x, y, /)
Returns a shifted copy of *x*, *y* times.
- .. method:: sqrt(x)
+ .. method:: sqrt(x, /)
Square root of a non-negative number to context precision.
- .. method:: subtract(x, y)
+ .. method:: subtract(x, y, /)
Return the difference between *x* and *y*.
- .. method:: to_eng_string(x)
+ .. method:: to_eng_string(x, /)
Convert to a string, using engineering notation if an exponent is needed.
@@ -1472,12 +1550,12 @@ In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with the
require the addition of either one or two trailing zeros.
- .. method:: to_integral_exact(x)
+ .. method:: to_integral_exact(x, /)
Rounds to an integer.
- .. method:: to_sci_string(x)
+ .. method:: to_sci_string(x, /)
Converts a number to a string using scientific notation.
@@ -1699,7 +1777,7 @@ The following table summarizes the hierarchy of signals::
.. _decimal-notes:
-Floating Point Notes
+Floating-point notes
--------------------
@@ -1712,7 +1790,7 @@ can still incur round-off error when non-zero digits exceed the fixed precision.
The effects of round-off error can be amplified by the addition or subtraction
of nearly offsetting quantities resulting in loss of significance. Knuth
-provides two instructive examples where rounded floating point arithmetic with
+provides two instructive examples where rounded floating-point arithmetic with
insufficient precision causes the breakdown of the associative and distributive
properties of addition:
@@ -1802,7 +1880,7 @@ treated as equal and their sign is informational.
In addition to the two signed zeros which are distinct yet equal, there are
various representations of zero with differing precisions yet equivalent in
value. This takes a bit of getting used to. For an eye accustomed to
-normalized floating point representations, it is not immediately obvious that
+normalized floating-point representations, it is not immediately obvious that
the following calculation returns a value equal to zero:
>>> 1 / Decimal('Infinity')
@@ -2011,20 +2089,20 @@ to work with the :class:`Decimal` class::
Decimal FAQ
-----------
-Q. It is cumbersome to type ``decimal.Decimal('1234.5')``. Is there a way to
+Q: It is cumbersome to type ``decimal.Decimal('1234.5')``. Is there a way to
minimize typing when using the interactive interpreter?
-A. Some users abbreviate the constructor to just a single letter:
+A: Some users abbreviate the constructor to just a single letter:
>>> D = decimal.Decimal
>>> D('1.23') + D('3.45')
Decimal('4.68')
-Q. In a fixed-point application with two decimal places, some inputs have many
+Q: In a fixed-point application with two decimal places, some inputs have many
places and need to be rounded. Others are not supposed to have excess digits
and need to be validated. What methods should be used?
-A. The :meth:`~Decimal.quantize` method rounds to a fixed number of decimal places. If
+A: The :meth:`~Decimal.quantize` method rounds to a fixed number of decimal places. If
the :const:`Inexact` trap is set, it is also useful for validation:
>>> TWOPLACES = Decimal(10) ** -2 # same as Decimal('0.01')
@@ -2042,10 +2120,10 @@ the :const:`Inexact` trap is set, it is also useful for validation:
...
Inexact: None
-Q. Once I have valid two place inputs, how do I maintain that invariant
+Q: Once I have valid two place inputs, how do I maintain that invariant
throughout an application?
-A. Some operations like addition, subtraction, and multiplication by an integer
+A: Some operations like addition, subtraction, and multiplication by an integer
will automatically preserve fixed point. Others operations, like division and
non-integer multiplication, will change the number of decimal places and need to
be followed-up with a :meth:`~Decimal.quantize` step:
@@ -2077,21 +2155,21 @@ to handle the :meth:`~Decimal.quantize` step:
>>> div(b, a)
Decimal('0.03')
-Q. There are many ways to express the same value. The numbers ``200``,
+Q: There are many ways to express the same value. The numbers ``200``,
``200.000``, ``2E2``, and ``.02E+4`` all have the same value at
various precisions. Is there a way to transform them to a single recognizable
canonical value?
-A. The :meth:`~Decimal.normalize` method maps all equivalent values to a single
+A: The :meth:`~Decimal.normalize` method maps all equivalent values to a single
representative:
>>> values = map(Decimal, '200 200.000 2E2 .02E+4'.split())
>>> [v.normalize() for v in values]
[Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2')]
-Q. When does rounding occur in a computation?
+Q: When does rounding occur in a computation?
-A. It occurs *after* the computation. The philosophy of the decimal
+A: It occurs *after* the computation. The philosophy of the decimal
specification is that numbers are considered exact and are created
independent of the current context. They can even have greater
precision than current context. Computations process with those
@@ -2109,10 +2187,10 @@ applied to the *result* of the computation::
>>> pi + 0 - Decimal('0.00005'). # Intermediate values are rounded
Decimal('3.1416')
-Q. Some decimal values always print with exponential notation. Is there a way
+Q: Some decimal values always print with exponential notation. Is there a way
to get a non-exponential representation?
-A. For some values, exponential notation is the only way to express the number
+A: For some values, exponential notation is the only way to express the number
of significant places in the coefficient. For example, expressing
``5.0E+3`` as ``5000`` keeps the value constant but cannot show the
original's two-place significance.
@@ -2127,9 +2205,9 @@ value unchanged:
>>> remove_exponent(Decimal('5E+3'))
Decimal('5000')
-Q. Is there a way to convert a regular float to a :class:`Decimal`?
+Q: Is there a way to convert a regular float to a :class:`Decimal`?
-A. Yes, any binary floating point number can be exactly expressed as a
+A: Yes, any binary floating-point number can be exactly expressed as a
Decimal though an exact conversion may take more precision than intuition would
suggest:
@@ -2138,19 +2216,19 @@ suggest:
>>> Decimal(math.pi)
Decimal('3.141592653589793115997963468544185161590576171875')
-Q. Within a complex calculation, how can I make sure that I haven't gotten a
+Q: Within a complex calculation, how can I make sure that I haven't gotten a
spurious result because of insufficient precision or rounding anomalies.
-A. The decimal module makes it easy to test results. A best practice is to
+A: The decimal module makes it easy to test results. A best practice is to
re-run calculations using greater precision and with various rounding modes.
Widely differing results indicate insufficient precision, rounding mode issues,
ill-conditioned inputs, or a numerically unstable algorithm.
-Q. I noticed that context precision is applied to the results of operations but
+Q: I noticed that context precision is applied to the results of operations but
not to the inputs. Is there anything to watch out for when mixing values of
different precisions?
-A. Yes. The principle is that all values are considered to be exact and so is
+A: Yes. The principle is that all values are considered to be exact and so is
the arithmetic on those values. Only the results are rounded. The advantage
for inputs is that "what you type is what you get". A disadvantage is that the
results can look odd if you forget that the inputs haven't been rounded:
@@ -2178,12 +2256,12 @@ Alternatively, inputs can be rounded upon creation using the
>>> Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN).create_decimal('1.2345678')
Decimal('1.2345')
-Q. Is the CPython implementation fast for large numbers?
+Q: Is the CPython implementation fast for large numbers?
-A. Yes. In the CPython and PyPy3 implementations, the C/CFFI versions of
+A: Yes. In the CPython and PyPy3 implementations, the C/CFFI versions of
the decimal module integrate the high speed `libmpdec
<https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/doc/libmpdec/index.html>`_ library for
-arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal floating point arithmetic [#]_.
+arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal floating-point arithmetic [#]_.
``libmpdec`` uses `Karatsuba multiplication
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatsuba_algorithm>`_
for medium-sized numbers and the `Number Theoretic Transform
@@ -2203,7 +2281,7 @@ value for :attr:`~Context.prec` as well [#]_::
Decimal('904625697166532776746648320380374280103671755200316906558262375061821325312')
-For inexact results, :attr:`MAX_PREC` is far too large on 64-bit platforms and
+For inexact results, :const:`MAX_PREC` is far too large on 64-bit platforms and
the available memory will be insufficient::
>>> Decimal(1) / 3
diff --git a/Doc/library/dialog.rst b/Doc/library/dialog.rst
index 191e0da12103fa3..af4512164c85fe8 100644
--- a/Doc/library/dialog.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/dialog.rst
@@ -1,11 +1,10 @@
-Tkinter Dialogs
+Tkinter dialogs
===============
:mod:`tkinter.simpledialog` --- Standard Tkinter input dialogs
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
.. module:: tkinter.simpledialog
- :platform: Tk
:synopsis: Simple dialog windows
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py`
@@ -16,16 +15,31 @@ The :mod:`tkinter.simpledialog` module contains convenience classes and
functions for creating simple modal dialogs to get a value from the user.
-.. function:: askfloat(title, prompt, **kw)
- askinteger(title, prompt, **kw)
- askstring(title, prompt, **kw)
+.. function:: askfloat(title, prompt, *, initialvalue=None, minvalue=None, maxvalue=None, parent=None)
+ askinteger(title, prompt, *, initialvalue=None, minvalue=None, maxvalue=None, parent=None)
+ askstring(title, prompt, *, initialvalue=None, show=None, parent=None)
- The above three functions provide dialogs that prompt the user to enter a value
- of the desired type.
+ Prompt the user to enter a value of the desired type and return it, or
+ ``None`` if the dialog is cancelled.
+
+ *title* is the dialog title and *prompt* the message shown above the entry.
+ *initialvalue* is the value initially placed in the entry.
+ *parent* is the window over which the dialog is shown.
+ :func:`askinteger` and :func:`askfloat` also accept *minvalue* and
+ *maxvalue*, which bound the accepted value.
+ :func:`askstring` also accepts *show*, a character used to mask the entered
+ text, for example ``'*'`` to hide a password.
.. class:: Dialog(parent, title=None)
The base class for custom dialogs.
+ Instantiating it shows the dialog modally and returns once the user closes
+ it; the entered value is then available in the :attr:`!result` attribute.
+
+ .. attribute:: result
+
+ The value produced by :meth:`apply`, or ``None`` if the dialog was
+ cancelled.
.. method:: body(master)
@@ -37,13 +51,49 @@ functions for creating simple modal dialogs to get a value from the user.
Default behaviour adds OK and Cancel buttons. Override for custom button
layouts.
+ .. method:: validate()
+
+ Validate the data entered by the user.
+ Return true if it is valid, in which case the dialog proceeds to
+ :meth:`apply`; return false to keep the dialog open.
+ The default implementation always returns true; override it to check the
+ input.
+
+ .. method:: apply()
+
+ Process the data entered by the user, for example by storing it in the
+ :attr:`!result` attribute.
+ Called after :meth:`validate` succeeds and just before the dialog is
+ destroyed.
+ The default implementation does nothing; override it to act on or store
+ the result.
+
+ .. method:: destroy()
+
+ Destroy the dialog window, clearing the reference to the widget that had
+ the initial focus.
+
+
+.. class:: SimpleDialog(master, text='', buttons=[], default=None, cancel=None, title=None, class_=None)
+
+ A simple modal dialog that displays the message *text* above a row of push
+ buttons whose labels are given by *buttons*, and returns the index of the
+ button the user presses.
+ *default* is the index of the button activated by the Return key, *cancel*
+ the index returned when the window is closed through the window manager,
+ *title* the window title, and *class_* the Tk class name of the window.
+
+ .. method:: go()
+
+ Display the dialog, wait until the user presses a button or closes the
+ window, and return the index of the chosen button.
+
:mod:`tkinter.filedialog` --- File selection dialogs
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
.. module:: tkinter.filedialog
- :platform: Tk
:synopsis: Dialog classes for file selection
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py`
@@ -53,7 +103,7 @@ functions for creating simple modal dialogs to get a value from the user.
The :mod:`tkinter.filedialog` module provides classes and factory functions for
creating file/directory selection windows.
-Native Load/Save Dialogs
+Native load/save dialogs
------------------------
The following classes and functions provide file dialog windows that combine a
@@ -79,50 +129,62 @@ listed below:
**Static factory functions**
The below functions when called create a modal, native look-and-feel dialog,
-wait for the user's selection, then return the selected value(s) or ``None`` to the
-caller.
+wait for the user's selection, and return it.
+The exact return value depends on the function (see below); when the dialog is
+cancelled it is an empty string, an empty tuple or ``None``.
+The precise type of this empty value may vary between platforms and Tk
+versions, so test the result for truth rather than comparing it with a
+specific value.
.. function:: askopenfile(mode="r", **options)
askopenfiles(mode="r", **options)
- The above two functions create an :class:`Open` dialog and return the opened
- file object(s) in read-only mode.
+ Create an :class:`Open` dialog.
+ :func:`askopenfile` returns the opened file object, or ``None`` if the
+ dialog is cancelled.
+ :func:`askopenfiles` returns a list of the opened file objects, or an empty
+ tuple if cancelled.
+ The files are opened in mode *mode* (read-only ``'r'`` by default).
.. function:: asksaveasfile(mode="w", **options)
- Create a :class:`SaveAs` dialog and return a file object opened in write-only mode.
+ Create a :class:`SaveAs` dialog and return the opened file object, or
+ ``None`` if the dialog is cancelled.
+ The file is opened in mode *mode* (``'w'`` by default).
.. function:: askopenfilename(**options)
askopenfilenames(**options)
- The above two functions create an :class:`Open` dialog and return the
- selected filename(s) that correspond to existing file(s).
+ Create an :class:`Open` dialog.
+ :func:`askopenfilename` returns the selected filename as a string, or an
+ empty string if the dialog is cancelled.
+ :func:`askopenfilenames` returns a tuple of the selected filenames, or an
+ empty tuple if cancelled.
.. function:: asksaveasfilename(**options)
- Create a :class:`SaveAs` dialog and return the selected filename.
+ Create a :class:`SaveAs` dialog and return the selected filename as a
+ string, or an empty string if the dialog is cancelled.
.. function:: askdirectory(**options)
- | Prompt user to select a directory.
- | Additional keyword option:
- | *mustexist* - determines if selection must be an existing directory.
+ Prompt the user to select a directory, and return its path as a string, or
+ an empty string if the dialog is cancelled.
+ Additional keyword option: *mustexist* - if true, the user may only select
+ an existing directory (false by default).
.. class:: Open(master=None, **options)
SaveAs(master=None, **options)
+ Directory(master=None, **options)
- The above two classes provide native dialog windows for saving and loading
- files.
+ The above three classes provide native dialog windows for loading and saving
+ files and for selecting a directory.
**Convenience classes**
The below classes are used for creating file/directory windows from scratch.
These do not emulate the native look-and-feel of the platform.
-.. class:: Directory(master=None, **options)
-
- Create a dialog prompting the user to select a directory.
-
.. note:: The *FileDialog* class should be subclassed for custom event
handling and behaviour.
@@ -170,6 +232,13 @@ These do not emulate the native look-and-feel of the platform.
Exit dialog returning current selection.
+ .. method:: ok_command()
+
+ Called when the user confirms the current selection.
+ The base implementation accepts the selection and closes the dialog;
+ :class:`LoadFileDialog` and :class:`SaveFileDialog` override it to check
+ the selection first.
+
.. method:: quit(how=None)
Exit dialog returning filename, if any.
@@ -208,7 +277,6 @@ These do not emulate the native look-and-feel of the platform.
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
.. module:: tkinter.commondialog
- :platform: Tk
:synopsis: Tkinter base class for dialogs
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py`
@@ -220,11 +288,47 @@ is the base class for dialogs defined in other supporting modules.
.. class:: Dialog(master=None, **options)
- .. method:: show(color=None, **options)
+ .. method:: show(**options)
Render the Dialog window.
+:mod:`!tkinter.dialog` --- Classic Tk dialog boxes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. module:: tkinter.dialog
+ :synopsis: A simple dialog box built on the classic Tk widgets.
+
+**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tkinter/dialog.py`
+
+--------------
+
+The :mod:`!tkinter.dialog` module provides a simple modal dialog box built on
+the classic (non-themed) Tk widgets.
+
+.. data:: DIALOG_ICON
+
+ The name of a bitmap (``'questhead'``) suitable for use as the *bitmap*
+ of a :class:`Dialog`.
+
+.. class:: Dialog(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Display a modal dialog box built from the classic (non-themed) Tk widgets
+ and wait for the user to press one of its buttons.
+ The options, given through *cnf* or as keyword arguments, are all required:
+ *title* (the window title), *text* (the message), *bitmap* (the name of a
+ bitmap icon, such as :data:`DIALOG_ICON`), *default* (the index of the
+ default button) and *strings* (the sequence of button labels).
+ After construction, the :attr:`!num` attribute holds the index of the button
+ the user pressed.
+
+ .. method:: destroy()
+
+ Do nothing.
+ The dialog window is destroyed automatically before the constructor
+ returns, so there is nothing left for this method to do.
+
+
.. seealso::
Modules :mod:`tkinter.messagebox`, :ref:`tut-files`
diff --git a/Doc/library/difflib.rst b/Doc/library/difflib.rst
index 6a34f2e4d7f5e17..0dea71e1217e607 100644
--- a/Doc/library/difflib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/difflib.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`difflib` --- Helpers for computing deltas
-===============================================
+:mod:`!difflib` --- Helpers for computing deltas
+================================================
.. module:: difflib
:synopsis: Helpers for computing differences between objects.
@@ -17,44 +17,86 @@
--------------
-This module provides classes and functions for comparing sequences. It
-can be used for example, for comparing files, and can produce information
-about file differences in various formats, including HTML and context and unified
-diffs. For comparing directories and files, see also, the :mod:`filecmp` module.
-
-
-.. class:: SequenceMatcher
- :noindex:
-
- This is a flexible class for comparing pairs of sequences of any type, so long
- as the sequence elements are :term:`hashable`. The basic algorithm predates, and is a
- little fancier than, an algorithm published in the late 1980's by Ratcliff and
- Obershelp under the hyperbolic name "gestalt pattern matching." The idea is to
- find the longest contiguous matching subsequence that contains no "junk"
- elements; these "junk" elements are ones that are uninteresting in some
- sense, such as blank lines or whitespace. (Handling junk is an
- extension to the Ratcliff and Obershelp algorithm.) The same
- idea is then applied recursively to the pieces of the sequences to the left and
- to the right of the matching subsequence. This does not yield minimal edit
- sequences, but does tend to yield matches that "look right" to people.
-
- **Timing:** The basic Ratcliff-Obershelp algorithm is cubic time in the worst
- case and quadratic time in the expected case. :class:`SequenceMatcher` is
- quadratic time for the worst case and has expected-case behavior dependent in a
- complicated way on how many elements the sequences have in common; best case
- time is linear.
-
- **Automatic junk heuristic:** :class:`SequenceMatcher` supports a heuristic that
- automatically treats certain sequence items as junk. The heuristic counts how many
- times each individual item appears in the sequence. If an item's duplicates (after
- the first one) account for more than 1% of the sequence and the sequence is at least
- 200 items long, this item is marked as "popular" and is treated as junk for
- the purpose of sequence matching. This heuristic can be turned off by setting
- the ``autojunk`` argument to ``False`` when creating the :class:`SequenceMatcher`.
+This module provides classes and functions for comparing sequences.
+Most of them compare sequences of text lines (for example lists of strings,
+or :term:`file objects <file object>`) and
+produce :dfn:`diffs` -- reports on the differences.
+Diffs can be produced in various formats, including HTML and context
+and unified diffs -- formats produced by tools like
+:manpage:`diff <diff(1)>` and :manpage:`git diff <git-diff(1)>`.
+
+Comparisons are done using a matching algorithm implemented in
+:class:`SequenceMatcher` -- a flexible class for comparing pairs of sequences
+of any type, not just text, so long as the sequence elements are
+:term:`hashable`.
+
+
+.. _difflib-junk:
+
+Junk heuristic
+--------------
+
+:mod:`!difflib` uses a :dfn:`junk` heuristic: some items are deemed to be
+:dfn:`junk`, and ignored when searching for similarities.
+Ideally, these are uninteresting or common items, such as blank lines
+or whitespace.
+
+This heuristic can speed the algorithm up (because it reduces the number of
+possible combinations) and it can produce results that are more understandable
+for humans (typically breaking on whitespace).
+But it can also cause pathological cases:
+
+- Inappropriately chosen junk items can cause an unexpectedly **large** (but
+ still correct) result.
+- The default heuristic is **asymmetric**: only the second sequence is
+ inspected when determining what is considered junk, so comparing A to B can
+ give different results than comparing B to A and reversing the result.
+
+By default, if the second input sequence is at least 200 items long, items
+that account for more than 1% it are considered *junk*.
+
+Depending on your data, you should consider turning this heuristic off
+(setting :class:`~difflib.SequenceMatcher`'s *autojunk* argument to ``False``)
+or tuning it (using the *isjunk* argument, perhaps to one of the
+:ref:`predefined functions <difflib-isjunk-functions>`).
+
+
+The :mod:`!difflib` algorithm
+-----------------------------
+
+The algorithm used in :class:`SequenceMatcher` predates, and is a little
+fancier than, an algorithm published in the late 1980s by Ratcliff and
+Obershelp under the hyperbolic name "gestalt pattern matching."
+The idea is to find the longest contiguous subsequence common to both inputs,
+then recursively handle the pieces of the sequences to the left and to the
+right of the matching subsequence.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+ `Pattern Matching: The Gestalt Approach <https://jacobfilipp.com/DrDobbs/articles/DDJ/1988/8807/8807c/8807c.htm>`_
+ Discussion of a similar algorithm by John W. Ratcliff and D. E. Metzener. This
+ was published in Dr. Dobb's Journal in July, 1988.
+
+As an extension to the Ratcliff and Obershelp algorithm, :mod:`!difflib`
+searches for the longest *junk-free* contiguous subsequence.
+See the :ref:`difflib-junk` section for details.
+
+.. impl-detail:: Timing
+
+ The basic Ratcliff-Obershelp algorithm is cubic time in the worst
+ case and quadratic time in the expected case.
+ :mod:`difflib`'s algorithm is quadratic time for the worst case and has
+ expected-case behavior dependent in a complicated way on how many elements
+ the sequences have in common;
+ best case time is linear.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.2
- Added the *autojunk* parameter.
+.. _difflib-diff-generation:
+
+Diff generation
+---------------
+
+.. _differ-objects:
.. class:: Differ
@@ -81,6 +123,47 @@ diffs. For comparing directories and files, see also, the :mod:`filecmp` module.
and were not present in either input sequence. These lines can be confusing if
the sequences contain whitespace characters, such as spaces, tabs or line breaks.
+ Note that :class:`Differ`\ -generated deltas make no claim to be **minimal**
+ diffs. To the contrary, minimal diffs are often counter-intuitive for humans,
+ because they synch up anywhere possible, sometimes at accidental matches
+ 100 pages apart.
+ Restricting synch points to contiguous matches preserves some notion of
+ locality, at the occasional cost of producing a longer diff.
+
+ The :class:`Differ` class has this constructor:
+
+ .. method:: __init__(linejunk=None, charjunk=None)
+
+ Optional keyword parameters *linejunk* and *charjunk* are for filter functions
+ (or ``None``):
+
+ *linejunk*: A function that accepts a single string argument, and returns true
+ if the string is junk. The default is ``None``, meaning that no line is
+ considered junk.
+
+ *charjunk*: A function that accepts a single character argument (a string of
+ length 1), and returns true if the character is junk. The default is ``None``,
+ meaning that no character is considered junk.
+
+ These junk-filtering functions speed up matching to find
+ differences and do not cause any differing lines or characters to
+ be ignored. Read the description of the
+ :meth:`~SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match` method's *isjunk*
+ parameter for an explanation.
+
+ :class:`Differ` objects are used (deltas generated) via a single method:
+
+
+ .. method:: Differ.compare(a, b)
+
+ Compare two sequences of lines, and generate the delta (a sequence of lines).
+
+ Each sequence must contain individual single-line strings ending with
+ newlines. Such sequences can be obtained from the
+ :meth:`~io.IOBase.readlines` method of file-like objects. The generated
+ delta also consists of newline-terminated strings, ready to be
+ printed as-is via the :meth:`~io.IOBase.writelines` method of a
+ file-like object.
.. class:: HtmlDiff
@@ -89,6 +172,11 @@ diffs. For comparing directories and files, see also, the :mod:`filecmp` module.
with inter-line and intra-line change highlights. The table can be generated in
either full or contextual difference mode.
+ .. warning::
+
+ The trailing newlines get stripped before the diff, so the result can be
+ incomplete. See :gh:`71896` for details.
+
The constructor for this class is:
@@ -231,7 +319,7 @@ diffs. For comparing directories and files, see also, the :mod:`filecmp` module.
*linejunk*: A function that accepts a single string argument, and returns
true if the string is junk, or false if not. The default is ``None``. There
is also a module-level function :func:`IS_LINE_JUNK`, which filters out lines
- without visible characters, except for at most one pound character (``'#'``)
+ without visible characters, except for at most one hash character (``'#'``)
-- however the underlying :class:`SequenceMatcher` class does a dynamic
analysis of which lines are so frequent as to constitute noise, and this
usually works better than using this function.
@@ -335,6 +423,12 @@ diffs. For comparing directories and files, see also, the :mod:`filecmp` module.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+.. _difflib-isjunk-functions:
+
+Junk definition functions
+-------------------------
+
.. function:: IS_LINE_JUNK(line)
Return ``True`` for ignorable lines. The line *line* is ignorable if *line* is
@@ -349,21 +443,11 @@ diffs. For comparing directories and files, see also, the :mod:`filecmp` module.
parameter *charjunk* in :func:`ndiff`.
-.. seealso::
-
- `Pattern Matching: The Gestalt Approach <https://www.drdobbs.com/database/pattern-matching-the-gestalt-approach/184407970>`_
- Discussion of a similar algorithm by John W. Ratcliff and D. E. Metzener. This
- was published in `Dr. Dobb's Journal <https://www.drdobbs.com/>`_ in July, 1988.
-
-
.. _sequence-matcher:
-SequenceMatcher Objects
+SequenceMatcher objects
-----------------------
-The :class:`SequenceMatcher` class has this constructor:
-
-
.. class:: SequenceMatcher(isjunk=None, a='', b='', autojunk=True)
Optional argument *isjunk* must be ``None`` (the default) or a one-argument
@@ -549,16 +633,6 @@ The :class:`SequenceMatcher` class has this constructor:
to try :meth:`quick_ratio` or :meth:`real_quick_ratio` first to get an
upper bound.
- .. note::
-
- Caution: The result of a :meth:`ratio` call may depend on the order of
- the arguments. For instance::
-
- >>> SequenceMatcher(None, 'tide', 'diet').ratio()
- 0.25
- >>> SequenceMatcher(None, 'diet', 'tide').ratio()
- 0.5
-
.. method:: quick_ratio()
@@ -584,10 +658,13 @@ are always at least as large as :meth:`~SequenceMatcher.ratio`:
1.0
+Examples
+--------
+
.. _sequencematcher-examples:
-SequenceMatcher Examples
-------------------------
+SequenceMatcher examples
+........................
This example compares two strings, considering blanks to be "junk":
@@ -635,59 +712,10 @@ If you want to know how to change the first sequence into the second, use
built with :class:`SequenceMatcher`.
-.. _differ-objects:
-
-Differ Objects
---------------
-
-Note that :class:`Differ`\ -generated deltas make no claim to be **minimal**
-diffs. To the contrary, minimal diffs are often counter-intuitive, because they
-synch up anywhere possible, sometimes accidental matches 100 pages apart.
-Restricting synch points to contiguous matches preserves some notion of
-locality, at the occasional cost of producing a longer diff.
-
-The :class:`Differ` class has this constructor:
-
-
-.. class:: Differ(linejunk=None, charjunk=None)
- :noindex:
-
- Optional keyword parameters *linejunk* and *charjunk* are for filter functions
- (or ``None``):
-
- *linejunk*: A function that accepts a single string argument, and returns true
- if the string is junk. The default is ``None``, meaning that no line is
- considered junk.
-
- *charjunk*: A function that accepts a single character argument (a string of
- length 1), and returns true if the character is junk. The default is ``None``,
- meaning that no character is considered junk.
-
- These junk-filtering functions speed up matching to find
- differences and do not cause any differing lines or characters to
- be ignored. Read the description of the
- :meth:`~SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match` method's *isjunk*
- parameter for an explanation.
-
- :class:`Differ` objects are used (deltas generated) via a single method:
-
-
- .. method:: Differ.compare(a, b)
-
- Compare two sequences of lines, and generate the delta (a sequence of lines).
-
- Each sequence must contain individual single-line strings ending with
- newlines. Such sequences can be obtained from the
- :meth:`~io.IOBase.readlines` method of file-like objects. The delta
- generated also consists of newline-terminated strings, ready to be
- printed as-is via the :meth:`~io.IOBase.writelines` method of a
- file-like object.
-
-
.. _differ-examples:
-Differ Example
---------------
+Differ example
+..............
This example compares two texts. First we set up the texts, sequences of
individual single-line strings ending with newlines (such sequences can also be
@@ -754,14 +782,14 @@ As a single multi-line string it looks like this:
.. _difflib-interface:
A command-line interface to difflib
------------------------------------
+...................................
This example shows how to use difflib to create a ``diff``-like utility.
.. literalinclude:: ../includes/diff.py
ndiff example
--------------
+.............
This example shows how to use :func:`difflib.ndiff`.
diff --git a/Doc/library/dis.rst b/Doc/library/dis.rst
index e255fad55e4a250..091e67fc544e8cf 100644
--- a/Doc/library/dis.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/dis.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`dis` --- Disassembler for Python bytecode
-===============================================
+:mod:`!dis` --- Disassembler for Python bytecode
+================================================
.. module:: dis
:synopsis: Disassembler for Python bytecode.
@@ -91,18 +91,22 @@ The following options are accepted:
.. program:: dis
-.. cmdoption:: -h, --help
+.. option:: -h, --help
Display usage and exit.
-.. cmdoption:: -C, --show-caches
+.. option:: -C, --show-caches
Show inline caches.
-.. cmdoption:: -O, --show-offsets
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+.. option:: -O, --show-offsets
Show offsets of instructions.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
If :file:`infile` is specified, its disassembled code will be written to stdout.
Otherwise, disassembly is performed on compiled source code received from stdin.
@@ -266,7 +270,7 @@ operation is being performed, so the intermediate analysis object isn't useful:
Added the *show_caches* and *adaptive* parameters.
-.. function:: distb(tb=None, *, file=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False,
+.. function:: distb(tb=None, *, file=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False, \
show_offset=False)
Disassemble the top-of-stack function of a traceback, using the last
@@ -336,9 +340,10 @@ operation is being performed, so the intermediate analysis object isn't useful:
Added the *show_caches* and *adaptive* parameters.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
- The *show_caches* parameter is deprecated and has no effect. The *cache_info*
- field of each instruction is populated regardless of its value.
-
+ The *show_caches* parameter is deprecated and has no effect. The iterator
+ generates the :class:`Instruction` instances with the *cache_info*
+ field populated (regardless of the value of *show_caches*) and it no longer
+ generates separate items for the cache entries.
.. function:: findlinestarts(code)
@@ -487,7 +492,7 @@ details of bytecode instructions as :class:`Instruction` instances:
:class:`dis.Positions` object holding the
start and end locations that are covered by this instruction.
- .. data::cache_info
+ .. data:: cache_info
Information about the cache entries of this instruction, as
triplets of the form ``(name, size, data)``, where the ``name``
@@ -711,7 +716,7 @@ not have to be) the original ``STACK[-2]``.
end = STACK.pop()
start = STACK.pop()
container = STACK.pop()
- values = STACK.pop()
+ value = STACK.pop()
container[start:end] = value
.. versionadded:: 3.12
@@ -956,7 +961,8 @@ iterations of the loop.
.. opcode:: GET_LEN
- Perform ``STACK.append(len(STACK[-1]))``.
+ Perform ``STACK.append(len(STACK[-1]))``. Used in :keyword:`match` statements where
+ comparison with structure of pattern is needed.
.. versionadded:: 3.10
@@ -1101,11 +1107,15 @@ iterations of the loop.
.. opcode:: BUILD_TUPLE (count)
Creates a tuple consuming *count* items from the stack, and pushes the
- resulting tuple onto the stack.::
+ resulting tuple onto the stack::
- assert count > 0
- STACK, values = STACK[:-count], STACK[-count:]
- STACK.append(tuple(values))
+ if count == 0:
+ value = ()
+ else:
+ value = tuple(STACK[-count:])
+ STACK = STACK[:-count]
+
+ STACK.append(value)
.. opcode:: BUILD_LIST (count)
@@ -1329,9 +1339,6 @@ iterations of the loop.
If ``STACK[-1]`` is not ``None``, increments the bytecode counter by *delta*.
``STACK[-1]`` is popped.
- This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by
- the directed versions (forward/backward).
-
.. versionadded:: 3.11
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
@@ -1343,9 +1350,6 @@ iterations of the loop.
If ``STACK[-1]`` is ``None``, increments the bytecode counter by *delta*.
``STACK[-1]`` is popped.
- This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by
- the directed versions (forward/backward).
-
.. versionadded:: 3.11
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
@@ -1377,6 +1381,13 @@ iterations of the loop.
This opcode is now only used in situations where the local variable is
guaranteed to be initialized. It cannot raise :exc:`UnboundLocalError`.
+.. opcode:: LOAD_FAST_LOAD_FAST (var_nums)
+
+ Pushes references to ``co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]`` and
+ ``co_varnames[var_nums & 15]`` onto the stack.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
.. opcode:: LOAD_FAST_CHECK (var_num)
Pushes a reference to the local ``co_varnames[var_num]`` onto the stack,
@@ -1397,6 +1408,20 @@ iterations of the loop.
Stores ``STACK.pop()`` into the local ``co_varnames[var_num]``.
+.. opcode:: STORE_FAST_STORE_FAST (var_nums)
+
+ Stores ``STACK[-1]`` into ``co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]``
+ and ``STACK[-2]`` into ``co_varnames[var_nums & 15]``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+.. opcode:: STORE_FAST_LOAD_FAST (var_nums)
+
+ Stores ``STACK.pop()`` into the local ``co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]``
+ and pushes a reference to the local ``co_varnames[var_nums & 15]``
+ onto the stack.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
.. opcode:: DELETE_FAST (var_num)
@@ -1426,7 +1451,7 @@ iterations of the loop.
slot ``i`` of the "fast locals" storage in this mapping.
If the name is not found there, loads it from the cell contained in
slot ``i``, similar to :opcode:`LOAD_DEREF`. This is used for loading
- free variables in class bodies (which previously used
+ :term:`closure variables <closure variable>` in class bodies (which previously used
:opcode:`!LOAD_CLASSDEREF`) and in
:ref:`annotation scopes <annotation-scopes>` within class bodies.
@@ -1455,8 +1480,8 @@ iterations of the loop.
.. opcode:: COPY_FREE_VARS (n)
- Copies the ``n`` free variables from the closure into the frame.
- Removes the need for special code on the caller's side when calling
+ Copies the ``n`` :term:`free (closure) variables <closure variable>` from the closure
+ into the frame. Removes the need for special code on the caller's side when calling
closures.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
@@ -1544,7 +1569,7 @@ iterations of the loop.
.. opcode:: MAKE_FUNCTION
- Pushes a new function object on the stack built from the code object at ``STACK[1]``.
+ Pushes a new function object on the stack built from the code object at ``STACK[-1]``.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
Flag value ``0x04`` is a tuple of strings instead of dictionary
@@ -1580,7 +1605,7 @@ iterations of the loop.
end = STACK.pop()
start = STACK.pop()
- STACK.append(slice(start, stop))
+ STACK.append(slice(start, end))
if it is 3, implements::
@@ -1612,7 +1637,7 @@ iterations of the loop.
* ``oparg == 2``: call :func:`repr` on *value*
* ``oparg == 3``: call :func:`ascii` on *value*
- Used for implementing formatted literal strings (f-strings).
+ Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).
.. versionadded:: 3.13
@@ -1625,11 +1650,11 @@ iterations of the loop.
result = value.__format__("")
STACK.append(result)
- Used for implementing formatted literal strings (f-strings).
+ Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).
.. versionadded:: 3.13
-.. opcode:: FORMAT_SPEC
+.. opcode:: FORMAT_WITH_SPEC
Formats the given value with the given format spec::
@@ -1638,7 +1663,7 @@ iterations of the loop.
result = value.__format__(spec)
STACK.append(result)
- Used for implementing formatted literal strings (f-strings).
+ Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).
.. versionadded:: 3.13
@@ -1747,7 +1772,7 @@ iterations of the loop.
| ``INTRINSIC_STOPITERATION_ERROR`` | Extracts the return value from a |
| | ``StopIteration`` exception. |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
- | ``INTRINSIC_ASYNC_GEN_WRAP`` | Wraps an aync generator value |
+ | ``INTRINSIC_ASYNC_GEN_WRAP`` | Wraps an async generator value |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| ``INTRINSIC_UNARY_POSITIVE`` | Performs the unary ``+`` |
| | operation |
@@ -1912,10 +1937,10 @@ instructions:
.. data:: hasfree
- Sequence of bytecodes that access a free variable. 'free' in this
- context refers to names in the current scope that are referenced by inner
- scopes or names in outer scopes that are referenced from this scope. It does
- *not* include references to global or builtin scopes.
+ Sequence of bytecodes that access a :term:`free (closure) variable <closure variable>`.
+ 'free' in this context refers to names in the current scope that are
+ referenced by inner scopes or names in outer scopes that are referenced
+ from this scope. It does *not* include references to global or builtin scopes.
.. data:: hasname
diff --git a/Doc/library/distutils.rst b/Doc/library/distutils.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..af63e035bf3c4ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/distutils.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+:mod:`!distutils` --- Building and installing Python modules
+============================================================
+
+.. module:: distutils
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.12.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.10 3.12
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.12 <whatsnew312-removed-distutils>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.10. The removal was decided in :pep:`632`,
+which has `migration advice
+<https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/#migration-advice>`_.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!distutils` module was
+`Python 3.11 <https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/distutils.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/doctest.rst b/Doc/library/doctest.rst
index 5f7d10a6dce0371..e6f89ea981acd8e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/doctest.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/doctest.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`doctest` --- Test interactive Python examples
-===================================================
+:mod:`!doctest` --- Test interactive Python examples
+====================================================
.. module:: doctest
:synopsis: Test pieces of code within docstrings.
@@ -170,18 +170,11 @@ with assorted summaries at the end.
You can force verbose mode by passing ``verbose=True`` to :func:`testmod`, or
prohibit it by passing ``verbose=False``. In either of those cases,
-``sys.argv`` is not examined by :func:`testmod` (so passing ``-v`` or not
+:data:`sys.argv` is not examined by :func:`testmod` (so passing ``-v`` or not
has no effect).
-There is also a command line shortcut for running :func:`testmod`. You can
-instruct the Python interpreter to run the doctest module directly from the
-standard library and pass the module name(s) on the command line::
-
- python -m doctest -v example.py
-
-This will import :file:`example.py` as a standalone module and run
-:func:`testmod` on it. Note that this may not work correctly if the file is
-part of a package and imports other submodules from that package.
+There is also a command line shortcut for running :func:`testmod`, see section
+:ref:`doctest-cli`.
For more information on :func:`testmod`, see section :ref:`doctest-basic-api`.
@@ -234,7 +227,7 @@ documentation::
As with :func:`testmod`, :func:`testfile` won't display anything unless an
example fails. If an example does fail, then the failing example(s) and the
cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to stdout, using the same format as
-:func:`testmod`.
+:func:`!testmod`.
By default, :func:`testfile` looks for files in the calling module's directory.
See section :ref:`doctest-basic-api` for a description of the optional arguments
@@ -244,16 +237,53 @@ Like :func:`testmod`, :func:`testfile`'s verbosity can be set with the
``-v`` command-line switch or with the optional keyword argument
*verbose*.
-There is also a command line shortcut for running :func:`testfile`. You can
-instruct the Python interpreter to run the doctest module directly from the
-standard library and pass the file name(s) on the command line::
+There is also a command line shortcut for running :func:`testfile`, see section
+:ref:`doctest-cli`.
- python -m doctest -v example.txt
+For more information on :func:`testfile`, see section :ref:`doctest-basic-api`.
-Because the file name does not end with :file:`.py`, :mod:`doctest` infers that
-it must be run with :func:`testfile`, not :func:`testmod`.
-For more information on :func:`testfile`, see section :ref:`doctest-basic-api`.
+.. _doctest-cli:
+
+Command-line Usage
+------------------
+
+The :mod:`doctest` module can be invoked as a script from the command line:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+ python -m doctest [-v] [-o OPTION] [-f] file [file ...]
+
+.. program:: doctest
+
+.. option:: -v, --verbose
+
+ Detailed report of all examples tried is printed to standard output,
+ along with assorted summaries at the end::
+
+ python -m doctest -v example.py
+
+ This will import :file:`example.py` as a standalone module and run
+ :func:`testmod` on it. Note that this may not work correctly if the
+ file is part of a package and imports other submodules from that package.
+
+ If the file name does not end with :file:`.py`, :mod:`!doctest` infers
+ that it must be run with :func:`testfile` instead::
+
+ python -m doctest -v example.txt
+
+.. option:: -o, --option <option>
+
+ Option flags control various aspects of doctest's behavior, see section
+ :ref:`doctest-options`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. option:: -f, --fail-fast
+
+ This is shorthand for ``-o FAIL_FAST``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
.. _doctest-how-it-works:
@@ -277,6 +307,13 @@ Which Docstrings Are Examined?
The module docstring, and all function, class and method docstrings are
searched. Objects imported into the module are not searched.
+.. currentmodule:: None
+
+.. attribute:: module.__test__
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+.. currentmodule:: doctest
+
In addition, there are cases when you want tests to be part of a module but not part
of the help text, which requires that the tests not be included in the docstring.
Doctest looks for a module-level variable called ``__test__`` and uses it to locate other
@@ -309,6 +346,13 @@ searches them recursively for docstrings, which are then scanned for tests.
Any classes found are recursively searched similarly, to test docstrings in
their contained methods and nested classes.
+.. note::
+
+ ``doctest`` can only automatically discover classes and functions that are
+ defined at the module level or inside other classes.
+
+ Since nested classes and functions only exist when an outer function
+ is called, they cannot be discovered. Define them outside to make them visible.
.. _doctest-finding-examples:
@@ -499,7 +543,7 @@ Some details you should read once, but won't need to remember:
* The interactive shell omits the traceback header line for some
:exc:`SyntaxError`\ s. But doctest uses the traceback header line to
distinguish exceptions from non-exceptions. So in the rare case where you need
- to test a :exc:`SyntaxError` that omits the traceback header, you will need to
+ to test a :exc:`!SyntaxError` that omits the traceback header, you will need to
manually add the traceback header line to your test example.
.. index:: single: ^ (caret); marker
@@ -536,9 +580,6 @@ Symbolic names for the flags are supplied as module constants, which can be
The names can also be used in :ref:`doctest directives <doctest-directives>`,
and may be passed to the doctest command line interface via the ``-o`` option.
-.. versionadded:: 3.4
- The ``-o`` command line option.
-
The first group of options define test semantics, controlling aspects of how
doctest decides whether actual output matches an example's expected output:
@@ -678,11 +719,6 @@ The second group of options controls how test failures are reported:
1. This flag may be useful during debugging, since examples after the first
failure won't even produce debugging output.
- The doctest command line accepts the option ``-f`` as a shorthand for ``-o
- FAIL_FAST``.
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.4
-
.. data:: REPORTING_FLAGS
@@ -834,15 +870,15 @@ The :const:`ELLIPSIS` directive gives a nice approach for the last example:
<C object at 0x...>
Floating-point numbers are also subject to small output variations across
-platforms, because Python defers to the platform C library for float formatting,
-and C libraries vary widely in quality here. ::
+platforms, because Python defers to the platform C library for some
+floating-point calculations, and C libraries vary widely in quality here. ::
- >>> 1./7 # risky
- 0.14285714285714285
- >>> print(1./7) # safer
- 0.142857142857
- >>> print(round(1./7, 6)) # much safer
- 0.142857
+ >>> 1000**0.1 # risky
+ 1.9952623149688797
+ >>> round(1000**0.1, 9) # safer
+ 1.995262315
+ >>> print(f'{1000**0.1:.4f}') # much safer
+ 1.9953
Numbers of the form ``I/2.**J`` are safe across all platforms, and I often
contrive doctest examples to produce numbers of that form::
@@ -912,13 +948,13 @@ and :ref:`doctest-simple-testfile`.
Optional argument *verbose* prints lots of stuff if true, and prints only
failures if false; by default, or if ``None``, it's true if and only if ``'-v'``
- is in ``sys.argv``.
+ is in :data:`sys.argv`.
Optional argument *report* prints a summary at the end when true, else prints
nothing at the end. In verbose mode, the summary is detailed, else the summary
is very brief (in fact, empty if all tests passed).
- Optional argument *optionflags* (default value 0) takes the
+ Optional argument *optionflags* (default value ``0``) takes the
:ref:`bitwise OR <bitwise>` of option flags.
See section :ref:`doctest-options`.
@@ -1019,7 +1055,7 @@ from text files and modules with doctests:
The returned :class:`unittest.TestSuite` is to be run by the unittest framework
and runs the interactive examples in each file. If an example in any file
- fails, then the synthesized unit test fails, and a :exc:`failureException`
+ fails, then the synthesized unit test fails, and a :exc:`~unittest.TestCase.failureException`
exception is raised showing the name of the file containing the test and a
(sometimes approximate) line number. If all the examples in a file are
skipped, then the synthesized unit test is also marked as skipped.
@@ -1052,13 +1088,14 @@ from text files and modules with doctests:
Optional argument *setUp* specifies a set-up function for the test suite.
This is called before running the tests in each file. The *setUp* function
- will be passed a :class:`DocTest` object. The setUp function can access the
- test globals as the *globs* attribute of the test passed.
+ will be passed a :class:`DocTest` object. The *setUp* function can access the
+ test globals as the :attr:`~DocTest.globs` attribute of the test passed.
Optional argument *tearDown* specifies a tear-down function for the test
suite. This is called after running the tests in each file. The *tearDown*
- function will be passed a :class:`DocTest` object. The setUp function can
- access the test globals as the *globs* attribute of the test passed.
+ function will be passed a :class:`DocTest` object. The *tearDown* function can
+ access the test globals as the :attr:`~DocTest.globs` attribute of the test
+ passed.
Optional argument *globs* is a dictionary containing the initial global
variables for the tests. A new copy of this dictionary is created for each
@@ -1085,11 +1122,12 @@ from text files and modules with doctests:
Convert doctest tests for a module to a :class:`unittest.TestSuite`.
The returned :class:`unittest.TestSuite` is to be run by the unittest framework
- and runs each doctest in the module. If any of the doctests fail, then the
- synthesized unit test fails, and a :exc:`failureException` exception is raised
+ and runs each doctest in the module.
+ Each docstring is run as a separate unit test.
+ If any of the doctests fail, then the synthesized unit test fails,
+ and a :exc:`unittest.TestCase.failureException` exception is raised
showing the name of the file containing the test and a (sometimes approximate)
line number. If all the examples in a docstring are skipped, then the
- synthesized unit test is also marked as skipped.
Optional argument *module* provides the module to be tested. It can be a module
object or a (possibly dotted) module name. If not specified, the module calling
@@ -1097,7 +1135,7 @@ from text files and modules with doctests:
Optional argument *globs* is a dictionary containing the initial global
variables for the tests. A new copy of this dictionary is created for each
- test. By default, *globs* is a new empty dictionary.
+ test. By default, *globs* is the module's :attr:`~module.__dict__`.
Optional argument *extraglobs* specifies an extra set of global variables, which
is merged into *globs*. By default, no extra globals are used.
@@ -1106,7 +1144,7 @@ from text files and modules with doctests:
drop-in replacement) that is used to extract doctests from the module.
Optional arguments *setUp*, *tearDown*, and *optionflags* are the same as for
- function :func:`DocFileSuite` above.
+ function :func:`DocFileSuite` above, but they are called for each docstring.
This function uses the same search technique as :func:`testmod`.
@@ -1114,12 +1152,6 @@ from text files and modules with doctests:
:func:`DocTestSuite` returns an empty :class:`unittest.TestSuite` if *module*
contains no docstrings instead of raising :exc:`ValueError`.
-.. exception:: failureException
-
- When doctests which have been converted to unit tests by :func:`DocFileSuite`
- or :func:`DocTestSuite` fail, this exception is raised showing the name of
- the file containing the test and a (sometimes approximate) line number.
-
Under the covers, :func:`DocTestSuite` creates a :class:`unittest.TestSuite` out
of :class:`!doctest.DocTestCase` instances, and :class:`!DocTestCase` is a
subclass of :class:`unittest.TestCase`. :class:`!DocTestCase` isn't documented
@@ -1132,15 +1164,15 @@ of :class:`!DocTestCase`.
So both ways of creating a :class:`unittest.TestSuite` run instances of
:class:`!DocTestCase`. This is important for a subtle reason: when you run
-:mod:`doctest` functions yourself, you can control the :mod:`doctest` options in
-use directly, by passing option flags to :mod:`doctest` functions. However, if
-you're writing a :mod:`unittest` framework, :mod:`unittest` ultimately controls
+:mod:`doctest` functions yourself, you can control the :mod:`!doctest` options in
+use directly, by passing option flags to :mod:`!doctest` functions. However, if
+you're writing a :mod:`unittest` framework, :mod:`!unittest` ultimately controls
when and how tests get run. The framework author typically wants to control
-:mod:`doctest` reporting options (perhaps, e.g., specified by command line
-options), but there's no way to pass options through :mod:`unittest` to
-:mod:`doctest` test runners.
+:mod:`!doctest` reporting options (perhaps, e.g., specified by command line
+options), but there's no way to pass options through :mod:`!unittest` to
+:mod:`!doctest` test runners.
-For this reason, :mod:`doctest` also supports a notion of :mod:`doctest`
+For this reason, :mod:`doctest` also supports a notion of :mod:`!doctest`
reporting flags specific to :mod:`unittest` support, via this function:
@@ -1155,12 +1187,12 @@ reporting flags specific to :mod:`unittest` support, via this function:
:mod:`unittest`: the :meth:`!runTest` method of :class:`!DocTestCase` looks at
the option flags specified for the test case when the :class:`!DocTestCase`
instance was constructed. If no reporting flags were specified (which is the
- typical and expected case), :mod:`!doctest`'s :mod:`unittest` reporting flags are
+ typical and expected case), :mod:`!doctest`'s :mod:`!unittest` reporting flags are
:ref:`bitwise ORed <bitwise>` into the option flags, and the option flags
so augmented are passed to the :class:`DocTestRunner` instance created to
run the doctest. If any reporting flags were specified when the
:class:`!DocTestCase` instance was constructed, :mod:`!doctest`'s
- :mod:`unittest` reporting flags are ignored.
+ :mod:`!unittest` reporting flags are ignored.
The value of the :mod:`unittest` reporting flags in effect before the function
was called is returned by the function.
@@ -1253,7 +1285,7 @@ DocTest Objects
.. attribute:: filename
The name of the file that this :class:`DocTest` was extracted from; or
- ``None`` if the filename is unknown, or if the :class:`DocTest` was not
+ ``None`` if the filename is unknown, or if the :class:`!DocTest` was not
extracted from a file.
@@ -1393,10 +1425,10 @@ DocTestFinder objects
The globals for each :class:`DocTest` is formed by combining *globs* and
*extraglobs* (bindings in *extraglobs* override bindings in *globs*). A new
- shallow copy of the globals dictionary is created for each :class:`DocTest`.
- If *globs* is not specified, then it defaults to the module's *__dict__*, if
- specified, or ``{}`` otherwise. If *extraglobs* is not specified, then it
- defaults to ``{}``.
+ shallow copy of the globals dictionary is created for each :class:`!DocTest`.
+ If *globs* is not specified, then it defaults to the module's
+ :attr:`~module.__dict__`, if specified, or ``{}`` otherwise.
+ If *extraglobs* is not specified, then it defaults to ``{}``.
.. _doctest-doctestparser:
@@ -1420,7 +1452,7 @@ DocTestParser objects
:class:`DocTest` object.
*globs*, *name*, *filename*, and *lineno* are attributes for the new
- :class:`DocTest` object. See the documentation for :class:`DocTest` for more
+ :class:`!DocTest` object. See the documentation for :class:`DocTest` for more
information.
@@ -1435,7 +1467,7 @@ DocTestParser objects
Divide the given string into examples and intervening text, and return them as
a list of alternating :class:`Example`\ s and strings. Line numbers for the
- :class:`Example`\ s are 0-based. The optional argument *name* is a name
+ :class:`!Example`\ s are 0-based. The optional argument *name* is a name
identifying this string, and is only used for error messages.
@@ -1475,7 +1507,7 @@ DocTestRunner objects
:class:`OutputChecker`. This comparison may be customized with a number of
option flags; see section :ref:`doctest-options` for more information. If the
option flags are insufficient, then the comparison may also be customized by
- passing a subclass of :class:`OutputChecker` to the constructor.
+ passing a subclass of :class:`!OutputChecker` to the constructor.
The test runner's display output can be controlled in two ways. First, an output
function can be passed to :meth:`run`; this function will be called
@@ -1514,7 +1546,7 @@ DocTestRunner objects
output; it should not be called directly.
*example* is the example about to be processed. *test* is the test
- *containing example*. *out* is the output function that was passed to
+ containing *example*. *out* is the output function that was passed to
:meth:`DocTestRunner.run`.
@@ -1914,7 +1946,7 @@ several options for organizing tests:
containing test cases for the named topics. These functions can be included in
the same file as the module, or separated out into a separate test file.
-* Define a ``__test__`` dictionary mapping from regression test topics to
+* Define a :attr:`~module.__test__` dictionary mapping from regression test topics to
docstrings containing test cases.
When you have placed your tests in a module, the module can itself be the test
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.charset.rst b/Doc/library/email.charset.rst
index aa0134412f3a60d..6875af2be49d7a9 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.charset.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.charset.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`email.charset`: Representing character sets
--------------------------------------------------
+:mod:`!email.charset`: Representing character sets
+--------------------------------------------------
.. module:: email.charset
:synopsis: Character Sets
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.compat32-message.rst b/Doc/library/email.compat32-message.rst
index c4c322a82e1f44d..11b4d908fcd7d60 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.compat32-message.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.compat32-message.rst
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@
:synopsis: The base class representing email messages in a fashion
backward compatible with Python 3.2
:noindex:
+ :no-index:
The :class:`Message` class is very similar to the
@@ -95,7 +96,7 @@ Here are the methods of the :class:`Message` class:
text = fp.getvalue()
If the message object contains binary data that is not encoded according
- to RFC standards, the non-compliant data will be replaced by unicode
+ to RFC standards, the non-compliant data will be replaced by Unicode
"unknown character" code points. (See also :meth:`.as_bytes` and
:class:`~email.generator.BytesGenerator`.)
@@ -104,7 +105,7 @@ Here are the methods of the :class:`Message` class:
.. method:: __str__()
- Equivalent to :meth:`.as_string()`. Allows ``str(msg)`` to produce a
+ Equivalent to :meth:`.as_string`. Allows ``str(msg)`` to produce a
string containing the formatted message.
@@ -142,7 +143,7 @@ Here are the methods of the :class:`Message` class:
.. method:: __bytes__()
- Equivalent to :meth:`.as_bytes()`. Allows ``bytes(msg)`` to produce a
+ Equivalent to :meth:`.as_bytes`. Allows ``bytes(msg)`` to produce a
bytes object containing the formatted message.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
@@ -180,7 +181,7 @@ Here are the methods of the :class:`Message` class:
:meth:`set_payload` instead.
This is a legacy method. On the
- :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
+ :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
replaced by :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.set_content` and the
related ``make`` and ``add`` methods.
@@ -223,7 +224,7 @@ Here are the methods of the :class:`Message` class:
ASCII charset.
This is a legacy method. On the
- :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
+ :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
replaced by :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.get_content` and
:meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.iter_parts`.
@@ -235,7 +236,7 @@ Here are the methods of the :class:`Message` class:
the message's default character set; see :meth:`set_charset` for details.
This is a legacy method. On the
- :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
+ :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
replaced by :meth:`~email.message.EmailMessage.set_content`.
@@ -264,9 +265,9 @@ Here are the methods of the :class:`Message` class:
using that :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` and is not modified.
This is a legacy method. On the
- :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
+ :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
replaced by the *charset* parameter of the
- :meth:`email.emailmessage.EmailMessage.set_content` method.
+ :meth:`email.message.EmailMessage.set_content` method.
.. method:: get_charset()
@@ -275,7 +276,7 @@ Here are the methods of the :class:`Message` class:
message's payload.
This is a legacy method. On the
- :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class it always returns
+ :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` class it always returns
``None``.
@@ -485,7 +486,7 @@ Here are the methods of the :class:`Message` class:
search instead of :mailheader:`Content-Type`.
This is a legacy method. On the
- :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
+ :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
replaced by the *params* property of the individual header objects
returned by the header access methods.
@@ -523,7 +524,7 @@ Here are the methods of the :class:`Message` class:
to ``False``.
This is a legacy method. On the
- :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
+ :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
replaced by the *params* property of the individual header objects
returned by the header access methods.
@@ -578,7 +579,7 @@ Here are the methods of the :class:`Message` class:
header is also added.
This is a legacy method. On the
- :class:`~email.emailmessage.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
+ :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` class its functionality is
replaced by the ``make_`` and ``add_`` methods.
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.contentmanager.rst b/Doc/library/email.contentmanager.rst
index 5b49339650f0e92..4b57eed42c31319 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.contentmanager.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.contentmanager.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`email.contentmanager`: Managing MIME Content
---------------------------------------------------
+:mod:`!email.contentmanager`: Managing MIME Content
+---------------------------------------------------
.. module:: email.contentmanager
:synopsis: Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts
@@ -58,11 +58,12 @@
* the type itself (``typ``)
* the type's fully qualified name (``typ.__module__ + '.' +
typ.__qualname__``).
- * the type's qualname (``typ.__qualname__``)
- * the type's name (``typ.__name__``).
+ * the type's :attr:`qualname <type.__qualname__>` (``typ.__qualname__``)
+ * the type's :attr:`name <type.__name__>` (``typ.__name__``).
If none of the above match, repeat all of the checks above for each of
- the types in the :term:`MRO` (``typ.__mro__``). Finally, if no other key
+ the types in the :term:`MRO` (:attr:`typ.__mro__ <type.__mro__>`).
+ Finally, if no other key
yields a handler, check for a handler for the key ``None``. If there is
no handler for ``None``, raise a :exc:`KeyError` for the fully
qualified name of the type.
@@ -98,9 +99,9 @@ Currently the email package provides only one concrete content manager,
This content manager provides only a minimum interface beyond that provided
by :class:`~email.message.Message` itself: it deals only with text, raw
- byte strings, and :class:`~email.message.Message` objects. Nevertheless, it
+ bytes, and :class:`~email.message.Message` objects. Nevertheless, it
provides significant advantages compared to the base API: ``get_content`` on
- a text part will return a unicode string without the application needing to
+ a text part will return a string without the application needing to
manually decode it, ``set_content`` provides a rich set of options for
controlling the headers added to a part and controlling the content transfer
encoding, and it enables the use of the various ``add_`` methods, thereby
@@ -113,7 +114,7 @@ Currently the email package provides only one concrete content manager,
parts), or a ``bytes`` object (for all other non-multipart types). Raise
a :exc:`KeyError` if called on a ``multipart``. If the part is a
``text`` part and *errors* is specified, use it as the error handler when
- decoding the payload to unicode. The default error handler is
+ decoding the payload to a string. The default error handler is
``replace``.
.. method:: set_content(msg, <'str'>, subtype="plain", charset='utf-8', \
@@ -156,7 +157,13 @@ Currently the email package provides only one concrete content manager,
:exc:`ValueError`.
* For ``str`` objects, if *cte* is not set use heuristics to
- determine the most compact encoding.
+ determine the most compact encoding. Prior to encoding,
+ :meth:`str.splitlines` is used to normalize all line boundaries,
+ ensuring that each line of the payload is terminated by the
+ current policy's :data:`~email.policy.Policy.linesep` property
+ (even if the original string did not end with one).
+ * For ``bytes`` objects, *cte* is taken to be base64 if not set,
+ and the aforementioned newline translation is not performed.
* For :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage`, per :rfc:`2046`, raise
an error if a *cte* of ``quoted-printable`` or ``base64`` is
requested for *subtype* ``rfc822``, and for any *cte* other than
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.encoders.rst b/Doc/library/email.encoders.rst
index 3bd377e33f6c15b..9c8c8c9234ed7a7 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.encoders.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.encoders.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`email.encoders`: Encoders
--------------------------------
+:mod:`!email.encoders`: Encoders
+--------------------------------
.. module:: email.encoders
:synopsis: Encoders for email message payloads.
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.errors.rst b/Doc/library/email.errors.rst
index 56aea6598b8615c..689e7397cbcf1f2 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.errors.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.errors.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`email.errors`: Exception and Defect classes
--------------------------------------------------
+:mod:`!email.errors`: Exception and Defect classes
+--------------------------------------------------
.. module:: email.errors
:synopsis: The exception classes used by the email package.
@@ -45,18 +45,19 @@ The following exception classes are defined in the :mod:`email.errors` module:
.. exception:: MultipartConversionError()
- Raised when a payload is added to a :class:`~email.message.Message` object
- using :meth:`add_payload`, but the payload is already a scalar and the
- message's :mailheader:`Content-Type` main type is not either
- :mimetype:`multipart` or missing. :exc:`MultipartConversionError` multiply
- inherits from :exc:`MessageError` and the built-in :exc:`TypeError`.
-
- Since :meth:`Message.add_payload` is deprecated, this exception is rarely
- raised in practice. However the exception may also be raised if the
- :meth:`~email.message.Message.attach`
- method is called on an instance of a class derived from
+ Raised if the :meth:`~email.message.Message.attach` method is called
+ on an instance of a class derived from
:class:`~email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart` (e.g.
:class:`~email.mime.image.MIMEImage`).
+ :exc:`MultipartConversionError` multiply
+ inherits from :exc:`MessageError` and the built-in :exc:`TypeError`.
+
+
+.. exception:: HeaderWriteError()
+
+ Raised when an error occurs when the :mod:`~email.generator` outputs
+ headers.
+
.. exception:: MessageDefect()
@@ -76,51 +77,72 @@ object would have a defect, but the containing messages would not.
All defect classes are subclassed from :class:`email.errors.MessageDefect`.
-* :class:`NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect` -- A message claimed to be a multipart,
- but had no :mimetype:`boundary` parameter.
+.. exception:: NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect
+
+ A message claimed to be a multipart, but had no :mimetype:`boundary`
+ parameter.
+
+.. exception:: StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect
+
+ The start boundary claimed in the :mailheader:`Content-Type` header was
+ never found.
+
+.. exception:: CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect
+
+ A start boundary was found, but no corresponding close boundary was ever
+ found.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+.. exception:: FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect
+
+ The message had a continuation line as its first header line.
+
+.. exception:: MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect
+
+ A "Unix From" header was found in the middle of a header block.
+
+.. exception:: MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect
+
+ A line was found while parsing headers that had no leading white space but
+ contained no ':'. Parsing continues assuming that the line represents the
+ first line of the body.
-* :class:`StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect` -- The start boundary claimed in the
- :mailheader:`Content-Type` header was never found.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
-* :class:`CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect` -- A start boundary was found, but
- no corresponding close boundary was ever found.
+.. exception:: MalformedHeaderDefect
- .. versionadded:: 3.3
+ A header was found that was missing a colon, or was otherwise malformed.
-* :class:`FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect` -- The message had a continuation
- line as its first header line.
+ .. deprecated:: 3.3
+ This defect has not been used for several Python versions.
-* :class:`MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect` - A "Unix From" header was found in the
- middle of a header block.
+.. exception:: MultipartInvariantViolationDefect
-* :class:`MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect` - A line was found while parsing
- headers that had no leading white space but contained no ':'. Parsing
- continues assuming that the line represents the first line of the body.
+ A message claimed to be a :mimetype:`multipart`, but no subparts were found.
+ Note that when a message has this defect, its
+ :meth:`~email.message.Message.is_multipart` method may return ``False``
+ even though its content type claims to be :mimetype:`multipart`.
- .. versionadded:: 3.3
+.. exception:: InvalidBase64PaddingDefect
-* :class:`MalformedHeaderDefect` -- A header was found that was missing a colon,
- or was otherwise malformed.
+ When decoding a block of base64 encoded bytes, the padding was not correct.
+ Enough padding is added to perform the decode, but the resulting decoded
+ bytes may be invalid.
- .. deprecated:: 3.3
- This defect has not been used for several Python versions.
+.. exception:: InvalidBase64CharactersDefect
-* :class:`MultipartInvariantViolationDefect` -- A message claimed to be a
- :mimetype:`multipart`, but no subparts were found. Note that when a message
- has this defect, its :meth:`~email.message.Message.is_multipart` method may
- return ``False`` even though its content type claims to be :mimetype:`multipart`.
+ When decoding a block of base64 encoded bytes, characters outside the base64
+ alphabet were encountered. The characters are ignored, but the resulting
+ decoded bytes may be invalid.
-* :class:`InvalidBase64PaddingDefect` -- When decoding a block of base64
- encoded bytes, the padding was not correct. Enough padding is added to
- perform the decode, but the resulting decoded bytes may be invalid.
+.. exception:: InvalidBase64LengthDefect
-* :class:`InvalidBase64CharactersDefect` -- When decoding a block of base64
- encoded bytes, characters outside the base64 alphabet were encountered.
- The characters are ignored, but the resulting decoded bytes may be invalid.
+ When decoding a block of base64 encoded bytes, the number of non-padding
+ base64 characters was invalid (1 more than a multiple of 4). The encoded
+ block was kept as-is.
-* :class:`InvalidBase64LengthDefect` -- When decoding a block of base64 encoded
- bytes, the number of non-padding base64 characters was invalid (1 more than
- a multiple of 4). The encoded block was kept as-is.
+.. exception:: InvalidDateDefect
-* :class:`InvalidDateDefect` -- When decoding an invalid or unparsable date field.
- The original value is kept as-is.
+ When decoding an invalid or unparsable date field. The original value is
+ kept as-is.
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.examples.rst b/Doc/library/email.examples.rst
index 492a8354d8bf852..7586cbd25f9f3be 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.examples.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.examples.rst
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ Here are a few examples of how to use the :mod:`email` package to read, write,
and send simple email messages, as well as more complex MIME messages.
First, let's see how to create and send a simple text message (both the
-text content and the addresses may contain unicode characters):
+text content and the addresses may contain Unicode characters):
.. literalinclude:: ../includes/email-simple.py
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.generator.rst b/Doc/library/email.generator.rst
index afa0038ea2d6c4f..a3132d02687bc9e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.generator.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.generator.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`email.generator`: Generating MIME documents
--------------------------------------------------
+:mod:`!email.generator`: Generating MIME documents
+--------------------------------------------------
.. module:: email.generator
:synopsis: Generate flat text email messages from a message structure.
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.header.rst b/Doc/library/email.header.rst
index e093f138936b363..a17e048abf062ab 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.header.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.header.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`email.header`: Internationalized headers
-----------------------------------------------
+:mod:`!email.header`: Internationalized headers
+-----------------------------------------------
.. module:: email.header
:synopsis: Representing non-ASCII headers
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ For example::
Notice here how we wanted the :mailheader:`Subject` field to contain a non-ASCII
character? We did this by creating a :class:`Header` instance and passing in
-the character set that the byte string was encoded in. When the subsequent
+the character set to use when encoding it. When the subsequent
:class:`~email.message.Message` instance was flattened, the :mailheader:`Subject`
field was properly :rfc:`2047` encoded. MIME-aware mail readers would show this
header using the embedded ISO-8859-1 character.
@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ Here is the :class:`Header` class description:
The maximum line length can be specified explicitly via *maxlinelen*. For
splitting the first line to a shorter value (to account for the field header
which isn't included in *s*, e.g. :mailheader:`Subject`) pass in the name of the
- field in *header_name*. The default *maxlinelen* is 76, and the default value
+ field in *header_name*. The default *maxlinelen* is 78, and the default value
for *header_name* is ``None``, meaning it is not taken into account for the
first line of a long, split header.
@@ -150,7 +150,7 @@ Here is the :class:`Header` class description:
.. method:: __str__()
Returns an approximation of the :class:`Header` as a string, using an
- unlimited line length. All pieces are converted to unicode using the
+ unlimited line length. All pieces are decoded using the
specified encoding and joined together appropriately. Any pieces with a
charset of ``'unknown-8bit'`` are decoded as ASCII using the ``'replace'``
error handler.
@@ -178,16 +178,36 @@ The :mod:`email.header` module also provides the following convenient functions.
Decode a message header value without converting the character set. The header
value is in *header*.
- This function returns a list of ``(decoded_string, charset)`` pairs containing
- each of the decoded parts of the header. *charset* is ``None`` for non-encoded
- parts of the header, otherwise a lower case string containing the name of the
- character set specified in the encoded string.
+ For historical reasons, this function may return either:
- Here's an example::
+ 1. A list of pairs containing each of the decoded parts of the header,
+ ``(decoded_bytes, charset)``, where *decoded_bytes* is always an instance of
+ :class:`bytes`, and *charset* is either:
+
+ - A lower case string containing the name of the character set specified.
+
+ - ``None`` for non-encoded parts of the header.
+
+ 2. A list of length 1 containing a pair ``(string, None)``, where
+ *string* is always an instance of :class:`str`.
+
+ An :exc:`email.errors.HeaderParseError` may be raised when certain decoding
+ errors occur (e.g. a base64 decoding exception).
+
+ Here are examples:
>>> from email.header import decode_header
>>> decode_header('=?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=')
[(b'p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')]
+ >>> decode_header('unencoded_string')
+ [('unencoded_string', None)]
+ >>> decode_header('bar =?utf-8?B?ZsOzbw==?=')
+ [(b'bar ', None), (b'f\xc3\xb3o', 'utf-8')]
+
+ .. note::
+
+ This function exists for backwards compatibility only. For
+ new code, we recommend using :class:`email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry`.
.. function:: make_header(decoded_seq, maxlinelen=None, header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ')
@@ -203,3 +223,7 @@ The :mod:`email.header` module also provides the following convenient functions.
:class:`Header` instance. Optional *maxlinelen*, *header_name*, and
*continuation_ws* are as in the :class:`Header` constructor.
+ .. note::
+
+ This function exists for backwards compatibility only, and is
+ not recommended for use in new code.
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.headerregistry.rst b/Doc/library/email.headerregistry.rst
index 00a954e0307ea64..37d24a3ad16bbd8 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.headerregistry.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.headerregistry.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`email.headerregistry`: Custom Header Objects
---------------------------------------------------
+:mod:`!email.headerregistry`: Custom Header Objects
+---------------------------------------------------
.. module:: email.headerregistry
:synopsis: Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ headers.
*name* and *value* are passed to ``BaseHeader`` from the
:attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_factory` call. The string value of
- any header object is the *value* fully decoded to unicode.
+ any header object is the *value* fully decoded to a string.
This base class defines the following read-only properties:
@@ -96,11 +96,12 @@ headers.
``kwds`` is a dictionary containing one pre-initialized key, ``defects``.
``defects`` is an empty list. The parse method should append any detected
defects to this list. On return, the ``kwds`` dictionary *must* contain
- values for at least the keys ``decoded`` and ``defects``. ``decoded``
- should be the string value for the header (that is, the header value fully
- decoded to unicode). The parse method should assume that *string* may
+ values for at least the keys ``decoded``, ``defects`` and ``parse_tree``.
+ ``decoded`` should be the string value for the header (that is, the header
+ value fully decoded to a string). ``parse_tree`` is set to the parse tree obtained
+ from parsing the header. The parse method should assume that *string* may
contain content-transfer-encoded parts, but should correctly handle all valid
- unicode characters as well so that it can parse un-encoded header values.
+ Unicode characters as well so that it can parse un-encoded header values.
``BaseHeader``'s ``__new__`` then creates the header instance, and calls its
``init`` method. The specialized class only needs to provide an ``init``
@@ -128,7 +129,7 @@ headers.
mechanism for encoding non-ASCII text as ASCII characters within a header
value. When a *value* containing encoded words is passed to the
constructor, the ``UnstructuredHeader`` parser converts such encoded words
- into unicode, following the :rfc:`2047` rules for unstructured text. The
+ into a string, following the :rfc:`2047` rules for unstructured text. The
parser uses heuristics to attempt to decode certain non-compliant encoded
words. Defects are registered in such cases, as well as defects for issues
such as invalid characters within the encoded words or the non-encoded text.
@@ -205,8 +206,8 @@ headers.
the list of addresses is "flattened" into a one dimensional list).
The ``decoded`` value of the header will have all encoded words decoded to
- unicode. :class:`~encodings.idna` encoded domain names are also decoded to
- unicode. The ``decoded`` value is set by :ref:`joining <meth-str-join>` the
+ a string. :class:`~encodings.idna` encoded domain names are also decoded to
+ a string. The ``decoded`` value is set by :ref:`joining <meth-str-join>` the
:class:`str` value of the elements of the ``groups`` attribute with ``',
'``.
@@ -294,7 +295,7 @@ variant, :attr:`~.BaseHeader.max_count` is set to 1.
``inline`` and ``attachment`` are the only valid values in common use.
-.. class:: ContentTransferEncoding
+.. class:: ContentTransferEncodingHeader
Handles the :mailheader:`Content-Transfer-Encoding` header.
@@ -317,7 +318,7 @@ variant, :attr:`~.BaseHeader.max_count` is set to 1.
class. When *use_default_map* is ``True`` (the default), the standard
mapping of header names to classes is copied in to the registry during
initialization. *base_class* is always the last class in the generated
- class's ``__bases__`` list.
+ class's :class:`~type.__bases__` list.
The default mappings are:
@@ -390,7 +391,7 @@ construct structured values to assign to specific headers.
*domain*, in which case *username* and *domain* will be parsed from the
*addr_spec*. An *addr_spec* must be a properly RFC quoted string; if it is
not ``Address`` will raise an error. Unicode characters are allowed and
- will be property encoded when serialized. However, per the RFCs, unicode is
+ will be property encoded when serialized. However, per the RFCs, Unicode is
*not* allowed in the username portion of the address.
.. attribute:: display_name
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.iterators.rst b/Doc/library/email.iterators.rst
index d53ab33b8904a7a..090981d84b4de3d 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.iterators.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.iterators.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`email.iterators`: Iterators
----------------------------------
+:mod:`!email.iterators`: Iterators
+----------------------------------
.. module:: email.iterators
:synopsis: Iterate over a message object tree.
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.message.rst b/Doc/library/email.message.rst
index adea067e0826153..0aa8e632c2ca808 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.message.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.message.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`email.message`: Representing an email message
----------------------------------------------------
+:mod:`!email.message`: Representing an email message
+----------------------------------------------------
.. module:: email.message
:synopsis: The base class representing email messages.
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ The :class:`EmailMessage` dictionary-like interface is indexed by the header
names, which must be ASCII values. The values of the dictionary are strings
with some extra methods. Headers are stored and returned in case-preserving
form, but field names are matched case-insensitively. The keys are ordered,
-but unlike a real dict, there can be duplicates. Addtional methods are
+but unlike a real dict, there can be duplicates. Additional methods are
provided for working with headers that have duplicate keys.
The *payload* is either a string or bytes object, in the case of simple message
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ message objects.
:class:`~email.policy.default` policy, which follows the rules of the email
RFCs except for line endings (instead of the RFC mandated ``\r\n``, it uses
the Python standard ``\n`` line endings). For more information see the
- :mod:`~email.policy` documentation.
+ :mod:`~email.policy` documentation. [2]_
.. method:: as_string(unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=None, policy=None)
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ message objects.
.. method:: __bytes__()
- Equivalent to :meth:`.as_bytes()`. Allows ``bytes(msg)`` to produce a
+ Equivalent to :meth:`.as_bytes`. Allows ``bytes(msg)`` to produce a
bytes object containing the serialized message.
@@ -749,3 +749,9 @@ message objects.
.. [1] Originally added in 3.4 as a :term:`provisional module <provisional
package>`. Docs for legacy message class moved to
:ref:`compat32_message`.
+
+.. [2] The :class:`EmailMessage` class requires a policy that provides a
+ ``content_manager`` attribute for content management methods like
+ ``set_content()`` and ``get_content()`` to work. The legacy
+ :const:`~email.policy.compat32` policy does not support these methods
+ and should not be used with :class:`EmailMessage`.
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.mime.rst b/Doc/library/email.mime.rst
index dc0dd3b9eebde6e..b85673a4acd0d09 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.mime.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.mime.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`email.mime`: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch
----------------------------------------------------------------
+:mod:`!email.mime`: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch
+----------------------------------------------------------------
.. module:: email.mime
:synopsis: Build MIME messages.
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.parser.rst b/Doc/library/email.parser.rst
index dda0466a6afa7dc..703feaf7e04ff49 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.parser.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.parser.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`email.parser`: Parsing email messages
--------------------------------------------
+:mod:`!email.parser`: Parsing email messages
+--------------------------------------------
.. module:: email.parser
:synopsis: Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure.
@@ -116,7 +116,7 @@ Here is the API for the :class:`BytesFeedParser`:
Works like :class:`BytesFeedParser` except that the input to the
:meth:`~BytesFeedParser.feed` method must be a string. This is of limited
utility, since the only way for such a message to be valid is for it to
- contain only ASCII text or, if :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.utf8` is
+ contain only ASCII text or, if :attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8` is
``True``, no binary attachments.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3 Added the *policy* keyword.
@@ -155,11 +155,11 @@ message body, instead setting the payload to the raw body.
Read all the data from the binary file-like object *fp*, parse the
resulting bytes, and return the message object. *fp* must support
- both the :meth:`~io.IOBase.readline` and the :meth:`~io.IOBase.read`
+ both the :meth:`~io.IOBase.readline` and the :meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.read`
methods.
The bytes contained in *fp* must be formatted as a block of :rfc:`5322`
- (or, if :attr:`~email.policy.Policy.utf8` is ``True``, :rfc:`6532`)
+ (or, if :attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8` is ``True``, :rfc:`6532`)
style headers and header continuation lines, optionally preceded by an
envelope header. The header block is terminated either by the end of the
data or by a blank line. Following the header block is the body of the
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.policy.rst b/Doc/library/email.policy.rst
index f4777bb24621385..0e5c97e05e7dcc7 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.policy.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.policy.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`email.policy`: Policy Objects
------------------------------------
+:mod:`!email.policy`: Policy Objects
+------------------------------------
.. module:: email.policy
:synopsis: Controlling the parsing and generating of messages
@@ -229,6 +229,24 @@ added matters. To illustrate::
.. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+ .. attribute:: verify_generated_headers
+
+ If ``True`` (the default), the generator will raise
+ :exc:`~email.errors.HeaderWriteError` instead of writing a header
+ that is improperly folded or delimited, such that it would
+ be parsed as multiple headers or joined with adjacent data.
+ Such headers can be generated by custom header classes or bugs
+ in the ``email`` module.
+
+ As it's a security feature, this defaults to ``True`` even in the
+ :class:`~email.policy.Compat32` policy.
+ For backwards compatible, but unsafe, behavior, it must be set to
+ ``False`` explicitly.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
The following :class:`Policy` method is intended to be called by code using
the email library to create policy instances with custom settings:
@@ -249,7 +267,7 @@ added matters. To illustrate::
Handle a *defect* found on *obj*. When the email package calls this
method, *defect* will always be a subclass of
- :class:`~email.errors.Defect`.
+ :class:`~email.errors.MessageDefect`.
The default implementation checks the :attr:`raise_on_defect` flag. If
it is ``True``, *defect* is raised as an exception. If it is ``False``
@@ -259,7 +277,7 @@ added matters. To illustrate::
.. method:: register_defect(obj, defect)
Register a *defect* on *obj*. In the email package, *defect* will always
- be a subclass of :class:`~email.errors.Defect`.
+ be a subclass of :class:`~email.errors.MessageDefect`.
The default implementation calls the ``append`` method of the ``defects``
attribute of *obj*. When the email package calls :attr:`handle_defect`,
@@ -475,7 +493,7 @@ added matters. To illustrate::
Otherwise the *name*, and the *value* with any CR or LF characters
removed, are passed to the ``header_factory``, and the resulting
header object is returned. Any surrogateescaped bytes get turned into
- the unicode unknown-character glyph.
+ the Unicode unknown-character glyph.
.. method:: fold(name, value)
@@ -570,10 +588,10 @@ the email package is changed from the Python 3.2 API in the following ways:
From the application view, this means that any header obtained through the
:class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` is a header object with extra
-attributes, whose string value is the fully decoded unicode value of the
+attributes, whose string value is the fully decoded value of the
header. Likewise, a header may be assigned a new value, or a new header
-created, using a unicode string, and the policy will take care of converting
-the unicode string into the correct RFC encoded form.
+created, using a string, and the policy will take care of converting
+the string into the correct RFC encoded form.
The header objects and their attributes are described in
:mod:`~email.headerregistry`.
@@ -644,6 +662,13 @@ The header objects and their attributes are described in
An instance of :class:`Compat32`, providing backward compatibility with the
behavior of the email package in Python 3.2.
+ .. note::
+
+ The :const:`compat32` policy should not be used as a policy for
+ :class:`~email.message.EmailMessage` objects, and should only be used
+ to serialize messages that were created using the :const:`compat32`
+ policy.
+
.. rubric:: Footnotes
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.rst b/Doc/library/email.rst
index 3a6039004fcaae9..9486bbaccd0bc13 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`email` --- An email and MIME handling package
-===================================================
+:mod:`!email` --- An email and MIME handling package
+====================================================
.. module:: email
:synopsis: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ server.
The email package does its best to hide the details of the various governing
RFCs from the application. Conceptually the application should be able to
-treat the email message as a structured tree of unicode text and binary
+treat the email message as a structured tree of Unicode text and binary
attachments, without having to worry about how these are represented when
serialized. In practice, however, it is often necessary to be aware of at
least some of the rules governing MIME messages and their structure,
@@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ to advanced applications.
Following those is a set of examples of using the fundamental parts of the APIs
covered in the preceding sections.
-The foregoing represent the modern (unicode friendly) API of the email package.
+The foregoing represent the modern (Unicode friendly) API of the email package.
The remaining sections, starting with the :class:`~email.message.Message`
class, cover the legacy :data:`~email.policy.compat32` API that deals much more
directly with the details of how email messages are represented. The
diff --git a/Doc/library/email.utils.rst b/Doc/library/email.utils.rst
index d693a9bc3933b5c..c2e4722e59358c1 100644
--- a/Doc/library/email.utils.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/email.utils.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`email.utils`: Miscellaneous utilities
--------------------------------------------
+:mod:`!email.utils`: Miscellaneous utilities
+--------------------------------------------
.. module:: email.utils
:synopsis: Miscellaneous email package utilities.
@@ -159,7 +159,7 @@ of the new API.
Fri, 09 Nov 2001 01:08:47 -0000
- Optional *timeval* if given is a floating point time value as accepted by
+ Optional *timeval* if given is a floating-point time value as accepted by
:func:`time.gmtime` and :func:`time.localtime`, otherwise the current time is
used.
@@ -206,7 +206,7 @@ of the new API.
When a header parameter is encoded in :rfc:`2231` format,
:meth:`Message.get_param <email.message.Message.get_param>` may return a
3-tuple containing the character set,
- language, and value. :func:`collapse_rfc2231_value` turns this into a unicode
+ language, and value. :func:`collapse_rfc2231_value` turns this into a
string. Optional *errors* is passed to the *errors* argument of :class:`str`'s
:func:`~str.encode` method; it defaults to ``'replace'``. Optional
*fallback_charset* specifies the character set to use if the one in the
diff --git a/Doc/library/ensurepip.rst b/Doc/library/ensurepip.rst
index 168e45cfd6fc90d..8feaf8a7dccfe3b 100644
--- a/Doc/library/ensurepip.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/ensurepip.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`ensurepip` --- Bootstrapping the ``pip`` installer
-========================================================
+:mod:`!ensurepip` --- Bootstrapping the ``pip`` installer
+=========================================================
.. module:: ensurepip
:synopsis: Bootstrapping the "pip" installer into an existing Python
@@ -38,11 +38,15 @@ when creating a virtual environment) or after explicitly uninstalling
:pep:`453`: Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations
The original rationale and specification for this module.
-.. include:: ../includes/wasm-ios-notavail.rst
+.. include:: ../includes/wasm-mobile-notavail.rst
-Command line interface
+.. _ensurepip-cli:
+
+Command-line interface
----------------------
+.. program:: ensurepip
+
The command line interface is invoked using the interpreter's ``-m`` switch.
The simplest possible invocation is::
@@ -61,26 +65,34 @@ By default, ``pip`` is installed into the current virtual environment
active virtual environment). The installation location can be controlled
through two additional command line options:
-* :samp:`--root {dir}`: Installs ``pip`` relative to the given root directory
- rather than the root of the currently active virtual environment (if any)
- or the default root for the current Python installation.
-* ``--user``: Installs ``pip`` into the user site packages directory rather
- than globally for the current Python installation (this option is not
- permitted inside an active virtual environment).
+.. option:: --root <dir>
+
+ Installs ``pip`` relative to the given root directory rather than the root
+ of the currently active virtual environment (if any) or the default root
+ for the current Python installation.
+
+.. option:: --user
+
+ Installs ``pip`` into the user site packages directory rather than globally
+ for the current Python installation (this option is not permitted inside an
+ active virtual environment).
By default, the scripts ``pipX`` and ``pipX.Y`` will be installed (where
X.Y stands for the version of Python used to invoke ``ensurepip``). The
scripts installed can be controlled through two additional command line
options:
-* ``--altinstall``: if an alternate installation is requested, the ``pipX``
- script will *not* be installed.
+.. option:: --altinstall
-* ``--default-pip``: if a "default pip" installation is requested, the
- ``pip`` script will be installed in addition to the two regular scripts.
+ If an alternate installation is requested, the ``pipX`` script will *not* be
+ installed.
-Providing both of the script selection options will trigger an exception.
+.. option:: --default-pip
+
+ If a "default pip" installation is requested, the ``pip`` script will be
+ installed in addition to the two regular scripts.
+Providing both of the script selection options will trigger an exception.
Module API
----------
@@ -136,3 +148,4 @@ Module API
``pip``, but other software should not assume those dependencies will
always be present by default (as the dependencies may be removed in a
future version of ``pip``).
+
diff --git a/Doc/library/enum.rst b/Doc/library/enum.rst
index 21f41b73086c980..6c742e650e6d725 100644
--- a/Doc/library/enum.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/enum.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`enum` --- Support for enumerations
-========================================
+:mod:`!enum` --- Support for enumerations
+=========================================
.. module:: enum
:synopsis: Implementation of an enumeration class.
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ using function-call syntax::
... BLUE = 3
>>> # functional syntax
- >>> Color = Enum('Color', ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE'])
+ >>> Color = Enum('Color', [('RED', 1), ('GREEN', 2), ('BLUE', 3)])
Even though we can use :keyword:`class` syntax to create Enums, Enums
are not normal Python classes. See
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ are not normal Python classes. See
---------------
-Module Contents
+Module contents
---------------
:class:`EnumType`
@@ -110,36 +110,40 @@ Module Contents
``KEEP`` which allows for more fine-grained control over how invalid values
are dealt with in an enumeration.
+ :class:`EnumDict`
+
+ A subclass of :class:`dict` for use when subclassing :class:`EnumType`.
+
:class:`auto`
Instances are replaced with an appropriate value for Enum members.
:class:`StrEnum` defaults to the lower-cased version of the member name,
while other Enums default to 1 and increase from there.
- :func:`~enum.property`
+ :deco:`~enum.property`
Allows :class:`Enum` members to have attributes without conflicting with
member names. The ``value`` and ``name`` attributes are implemented this
way.
- :func:`unique`
+ :deco:`unique`
Enum class decorator that ensures only one name is bound to any one value.
- :func:`verify`
+ :deco:`verify`
Enum class decorator that checks user-selectable constraints on an
enumeration.
- :func:`member`
+ :deco:`member`
Make ``obj`` a member. Can be used as a decorator.
- :func:`nonmember`
+ :deco:`nonmember`
Do not make ``obj`` a member. Can be used as a decorator.
- :func:`global_enum`
+ :deco:`global_enum`
Modify the :class:`str() <str>` and :func:`repr` of an enum
to show its members as belonging to the module instead of its class,
@@ -149,13 +153,20 @@ Module Contents
Return a list of all power-of-two integers contained in a flag.
+ :func:`enum.bin`
+
+ Like built-in :func:`bin`, except negative values are represented in
+ two's complement, and the leading bit always indicates sign
+ (``0`` implies positive, ``1`` implies negative).
+
.. versionadded:: 3.6 ``Flag``, ``IntFlag``, ``auto``
.. versionadded:: 3.11 ``StrEnum``, ``EnumCheck``, ``ReprEnum``, ``FlagBoundary``, ``property``, ``member``, ``nonmember``, ``global_enum``, ``show_flag_values``
+.. versionadded:: 3.13 ``EnumDict``
---------------
-Data Types
+Data types
----------
@@ -170,6 +181,10 @@ Data Types
final *enum*, as well as creating the enum members, properly handling
duplicates, providing iteration over the enum class, etc.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.11
+
+ Before 3.11 ``EnumType`` was called ``EnumMeta``, which is still available as an alias.
+
.. method:: EnumType.__call__(cls, value, names=None, *, module=None, qualname=None, type=None, start=1, boundary=None)
This method is called in two different ways:
@@ -201,7 +216,7 @@ Data Types
>>> Color.RED.value in Color
True
- .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
Before Python 3.12, a ``TypeError`` is raised if a
non-Enum-member is used in a containment check.
@@ -230,7 +245,7 @@ Data Types
.. method:: EnumType.__len__(cls)
- Returns the number of member in *cls*::
+ Returns the number of members in *cls*::
>>> len(Color)
3
@@ -246,20 +261,6 @@ Data Types
>>> list(reversed(Color))
[<Color.BLUE: 3>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.RED: 1>]
- .. method:: EnumType._add_alias_
-
- Adds a new name as an alias to an existing member. Raises a
- :exc:`NameError` if the name is already assigned to a different member.
-
- .. method:: EnumType._add_value_alias_
-
- Adds a new value as an alias to an existing member. Raises a
- :exc:`ValueError` if the value is already linked with a different member.
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.11
-
- Before 3.11 ``EnumType`` was called ``EnumMeta``, which is still available as an alias.
-
.. class:: Enum
@@ -306,6 +307,28 @@ Data Types
No longer used, kept for backward compatibility.
(class attribute, removed during class creation).
+ The :attr:`~Enum._order_` attribute can be provided to help keep Python 2 / Python 3 code in sync.
+ It will be checked against the actual order of the enumeration and raise an error if the two do not match::
+
+ >>> class Color(Enum):
+ ... _order_ = 'RED GREEN BLUE'
+ ... RED = 1
+ ... BLUE = 3
+ ... GREEN = 2
+ ...
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ ...
+ TypeError: member order does not match _order_:
+ ['RED', 'BLUE', 'GREEN']
+ ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']
+
+ .. note::
+
+ In Python 2 code the :attr:`~Enum._order_` attribute is necessary as definition
+ order is lost before it can be recorded.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
.. attribute:: Enum._ignore_
``_ignore_`` is only used during creation and is removed from the
@@ -315,12 +338,15 @@ Data Types
names will also be removed from the completed enumeration. See
:ref:`TimePeriod <enum-time-period>` for an example.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
.. method:: Enum.__dir__(self)
Returns ``['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'name', 'value']`` and
any public methods defined on *self.__class__*::
- >>> from datetime import date
+ >>> from enum import Enum
+ >>> import datetime as dt
>>> class Weekday(Enum):
... MONDAY = 1
... TUESDAY = 2
@@ -331,7 +357,7 @@ Data Types
... SUNDAY = 7
... @classmethod
... def today(cls):
- ... print('today is %s' % cls(date.today().isoweekday()).name)
+ ... print(f'today is {cls(dt.date.today().isoweekday()).name}')
...
>>> dir(Weekday.SATURDAY)
['__class__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__hash__', '__module__', 'name', 'today', 'value']
@@ -344,9 +370,18 @@ Data Types
:last_values: A list of the previous values.
A *staticmethod* that is used to determine the next value returned by
- :class:`auto`::
+ :class:`auto`.
+
+ .. note::
+ For standard :class:`Enum` classes the next value chosen is the highest
+ value seen incremented by one.
+
+ For :class:`Flag` classes the next value chosen will be the next highest
+ power-of-two.
- >>> from enum import auto
+ This method may be overridden, e.g.::
+
+ >>> from enum import auto, Enum
>>> class PowersOfThree(Enum):
... @staticmethod
... def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values):
@@ -357,6 +392,10 @@ Data Types
>>> PowersOfThree.SECOND.value
9
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Prior versions would use the last seen value instead of the highest value.
+
.. method:: Enum.__init__(self, *args, **kwds)
By default, does nothing. If multiple values are given in the member
@@ -378,7 +417,7 @@ Data Types
A *classmethod* for looking up values not found in *cls*. By default it
does nothing, but can be overridden to implement custom search behavior::
- >>> from enum import StrEnum
+ >>> from enum import auto, StrEnum
>>> class Build(StrEnum):
... DEBUG = auto()
... OPTIMIZED = auto()
@@ -395,6 +434,8 @@ Data Types
>>> Build('deBUG')
<Build.DEBUG: 'debug'>
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
.. method:: Enum.__new__(cls, *args, **kwds)
By default, doesn't exist. If specified, either in the enum class
@@ -417,6 +458,7 @@ Data Types
Returns the string used for *repr()* calls. By default, returns the
*Enum* name, member name, and value, but can be overridden::
+ >>> from enum import auto, Enum
>>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
... ALTERNATE = auto()
... OTHER = auto()
@@ -433,6 +475,7 @@ Data Types
Returns the string used for *str()* calls. By default, returns the
*Enum* name and member name, but can be overridden::
+ >>> from enum import auto, Enum
>>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
... ALTERNATE = auto()
... OTHER = auto()
@@ -448,6 +491,7 @@ Data Types
Returns the string used for *format()* and *f-string* calls. By default,
returns :meth:`__str__` return value, but can be overridden::
+ >>> from enum import auto, Enum
>>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
... ALTERNATE = auto()
... OTHER = auto()
@@ -465,6 +509,31 @@ Data Types
.. versionchanged:: 3.12 Added :ref:`enum-dataclass-support`
+ .. method:: Enum._add_alias_
+
+ Adds a new name as an alias to an existing member::
+
+ >>> Color.RED._add_alias_("ERROR")
+ >>> Color.ERROR
+ <Color.RED: 1>
+
+ Raises a :exc:`NameError` if the name is already assigned to a different member.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+ .. method:: Enum._add_value_alias_
+
+ Adds a new value as an alias to an existing member::
+
+ >>> Color.RED._add_value_alias_(42)
+ >>> Color(42)
+ <Color.RED: 1>
+
+ | Raises a :exc:`ValueError` if the value is already linked with a different member.
+ | See :ref:`multi-value-enum` for an example.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
.. class:: IntEnum
@@ -499,16 +568,31 @@ Data Types
.. class:: StrEnum
- ``StrEnum`` is the same as :class:`Enum`, but its members are also strings and can be used
- in most of the same places that a string can be used. The result of any string
- operation performed on or with a *StrEnum* member is not part of the enumeration.
+ *StrEnum* is the same as :class:`Enum`, but its members are also strings and
+ can be used in most of the same places that a string can be used. The result
+ of any string operation performed on or with a *StrEnum* member is not part
+ of the enumeration.
+
+ >>> from enum import StrEnum, auto
+ >>> class Color(StrEnum):
+ ... RED = 'r'
+ ... GREEN = 'g'
+ ... BLUE = 'b'
+ ... UNKNOWN = auto()
+ ...
+ >>> Color.RED
+ <Color.RED: 'r'>
+ >>> Color.UNKNOWN
+ <Color.UNKNOWN: 'unknown'>
+ >>> str(Color.UNKNOWN)
+ 'unknown'
.. note::
There are places in the stdlib that check for an exact :class:`str`
instead of a :class:`str` subclass (i.e. ``type(unknown) == str``
instead of ``isinstance(unknown, str)``), and in those locations you
- will need to use ``str(StrEnum.member)``.
+ will need to use ``str(MyStrEnum.MY_MEMBER)``.
.. note::
@@ -527,7 +611,7 @@ Data Types
``Flag`` is the same as :class:`Enum`, but its members support the bitwise
operators ``&`` (*AND*), ``|`` (*OR*), ``^`` (*XOR*), and ``~`` (*INVERT*);
- the results of those operators are members of the enumeration.
+ the results of those operations are (aliases of) members of the enumeration.
.. method:: __contains__(self, value)
@@ -550,7 +634,7 @@ Data Types
>>> white in purple
False
- .. method:: __iter__(self):
+ .. method:: __iter__(self)
Returns all contained non-alias members::
@@ -561,7 +645,7 @@ Data Types
.. versionadded:: 3.11
- .. method:: __len__(self):
+ .. method:: __len__(self)
Returns number of members in flag::
@@ -570,7 +654,9 @@ Data Types
>>> len(white)
3
- .. method:: __bool__(self):
+ .. versionadded:: 3.11
+
+ .. method:: __bool__(self)
Returns *True* if any members in flag, *False* otherwise::
@@ -607,7 +693,7 @@ Data Types
>>> purple ^ Color.GREEN
<Color.RED|GREEN|BLUE: 7>
- .. method:: __invert__(self):
+ .. method:: __invert__(self)
Returns all the flags in *type(self)* that are not in *self*::
@@ -661,7 +747,7 @@ Data Types
* the result is a valid *IntFlag*: an *IntFlag* is returned
* the result is not a valid *IntFlag*: the result depends on the :class:`FlagBoundary` setting
- The :func:`repr()` of unnamed zero-valued flags has changed. It is now:
+ The :func:`repr` of unnamed zero-valued flags has changed. It is now:
>>> Color(0)
<Color: 0>
@@ -819,10 +905,32 @@ Data Types
>>> KeepFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
<KeepFlag.BLUE|16: 20>
-.. versionadded:: 3.11
+ .. versionadded:: 3.11
+
+.. class:: EnumDict
+
+ *EnumDict* is a subclass of :class:`dict` that is used as the namespace
+ for defining enum classes (see :ref:`prepare`).
+ It is exposed to allow subclasses of :class:`EnumType` with advanced
+ behavior like having multiple values per member.
+ It should be called with the name of the enum class being created, otherwise
+ private names and internal classes will not be handled correctly.
+
+ Note that only the :class:`~collections.abc.MutableMapping` interface
+ (:meth:`~object.__setitem__` and :meth:`~dict.update`) is overridden.
+ It may be possible to bypass the checks using other :class:`!dict`
+ operations like :meth:`|= <object.__ior__>`.
+
+ .. attribute:: EnumDict.member_names
+
+ A list of member names.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
---------------
+.. _enum-dunder-sunder:
+
Supported ``__dunder__`` names
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
@@ -830,17 +938,13 @@ Supported ``__dunder__`` names
items. It is only available on the class.
:meth:`~Enum.__new__`, if specified, must create and return the enum members;
-it is also a very good idea to set the member's :attr:`!_value_` appropriately.
+it is also a very good idea to set the member's :attr:`~Enum._value_` appropriately.
Once all the members are created it is no longer used.
Supported ``_sunder_`` names
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
-- :meth:`~EnumType._add_alias_` -- adds a new name as an alias to an existing
- member.
-- :meth:`~EnumType._add_value_alias_` -- adds a new value as an alias to an
- existing member.
- :attr:`~Enum._name_` -- name of the member
- :attr:`~Enum._value_` -- value of the member; can be set in ``__new__``
- :meth:`~Enum._missing_` -- a lookup function used when a value is not found;
@@ -850,16 +954,14 @@ Supported ``_sunder_`` names
from the final class
- :attr:`~Enum._order_` -- no longer used, kept for backward
compatibility (class attribute, removed during class creation)
+
- :meth:`~Enum._generate_next_value_` -- used to get an appropriate value for
an enum member; may be overridden
- .. note::
-
- For standard :class:`Enum` classes the next value chosen is the highest
- value seen incremented by one.
-
- For :class:`Flag` classes the next value chosen will be the next highest
- power-of-two.
+- :meth:`~Enum._add_alias_` -- adds a new name as an alias to an existing
+ member.
+- :meth:`~Enum._add_value_alias_` -- adds a new value as an alias to an
+ existing member.
- While ``_sunder_`` names are generally reserved for the further development
of the :class:`Enum` class and can not be used, some are explicitly allowed:
@@ -873,7 +975,7 @@ Supported ``_sunder_`` names
---------------
-Utilities and Decorators
+Utilities and decorators
------------------------
.. class:: auto
@@ -886,12 +988,13 @@ Utilities and Decorators
the member's name. Care must be taken if mixing *auto()* with manually
specified values.
- *auto* instances are only resolved when at the top level of an assignment:
+ *auto* instances are only resolved when at the top level of an assignment, either by
+ itself or as part of a tuple:
* ``FIRST = auto()`` will work (auto() is replaced with ``1``);
* ``SECOND = auto(), -2`` will work (auto is replaced with ``2``, so ``2, -2`` is
used to create the ``SECOND`` enum member;
- * ``THREE = [auto(), -3]`` will *not* work (``<auto instance>, -3`` is used to
+ * ``THREE = [auto(), -3]`` will *not* work (``[<auto instance>, -3]`` is used to
create the ``THREE`` enum member)
.. versionchanged:: 3.11.1
@@ -908,7 +1011,7 @@ Utilities and Decorators
.. decorator:: property
- A decorator similar to the built-in *property*, but specifically for
+ A decorator similar to the built-in :deco:`property`, but specifically for
enumerations. It allows member attributes to have the same names as members
themselves.
@@ -964,7 +1067,6 @@ Utilities and Decorators
Should only be used when the enum members are exported
to the module global namespace (see :class:`re.RegexFlag` for an example).
-
.. versionadded:: 3.11
.. function:: show_flag_values(value)
@@ -973,6 +1075,20 @@ Utilities and Decorators
.. versionadded:: 3.11
+.. function:: bin(num, max_bits=None)
+
+ Like built-in :func:`bin`, except negative values are represented in
+ two's complement, and the leading bit always indicates sign
+ (``0`` implies positive, ``1`` implies negative).
+
+ >>> import enum
+ >>> enum.bin(10)
+ '0b0 1010'
+ >>> enum.bin(~10) # ~10 is -11
+ '0b1 0101'
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.11
+
---------------
Notes
diff --git a/Doc/library/errno.rst b/Doc/library/errno.rst
index 283e8b013265d95..ffebe8ee485eb6c 100644
--- a/Doc/library/errno.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/errno.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`errno` --- Standard errno system symbols
-==============================================
+:mod:`!errno` --- Standard errno system symbols
+===============================================
.. module:: errno
:synopsis: Standard errno system symbols.
@@ -665,6 +665,171 @@ defined by the module. The specific list of defined symbols is available as
.. versionadded:: 3.11
+
+.. data:: ENOMEDIUM
+
+ No medium found
+
+
+.. data:: EMEDIUMTYPE
+
+ Wrong medium type
+
+
+.. data:: ENOKEY
+
+ Required key not available
+
+
+.. data:: EKEYEXPIRED
+
+ Key has expired
+
+
+.. data:: EKEYREVOKED
+
+ Key has been revoked
+
+
+.. data:: EKEYREJECTED
+
+ Key was rejected by service
+
+
+.. data:: ERFKILL
+
+ Operation not possible due to RF-kill
+
+
+.. data:: ELOCKUNMAPPED
+
+ Locked lock was unmapped
+
+
+.. data:: ENOTACTIVE
+
+ Facility is not active
+
+
+.. data:: EAUTH
+
+ Authentication error
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: EBADARCH
+
+ Bad CPU type in executable
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: EBADEXEC
+
+ Bad executable (or shared library)
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: EBADMACHO
+
+ Malformed Mach-o file
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: EDEVERR
+
+ Device error
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: EFTYPE
+
+ Inappropriate file type or format
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: ENEEDAUTH
+
+ Need authenticator
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: ENOATTR
+
+ Attribute not found
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: ENOPOLICY
+
+ Policy not found
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: EPROCLIM
+
+ Too many processes
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: EPROCUNAVAIL
+
+ Bad procedure for program
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: EPROGMISMATCH
+
+ Program version wrong
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: EPROGUNAVAIL
+
+ RPC prog. not avail
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: EPWROFF
+
+ Device power is off
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: EBADRPC
+
+ RPC struct is bad
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: ERPCMISMATCH
+
+ RPC version wrong
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+.. data:: ESHLIBVERS
+
+ Shared library version mismatch
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
.. data:: ENOTCAPABLE
Capabilities insufficient. This error is mapped to the exception
diff --git a/Doc/library/faulthandler.rst b/Doc/library/faulthandler.rst
index c40d5e9aacb83c7..4067d7912b88b26 100644
--- a/Doc/library/faulthandler.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/faulthandler.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`faulthandler` --- Dump the Python traceback
-=================================================
+:mod:`!faulthandler` --- Dump the Python traceback
+==================================================
.. module:: faulthandler
:synopsis: Dump the Python traceback.
diff --git a/Doc/library/fcntl.rst b/Doc/library/fcntl.rst
index 59215f34e01cb7c..856fa3556344618 100644
--- a/Doc/library/fcntl.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/fcntl.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`fcntl` --- The ``fcntl`` and ``ioctl`` system calls
-=========================================================
+:mod:`!fcntl` --- The ``fcntl`` and ``ioctl`` system calls
+==========================================================
.. module:: fcntl
- :platform: Unix
:synopsis: The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls.
.. sectionauthor:: Jaap Vermeulen
@@ -82,65 +81,82 @@ descriptor.
The module defines the following functions:
-.. function:: fcntl(fd, cmd, arg=0)
+.. function:: fcntl(fd, cmd, arg=0, /)
Perform the operation *cmd* on file descriptor *fd* (file objects providing
a :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method are accepted as well). The values used
for *cmd* are operating system dependent, and are available as constants
in the :mod:`fcntl` module, using the same names as used in the relevant C
- header files. The argument *arg* can either be an integer value, or a
- :class:`bytes` object. With an integer value, the return value of this
- function is the integer return value of the C :c:func:`fcntl` call. When
- the argument is bytes it represents a binary structure, e.g. created by
- :func:`struct.pack`. The binary data is copied to a buffer whose address is
+ header files. The argument *arg* can either be an integer value, a
+ :class:`bytes` object, or a string.
+ The type and size of *arg* must match the type and size of
+ the argument of the operation as specified in the relevant C documentation.
+
+ When *arg* is an integer, the function returns the integer
+ return value of the C :c:func:`fcntl` call.
+
+ When the argument is bytes, it represents a binary structure,
+ for example, created by :func:`struct.pack`.
+ A string value is encoded to binary using the UTF-8 encoding.
+ The binary data is copied to a buffer whose address is
passed to the C :c:func:`fcntl` call. The return value after a successful
call is the contents of the buffer, converted to a :class:`bytes` object.
The length of the returned object will be the same as the length of the
- *arg* argument. This is limited to 1024 bytes. If the information returned
- in the buffer by the operating system is larger than 1024 bytes, this is
- most likely to result in a segmentation violation or a more subtle data
- corruption.
+ *arg* argument. This is limited to 1024 bytes.
If the :c:func:`fcntl` call fails, an :exc:`OSError` is raised.
+ .. note::
+ If the type or the size of *arg* does not match the type or size
+ of the argument of the operation (for example, if an integer is
+ passed when a pointer is expected, or the information returned in
+ the buffer by the operating system is larger than 1024 bytes),
+ this is most likely to result in a segmentation violation or
+ a more subtle data corruption.
+
.. audit-event:: fcntl.fcntl fd,cmd,arg fcntl.fcntl
-.. function:: ioctl(fd, request, arg=0, mutate_flag=True)
+.. function:: ioctl(fd, request, arg=0, mutate_flag=True, /)
This function is identical to the :func:`~fcntl.fcntl` function, except
that the argument handling is even more complicated.
- The *request* parameter is limited to values that can fit in 32-bits.
+ The *request* parameter is limited to values that can fit in 32-bits
+ or 64-bits, depending on the platform.
Additional constants of interest for use as the *request* argument can be
found in the :mod:`termios` module, under the same names as used in
the relevant C header files.
- The parameter *arg* can be one of an integer, an object supporting the
- read-only buffer interface (like :class:`bytes`) or an object supporting
- the read-write buffer interface (like :class:`bytearray`).
+ The parameter *arg* can be an integer, a :term:`bytes-like object`,
+ or a string.
+ The type and size of *arg* must match the type and size of
+ the argument of the operation as specified in the relevant C documentation.
- In all but the last case, behaviour is as for the :func:`~fcntl.fcntl`
+ If *arg* does not support the read-write buffer interface or
+ the *mutate_flag* is false, behavior is as for the :func:`~fcntl.fcntl`
function.
- If a mutable buffer is passed, then the behaviour is determined by the value of
- the *mutate_flag* parameter.
-
- If it is false, the buffer's mutability is ignored and behaviour is as for a
- read-only buffer, except that the 1024 byte limit mentioned above is avoided --
- so long as the buffer you pass is at least as long as what the operating system
- wants to put there, things should work.
-
- If *mutate_flag* is true (the default), then the buffer is (in effect) passed
- to the underlying :func:`ioctl` system call, the latter's return code is
+ If *arg* supports the read-write buffer interface (like :class:`bytearray`)
+ and *mutate_flag* is true (the default), then the buffer is (in effect) passed
+ to the underlying :c:func:`!ioctl` system call, the latter's return code is
passed back to the calling Python, and the buffer's new contents reflect the
- action of the :func:`ioctl`. This is a slight simplification, because if the
+ action of the :c:func:`ioctl`. This is a slight simplification, because if the
supplied buffer is less than 1024 bytes long it is first copied into a static
buffer 1024 bytes long which is then passed to :func:`ioctl` and copied back
into the supplied buffer.
If the :c:func:`ioctl` call fails, an :exc:`OSError` exception is raised.
+ .. note::
+ If the type or size of *arg* does not match the type or size
+ of the operation's argument (for example, if an integer is
+ passed when a pointer is expected, or the information returned in
+ the buffer by the operating system is larger than 1024 bytes,
+ or the size of the mutable bytes-like object is too small),
+ this is most likely to result in a segmentation violation or
+ a more subtle data corruption.
+
An example::
>>> import array, fcntl, struct, termios, os
@@ -157,7 +173,7 @@ The module defines the following functions:
.. audit-event:: fcntl.ioctl fd,request,arg fcntl.ioctl
-.. function:: flock(fd, operation)
+.. function:: flock(fd, operation, /)
Perform the lock operation *operation* on file descriptor *fd* (file objects providing
a :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method are accepted as well). See the Unix manual
@@ -169,7 +185,7 @@ The module defines the following functions:
.. audit-event:: fcntl.flock fd,operation fcntl.flock
-.. function:: lockf(fd, cmd, len=0, start=0, whence=0)
+.. function:: lockf(fd, cmd, len=0, start=0, whence=0, /)
This is essentially a wrapper around the :func:`~fcntl.fcntl` locking calls.
*fd* is the file descriptor (file objects providing a :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno`
diff --git a/Doc/library/filecmp.rst b/Doc/library/filecmp.rst
index 42d20b9c2017830..fb2638e3a9b8799 100644
--- a/Doc/library/filecmp.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/filecmp.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`filecmp` --- File and Directory Comparisons
-=================================================
+:mod:`!filecmp` --- File and Directory Comparisons
+==================================================
.. module:: filecmp
:synopsis: Compare files efficiently.
@@ -36,9 +36,9 @@ The :mod:`filecmp` module defines the following functions:
file changes. The entire cache may be cleared using :func:`clear_cache`.
-.. function:: cmpfiles(dir1, dir2, common, shallow=True)
+.. function:: cmpfiles(a, b, common, shallow=True)
- Compare the files in the two directories *dir1* and *dir2* whose names are
+ Compare the files in the two directories *a* and *b* whose names are
given by *common*.
Returns three lists of file names: *match*, *mismatch*,
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ The :mod:`filecmp` module defines the following functions:
The :class:`dircmp` class
-------------------------
-.. class:: dircmp(a, b, ignore=None, hide=None, shallow=True)
+.. class:: dircmp(a, b, ignore=None, hide=None, *, shallow=True)
Construct a new directory comparison object, to compare the directories *a*
and *b*. *ignore* is a list of names to ignore, and defaults to
@@ -189,7 +189,7 @@ The :class:`dircmp` class
are the same type as *self*, if *self* is a subclass of
:class:`dircmp`.
-.. attribute:: DEFAULT_IGNORES
+.. data:: DEFAULT_IGNORES
.. versionadded:: 3.4
diff --git a/Doc/library/fileinput.rst b/Doc/library/fileinput.rst
index f93e9a58791eebd..8f32b11e5653652 100644
--- a/Doc/library/fileinput.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/fileinput.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`fileinput` --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
-===================================================================
+:mod:`!fileinput` --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
+====================================================================
.. module:: fileinput
:synopsis: Loop over standard input or a list of files.
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ Lines are returned with any newlines intact, which means that the last line in
a file may not have one.
You can control how files are opened by providing an opening hook via the
-*openhook* parameter to :func:`fileinput.input` or :class:`FileInput()`. The
+*openhook* parameter to :func:`fileinput.input` or :func:`FileInput`. The
hook must be a function that takes two arguments, *filename* and *mode*, and
returns an accordingly opened file-like object. If *encoding* and/or *errors*
are specified, they will be passed to the hook as additional keyword arguments.
diff --git a/Doc/library/filesys.rst b/Doc/library/filesys.rst
index 0ccf2b7bf59a0fb..f1ea4761af7cb1a 100644
--- a/Doc/library/filesys.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/filesys.rst
@@ -14,7 +14,6 @@ in this chapter is:
pathlib.rst
os.path.rst
- fileinput.rst
stat.rst
filecmp.rst
tempfile.rst
diff --git a/Doc/library/fnmatch.rst b/Doc/library/fnmatch.rst
index 7cddecd5e808877..086b34b97691e1d 100644
--- a/Doc/library/fnmatch.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/fnmatch.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`fnmatch` --- Unix filename pattern matching
-=================================================
+:mod:`!fnmatch` --- Unix filename pattern matching
+==================================================
.. module:: fnmatch
:synopsis: Unix shell style filename pattern matching.
@@ -46,9 +46,15 @@ module. See module :mod:`glob` for pathname expansion (:mod:`glob` uses
a period are not special for this module, and are matched by the ``*`` and ``?``
patterns.
-Also note that :func:`functools.lru_cache` with the *maxsize* of 32768 is used to
-cache the compiled regex patterns in the following functions: :func:`fnmatch`,
-:func:`fnmatchcase`, :func:`.filter`.
+Unless stated otherwise, "filename string" and "pattern string" either refer to
+:class:`str` or ``ISO-8859-1`` encoded :class:`bytes` objects. Note that the
+functions documented below do not allow to mix a :class:`!bytes` pattern with
+a :class:`!str` filename, and vice-versa.
+
+Finally, note that :deco:`functools.lru_cache` with a *maxsize* of 32768
+is used to cache the (typed) compiled regex patterns in the following
+functions: :func:`fnmatch`, :func:`fnmatchcase`, :func:`.filter`.
+
.. function:: fnmatch(name, pat)
@@ -78,8 +84,8 @@ cache the compiled regex patterns in the following functions: :func:`fnmatch`,
.. function:: filter(names, pat)
- Construct a list from those elements of the :term:`iterable` *names*
- that match pattern *pat*.
+ Construct a list from those elements of the :term:`iterable` of filename
+ strings *names* that match the pattern string *pat*.
It is the same as ``[n for n in names if fnmatch(n, pat)]``,
but implemented more efficiently.
@@ -87,7 +93,7 @@ cache the compiled regex patterns in the following functions: :func:`fnmatch`,
.. function:: translate(pat)
Return the shell-style pattern *pat* converted to a regular expression for
- using with :func:`re.match`.
+ using with :func:`re.match`. The pattern is expected to be a :class:`str`.
Example:
diff --git a/Doc/library/fractions.rst b/Doc/library/fractions.rst
index 887c3844d20faa7..b77c5723700bbf8 100644
--- a/Doc/library/fractions.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/fractions.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`fractions` --- Rational numbers
-=====================================
+:mod:`!fractions` --- Rational numbers
+======================================
.. module:: fractions
:synopsis: Rational numbers.
@@ -14,8 +14,8 @@
The :mod:`fractions` module provides support for rational number arithmetic.
-A Fraction instance can be constructed from a pair of integers, from
-another rational number, or from a string.
+A Fraction instance can be constructed from a pair of rational numbers, from
+a single number, or from a string.
.. class:: Fraction(numerator=0, denominator=1)
Fraction(other_fraction)
@@ -25,13 +25,13 @@ another rational number, or from a string.
The first version requires that *numerator* and *denominator* are instances
of :class:`numbers.Rational` and returns a new :class:`Fraction` instance
- with value ``numerator/denominator``. If *denominator* is ``0``, it
+ with a value equal to ``numerator/denominator``. If *denominator* is zero, it
raises a :exc:`ZeroDivisionError`. The second version requires that
*other_fraction* is an instance of :class:`numbers.Rational` and returns a
:class:`Fraction` instance with the same value. The next two versions accept
either a :class:`float` or a :class:`decimal.Decimal` instance, and return a
:class:`Fraction` instance with exactly the same value. Note that due to the
- usual issues with binary floating-point (see :ref:`tut-fp-issues`), the
+ usual issues with binary floating point (see :ref:`tut-fp-issues`), the
argument to ``Fraction(1.1)`` is not exactly equal to 11/10, and so
``Fraction(1.1)`` does *not* return ``Fraction(11, 10)`` as one might expect.
(But see the documentation for the :meth:`limit_denominator` method below.)
@@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ another rational number, or from a string.
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
The :func:`math.gcd` function is now used to normalize the *numerator*
- and *denominator*. :func:`math.gcd` always return a :class:`int` type.
+ and *denominator*. :func:`math.gcd` always returns an :class:`int` type.
Previously, the GCD type depended on *numerator* and *denominator*.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
@@ -116,7 +116,8 @@ another rational number, or from a string.
.. attribute:: denominator
- Denominator of the Fraction in lowest term.
+ Denominator of the Fraction in lowest terms.
+ Guaranteed to be positive.
.. method:: as_integer_ratio()
@@ -133,7 +134,7 @@ another rational number, or from a string.
.. versionadded:: 3.12
- .. classmethod:: from_float(flt)
+ .. classmethod:: from_float(f)
Alternative constructor which only accepts instances of
:class:`float` or :class:`numbers.Integral`. Beware that
diff --git a/Doc/library/frameworks.rst b/Doc/library/frameworks.rst
index 15ceeec9c255edb..f8e2f6bb18cb1cb 100644
--- a/Doc/library/frameworks.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/frameworks.rst
@@ -1,18 +1,13 @@
+:orphan:
+
.. _frameworks:
******************
-Program Frameworks
+Program frameworks
******************
-The modules described in this chapter are frameworks that will largely dictate
-the structure of your program. Currently the modules described here are all
-oriented toward writing command-line interfaces.
-
-The full list of modules described in this chapter is:
-
-
-.. toctree::
+This chapter is no longer maintained, and the modules it contained have been moved to their respective topical documentation.
- turtle.rst
- cmd.rst
- shlex.rst
+* :mod:`cmd` — :doc:`Command Line Interface Libraries <./cmdlinelibs>`
+* :mod:`shlex` — :doc:`Unix Specific Services <./unix>`
+* :mod:`turtle` — :doc:`Graphical User Interfaces with Tk <./tk>`
diff --git a/Doc/library/ftplib.rst b/Doc/library/ftplib.rst
index 8d1aae018ada121..bb15322067245e8 100644
--- a/Doc/library/ftplib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/ftplib.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`ftplib` --- FTP protocol client
-=====================================
+:mod:`!ftplib` --- FTP protocol client
+======================================
.. module:: ftplib
:synopsis: FTP protocol client (requires sockets).
@@ -243,7 +243,7 @@ FTP objects
Retrieve a file in binary transfer mode.
:param str cmd:
- An appropriate ``STOR`` command: :samp:`"STOR {filename}"`.
+ An appropriate ``RETR`` command: :samp:`"RETR {filename}"`.
:param callback:
A single parameter callable that is called
diff --git a/Doc/library/functools.rst b/Doc/library/functools.rst
index 82c970d25a7aac3..edefdebc7a76cf4 100644
--- a/Doc/library/functools.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/functools.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`functools` --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects
-==============================================================================
+:mod:`!functools` --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects
+===============================================================================
.. module:: functools
:synopsis: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
Returns the same as ``lru_cache(maxsize=None)``, creating a thin
wrapper around a dictionary lookup for the function arguments. Because it
never needs to evict old values, this is smaller and faster than
- :func:`lru_cache()` with a size limit.
+ :deco:`lru_cache` with a size limit.
For example::
@@ -42,11 +42,11 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
def factorial(n):
return n * factorial(n-1) if n else 1
- >>> factorial(10) # no previously cached result, makes 11 recursive calls
+ >>> factorial(10) # no previously cached result, makes 11 recursive calls
3628800
- >>> factorial(5) # just looks up cached value result
+ >>> factorial(5) # no new calls, just returns the cached result
120
- >>> factorial(12) # makes two new recursive calls, the other 10 are cached
+ >>> factorial(12) # two new recursive calls, factorial(10) is cached
479001600
The cache is threadsafe so that the wrapped function can be used in
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
Transform a method of a class into a property whose value is computed once
and then cached as a normal attribute for the life of the instance. Similar
- to :func:`property`, with the addition of caching. Useful for expensive
+ to :deco:`property`, with the addition of caching. Useful for expensive
computed properties of instances that are otherwise effectively immutable.
Example::
@@ -78,8 +78,8 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
def stdev(self):
return statistics.stdev(self._data)
- The mechanics of :func:`cached_property` are somewhat different from
- :func:`property`. A regular property blocks attribute writes unless a
+ The mechanics of :deco:`cached_property` are somewhat different from
+ :deco:`property`. A regular property blocks attribute writes unless a
setter is defined. In contrast, a *cached_property* allows writes.
The *cached_property* decorator only runs on lookups and only when an
@@ -111,14 +111,14 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
(as such classes don't provide a ``__dict__`` attribute at all).
If a mutable mapping is not available or if space-efficient key sharing is
- desired, an effect similar to :func:`cached_property` can also be achieved by
- stacking :func:`property` on top of :func:`lru_cache`. See
- :ref:`faq-cache-method-calls` for more details on how this differs from :func:`cached_property`.
+ desired, an effect similar to :deco:`cached_property` can also be achieved by
+ stacking :deco:`property` on top of :deco:`lru_cache`. See
+ :ref:`faq-cache-method-calls` for more details on how this differs from :deco:`cached_property`.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
- Prior to Python 3.12, ``cached_property`` included an undocumented lock to
+ Prior to Python 3.12, :deco:`!cached_property` included an undocumented lock to
ensure that in multi-threaded usage the getter function was guaranteed to
run only once per instance. However, the lock was per-property, not
per-instance, which could result in unacceptably high lock contention. In
@@ -190,7 +190,7 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
Note, type specificity applies only to the function's immediate arguments
rather than their contents. The scalar arguments, ``Decimal(42)`` and
- ``Fraction(42)`` are be treated as distinct calls with distinct results.
+ ``Fraction(42)`` are treated as distinct calls with distinct results.
In contrast, the tuple arguments ``('answer', Decimal(42))`` and
``('answer', Fraction(42))`` are treated as equivalent.
@@ -199,12 +199,18 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
and *typed*. This is for information purposes only. Mutating the values
has no effect.
+ .. method:: lru_cache.cache_info()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
To help measure the effectiveness of the cache and tune the *maxsize*
- parameter, the wrapped function is instrumented with a :func:`cache_info`
+ parameter, the wrapped function is instrumented with a :func:`!cache_info`
function that returns a :term:`named tuple` showing *hits*, *misses*,
*maxsize* and *currsize*.
- The decorator also provides a :func:`cache_clear` function for clearing or
+ .. method:: lru_cache.cache_clear()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ The decorator also provides a :func:`!cache_clear` function for clearing or
invalidating the cache.
The original underlying function is accessible through the
@@ -218,7 +224,7 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
cache. See :ref:`faq-cache-method-calls`
An `LRU (least recently used) cache
- <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies#Least_recently_used_(LRU)>`_
+ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies#Least_Recently_Used_(LRU)>`_
works best when the most recent calls are the best predictors of upcoming
calls (for example, the most popular articles on a news server tend to
change each day). The cache's size limit assures that the cache does not
@@ -284,9 +290,9 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
class decorator supplies the rest. This simplifies the effort involved
in specifying all of the possible rich comparison operations:
- The class must define one of :meth:`__lt__`, :meth:`__le__`,
- :meth:`__gt__`, or :meth:`__ge__`.
- In addition, the class should supply an :meth:`__eq__` method.
+ The class must define one of :meth:`~object.__lt__`, :meth:`~object.__le__`,
+ :meth:`~object.__gt__`, or :meth:`~object.__ge__`.
+ In addition, the class should supply an :meth:`~object.__eq__` method.
For example::
@@ -325,7 +331,7 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
- Returning NotImplemented from the underlying comparison function for
+ Returning ``NotImplemented`` from the underlying comparison function for
unrecognised types is now supported.
.. function:: partial(func, /, *args, **keywords)
@@ -369,7 +375,7 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
like normal functions, are handled as descriptors).
When *func* is a descriptor (such as a normal Python function,
- :func:`classmethod`, :func:`staticmethod`, :func:`abstractmethod` or
+ :func:`classmethod`, :func:`staticmethod`, :func:`~abc.abstractmethod` or
another instance of :class:`partialmethod`), calls to ``__get__`` are
delegated to the underlying descriptor, and an appropriate
:ref:`partial object<partial-objects>` returned as the result.
@@ -447,7 +453,10 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
... print("Let me just say,", end=" ")
... print(arg)
- To add overloaded implementations to the function, use the :func:`register`
+ .. method:: singledispatch.register()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ To add overloaded implementations to the function, use the :func:`!register`
attribute of the generic function, which can be used as a decorator. For
functions annotated with types, the decorator will infer the type of the
first argument automatically::
@@ -492,16 +501,35 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
... print(arg.real, arg.imag)
...
+ For code that dispatches on a collections type (e.g., ``list``), but wants
+ to typehint the items of the collection (e.g., ``list[int]``), the
+ dispatch type should be passed explicitly to the decorator itself with the
+ typehint going into the function definition::
+
+ >>> @fun.register(list)
+ ... def _(arg: list[int], verbose=False):
+ ... if verbose:
+ ... print("Enumerate this:")
+ ... for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
+ ... print(i, elem)
+
+ .. note::
+
+ At runtime the function will dispatch on an instance of a list regardless
+ of the type contained within the list i.e. ``[1,2,3]`` will be
+ dispatched the same as ``["foo", "bar", "baz"]``. The annotation
+ provided in this example is for static type checkers only and has no
+ runtime impact.
To enable registering :term:`lambdas<lambda>` and pre-existing functions,
- the :func:`register` attribute can also be used in a functional form::
+ the :func:`~singledispatch.register` attribute can also be used in a functional form::
>>> def nothing(arg, verbose=False):
... print("Nothing.")
...
>>> fun.register(type(None), nothing)
- The :func:`register` attribute returns the undecorated function. This
+ The :func:`~singledispatch.register` attribute returns the undecorated function. This
enables decorator stacking, :mod:`pickling<pickle>`, and the creation
of unit tests for each variant independently::
@@ -579,10 +607,10 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
.. versionadded:: 3.4
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- The :func:`register` attribute now supports using type annotations.
+ The :func:`~singledispatch.register` attribute now supports using type annotations.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
- The :func:`register` attribute now supports :data:`types.UnionType`
+ The :func:`~singledispatch.register` attribute now supports :data:`types.UnionType`
and :data:`typing.Union` as type annotations.
@@ -592,7 +620,7 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
dispatch>` :term:`generic function`.
To define a generic method, decorate it with the ``@singledispatchmethod``
- decorator. When defining a function using ``@singledispatchmethod``, note
+ decorator. When defining a method using ``@singledispatchmethod``, note
that the dispatch happens on the type of the first non-*self* or non-*cls*
argument::
@@ -610,7 +638,7 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
return not arg
``@singledispatchmethod`` supports nesting with other decorators such as
- :func:`@classmethod<classmethod>`. Note that to allow for
+ :deco:`classmethod`. Note that to allow for
``dispatcher.register``, ``singledispatchmethod`` must be the *outer most*
decorator. Here is the ``Negator`` class with the ``neg`` methods bound to
the class, rather than an instance of the class::
@@ -632,8 +660,7 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
return not arg
The same pattern can be used for other similar decorators:
- :func:`@staticmethod<staticmethod>`,
- :func:`@abstractmethod<abc.abstractmethod>`, and others.
+ :deco:`staticmethod`, :deco:`~abc.abstractmethod`, and others.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
@@ -646,12 +673,14 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
attributes of the wrapper function are updated with the corresponding attributes
from the original function. The default values for these arguments are the
module level constants ``WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS`` (which assigns to the wrapper
- function's ``__module__``, ``__name__``, ``__qualname__``, ``__annotations__``
- and ``__doc__``, the documentation string) and ``WRAPPER_UPDATES`` (which
- updates the wrapper function's ``__dict__``, i.e. the instance dictionary).
+ function's :attr:`~function.__module__`, :attr:`~function.__name__`,
+ :attr:`~function.__qualname__`, :attr:`~function.__annotations__`,
+ :attr:`~function.__type_params__`, and :attr:`~function.__doc__`, the
+ documentation string) and ``WRAPPER_UPDATES`` (which updates the wrapper
+ function's :attr:`~function.__dict__`, i.e. the instance dictionary).
To allow access to the original function for introspection and other purposes
- (e.g. bypassing a caching decorator such as :func:`lru_cache`), this function
+ (e.g. bypassing a caching decorator such as :deco:`lru_cache`), this function
automatically adds a ``__wrapped__`` attribute to the wrapper that refers to
the function being wrapped.
@@ -669,7 +698,7 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
The ``__wrapped__`` attribute is now automatically added.
- The ``__annotations__`` attribute is now copied by default.
+ The :attr:`~function.__annotations__` attribute is now copied by default.
Missing attributes no longer trigger an :exc:`AttributeError`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
@@ -677,6 +706,9 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
function, even if that function defined a ``__wrapped__`` attribute.
(see :issue:`17482`)
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ The :attr:`~function.__type_params__` attribute is now copied by default.
+
.. decorator:: wraps(wrapped, assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS, updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)
@@ -707,7 +739,7 @@ The :mod:`functools` module defines the following functions:
'Docstring'
Without the use of this decorator factory, the name of the example function
- would have been ``'wrapper'``, and the docstring of the original :func:`example`
+ would have been ``'wrapper'``, and the docstring of the original :func:`!example`
would have been lost.
@@ -737,9 +769,10 @@ have three read-only attributes:
The keyword arguments that will be supplied when the :class:`partial` object is
called.
-:class:`partial` objects are like :class:`function` objects in that they are
-callable, weak referenceable, and can have attributes. There are some important
-differences. For instance, the :attr:`~definition.__name__` and :attr:`__doc__` attributes
+:class:`partial` objects are like :ref:`function objects <user-defined-funcs>`
+in that they are callable, weak referenceable, and can have attributes.
+There are some important differences. For instance, the
+:attr:`~function.__name__` and :attr:`function.__doc__` attributes
are not created automatically. Also, :class:`partial` objects defined in
classes behave like static methods and do not transform into bound methods
during instance attribute look-up.
diff --git a/Doc/library/gc.rst b/Doc/library/gc.rst
index e36a71af2b64ab0..d1632f4ddaaa035 100644
--- a/Doc/library/gc.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/gc.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`gc` --- Garbage Collector interface
-=========================================
+:mod:`!gc` --- Garbage Collector interface
+==========================================
.. module:: gc
:synopsis: Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector.
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ The :mod:`gc` module provides the following functions:
With no arguments, run a full collection. The optional argument *generation*
may be an integer specifying which generation to collect (from 0 to 2). A
- :exc:`ValueError` is raised if the generation number is invalid. The sum of
+ :exc:`ValueError` is raised if the generation number is invalid. The sum of
collected objects and uncollectable objects is returned.
The free lists maintained for a number of built-in types are cleared
@@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ The :mod:`gc` module provides the following functions:
.. function:: get_objects(generation=None)
Returns a list of all objects tracked by the collector, excluding the list
- returned. If *generation* is not None, return only the objects tracked by
+ returned. If *generation* is not ``None``, return only the objects tracked by
the collector that are in that generation.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
@@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ The :mod:`gc` module provides the following functions:
been examined more than *threshold1* times since generation ``1`` has been
examined, then generation ``1`` is examined as well.
With the third generation, things are a bit more complicated,
- see `Collecting the oldest generation <https://devguide.python.org/garbage_collector/#collecting-the-oldest-generation>`_ for more information.
+ see `Collecting the oldest generation <https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/ff0ef0a54bef26fc507fbf9b7a6009eb7d3f17f5/InternalDocs/garbage_collector.md#collecting-the-oldest-generation>`_ for more information.
.. function:: get_count()
diff --git a/Doc/library/getopt.rst b/Doc/library/getopt.rst
index ada68b240143e89..db142e91ddce94c 100644
--- a/Doc/library/getopt.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/getopt.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`getopt` --- C-style parser for command line options
-=========================================================
+:mod:`!getopt` --- C-style parser for command line options
+==========================================================
.. module:: getopt
:synopsis: Portable parser for command line options; support both short and
@@ -7,18 +7,13 @@
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/getopt.py`
-.. deprecated:: 3.13
- The :mod:`getopt` module is :term:`soft deprecated` and will not be
- developed further; development will continue with the :mod:`argparse`
- module.
-
.. note::
- The :mod:`getopt` module is a parser for command line options whose API is
- designed to be familiar to users of the C :c:func:`!getopt` function. Users who
- are unfamiliar with the C :c:func:`!getopt` function or who would like to write
- less code and get better help and error messages should consider using the
- :mod:`argparse` module instead.
+ This module is considered feature complete. A more declarative and
+ extensible alternative to this API is provided in the :mod:`optparse`
+ module. Further functional enhancements for command line parameter
+ processing are provided either as third party modules on PyPI,
+ or else as features in the :mod:`argparse` module.
--------------
@@ -28,6 +23,13 @@ the special meanings of arguments of the form '``-``' and '``--``'). Long
options similar to those supported by GNU software may be used as well via an
optional third argument.
+Users who are unfamiliar with the Unix :c:func:`!getopt` function should consider
+using the :mod:`argparse` module instead. Users who are familiar with the Unix
+:c:func:`!getopt` function, but would like to get equivalent behavior while
+writing less code and getting better help and error messages should consider
+using the :mod:`optparse` module. See :ref:`choosing-an-argument-parser` for
+additional details.
+
This module provides two functions and an
exception:
@@ -57,6 +59,8 @@ exception:
option ``--fo`` will match as ``--foo``, but ``--f`` will
not match uniquely, so :exc:`GetoptError` will be raised.
+ If *longopts* is a string it gets treated as a list of a single element.
+
The return value consists of two elements: the first is a list of ``(option,
value)`` pairs; the second is the list of program arguments left after the
option list was stripped (this is a trailing slice of *args*). Each
@@ -97,6 +101,8 @@ exception:
An example using only Unix style options:
+.. doctest::
+
>>> import getopt
>>> args = '-a -b -cfoo -d bar a1 a2'.split()
>>> args
@@ -109,6 +115,8 @@ An example using only Unix style options:
Using long option names is equally easy:
+.. doctest::
+
>>> s = '--condition=foo --testing --output-file abc.def -x a1 a2'
>>> args = s.split()
>>> args
@@ -120,7 +128,9 @@ Using long option names is equally easy:
>>> args
['a1', 'a2']
-In a script, typical usage is something like this::
+In a script, typical usage is something like this:
+
+.. testcode::
import getopt, sys
@@ -144,13 +154,29 @@ In a script, typical usage is something like this::
output = a
else:
assert False, "unhandled option"
- # ...
+ process(args, output=output, verbose=verbose)
if __name__ == "__main__":
main()
Note that an equivalent command line interface could be produced with less code
-and more informative help and error messages by using the :mod:`argparse` module::
+and more informative help and error messages by using the :mod:`optparse` module:
+
+.. testcode::
+
+ import optparse
+
+ if __name__ == '__main__':
+ parser = optparse.OptionParser()
+ parser.add_option('-o', '--output')
+ parser.add_option('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
+ opts, args = parser.parse_args()
+ process(args, output=opts.output, verbose=opts.verbose)
+
+A roughly equivalent command line interface for this case can also be
+produced by using the :mod:`argparse` module:
+
+.. testcode::
import argparse
@@ -158,12 +184,18 @@ and more informative help and error messages by using the :mod:`argparse` module
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument('-o', '--output')
parser.add_argument('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
+ parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*')
args = parser.parse_args()
- # ... do something with args.output ...
- # ... do something with args.verbose ..
+ process(args.rest, output=args.output, verbose=args.verbose)
+
+See :ref:`choosing-an-argument-parser` for details on how the ``argparse``
+version of this code differs in behaviour from the ``optparse`` (and
+``getopt``) version.
.. seealso::
- Module :mod:`argparse`
- Alternative command line option and argument parsing library.
+ Module :mod:`optparse`
+ Declarative command line option parsing.
+ Module :mod:`argparse`
+ More opinionated command line option and argument parsing library.
diff --git a/Doc/library/getpass.rst b/Doc/library/getpass.rst
index 54c84d45a59856c..3b5296f9ec66fa5 100644
--- a/Doc/library/getpass.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/getpass.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`getpass` --- Portable password input
-==========================================
+:mod:`!getpass` --- Portable password input
+===========================================
.. module:: getpass
:synopsis: Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the userid.
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ The :mod:`getpass` module provides two functions:
systems which support the :mod:`pwd` module, otherwise, an :exc:`OSError`
is raised.
- In general, this function should be preferred over :func:`os.getlogin()`.
+ In general, this function should be preferred over :func:`os.getlogin`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
Previously, various exceptions beyond just :exc:`OSError` were raised.
diff --git a/Doc/library/gettext.rst b/Doc/library/gettext.rst
index 41beac3e0c73966..31575655bfd5ca8 100644
--- a/Doc/library/gettext.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/gettext.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`gettext` --- Multilingual internationalization services
-=============================================================
+:mod:`!gettext` --- Multilingual internationalization services
+==============================================================
.. module:: gettext
:synopsis: Multilingual internationalization services.
@@ -54,19 +54,19 @@ class-based API instead.
.. index:: single: _ (underscore); gettext
-.. function:: gettext(message)
+.. function:: gettext(message, /)
Return the localized translation of *message*, based on the current global
domain, language, and locale directory. This function is usually aliased as
:func:`!_` in the local namespace (see examples below).
-.. function:: dgettext(domain, message)
+.. function:: dgettext(domain, message, /)
Like :func:`.gettext`, but look the message up in the specified *domain*.
-.. function:: ngettext(singular, plural, n)
+.. function:: ngettext(singular, plural, n, /)
Like :func:`.gettext`, but consider plural forms. If a translation is found,
apply the plural formula to *n*, and return the resulting message (some
@@ -81,15 +81,15 @@ class-based API instead.
formulas for a variety of languages.
-.. function:: dngettext(domain, singular, plural, n)
+.. function:: dngettext(domain, singular, plural, n, /)
Like :func:`ngettext`, but look the message up in the specified *domain*.
-.. function:: pgettext(context, message)
-.. function:: dpgettext(domain, context, message)
-.. function:: npgettext(context, singular, plural, n)
-.. function:: dnpgettext(domain, context, singular, plural, n)
+.. function:: pgettext(context, message, /)
+.. function:: dpgettext(domain, context, message, /)
+.. function:: npgettext(context, singular, plural, n, /)
+.. function:: dnpgettext(domain, context, singular, plural, n, /)
Similar to the corresponding functions without the ``p`` in the prefix (that
is, :func:`gettext`, :func:`dgettext`, :func:`ngettext`, :func:`dngettext`),
@@ -226,20 +226,20 @@ are the methods of :class:`!NullTranslations`:
translation for a given message.
- .. method:: gettext(message)
+ .. method:: gettext(message, /)
If a fallback has been set, forward :meth:`!gettext` to the fallback.
Otherwise, return *message*. Overridden in derived classes.
- .. method:: ngettext(singular, plural, n)
+ .. method:: ngettext(singular, plural, n, /)
If a fallback has been set, forward :meth:`!ngettext` to the fallback.
Otherwise, return *singular* if *n* is 1; return *plural* otherwise.
Overridden in derived classes.
- .. method:: pgettext(context, message)
+ .. method:: pgettext(context, message, /)
If a fallback has been set, forward :meth:`pgettext` to the fallback.
Otherwise, return the translated message. Overridden in derived classes.
@@ -247,7 +247,7 @@ are the methods of :class:`!NullTranslations`:
.. versionadded:: 3.8
- .. method:: npgettext(context, singular, plural, n)
+ .. method:: npgettext(context, singular, plural, n, /)
If a fallback has been set, forward :meth:`npgettext` to the fallback.
Otherwise, return the translated message. Overridden in derived classes.
@@ -325,7 +325,7 @@ unexpected, or if other problems occur while reading the file, instantiating a
The following methods are overridden from the base class implementation:
- .. method:: gettext(message)
+ .. method:: gettext(message, /)
Look up the *message* id in the catalog and return the corresponding message
string, as a Unicode string. If there is no entry in the catalog for the
@@ -334,7 +334,7 @@ unexpected, or if other problems occur while reading the file, instantiating a
*message* id is returned.
- .. method:: ngettext(singular, plural, n)
+ .. method:: ngettext(singular, plural, n, /)
Do a plural-forms lookup of a message id. *singular* is used as the message id
for purposes of lookup in the catalog, while *n* is used to determine which
@@ -355,7 +355,7 @@ unexpected, or if other problems occur while reading the file, instantiating a
n) % {'num': n}
- .. method:: pgettext(context, message)
+ .. method:: pgettext(context, message, /)
Look up the *context* and *message* id in the catalog and return the
corresponding message string, as a Unicode string. If there is no
@@ -366,7 +366,7 @@ unexpected, or if other problems occur while reading the file, instantiating a
.. versionadded:: 3.8
- .. method:: npgettext(context, singular, plural, n)
+ .. method:: npgettext(context, singular, plural, n, /)
Do a plural-forms lookup of a message id. *singular* is used as the
message id for purposes of lookup in the catalog, while *n* is used to
diff --git a/Doc/library/glob.rst b/Doc/library/glob.rst
index ab6da98bc74ad22..f15a5149fd5a781 100644
--- a/Doc/library/glob.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/glob.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`glob` --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion
-=====================================================
+:mod:`!glob` --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion
+======================================================
.. module:: glob
:synopsis: Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion.
@@ -18,23 +18,27 @@
single: - (minus); in glob-style wildcards
single: . (dot); in glob-style wildcards
-The :mod:`glob` module finds all the pathnames matching a specified pattern
-according to the rules used by the Unix shell, although results are returned in
-arbitrary order. No tilde expansion is done, but ``*``, ``?``, and character
+The :mod:`!glob` module finds pathnames
+using pattern matching rules similar to the Unix shell.
+No tilde expansion is done, but ``*``, ``?``, and character
ranges expressed with ``[]`` will be correctly matched. This is done by using
the :func:`os.scandir` and :func:`fnmatch.fnmatch` functions in concert, and
not by actually invoking a subshell.
-Note that files beginning with a dot (``.``) can only be matched by
+.. note::
+ The pathnames are returned in no particular order. If you need a specific
+ order, sort the results.
+
+By default, files beginning with a dot (``.``) can only be matched by
patterns that also start with a dot,
unlike :func:`fnmatch.fnmatch` or :func:`pathlib.Path.glob`.
-(For tilde and shell variable expansion, use :func:`os.path.expanduser` and
-:func:`os.path.expandvars`.)
+For tilde and shell variable expansion, use :func:`os.path.expanduser` and
+:func:`os.path.expandvars`.
For a literal match, wrap the meta-characters in brackets.
For example, ``'[?]'`` matches the character ``'?'``.
-The :mod:`glob` module defines the following functions:
+The :mod:`!glob` module defines the following functions:
.. function:: glob(pathname, *, root_dir=None, dir_fd=None, recursive=False, \
@@ -51,7 +55,7 @@ The :mod:`glob` module defines the following functions:
If *root_dir* is not ``None``, it should be a :term:`path-like object`
specifying the root directory for searching. It has the same effect on
- :func:`glob` as changing the current directory before calling it. If
+ :func:`!glob` as changing the current directory before calling it. If
*pathname* is relative, the result will contain paths relative to
*root_dir*.
@@ -66,7 +70,8 @@ The :mod:`glob` module defines the following functions:
pattern is followed by an :data:`os.sep` or :data:`os.altsep` then files will not
match.
- If *include_hidden* is true, "``**``" pattern will match hidden directories.
+ If *include_hidden* is true, wildcards can match path segments that
+ begin with a dot (``.``).
.. audit-event:: glob.glob pathname,recursive glob.glob
.. audit-event:: glob.glob/2 pathname,recursive,root_dir,dir_fd glob.glob
@@ -79,6 +84,11 @@ The :mod:`glob` module defines the following functions:
This function may return duplicate path names if *pathname*
contains multiple "``**``" patterns and *recursive* is true.
+ .. note::
+ Any :exc:`OSError` exceptions raised from scanning the filesystem are
+ suppressed. This includes :exc:`PermissionError` when accessing
+ directories without read permission.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
Support for recursive globs using "``**``".
@@ -102,6 +112,11 @@ The :mod:`glob` module defines the following functions:
This function may return duplicate path names if *pathname*
contains multiple "``**``" patterns and *recursive* is true.
+ .. note::
+ Any :exc:`OSError` exceptions raised from scanning the filesystem are
+ suppressed. This includes :exc:`PermissionError` when accessing
+ directories without read permission.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
Support for recursive globs using "``**``".
@@ -117,7 +132,7 @@ The :mod:`glob` module defines the following functions:
Escape all special characters (``'?'``, ``'*'`` and ``'['``).
This is useful if you want to match an arbitrary literal string that may
have special characters in it. Special characters in drive/UNC
- sharepoints are not escaped, e.g. on Windows
+ sharepoints are not escaped, for example on Windows
``escape('//?/c:/Quo vadis?.txt')`` returns ``'//?/c:/Quo vadis[?].txt'``.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
diff --git a/Doc/library/graphlib.rst b/Doc/library/graphlib.rst
index 5414d6370b78ce6..a0b16576fad219c 100644
--- a/Doc/library/graphlib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/graphlib.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`graphlib` --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures
-=========================================================================
+:mod:`!graphlib` --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures
+========================================================================
.. module:: graphlib
:synopsis: Functionality to operate with graph-like structures
diff --git a/Doc/library/grp.rst b/Doc/library/grp.rst
index 9cf25b7ae137a3f..f436970e791ace1 100644
--- a/Doc/library/grp.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/grp.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`grp` --- The group database
-=================================
+:mod:`!grp` --- The group database
+==================================
.. module:: grp
- :platform: Unix
:synopsis: The group database (getgrnam() and friends).
--------------
@@ -10,7 +9,7 @@
This module provides access to the Unix group database. It is available on all
Unix versions.
-.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+.. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
Group database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose attributes
correspond to the members of the ``group`` structure (Attribute field below, see
diff --git a/Doc/library/gzip.rst b/Doc/library/gzip.rst
index e6106e72a83d258..597798b4916954e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/gzip.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/gzip.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`gzip` --- Support for :program:`gzip` files
-=================================================
+:mod:`!gzip` --- Support for :program:`gzip` files
+==================================================
.. module:: gzip
:synopsis: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects.
@@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ The module defines the following items:
The optional *mtime* argument is the timestamp requested by gzip. The time
is in Unix format, i.e., seconds since 00:00:00 UTC, January 1, 1970.
- If *mtime* is omitted or None, the current time is used. Use *mtime* = 0
+ If *mtime* is omitted or ``None``, the current time is used. Use *mtime* = 0
to generate a compressed stream that does not depend on creation time.
See below for the :attr:`mtime` attribute that is set when decompressing.
@@ -122,9 +122,7 @@ The module defines the following items:
.. method:: peek(n)
Read *n* uncompressed bytes without advancing the file position.
- At most one single read on the compressed stream is done to satisfy
- the call. The number of bytes returned may be more or less than
- requested.
+ The number of bytes returned may be more or less than requested.
.. note:: While calling :meth:`peek` does not change the file position of
the :class:`GzipFile`, it may change the position of the underlying
@@ -188,9 +186,7 @@ The module defines the following items:
Compress the *data*, returning a :class:`bytes` object containing
the compressed data. *compresslevel* and *mtime* have the same meaning as in
- the :class:`GzipFile` constructor above. When *mtime* is set to ``0``, this
- function is equivalent to :func:`zlib.compress` with *wbits* set to ``31``.
- The zlib function is faster.
+ the :class:`GzipFile` constructor above.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
@@ -198,7 +194,13 @@ The module defines the following items:
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Speed is improved by compressing all data at once instead of in a
streamed fashion. Calls with *mtime* set to ``0`` are delegated to
- :func:`zlib.compress` for better speed.
+ :func:`zlib.compress` for better speed. In this situation the
+ output may contain a gzip header "OS" byte value other than 255
+ "unknown" as supplied by the underlying zlib implementation.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ The gzip header OS byte is guaranteed to be set to 255 when this function
+ is used as was the case in 3.10 and earlier.
.. function:: decompress(data)
@@ -251,12 +253,16 @@ Example of how to GZIP compress a binary string::
The basic data compression module needed to support the :program:`gzip` file
format.
+ In case gzip (de)compression is a bottleneck, the `python-isal`_
+ package speeds up (de)compression with a mostly compatible API.
+
+ .. _python-isal: https://github.com/pycompression/python-isal
.. program:: gzip
.. _gzip-cli:
-Command Line Interface
+Command-line interface
----------------------
The :mod:`gzip` module provides a simple command line interface to compress or
@@ -269,7 +275,7 @@ Once executed the :mod:`gzip` module keeps the input file(s).
Add a new command line interface with a usage.
By default, when you will execute the CLI, the default compression level is 6.
-Command line options
+Command-line options
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
.. option:: file
diff --git a/Doc/library/hashlib.rst b/Doc/library/hashlib.rst
index aa0c6fc503e8ff2..862bb91b06a50e4 100644
--- a/Doc/library/hashlib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/hashlib.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`hashlib` --- Secure hashes and message digests
-====================================================
+:mod:`!hashlib` --- Secure hashes and message digests
+=====================================================
.. module:: hashlib
:synopsis: Secure hash and message digest algorithms.
@@ -20,13 +20,11 @@
--------------
-This module implements a common interface to many different secure hash and
-message digest algorithms. Included are the FIPS secure hash algorithms SHA1,
-SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, SHA512, (defined in `the FIPS 180-4 standard`_),
-the SHA-3 series (defined in `the FIPS 202 standard`_) as well as RSA's MD5
-algorithm (defined in internet :rfc:`1321`). The terms "secure hash" and
-"message digest" are interchangeable. Older algorithms were called message
-digests. The modern term is secure hash.
+This module implements a common interface to many different hash algorithms.
+Included are the FIPS secure hash algorithms SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, SHA512,
+(defined in `the FIPS 180-4 standard`_), the SHA-3 series (defined in `the FIPS
+202 standard`_) as well as the legacy algorithms SHA1 (`formerly part of FIPS`_)
+and the MD5 algorithm (defined in internet :rfc:`1321`).
.. note::
@@ -272,7 +270,10 @@ a file or file-like object.
*fileobj* must be a file-like object opened for reading in binary mode.
It accepts file objects from builtin :func:`open`, :class:`~io.BytesIO`
instances, SocketIO objects from :meth:`socket.socket.makefile`, and
- similar. The function may bypass Python's I/O and use the file descriptor
+ similar. *fileobj* must be opened in blocking mode, otherwise a
+ :exc:`BlockingIOError` may be raised.
+
+ The function may bypass Python's I/O and use the file descriptor
from :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` directly. *fileobj* must be assumed to be
in an unknown state after this function returns or raises. It is up to
the caller to close *fileobj*.
@@ -283,7 +284,7 @@ a file or file-like object.
Example:
>>> import io, hashlib, hmac
- >>> with open(hashlib.__file__, "rb") as f:
+ >>> with open("library/hashlib.rst", "rb") as f:
... digest = hashlib.file_digest(f, "sha256")
...
>>> digest.hexdigest() # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
@@ -301,6 +302,10 @@ a file or file-like object.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.4
+ Now raises a :exc:`BlockingIOError` if the file is opened in non-blocking
+ mode. Previously, spurious null bytes were added to the digest.
+
Key derivation
--------------
@@ -328,7 +333,7 @@ include a `salt <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_%28cryptography%29>`_.
your application, read *Appendix A.2.2* of NIST-SP-800-132_. The answers
on the `stackexchange pbkdf2 iterations question`_ explain in detail.
- *dklen* is the length of the derived key. If *dklen* is ``None`` then the
+ *dklen* is the length of the derived key in bytes. If *dklen* is ``None`` then the
digest size of the hash algorithm *hash_name* is used, e.g. 64 for SHA-512.
>>> from hashlib import pbkdf2_hmac
@@ -357,7 +362,7 @@ include a `salt <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_%28cryptography%29>`_.
*n* is the CPU/Memory cost factor, *r* the block size, *p* parallelization
factor and *maxmem* limits memory (OpenSSL 1.1.0 defaults to 32 MiB).
- *dklen* is the length of the derived key.
+ *dklen* is the length of the derived key in bytes.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
@@ -655,7 +660,7 @@ on the hash function used in digital signatures.
by the signer.
(`NIST SP-800-106 "Randomized Hashing for Digital Signatures"
- <https://csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/sp/800-106/archive/2009-02-25>`_)
+ <https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/sp/800/106/final>`_)
In BLAKE2 the salt is processed as a one-time input to the hash function during
initialization, rather than as an input to each compression function.
@@ -809,9 +814,10 @@ Domain Dedication 1.0 Universal:
.. _NIST-SP-800-132: https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-132.pdf
.. _stackexchange pbkdf2 iterations question: https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/3959/recommended-of-iterations-when-using-pbkdf2-sha256/
.. _Attacks on cryptographic hash algorithms: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function#Attacks_on_cryptographic_hash_algorithms
-.. _the FIPS 180-4 standard: https://csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/fips/180/4/final
-.. _the FIPS 202 standard: https://csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/fips/202/final
+.. _the FIPS 180-4 standard: https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/180-4/upd1/final
+.. _the FIPS 202 standard: https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final
.. _HACL\* project: https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star
+.. _formerly part of FIPS: https://csrc.nist.gov/news/2023/decision-to-revise-fips-180-4
.. _hashlib-seealso:
@@ -827,7 +833,7 @@ Domain Dedication 1.0 Universal:
https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/fips/nist.fips.180-4.pdf
The FIPS 180-4 publication on Secure Hash Algorithms.
- https://csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/fips/202/final
+ https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final
The FIPS 202 publication on the SHA-3 Standard.
https://www.blake2.net/
diff --git a/Doc/library/heapq.rst b/Doc/library/heapq.rst
index ad407141a2f5902..4db2a4eca8dbbda 100644
--- a/Doc/library/heapq.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/heapq.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`heapq` --- Heap queue algorithm
-=====================================
+:mod:`!heapq` --- Heap queue algorithm
+======================================
.. module:: heapq
:synopsis: Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue).
@@ -42,6 +42,11 @@ populated list into a heap via function :func:`heapify`.
The following functions are provided:
+.. function:: heapify(x)
+
+ Transform list *x* into a heap, in-place, in linear time.
+
+
.. function:: heappush(heap, item)
Push the value *item* onto the *heap*, maintaining the heap invariant.
@@ -61,11 +66,6 @@ The following functions are provided:
followed by a separate call to :func:`heappop`.
-.. function:: heapify(x)
-
- Transform list *x* into a heap, in-place, in linear time.
-
-
.. function:: heapreplace(heap, item)
Pop and return the smallest item from the *heap*, and also push the new *item*.
diff --git a/Doc/library/hmac.rst b/Doc/library/hmac.rst
index 43012e03c580e8f..d5608bd7543eb18 100644
--- a/Doc/library/hmac.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/hmac.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`hmac` --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication
-========================================================
+:mod:`!hmac` --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication
+=========================================================
.. module:: hmac
:synopsis: Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation
@@ -12,6 +12,9 @@
--------------
This module implements the HMAC algorithm as described by :rfc:`2104`.
+The interface allows to use any hash function with a *fixed* digest size.
+In particular, extendable output functions such as SHAKE-128 or SHAKE-256
+cannot be used with HMAC.
.. function:: new(key, msg=None, digestmod)
@@ -47,7 +50,9 @@ This module implements the HMAC algorithm as described by :rfc:`2104`.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
-An HMAC object has the following methods:
+.. class:: HMAC
+
+ An HMAC object has the following methods:
.. method:: HMAC.update(msg)
diff --git a/Doc/library/html.entities.rst b/Doc/library/html.entities.rst
index 10529561a92cd03..add18e4c87d2204 100644
--- a/Doc/library/html.entities.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/html.entities.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`html.entities` --- Definitions of HTML general entities
-=============================================================
+:mod:`!html.entities` --- Definitions of HTML general entities
+==============================================================
.. module:: html.entities
:synopsis: Definitions of HTML general entities.
diff --git a/Doc/library/html.parser.rst b/Doc/library/html.parser.rst
index d35090111e0822c..a673fd3df911ccc 100644
--- a/Doc/library/html.parser.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/html.parser.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`html.parser` --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser
-===================================================
+:mod:`!html.parser` --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser
+====================================================
.. module:: html.parser
:synopsis: A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML.
@@ -15,14 +15,18 @@
This module defines a class :class:`HTMLParser` which serves as the basis for
parsing text files formatted in HTML (HyperText Mark-up Language) and XHTML.
-.. class:: HTMLParser(*, convert_charrefs=True)
+.. class:: HTMLParser(*, convert_charrefs=True, scripting=False)
Create a parser instance able to parse invalid markup.
- If *convert_charrefs* is ``True`` (the default), all character
- references (except the ones in ``script``/``style`` elements) are
+ If *convert_charrefs* is true (the default), all character
+ references (except the ones in elements like ``script`` and ``style``) are
automatically converted to the corresponding Unicode characters.
+ If *scripting* is false (the default), the content of the ``noscript``
+ element is parsed normally; if it's true, it's returned as is without
+ being parsed.
+
An :class:`.HTMLParser` instance is fed HTML data and calls handler methods
when start tags, end tags, text, comments, and other markup elements are
encountered. The user should subclass :class:`.HTMLParser` and override its
@@ -37,13 +41,18 @@ parsing text files formatted in HTML (HyperText Mark-up Language) and XHTML.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
The default value for argument *convert_charrefs* is now ``True``.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.10
+ Added the *scripting* parameter.
+
Example HTML Parser Application
-------------------------------
As a basic example, below is a simple HTML parser that uses the
:class:`HTMLParser` class to print out start tags, end tags, and data
-as they are encountered::
+as they are encountered:
+
+.. testcode::
from html.parser import HTMLParser
@@ -63,7 +72,7 @@ as they are encountered::
The output will then be:
-.. code-block:: none
+.. testoutput::
Encountered a start tag: html
Encountered a start tag: head
@@ -132,7 +141,7 @@ implementations do nothing (except for :meth:`~HTMLParser.handle_startendtag`):
argument is a list of ``(name, value)`` pairs containing the attributes found
inside the tag's ``<>`` brackets. The *name* will be translated to lower case,
and quotes in the *value* have been removed, and character and entity references
- have been replaced.
+ have been replaced. For empty attributes, *value* is ``None``.
For instance, for the tag ``<A HREF="https://www.cwi.nl/">``, this method
would be called as ``handle_starttag('a', [('href', 'https://www.cwi.nl/')])``.
@@ -159,15 +168,15 @@ implementations do nothing (except for :meth:`~HTMLParser.handle_startendtag`):
.. method:: HTMLParser.handle_data(data)
This method is called to process arbitrary data (e.g. text nodes and the
- content of ``<script>...</script>`` and ``<style>...</style>``).
+ content of elements like ``script`` and ``style``).
.. method:: HTMLParser.handle_entityref(name)
This method is called to process a named character reference of the form
``&name;`` (e.g. ``>``), where *name* is a general entity reference
- (e.g. ``'gt'``). This method is never called if *convert_charrefs* is
- ``True``.
+ (e.g. ``'gt'``).
+ This method is only called if *convert_charrefs* is false.
.. method:: HTMLParser.handle_charref(name)
@@ -175,8 +184,8 @@ implementations do nothing (except for :meth:`~HTMLParser.handle_startendtag`):
This method is called to process decimal and hexadecimal numeric character
references of the form :samp:`&#{NNN};` and :samp:`&#x{NNN};`. For example, the decimal
equivalent for ``>`` is ``>``, whereas the hexadecimal is ``>``;
- in this case the method will receive ``'62'`` or ``'x3E'``. This method
- is never called if *convert_charrefs* is ``True``.
+ in this case the method will receive ``'62'`` or ``'x3E'``.
+ This method is only called if *convert_charrefs* is false.
.. method:: HTMLParser.handle_comment(data)
@@ -230,7 +239,9 @@ Examples
--------
The following class implements a parser that will be used to illustrate more
-examples::
+examples:
+
+.. testcode::
from html.parser import HTMLParser
from html.entities import name2codepoint
@@ -266,13 +277,17 @@ examples::
parser = MyHTMLParser()
-Parsing a doctype::
+Parsing a doctype:
+
+.. doctest::
>>> parser.feed('<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" '
... '"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">')
Decl : DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"
-Parsing an element with a few attributes and a title::
+Parsing an element with a few attributes and a title:
+
+.. doctest::
>>> parser.feed('<img src="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.compython-logo.png" alt="The Python logo">')
Start tag: img
@@ -284,8 +299,10 @@ Parsing an element with a few attributes and a title::
Data : Python
End tag : h1
-The content of ``script`` and ``style`` elements is returned as is, without
-further parsing::
+The content of elements like ``script`` and ``style`` is returned as is,
+without further parsing:
+
+.. doctest::
>>> parser.feed('<style type="text/css">#python { color: green }</style>')
Start tag: style
@@ -294,22 +311,43 @@ further parsing::
End tag : style
>>> parser.feed('<script type="text/javascript">'
- ... 'alert("<strong>hello!</strong>");</script>')
+ ... 'alert("<strong>hello! ☺</strong>");</script>')
Start tag: script
attr: ('type', 'text/javascript')
- Data : alert("<strong>hello!</strong>");
+ Data : alert("<strong>hello! ☺</strong>");
End tag : script
-Parsing comments::
+Attribute names are converted to lowercase, quotes from attribute values removed,
+and ``None`` is returned as *value* for empty attributes (such as ``checked``):
+
+.. doctest::
- >>> parser.feed('<!-- a comment -->'
+ >>> parser.feed("<input TYPE='checkbox' checked required='' disabled=disabled>")
+ Start tag: input
+ attr: ('type', 'checkbox')
+ attr: ('checked', None)
+ attr: ('required', '')
+ attr: ('disabled', 'disabled')
+
+Parsing comments:
+
+.. doctest::
+
+ >>> parser.feed('<!--a comment-->'
... '<!--[if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]-->')
- Comment : a comment
+ Comment : a comment
Comment : [if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]
Parsing named and numeric character references and converting them to the
-correct char (note: these 3 references are all equivalent to ``'>'``)::
+correct char (note: these 3 references are all equivalent to ``'>'``):
+
+.. doctest::
+ >>> parser = MyHTMLParser()
+ >>> parser.feed('>>>')
+ Data : >>>
+
+ >>> parser = MyHTMLParser(convert_charrefs=False)
>>> parser.feed('>>>')
Named ent: >
Num ent : >
@@ -317,18 +355,22 @@ correct char (note: these 3 references are all equivalent to ``'>'``)::
Feeding incomplete chunks to :meth:`~HTMLParser.feed` works, but
:meth:`~HTMLParser.handle_data` might be called more than once
-(unless *convert_charrefs* is set to ``True``)::
+if *convert_charrefs* is false:
- >>> for chunk in ['<sp', 'an>buff', 'ered ', 'text</s', 'pan>']:
+.. doctest::
+
+ >>> for chunk in ['<sp', 'an>buff', 'ered', ' text</s', 'pan>']:
... parser.feed(chunk)
...
Start tag: span
Data : buff
Data : ered
- Data : text
+ Data : text
End tag : span
-Parsing invalid HTML (e.g. unquoted attributes) also works::
+Parsing invalid HTML (e.g. unquoted attributes) also works:
+
+.. doctest::
>>> parser.feed('<p><a class=link href=#main>tag soup</p ></a>')
Start tag: p
diff --git a/Doc/library/html.rst b/Doc/library/html.rst
index c2b01e14ea75556..65c49a4107a0487 100644
--- a/Doc/library/html.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/html.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`html` --- HyperText Markup Language support
-=================================================
+:mod:`!html` --- HyperText Markup Language support
+==================================================
.. module:: html
:synopsis: Helpers for manipulating HTML.
@@ -14,9 +14,12 @@ This module defines utilities to manipulate HTML.
Convert the characters ``&``, ``<`` and ``>`` in string *s* to HTML-safe
sequences. Use this if you need to display text that might contain such
- characters in HTML. If the optional flag *quote* is true, the characters
- (``"``) and (``'``) are also translated; this helps for inclusion in an HTML
- attribute value delimited by quotes, as in ``<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com...">``.
+ characters in HTML. If the optional flag *quote* is true (the default), the
+ characters (``"``) and (``'``) are also translated; this helps for inclusion
+ in an HTML attribute value delimited by quotes, as in ``<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com...">``.
+ If *quote* is set to false, the characters (``"``) and (``'``) are not
+ translated.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.2
diff --git a/Doc/library/http.client.rst b/Doc/library/http.client.rst
index 7e4502064f22a15..14c67a0600f7287 100644
--- a/Doc/library/http.client.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/http.client.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`http.client` --- HTTP protocol client
-===========================================
+:mod:`!http.client` --- HTTP protocol client
+============================================
.. module:: http.client
:synopsis: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets).
@@ -125,7 +125,7 @@ This module provides the following function:
Parse the headers from a file pointer *fp* representing a HTTP
request/response. The file has to be a :class:`~io.BufferedIOBase` reader
- (i.e. not text) and must provide a valid :rfc:`2822` style header.
+ (i.e. not text) and must provide a valid :rfc:`5322` style header.
This function returns an instance of :class:`http.client.HTTPMessage`
that holds the header fields, but no payload
@@ -311,6 +311,12 @@ HTTPConnection Objects
:class:`str` or bytes-like object that is not also a file as the
body representation.
+ .. note::
+
+ Note that you must have read the whole response or call :meth:`close`
+ if :meth:`getresponse` raised an non-:exc:`ConnectionError` exception
+ before you can send a new request to the server.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
*body* can now be an iterable.
@@ -326,16 +332,15 @@ HTTPConnection Objects
Should be called after a request is sent to get the response from the server.
Returns an :class:`HTTPResponse` instance.
- .. note::
-
- Note that you must have read the whole response before you can send a new
- request to the server.
-
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
If a :exc:`ConnectionError` or subclass is raised, the
:class:`HTTPConnection` object will be ready to reconnect when
a new request is sent.
+ Note that this does not apply to :exc:`OSError`\s raised by the underlying
+ socket. Instead the caller is responsible to call :meth:`close` on the
+ existing connection.
+
.. method:: HTTPConnection.set_debuglevel(level)
diff --git a/Doc/library/http.cookiejar.rst b/Doc/library/http.cookiejar.rst
index 2fe188be641c2d1..52d7eb3ecb14174 100644
--- a/Doc/library/http.cookiejar.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/http.cookiejar.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`http.cookiejar` --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients
-==========================================================
+:mod:`!http.cookiejar` --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients
+===========================================================
.. module:: http.cookiejar
:synopsis: Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies.
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
--------------
The :mod:`http.cookiejar` module defines classes for automatic handling of HTTP
-cookies. It is useful for accessing web sites that require small pieces of data
+cookies. It is useful for accessing websites that require small pieces of data
-- :dfn:`cookies` -- to be set on the client machine by an HTTP response from a
web server, and then returned to the server in later HTTP requests.
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ introduced with RFC 2965.
.. note::
The various named parameters found in :mailheader:`Set-Cookie` and
- :mailheader:`Set-Cookie2` headers (eg. ``domain`` and ``expires``) are
+ :mailheader:`Set-Cookie2` headers (for example, ``domain`` and ``expires``) are
conventionally referred to as :dfn:`attributes`. To distinguish them from
Python attributes, the documentation for this module uses the term
:dfn:`cookie-attribute` instead.
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ The following classes are provided:
Constructor arguments should be passed as keyword arguments only.
*blocked_domains* is a sequence of domain names that we never accept cookies
- from, nor return cookies to. *allowed_domains* if not :const:`None`, this is a
+ from, nor return cookies to. *allowed_domains* if not ``None``, this is a
sequence of the only domains for which we accept and return cookies.
*secure_protocols* is a sequence of protocols for which secure cookies can be
added to. By default *https* and *wss* (secure websocket) are considered
@@ -96,12 +96,12 @@ The following classes are provided:
:class:`CookiePolicy` and :class:`DefaultCookiePolicy` objects.
:class:`DefaultCookiePolicy` implements the standard accept / reject rules for
- Netscape and :rfc:`2965` cookies. By default, :rfc:`2109` cookies (ie. cookies
+ Netscape and :rfc:`2965` cookies. By default, :rfc:`2109` cookies (that is, cookies
received in a :mailheader:`Set-Cookie` header with a version cookie-attribute of
1) are treated according to the RFC 2965 rules. However, if RFC 2965 handling
is turned off or :attr:`rfc2109_as_netscape` is ``True``, RFC 2109 cookies are
'downgraded' by the :class:`CookieJar` instance to Netscape cookies, by
- setting the :attr:`version` attribute of the :class:`Cookie` instance to 0.
+ setting the :attr:`~Cookie.version` attribute of the :class:`Cookie` instance to 0.
:class:`DefaultCookiePolicy` also provides some parameters to allow some
fine-tuning of policy.
@@ -110,7 +110,7 @@ The following classes are provided:
This class represents Netscape, :rfc:`2109` and :rfc:`2965` cookies. It is not
expected that users of :mod:`http.cookiejar` construct their own :class:`Cookie`
- instances. Instead, if necessary, call :meth:`make_cookies` on a
+ instances. Instead, if necessary, call :meth:`~CookieJar.make_cookies` on a
:class:`CookieJar` instance.
@@ -137,14 +137,14 @@ The following classes are provided:
The Netscape protocol with the bugs fixed. Uses :mailheader:`Set-Cookie2` in
place of :mailheader:`Set-Cookie`. Not widely used.
- http://kristol.org/cookie/errata.html
+ https://kristol.org/cookie/errata.html
Unfinished errata to :rfc:`2965`.
:rfc:`2964` - Use of HTTP State Management
.. _cookie-jar-objects:
-CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects
+CookieJar and FileCookieJar objects
-----------------------------------
:class:`CookieJar` objects support the :term:`iterator` protocol for iterating over
@@ -157,20 +157,27 @@ contained :class:`Cookie` objects.
Add correct :mailheader:`Cookie` header to *request*.
- If policy allows (ie. the :attr:`rfc2965` and :attr:`hide_cookie2` attributes of
+ If policy allows (that is, the :attr:`~CookiePolicy.rfc2965` and
+ :attr:`~CookiePolicy.hide_cookie2` attributes of
the :class:`CookieJar`'s :class:`CookiePolicy` instance are true and false
respectively), the :mailheader:`Cookie2` header is also added when appropriate.
The *request* object (usually a :class:`urllib.request.Request` instance)
- must support the methods :meth:`get_full_url`, :meth:`has_header`,
- :meth:`get_header`, :meth:`header_items`, :meth:`add_unredirected_header`
- and the attributes :attr:`host`, :attr:`!type`, :attr:`unverifiable`
- and :attr:`origin_req_host` as documented by :mod:`urllib.request`.
+ must support the methods :meth:`~urllib.request.Request.get_full_url`,
+ :meth:`~urllib.request.Request.has_header`,
+ :meth:`~urllib.request.Request.get_header`,
+ :meth:`~urllib.request.Request.header_items`,
+ :meth:`~urllib.request.Request.add_unredirected_header`
+ and the attributes :attr:`~urllib.request.Request.host`,
+ :attr:`~urllib.request.Request.type`, :attr:`~urllib.request.Request.unverifiable`
+ and :attr:`~urllib.request.Request.origin_req_host` as documented by
+ :mod:`urllib.request`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
- *request* object needs :attr:`origin_req_host` attribute. Dependency on a
- deprecated method :meth:`get_origin_req_host` has been removed.
+ *request* object needs :attr:`~urllib.request.Request.origin_req_host`
+ attribute. Dependency on a deprecated method
+ :meth:`!get_origin_req_host` has been removed.
.. method:: CookieJar.extract_cookies(response, request)
@@ -183,20 +190,24 @@ contained :class:`Cookie` objects.
as appropriate (subject to the :meth:`CookiePolicy.set_ok` method's approval).
The *response* object (usually the result of a call to
- :meth:`urllib.request.urlopen`, or similar) should support an :meth:`info`
- method, which returns an :class:`email.message.Message` instance.
+ :meth:`urllib.request.urlopen`, or similar) should support an
+ :meth:`~http.client.HTTPResponse.info` method, which returns an
+ :class:`email.message.Message` instance.
The *request* object (usually a :class:`urllib.request.Request` instance)
- must support the method :meth:`get_full_url` and the attributes
- :attr:`host`, :attr:`unverifiable` and :attr:`origin_req_host`,
+ must support the method :meth:`~urllib.request.Request.get_full_url` and
+ the attributes :attr:`~urllib.request.Request.host`,
+ :attr:`~urllib.request.Request.unverifiable`
+ and :attr:`~urllib.request.Request.origin_req_host`,
as documented by :mod:`urllib.request`. The request is used to set
default values for cookie-attributes as well as for checking that the
cookie is allowed to be set.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
- *request* object needs :attr:`origin_req_host` attribute. Dependency on a
- deprecated method :meth:`get_origin_req_host` has been removed.
+ *request* object needs :attr:`~urllib.request.Request.origin_req_host`
+ attribute. Dependency on a deprecated method
+ :meth:`!get_origin_req_host` has been removed.
.. method:: CookieJar.set_policy(policy)
@@ -239,13 +250,13 @@ contained :class:`Cookie` objects.
Discard all session cookies.
- Discards all contained cookies that have a true :attr:`discard` attribute
+ Discards all contained cookies that have a true :attr:`~Cookie.discard` attribute
(usually because they had either no ``max-age`` or ``expires`` cookie-attribute,
or an explicit ``discard`` cookie-attribute). For interactive browsers, the end
of a session usually corresponds to closing the browser window.
- Note that the :meth:`save` method won't save session cookies anyway, unless you
- ask otherwise by passing a true *ignore_discard* argument.
+ Note that the :meth:`~FileCookieJar.save` method won't save session cookies
+ anyway, unless you ask otherwise by passing a true *ignore_discard* argument.
:class:`FileCookieJar` implements the following additional methods:
@@ -258,8 +269,9 @@ contained :class:`Cookie` objects.
method unimplemented.
*filename* is the name of file in which to save cookies. If *filename* is not
- specified, :attr:`self.filename` is used (whose default is the value passed to
- the constructor, if any); if :attr:`self.filename` is :const:`None`,
+ specified, :attr:`self.filename <FileCookieJar.filename>` is used (whose
+ default is the value passed to the constructor, if any); if
+ :attr:`self.filename <FileCookieJar.filename>` is ``None``,
:exc:`ValueError` is raised.
*ignore_discard*: save even cookies set to be discarded. *ignore_expires*: save
@@ -352,7 +364,7 @@ writing.
.. _cookie-policy-objects:
-CookiePolicy Objects
+CookiePolicy objects
--------------------
Objects implementing the :class:`CookiePolicy` interface have the following
@@ -436,7 +448,7 @@ setting and receiving any and all cookies (this is unlikely to be useful).
.. _default-cookie-policy-objects:
-DefaultCookiePolicy Objects
+DefaultCookiePolicy objects
---------------------------
Implements the standard rules for accepting and returning cookies.
@@ -466,10 +478,10 @@ blocking some benign cookies).
A domain blocklist and allowlist is provided (both off by default). Only domains
not in the blocklist and present in the allowlist (if the allowlist is active)
participate in cookie setting and returning. Use the *blocked_domains*
-constructor argument, and :meth:`blocked_domains` and
-:meth:`set_blocked_domains` methods (and the corresponding argument and methods
-for *allowed_domains*). If you set an allowlist, you can turn it off again by
-setting it to :const:`None`.
+constructor argument, and :meth:`~DefaultCookiePolicy.blocked_domains` and
+:meth:`~DefaultCookiePolicy.set_blocked_domains` methods (and the corresponding
+argument and methods for *allowed_domains*). If you set an allowlist, you can
+turn it off again by setting it to ``None``.
Domains in block or allow lists that do not start with a dot must equal the
cookie domain to be matched. For example, ``"example.com"`` matches a blocklist
@@ -501,12 +513,12 @@ and ``".168.1.2"``, 192.168.1.2 is blocked, but 193.168.1.2 is not.
.. method:: DefaultCookiePolicy.allowed_domains()
- Return :const:`None`, or the sequence of allowed domains (as a tuple).
+ Return ``None``, or the sequence of allowed domains (as a tuple).
.. method:: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_allowed_domains(allowed_domains)
- Set the sequence of allowed domains, or :const:`None`.
+ Set the sequence of allowed domains, or ``None``.
.. method:: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_not_allowed(domain)
@@ -522,9 +534,9 @@ all be assigned to.
.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape
If true, request that the :class:`CookieJar` instance downgrade :rfc:`2109` cookies
- (ie. cookies received in a :mailheader:`Set-Cookie` header with a version
+ (that is, cookies received in a :mailheader:`Set-Cookie` header with a version
cookie-attribute of 1) to Netscape cookies by setting the version attribute of
- the :class:`Cookie` instance to 0. The default value is :const:`None`, in which
+ the :class:`Cookie` instance to 0. The default value is ``None``, in which
case RFC 2109 cookies are downgraded if and only if :rfc:`2965` handling is turned
off. Therefore, RFC 2109 cookies are downgraded by default.
@@ -570,14 +582,14 @@ Netscape protocol strictness switches:
Don't allow setting cookies whose path doesn't path-match request URI.
-:attr:`strict_ns_domain` is a collection of flags. Its value is constructed by
+:attr:`~DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_domain` is a collection of flags. Its value is constructed by
or-ing together (for example, ``DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain`` means
both flags are set).
.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNoDots
- When setting cookies, the 'host prefix' must not contain a dot (eg.
+ When setting cookies, the 'host prefix' must not contain a dot (for example,
``www.foo.bar.com`` can't set a cookie for ``.bar.com``, because ``www.foo``
contains a dot).
@@ -585,7 +597,7 @@ both flags are set).
.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNonDomain
Cookies that did not explicitly specify a ``domain`` cookie-attribute can only
- be returned to a domain equal to the domain that set the cookie (eg.
+ be returned to a domain equal to the domain that set the cookie (for example,
``spam.example.com`` won't be returned cookies from ``example.com`` that had no
``domain`` cookie-attribute).
@@ -600,7 +612,7 @@ combinations of the above flags:
.. attribute:: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal
- Equivalent to 0 (ie. all of the above Netscape domain strictness flags switched
+ Equivalent to 0 (that is, all of the above Netscape domain strictness flags switched
off).
@@ -609,7 +621,7 @@ combinations of the above flags:
Equivalent to ``DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain``.
-Cookie Objects
+Cookie objects
--------------
:class:`Cookie` instances have Python attributes roughly corresponding to the
@@ -627,7 +639,7 @@ internal consistency, so you should know what you're doing if you do that.
.. attribute:: Cookie.version
- Integer or :const:`None`. Netscape cookies have :attr:`version` 0. :rfc:`2965` and
+ Integer or ``None``. Netscape cookies have :attr:`version` 0. :rfc:`2965` and
:rfc:`2109` cookies have a ``version`` cookie-attribute of 1. However, note that
:mod:`http.cookiejar` may 'downgrade' RFC 2109 cookies to Netscape cookies, in which
case :attr:`version` is 0.
@@ -640,13 +652,13 @@ internal consistency, so you should know what you're doing if you do that.
.. attribute:: Cookie.value
- Cookie value (a string), or :const:`None`.
+ Cookie value (a string), or ``None``.
.. attribute:: Cookie.port
- String representing a port or a set of ports (eg. '80', or '80,8080'), or
- :const:`None`.
+ String representing a port or a set of ports (for example, '80', or '80,8080'), or
+ ``None``.
.. attribute:: Cookie.domain
@@ -656,7 +668,7 @@ internal consistency, so you should know what you're doing if you do that.
.. attribute:: Cookie.path
- Cookie path (a string, eg. ``'/acme/rocket_launchers'``).
+ Cookie path (a string, for example, ``'/acme/rocket_launchers'``).
.. attribute:: Cookie.secure
@@ -666,7 +678,7 @@ internal consistency, so you should know what you're doing if you do that.
.. attribute:: Cookie.expires
- Integer expiry date in seconds since epoch, or :const:`None`. See also the
+ Integer expiry date in seconds since epoch, or ``None``. See also the
:meth:`is_expired` method.
@@ -678,18 +690,18 @@ internal consistency, so you should know what you're doing if you do that.
.. attribute:: Cookie.comment
String comment from the server explaining the function of this cookie, or
- :const:`None`.
+ ``None``.
.. attribute:: Cookie.comment_url
URL linking to a comment from the server explaining the function of this cookie,
- or :const:`None`.
+ or ``None``.
.. attribute:: Cookie.rfc2109
- ``True`` if this cookie was received as an :rfc:`2109` cookie (ie. the cookie
+ ``True`` if this cookie was received as an :rfc:`2109` cookie (that is, the cookie
arrived in a :mailheader:`Set-Cookie` header, and the value of the Version
cookie-attribute in that header was 1). This attribute is provided because
:mod:`http.cookiejar` may 'downgrade' RFC 2109 cookies to Netscape cookies, in
diff --git a/Doc/library/http.cookies.rst b/Doc/library/http.cookies.rst
index e91972fe621a484..ecf865b195cf628 100644
--- a/Doc/library/http.cookies.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/http.cookies.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`http.cookies` --- HTTP state management
-=============================================
+:mod:`!http.cookies` --- HTTP state management
+==============================================
.. module:: http.cookies
:synopsis: Support for HTTP state management (cookies).
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ Cookie Objects
.. method:: BaseCookie.output(attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:', sep='\r\n')
Return a string representation suitable to be sent as HTTP headers. *attrs* and
- *header* are sent to each :class:`Morsel`'s :meth:`output` method. *sep* is used
+ *header* are sent to each :class:`Morsel`'s :meth:`~Morsel.output` method. *sep* is used
to join the headers together, and is by default the combination ``'\r\n'``
(CRLF).
@@ -147,9 +147,12 @@ Morsel Objects
in HTTP requests, and is not accessible through JavaScript. This is intended
to mitigate some forms of cross-site scripting.
- The attribute :attr:`samesite` specifies that the browser is not allowed to
- send the cookie along with cross-site requests. This helps to mitigate CSRF
- attacks. Valid values for this attribute are "Strict" and "Lax".
+ The attribute :attr:`samesite` controls when the browser sends the cookie with
+ cross-site requests. This helps to mitigate CSRF attacks. Valid values are
+ "Strict" (only sent with same-site requests), "Lax" (sent with same-site
+ requests and top-level navigations), and "None" (sent with same-site and
+ cross-site requests). When using "None", the "secure" attribute must also
+ be set, as required by modern browsers.
The keys are case-insensitive and their default value is ``''``.
@@ -272,9 +275,9 @@ The following example demonstrates how to use the :mod:`http.cookies` module.
Set-Cookie: chips=ahoy
Set-Cookie: vienna=finger
>>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
- >>> C.load('keebler="E=everybody; L=\\"Loves\\"; fudge=\\012;";')
+ >>> C.load('keebler="E=everybody; L=\\"Loves\\"; fudge=;";')
>>> print(C)
- Set-Cookie: keebler="E=everybody; L=\"Loves\"; fudge=\012;"
+ Set-Cookie: keebler="E=everybody; L=\"Loves\"; fudge=;"
>>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
>>> C["oreo"] = "doublestuff"
>>> C["oreo"]["path"] = "/"
diff --git a/Doc/library/http.rst b/Doc/library/http.rst
index 998d6e73f9dd82a..b0bdfc65e4508dd 100644
--- a/Doc/library/http.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/http.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`http` --- HTTP modules
-============================
+:mod:`!http` --- HTTP modules
+=============================
.. module:: http
:synopsis: HTTP status codes and messages
@@ -139,7 +139,8 @@ equal to the constant name (i.e. ``http.HTTPStatus.OK`` is also available as
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
Implemented RFC9110 naming for status constants. Old constant names are preserved for
- backwards compatibility.
+ backwards compatibility: ``413 REQUEST_ENTITY_TOO_LARGE``, ``414 REQUEST_URI_TOO_LONG``,
+ ``416 REQUESTED_RANGE_NOT_SATISFIABLE`` and ``422 UNPROCESSABLE_ENTITY``.
HTTP status category
--------------------
diff --git a/Doc/library/http.server.rst b/Doc/library/http.server.rst
index 886e359bd8cd621..c150e3c1f6206cc 100644
--- a/Doc/library/http.server.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/http.server.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`http.server` --- HTTP servers
-===================================
+:mod:`!http.server` --- HTTP servers
+====================================
.. module:: http.server
:synopsis: HTTP server and request handlers.
@@ -39,7 +39,17 @@ handler. Code to create and run the server looks like this::
This class builds on the :class:`~socketserver.TCPServer` class by storing
the server address as instance variables named :attr:`server_name` and
:attr:`server_port`. The server is accessible by the handler, typically
- through the handler's :attr:`server` instance variable.
+ through the handler's :attr:`~socketserver.BaseRequestHandler.server`
+ instance variable.
+
+ .. attribute:: server_name
+
+ The HTTP server's fully qualified domain name.
+
+ .. attribute:: server_port
+
+ The HTTP server's port number obtained from *server_address*.
+
.. class:: ThreadingHTTPServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass)
@@ -59,7 +69,7 @@ provides three different variants:
This class is used to handle the HTTP requests that arrive at the server. By
itself, it cannot respond to any actual HTTP requests; it must be subclassed
- to handle each request method (e.g. GET or POST).
+ to handle each request method (for example, ``'GET'`` or ``'POST'``).
:class:`BaseHTTPRequestHandler` provides a number of class and instance
variables, and methods for use by subclasses.
@@ -100,7 +110,7 @@ provides three different variants:
.. attribute:: path
- Contains the request path. If query component of the URL is present,
+ Contains the request path. If the query component of the URL is present,
then ``path`` includes the query. Using the terminology of :rfc:`3986`,
``path`` here includes ``hier-part`` and the ``query``.
@@ -114,7 +124,7 @@ provides three different variants:
variable. This instance parses and manages the headers in the HTTP
request. The :func:`~http.client.parse_headers` function from
:mod:`http.client` is used to parse the headers and it requires that the
- HTTP request provide a valid :rfc:`2822` style header.
+ HTTP request provide a valid :rfc:`5322` style header.
.. attribute:: rfile
@@ -150,7 +160,7 @@ provides three different variants:
Specifies a format string that should be used by :meth:`send_error` method
for building an error response to the client. The string is filled by
default with variables from :attr:`responses` based on the status code
- that passed to :meth:`send_error`.
+ passed to :meth:`send_error`.
.. attribute:: error_content_type
@@ -198,10 +208,10 @@ provides three different variants:
.. method:: handle_expect_100()
When an HTTP/1.1 conformant server receives an ``Expect: 100-continue``
- request header it responds back with a ``100 Continue`` followed by ``200
- OK`` headers.
+ request header it responds with a ``100 Continue`` followed by ``200 OK``
+ headers.
This method can be overridden to raise an error if the server does not
- want the client to continue. For e.g. server can choose to send ``417
+ want the client to continue. For example, the server can choose to send ``417
Expectation Failed`` as a response header and ``return False``.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
@@ -247,23 +257,27 @@ provides three different variants:
specifying its value. Note that, after the send_header calls are done,
:meth:`end_headers` MUST BE called in order to complete the operation.
+ This method does not reject input containing CRLF sequences.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
Headers are stored in an internal buffer.
.. method:: send_response_only(code, message=None)
Sends the response header only, used for the purposes when ``100
- Continue`` response is sent by the server to the client. The headers not
- buffered and sent directly the output stream.If the *message* is not
+ Continue`` response is sent by the server to the client. The headers are
+ not buffered and sent directly the output stream. If the *message* is not
specified, the HTTP message corresponding the response *code* is sent.
+ This method does not reject *message* containing CRLF sequences.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. method:: end_headers()
Adds a blank line
(indicating the end of the HTTP headers in the response)
- to the headers buffer and calls :meth:`flush_headers()`.
+ to the headers buffer and calls :meth:`flush_headers`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
The buffered headers are written to the output stream.
@@ -294,7 +308,7 @@ provides three different variants:
to create custom error logging mechanisms. The *format* argument is a
standard printf-style format string, where the additional arguments to
:meth:`log_message` are applied as inputs to the formatting. The client
- ip address and current date and time are prefixed to every message logged.
+ IP address and current date and time are prefixed to every message logged.
.. method:: version_string()
@@ -346,6 +360,14 @@ provides three different variants:
This will be ``"SimpleHTTP/" + __version__``, where ``__version__`` is
defined at the module level.
+ .. attribute:: index_pages
+
+ Specifies the filenames that are treated as directory index pages.
+
+ Defaults to ``("index.html", "index.htm")``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.12
+
.. attribute:: extensions_map
A dictionary mapping suffixes into MIME types, contains custom overrides
@@ -369,8 +391,8 @@ provides three different variants:
The request is mapped to a local file by interpreting the request as a
path relative to the current working directory.
- If the request was mapped to a directory, the directory is checked for a
- file named ``index.html`` or ``index.htm`` (in that order). If found, the
+ If the request was mapped to a directory, the directory is checked for
+ an index page as specified by :attr:`index_pages`. If found, the
file's contents are returned; otherwise a directory listing is generated
by calling the :meth:`list_directory` method. This method uses
:func:`os.listdir` to scan the directory, and returns a ``404`` error
@@ -378,7 +400,7 @@ provides three different variants:
If the request was mapped to a file, it is opened. Any :exc:`OSError`
exception in opening the requested file is mapped to a ``404``,
- ``'File not found'`` error. If there was a ``'If-Modified-Since'``
+ ``'File not found'`` error. If there was an ``'If-Modified-Since'``
header in the request, and the file was not modified after this time,
a ``304``, ``'Not Modified'`` response is sent. Otherwise, the content
type is guessed by calling the :meth:`guess_type` method, which in turn
@@ -389,8 +411,7 @@ provides three different variants:
``'Last-Modified:'`` header with the file's modification time.
Then follows a blank line signifying the end of the headers, and then the
- contents of the file are output. If the file's MIME type starts with
- ``text/`` the file is opened in text mode; otherwise binary mode is used.
+ contents of the file are output.
For example usage, see the implementation of the ``test`` function
in :source:`Lib/http/server.py`.
@@ -398,69 +419,49 @@ provides three different variants:
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Support of the ``'If-Modified-Since'`` header.
-The :class:`SimpleHTTPRequestHandler` class can be used in the following
-manner in order to create a very basic webserver serving files relative to
-the current directory::
-
- import http.server
- import socketserver
-
- PORT = 8000
-
- Handler = http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler
-
- with socketserver.TCPServer(("", PORT), Handler) as httpd:
- print("serving at port", PORT)
- httpd.serve_forever()
+ .. method:: list_directory(path)
+ Helper to list the contents of *path* when no index page is present.
-:class:`SimpleHTTPRequestHandler` can also be subclassed to enhance behavior,
-such as using different index file names by overriding the class attribute
-:attr:`index_pages`.
-
-.. _http-server-cli:
+ This returns either a :term:`file-like object` (which must be closed
+ by the caller) or ``None`` to indicate an error, in which case the
+ caller has nothing further to do. In either case, the headers are sent.
-:mod:`http.server` can also be invoked directly using the :option:`-m`
-switch of the interpreter. Similar to
-the previous example, this serves files relative to the current directory::
+ .. method:: guess_type(path)
- python -m http.server
+ Guess the type of the file at the given *path*.
-The server listens to port 8000 by default. The default can be overridden
-by passing the desired port number as an argument::
+ This returns a string of the form ``type/subtype``, usable for
+ a MIME Content-type header.
- python -m http.server 9000
+ The default implementation looks the file's extension up in
+ :attr:`extensions_map`, falling back to
+ :func:`mimetypes.guess_file_type` and then to
+ ``'application/octet-stream'``.
-By default, the server binds itself to all interfaces. The option ``-b/--bind``
-specifies a specific address to which it should bind. Both IPv4 and IPv6
-addresses are supported. For example, the following command causes the server
-to bind to localhost only::
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Add :func:`mimetypes.guess_file_type` as a fallback.
- python -m http.server --bind 127.0.0.1
-.. versionchanged:: 3.4
- Added the ``--bind`` option.
+The :class:`SimpleHTTPRequestHandler` class can be used to create a very basic
+webserver serving files relative to the current directory as follows::
-.. versionchanged:: 3.8
- Support IPv6 in the ``--bind`` option.
+ import http.server
+ import socketserver
-By default, the server uses the current directory. The option ``-d/--directory``
-specifies a directory to which it should serve the files. For example,
-the following command uses a specific directory::
+ PORT = 8000
- python -m http.server --directory /tmp/
+ Handler = http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler
-.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- Added the ``--directory`` option.
+ with socketserver.TCPServer(("", PORT), Handler) as httpd:
+ print("serving at port", PORT)
+ httpd.serve_forever()
-By default, the server is conformant to HTTP/1.0. The option ``-p/--protocol``
-specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant. For example, the
-following command runs an HTTP/1.1 conformant server::
- python -m http.server --protocol HTTP/1.1
+:class:`SimpleHTTPRequestHandler` can also be subclassed to enhance behavior,
+such as using different index file names by overriding the class attribute
+:attr:`~SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.index_pages`.
-.. versionchanged:: 3.11
- Added the ``--protocol`` option.
.. class:: CGIHTTPRequestHandler(request, client_address, server)
@@ -480,7 +481,9 @@ following command runs an HTTP/1.1 conformant server::
the other common server configuration is to treat special extensions as
denoting CGI scripts.
- The :func:`do_GET` and :func:`do_HEAD` functions are modified to run CGI scripts
+ The :func:`~SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_GET` and
+ :func:`~SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.do_HEAD` functions
+ are modified to run CGI scripts
and serve the output, instead of serving files, if the request leads to
somewhere below the ``cgi_directories`` path.
@@ -510,33 +513,110 @@ following command runs an HTTP/1.1 conformant server::
Retaining it could lead to further :ref:`security considerations
<http.server-security>`.
-:class:`CGIHTTPRequestHandler` can be enabled in the command line by passing
-the ``--cgi`` option::
- python -m http.server --cgi
+.. _http-server-cli:
+
+Command-line interface
+----------------------
+
+:mod:`http.server` can also be invoked directly using the :option:`-m`
+switch of the interpreter. The following example illustrates how to serve
+files relative to the current directory:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+ python -m http.server [OPTIONS] [port]
+
+The following options are accepted:
+
+.. program:: http.server
+
+.. option:: port
+
+ The server listens to port 8000 by default. The default can be overridden
+ by passing the desired port number as an argument:
+
+ .. code-block:: bash
+
+ python -m http.server 9000
+
+.. option:: -b, --bind <address>
+
+ Specifies a specific address to which it should bind. Both IPv4 and IPv6
+ addresses are supported. By default, the server binds itself to all
+ interfaces. For example, the following command causes the server to bind
+ to localhost only:
+
+ .. code-block:: bash
+
+ python -m http.server --bind 127.0.0.1
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.8
+ Support IPv6 in the ``--bind`` option.
-.. deprecated-removed:: 3.13 3.15
+.. option:: -d, --directory <dir>
- :mod:`http.server` command line ``--cgi`` support is being removed
- because :class:`CGIHTTPRequestHandler` is being removed.
+ Specifies a directory to which it should serve the files. By default,
+ the server uses the current directory. For example, the following command
+ uses a specific directory:
+
+ .. code-block:: bash
+
+ python -m http.server --directory /tmp/
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+.. option:: -p, --protocol <version>
+
+ Specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant. By default,
+ the server is conformant to HTTP/1.0. For example, the following command
+ runs an HTTP/1.1 conformant server:
+
+ .. code-block:: bash
+
+ python -m http.server --protocol HTTP/1.1
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.11
+
+.. option:: --cgi
+
+ :class:`CGIHTTPRequestHandler` can be enabled in the command line by passing
+ the ``--cgi`` option:
+
+ .. code-block:: bash
+
+ python -m http.server --cgi
+
+ .. deprecated-removed:: 3.13 3.15
+
+ :mod:`http.server` command line ``--cgi`` support is being removed
+ because :class:`CGIHTTPRequestHandler` is being removed.
.. warning::
- :class:`CGIHTTPRequestHandler` and the ``--cgi`` command line option
+ :class:`CGIHTTPRequestHandler` and the ``--cgi`` command-line option
are not intended for use by untrusted clients and may be vulnerable
to exploitation. Always use within a secure environment.
+
.. _http.server-security:
-Security Considerations
+Security considerations
-----------------------
.. index:: pair: http.server; security
:class:`SimpleHTTPRequestHandler` will follow symbolic links when handling
-requests, this makes it possible for files outside of the specified directory
+requests which makes it possible for files outside of the specified directory
to be served.
+Methods :meth:`BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_header` and
+:meth:`BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response_only` assume sanitized input
+and do not perform input validation such as checking for the presence of CRLF
+sequences. Untrusted input may result in HTTP header injection attacks.
+
Earlier versions of Python did not scrub control characters from the
log messages emitted to stderr from ``python -m http.server`` or the
default :class:`BaseHTTPRequestHandler` ``.log_message``
diff --git a/Doc/library/idle.rst b/Doc/library/idle.rst
index 17a5144b4c0635f..417c0ef6cabaa6a 100644
--- a/Doc/library/idle.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/idle.rst
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
.. _idle:
-IDLE
-====
+IDLE --- Python editor and shell
+================================
.. moduleauthor:: Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org>
@@ -12,6 +12,9 @@ IDLE
single: Python Editor
single: Integrated Development Environment
+..
+ Remember to update Lib/idlelib/help.html with idlelib.help.copy_strip() when modifying this file.
+
--------------
IDLE is Python's Integrated Development and Learning Environment.
@@ -34,6 +37,11 @@ IDLE has the following features:
* configuration, browsers, and other dialogs
+The IDLE application is implemented in the :mod:`idlelib` package.
+
+This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you).
+If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.
+
Menus
-----
@@ -85,7 +93,7 @@ Save
Save As...
Save the current window with a Save As dialog. The file saved becomes the
- new associated file for the window. (If your file namager is set to hide
+ new associated file for the window. (If your file manager is set to hide
extensions, the current extension will be omitted in the file name box.
If the new filename has no '.', '.py' and '.txt' will be added for Python
and text files, except that on macOS Aqua,'.py' is added for all files.)
@@ -151,7 +159,7 @@ Go to Line
Show Completions
Open a scrollable list allowing selection of existing names. See
- :ref:`Completions <completions>` in the Editing and navigation section below.
+ :ref:`Completions <completions>` in the Editing and Navigation section below.
Expand Word
Expand a prefix you have typed to match a full word in the same window;
@@ -160,7 +168,7 @@ Expand Word
Show Call Tip
After an unclosed parenthesis for a function, open a small window with
function parameter hints. See :ref:`Calltips <calltips>` in the
- Editing and navigation section below.
+ Editing and Navigation section below.
Show Surrounding Parens
Highlight the surrounding parenthesis.
@@ -171,9 +179,9 @@ Format menu (Editor window only)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Format Paragraph
- Reformat the current blank-line-delimited paragraph in comment block or
- multiline string or selected line in a string. All lines in the
- paragraph will be formatted to less than N columns, where N defaults to 72.
+ Rewrap the text block containing the text insert cursor.
+ Avoid code lines. See :ref:`Format block<format-block>` in the
+ Editing and Navigation section below.
Indent Region
Shift selected lines right by the indent width (default 4 spaces).
@@ -201,9 +209,9 @@ New Indent Width
Open a dialog to change indent width. The accepted default by the Python
community is 4 spaces.
-Strip Trailing Chitespace
+Strip Trailing Whitespace
Remove trailing space and other whitespace characters after the last
- non-whitespace character of a line by applying str.rstrip to each line,
+ non-whitespace character of a line by applying :meth:`str.rstrip` to each line,
including lines within multiline strings. Except for Shell windows,
remove extra newlines at the end of the file.
@@ -429,7 +437,7 @@ Several non-character keys move the cursor and possibly
delete characters. Deletion does not puts text on the clipboard,
but IDLE has an undo list. Wherever this doc discusses keys,
'C' refers to the :kbd:`Control` key on Windows and
-Unix and the :kbd:`Command` key on macOS. (And all such dicussions
+Unix and the :kbd:`Command` key on macOS. (And all such discussions
assume that the keys have not been re-bound to something else.)
* Arrow keys move the cursor one character or line.
@@ -559,6 +567,20 @@ In an editor, import statements have no effect until one runs the file.
One might want to run a file after writing import statements, after
adding function definitions, or after opening an existing file.
+.. _format-block:
+
+Format block
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Reformat Paragraph rewraps a block ('paragraph') of contiguous equally
+indented non-blank comments, a similar block of text within a multiline
+string, or a selected subset of either.
+If needed, add a blank line to separate string from code.
+Partial lines in a selection expand to complete lines.
+The resulting lines have the same indent as before
+but have maximum total length of N columns (characters).
+Change the default N of 72 on the Window tab of IDLE Settings.
+
.. _code-context:
Code Context
@@ -654,32 +676,66 @@ looked for in the user's home directory. Statements in this file will be
executed in the Tk namespace, so this file is not useful for importing
functions to be used from IDLE's Python shell.
-Command line usage
+.. _idlelib-cli:
+
+Command-line usage
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-.. code-block:: none
+.. program:: idle
+
+IDLE can be invoked from the command line with various options. The general syntax is:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+ python -m idlelib [options] [file ...]
+
+The following options are available:
+
+.. option:: -c <command>
+
+ Run the specified Python command in the shell window.
+ For example, pass ``-c "print('Hello, World!')"``.
+ On Windows, the outer quotes must be double quotes as shown.
+
+.. option:: -d
+
+ Enable the debugger and open the shell window.
+
+.. option:: -e
+
+ Open an editor window.
+
+.. option:: -h
+
+ Print a help message with legal combinations of options and exit.
+
+.. option:: -i
+
+ Open a shell window.
+
+.. option:: -r <file>
+
+ Run the specified file in the shell window.
+
+.. option:: -s
+
+ Run the startup file (as defined by the environment variables :envvar:`IDLESTARTUP` or :envvar:`PYTHONSTARTUP`) before opening the shell window.
+
+.. option:: -t <title>
+
+ Set the title of the shell window.
- idle.py [-c command] [-d] [-e] [-h] [-i] [-r file] [-s] [-t title] [-] [arg] ...
+.. option:: -
- -c command run command in the shell window
- -d enable debugger and open shell window
- -e open editor window
- -h print help message with legal combinations and exit
- -i open shell window
- -r file run file in shell window
- -s run $IDLESTARTUP or $PYTHONSTARTUP first, in shell window
- -t title set title of shell window
- - run stdin in shell (- must be last option before args)
+ Read and execute standard input in the shell window. This option must be the last one before any arguments.
-If there are arguments:
+If arguments are provided:
-* If ``-``, ``-c``, or ``r`` is used, all arguments are placed in
- ``sys.argv[1:...]`` and ``sys.argv[0]`` is set to ``''``, ``'-c'``,
- or ``'-r'``. No editor window is opened, even if that is the default
- set in the Options dialog.
+- If ``-``, ``-c``, or ``-r`` is used, all arguments are placed in ``sys.argv[1:]``,
+ and ``sys.argv[0]`` is set to ``''``, ``'-c'``, or ``'-r'`` respectively.
+ No editor window is opened, even if that is the default set in the *Options* dialog.
+- Otherwise, arguments are treated as files to be opened for editing, and ``sys.argv`` reflects the arguments passed to IDLE itself.
-* Otherwise, arguments are files opened for editing and
- ``sys.argv`` reflects the arguments passed to IDLE itself.
Startup failure
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
@@ -971,8 +1027,8 @@ information. The only current default extension is zzdummy, an example
also used for testing.
-idlelib
--------
+idlelib --- implementation of IDLE application
+----------------------------------------------
.. module:: idlelib
:synopsis: Implementation package for the IDLE shell/editor.
diff --git a/Doc/library/imaplib.rst b/Doc/library/imaplib.rst
index ccfd0cd3dde1091..8b191cdd3028c04 100644
--- a/Doc/library/imaplib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/imaplib.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`imaplib` --- IMAP4 protocol client
-========================================
+:mod:`!imaplib` --- IMAP4 protocol client
+=========================================
.. module:: imaplib
:synopsis: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets).
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@
This module defines three classes, :class:`IMAP4`, :class:`IMAP4_SSL` and
:class:`IMAP4_stream`, which encapsulate a connection to an IMAP4 server and
implement a large subset of the IMAP4rev1 client protocol as defined in
-:rfc:`2060`. It is backward compatible with IMAP4 (:rfc:`1730`) servers, but
+:rfc:`3501`. It is backward compatible with IMAP4 (:rfc:`1730`) servers, but
note that the ``STATUS`` command is not supported in IMAP4.
.. include:: ../includes/wasm-notavail.rst
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ base class:
initialized. If *host* is not specified, ``''`` (the local host) is used. If
*port* is omitted, the standard IMAP4 port (143) is used. The optional *timeout*
parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt.
- If timeout is not given or is None, the global default socket timeout is used.
+ If timeout is not given or is ``None``, the global default socket timeout is used.
The :class:`IMAP4` class supports the :keyword:`with` statement. When used
like this, the IMAP4 ``LOGOUT`` command is issued automatically when the
@@ -96,8 +96,15 @@ There's also a subclass for secure connections:
(potentially long-lived) structure. Please read :ref:`ssl-security` for
best practices.
+ .. note::
+
+ With the default *ssl_context*, the connection is encrypted but the
+ server certificate and hostname are not verified.
+ To verify them, pass a context created by
+ :func:`ssl.create_default_context`.
+
The optional *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the
- connection attempt. If timeout is not given or is None, the global default
+ connection attempt. If timeout is not given or is ``None``, the global default
socket timeout is used.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
@@ -127,11 +134,11 @@ The second subclass allows for connections created by a child process:
The following utility functions are defined:
-.. function:: Internaldate2tuple(datestr)
+.. function:: Internaldate2tuple(resp)
- Parse an IMAP4 ``INTERNALDATE`` string and return corresponding local
- time. The return value is a :class:`time.struct_time` tuple or
- ``None`` if the string has wrong format.
+ Parse a :term:`bytes-like object` containing an IMAP4 ``INTERNALDATE``
+ response and return the corresponding local time. The return value is a
+ :class:`time.struct_time` tuple or ``None`` if the input has wrong format.
.. function:: Int2AP(num)
@@ -139,9 +146,11 @@ The following utility functions are defined:
[``A`` .. ``P``].
-.. function:: ParseFlags(flagstr)
+.. function:: ParseFlags(resp)
- Converts an IMAP4 ``FLAGS`` response to a tuple of individual flags.
+ Converts a :term:`bytes-like object` containing an IMAP4 ``FLAGS`` response
+ to a tuple of individual flags as :class:`bytes`. The return value is an
+ empty tuple if the input has wrong format.
.. function:: Time2Internaldate(date_time)
@@ -186,6 +195,9 @@ enclosed with either parentheses or double quotes) each string is quoted.
However, the *password* argument to the ``LOGIN`` command is always quoted. If
you want to avoid having an argument string quoted (eg: the *flags* argument to
``STORE``) then enclose the string in parentheses (eg: ``r'(\Deleted)'``).
+In general, pass arguments unquoted and let the module quote them as needed.
+An argument that is already enclosed in double quotes is left unchanged,
+so that code which quotes arguments itself keeps working.
Each command returns a tuple: ``(type, [data, ...])`` where *type* is usually
``'OK'`` or ``'NO'``, and *data* is either the text from the command response,
@@ -206,6 +218,11 @@ An :class:`IMAP4` instance has the following methods:
Append *message* to named mailbox.
+ *flags* may be ``None`` or a string of IMAP flag tokens. Multiple
+ flags are separated by spaces, for example ``r'\Seen \Answered'``.
+ If *flags* is not already enclosed in parentheses, parentheses are
+ added automatically.
+
.. method:: IMAP4.authenticate(mechanism, authobject)
@@ -307,7 +324,7 @@ An :class:`IMAP4` instance has the following methods:
of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.
-.. method:: IMAP4.list([directory[, pattern]])
+.. method:: IMAP4.list(directory='', pattern='*')
List mailbox names in *directory* matching *pattern*. *directory* defaults to
the top-level mail folder, and *pattern* defaults to match anything. Returned
@@ -325,6 +342,9 @@ An :class:`IMAP4` instance has the following methods:
the password. Will only work if the server ``CAPABILITY`` response includes the
phrase ``AUTH=CRAM-MD5``.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.8
+ An :exc:`IMAP4.error` is raised if MD5 support is not available.
+
.. method:: IMAP4.logout()
@@ -334,7 +354,7 @@ An :class:`IMAP4` instance has the following methods:
The method no longer ignores silently arbitrary exceptions.
-.. method:: IMAP4.lsub(directory='""', pattern='*')
+.. method:: IMAP4.lsub(directory='', pattern='*')
List subscribed mailbox names in directory matching pattern. *directory*
defaults to the top level directory and *pattern* defaults to match any mailbox.
@@ -360,7 +380,7 @@ An :class:`IMAP4` instance has the following methods:
Opens socket to *port* at *host*. The optional *timeout* parameter
specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt.
- If timeout is not given or is None, the global default socket timeout
+ If timeout is not given or is ``None``, the global default socket timeout
is used. Also note that if the *timeout* parameter is set to be zero,
it will raise a :class:`ValueError` to reject creating a non-blocking socket.
This method is implicitly called by the :class:`IMAP4` constructor.
@@ -498,6 +518,13 @@ An :class:`IMAP4` instance has the following methods:
encryption on the IMAP connection. Please read :ref:`ssl-security` for
best practices.
+ .. note::
+
+ With the default *ssl_context*, the connection is encrypted but the
+ server certificate and hostname are not verified.
+ To verify them, pass a context created by
+ :func:`ssl.create_default_context`.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
@@ -514,7 +541,7 @@ An :class:`IMAP4` instance has the following methods:
.. method:: IMAP4.store(message_set, command, flag_list)
Alters flag dispositions for messages in mailbox. *command* is specified by
- section 6.4.6 of :rfc:`2060` as being one of "FLAGS", "+FLAGS", or "-FLAGS",
+ section 6.4.6 of :rfc:`3501` as being one of "FLAGS", "+FLAGS", or "-FLAGS",
optionally with a suffix of ".SILENT".
For example, to set the delete flag on all messages::
@@ -528,11 +555,11 @@ An :class:`IMAP4` instance has the following methods:
Creating flags containing ']' (for example: "[test]") violates
:rfc:`3501` (the IMAP protocol). However, imaplib has historically
- allowed creation of such tags, and popular IMAP servers, such as Gmail,
+ allowed creation of such flags, and popular IMAP servers, such as Gmail,
accept and produce such flags. There are non-Python programs which also
- create such tags. Although it is an RFC violation and IMAP clients and
+ create such flags. Although it is an RFC violation and IMAP clients and
servers are supposed to be strict, imaplib still continues to allow
- such tags to be created for backward compatibility reasons, and as of
+ such flags to be created for backward compatibility reasons, and as of
Python 3.6, handles them if they are sent from the server, since this
improves real-world compatibility.
@@ -591,6 +618,20 @@ An :class:`IMAP4` instance has the following methods:
The following attributes are defined on instances of :class:`IMAP4`:
+.. attribute:: IMAP4.capabilities
+
+ A tuple of the capabilities advertised by the server, in upper case.
+
+ It is set when the connection is established,
+ and refreshed after a successful :meth:`~IMAP4.login`,
+ :meth:`~IMAP4.authenticate` or :meth:`~IMAP4.starttls`,
+ because the server can advertise different capabilities
+ in different connection states.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.15
+ Refreshed after :meth:`~IMAP4.login` and :meth:`~IMAP4.authenticate`.
+
+
.. attribute:: IMAP4.PROTOCOL_VERSION
The most recent supported protocol in the ``CAPABILITY`` response from the
@@ -632,3 +673,10 @@ retrieves and prints all messages::
M.close()
M.logout()
+.. note::
+
+ A ``FETCH`` response may contain additional or unsolicited data
+ (see :rfc:`3501`, section 7.4.2),
+ so production code should inspect the whole response
+ rather than rely on ``data[0][1]``.
+
diff --git a/Doc/library/imghdr.rst b/Doc/library/imghdr.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..56f26355f42558c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/imghdr.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+:mod:`!imghdr` --- Determine the type of an image
+=================================================
+
+.. module:: imghdr
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+Possible replacements are third-party libraries from PyPI:
+:pypi:`filetype`, :pypi:`puremagic`, or :pypi:`python-magic`.
+These are not supported or maintained by the Python core team.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!imghdr` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/imghdr.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/imp.rst b/Doc/library/imp.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..3dc4c568b1ae2f1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/imp.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+:mod:`!imp` --- Access the import internals
+===========================================
+
+.. module:: imp
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.12.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.4 3.12
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.12 <whatsnew312-removed-imp>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.4.
+
+The :ref:`removal notice <whatsnew312-removed-imp>` includes guidance for
+migrating code from :mod:`!imp` to :mod:`importlib`.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!imp` module was
+`Python 3.11 <https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/imp.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/importlib.metadata.rst b/Doc/library/importlib.metadata.rst
index 674ce5807fdf11e..8a038c972b5b490 100644
--- a/Doc/library/importlib.metadata.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/importlib.metadata.rst
@@ -18,11 +18,9 @@ the metadata of an installed `Distribution Package <https://packaging.python.org
such as its entry points
or its top-level names (`Import Package <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package>`_\s, modules, if any).
Built in part on Python's import system, this library
-intends to replace similar functionality in the `entry point
-API`_ and `metadata API`_ of ``pkg_resources``. Along with
-:mod:`importlib.resources`,
-this package can eliminate the need to use the older and less efficient
-``pkg_resources`` package.
+provides the entry point and metadata APIs that were previously
+exposed by the now-removed ``pkg_resources`` package. Along with
+:mod:`importlib.resources`, it supersedes ``pkg_resources``.
``importlib.metadata`` operates on third-party *distribution packages*
installed into Python's ``site-packages`` directory via tools such as
@@ -92,6 +90,7 @@ collection of :ref:`EntryPoint <entry-points>` objects.
You can get the :ref:`metadata for a distribution <metadata>`::
+ >>> from importlib.metadata import metadata # doctest: +SKIP
>>> list(metadata('wheel')) # doctest: +SKIP
['Metadata-Version', 'Name', 'Version', 'Summary', 'Home-page', 'Author', 'Author-email', 'Maintainer', 'Maintainer-email', 'License', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Keywords', 'Platform', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Requires-Python', 'Provides-Extra', 'Requires-Dist', 'Requires-Dist']
@@ -100,6 +99,13 @@ You can also get a :ref:`distribution's version number <version>`, list its
:ref:`requirements`.
+.. exception:: PackageNotFoundError
+
+ Subclass of :class:`ModuleNotFoundError` raised by several functions in this
+ module when queried for a distribution package which is not installed in the
+ current Python environment.
+
+
Functional API
==============
@@ -111,31 +117,53 @@ This package provides the following functionality via its public API.
Entry points
------------
-The ``entry_points()`` function returns a collection of entry points.
-Entry points are represented by ``EntryPoint`` instances;
-each ``EntryPoint`` has a ``.name``, ``.group``, and ``.value`` attributes and
-a ``.load()`` method to resolve the value. There are also ``.module``,
-``.attr``, and ``.extras`` attributes for getting the components of the
-``.value`` attribute.
+.. function:: entry_points(**select_params)
+
+ Returns a :class:`EntryPoints` instance describing entry points for the
+ current environment. Any given keyword parameters are passed to the
+ :meth:`!select` method for comparison to the attributes of
+ the individual entry point definitions.
+
+ Note: it is not currently possible to query for entry points based on
+ their :attr:`!EntryPoint.dist` attribute (as different :class:`!Distribution`
+ instances do not currently compare equal, even if they have the same attributes)
+
+.. class:: EntryPoints
+
+ Details of a collection of installed entry points.
+
+ Also provides a ``.groups`` attribute that reports all identified entry
+ point groups, and a ``.names`` attribute that reports all identified entry
+ point names.
+
+.. class:: EntryPoint
+
+ Details of an installed entry point.
+
+ Each :class:`!EntryPoint` instance has ``.name``, ``.group``, and ``.value``
+ attributes and a ``.load()`` method to resolve the value. There are also
+ ``.module``, ``.attr``, and ``.extras`` attributes for getting the
+ components of the ``.value`` attribute, and ``.dist`` for obtaining
+ information regarding the distribution package that provides the entry point.
Query all entry points::
>>> eps = entry_points() # doctest: +SKIP
-The ``entry_points()`` function returns an ``EntryPoints`` object,
-a collection of all ``EntryPoint`` objects with ``names`` and ``groups``
+The :func:`!entry_points` function returns a :class:`!EntryPoints` object,
+a collection of all :class:`!EntryPoint` objects with ``names`` and ``groups``
attributes for convenience::
>>> sorted(eps.groups) # doctest: +SKIP
['console_scripts', 'distutils.commands', 'distutils.setup_keywords', 'egg_info.writers', 'setuptools.installation']
-``EntryPoints`` has a ``select`` method to select entry points
+:class:`!EntryPoints` has a :meth:`!select` method to select entry points
matching specific properties. Select entry points in the
``console_scripts`` group::
>>> scripts = eps.select(group='console_scripts') # doctest: +SKIP
-Equivalently, since ``entry_points`` passes keyword arguments
+Equivalently, since :func:`!entry_points` passes keyword arguments
through to select::
>>> scripts = entry_points(group='console_scripts') # doctest: +SKIP
@@ -189,31 +217,41 @@ for more information on entry points, their definition, and usage.
Distribution metadata
---------------------
-Every `Distribution Package <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package>`_ includes some metadata,
-which you can extract using the
-``metadata()`` function::
+.. function:: metadata(distribution_name)
+
+ Return the distribution metadata corresponding to the named
+ distribution package as a :class:`PackageMetadata` instance.
+
+ Raises :exc:`PackageNotFoundError` if the named distribution
+ package is not installed in the current Python environment.
+
+.. class:: PackageMetadata
+
+ A concrete implementation of the
+ `PackageMetadata protocol <https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html#importlib_metadata.PackageMetadata>`_.
+
+ In addition to providing the defined protocol methods and attributes, subscripting
+ the instance is equivalent to calling the :meth:`!get` method.
+
+Every `Distribution Package <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package>`_
+includes some metadata, which you can extract using the :func:`!metadata` function::
>>> wheel_metadata = metadata('wheel') # doctest: +SKIP
-The keys of the returned data structure, a ``PackageMetadata``,
-name the metadata keywords, and
+The keys of the returned data structure name the metadata keywords, and
the values are returned unparsed from the distribution metadata::
>>> wheel_metadata['Requires-Python'] # doctest: +SKIP
'>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'
-``PackageMetadata`` also presents a ``json`` attribute that returns
+:class:`PackageMetadata` also presents a :attr:`!json` attribute that returns
all the metadata in a JSON-compatible form per :PEP:`566`::
>>> wheel_metadata.json['requires_python']
'>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'
-.. note::
-
- The actual type of the object returned by ``metadata()`` is an
- implementation detail and should be accessed only through the interface
- described by the
- `PackageMetadata protocol <https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html#importlib_metadata.PackageMetadata>`_.
+The full set of available metadata is not described here.
+See the PyPA `Core metadata specification <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata>`_ for additional details.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
The ``Description`` is now included in the metadata when presented
@@ -227,7 +265,16 @@ all the metadata in a JSON-compatible form per :PEP:`566`::
Distribution versions
---------------------
-The ``version()`` function is the quickest way to get a
+.. function:: version(distribution_name)
+
+ Return the installed distribution package
+ `version <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#version>`__
+ for the named distribution package.
+
+ Raises :exc:`PackageNotFoundError` if the named distribution
+ package is not installed in the current Python environment.
+
+The :func:`!version` function is the quickest way to get a
`Distribution Package <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package>`_'s version
number, as a string::
@@ -240,12 +287,28 @@ number, as a string::
Distribution files
------------------
-You can also get the full set of files contained within a distribution. The
-``files()`` function takes a `Distribution Package <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package>`_ name
-and returns all of the
-files installed by this distribution. Each file object returned is a
-``PackagePath``, a :class:`pathlib.PurePath` derived object with additional ``dist``,
-``size``, and ``hash`` properties as indicated by the metadata. For example::
+.. function:: files(distribution_name)
+
+ Return the full set of files contained within the named
+ distribution package.
+
+ Raises :exc:`PackageNotFoundError` if the named distribution
+ package is not installed in the current Python environment.
+
+ Returns :const:`None` if the distribution is found but the installation
+ database records reporting the files associated with the distribuion package
+ are missing.
+
+.. class:: PackagePath
+
+ A :class:`pathlib.PurePath` derived object with additional ``dist``,
+ ``size``, and ``hash`` properties corresponding to the distribution
+ package's installation metadata for that file.
+
+The :func:`!files` function takes a
+`Distribution Package <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package>`_
+name and returns all of the files installed by this distribution. Each file is reported
+as a :class:`PackagePath` instance. For example::
>>> util = [p for p in files('wheel') if 'util.py' in str(p)][0] # doctest: +SKIP
>>> util # doctest: +SKIP
@@ -268,16 +331,16 @@ Once you have the file, you can also read its contents::
return s.encode('utf-8')
return s
-You can also use the ``locate`` method to get a the absolute path to the
-file::
+You can also use the :meth:`!locate` method to get the absolute
+path to the file::
>>> util.locate() # doctest: +SKIP
PosixPath('/home/gustav/example/lib/site-packages/wheel/util.py')
In the case where the metadata file listing files
-(RECORD or SOURCES.txt) is missing, ``files()`` will
-return ``None``. The caller may wish to wrap calls to
-``files()`` in `always_iterable
+(``RECORD`` or ``SOURCES.txt``) is missing, :func:`!files` will
+return :const:`None`. The caller may wish to wrap calls to
+:func:`!files` in `always_iterable
<https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.always_iterable>`_
or otherwise guard against this condition if the target
distribution is not known to have the metadata present.
@@ -287,8 +350,16 @@ distribution is not known to have the metadata present.
Distribution requirements
-------------------------
+.. function:: requires(distribution_name)
+
+ Return the declared dependency specifiers for the named
+ distribution package.
+
+ Raises :exc:`PackageNotFoundError` if the named distribution
+ package is not installed in the current Python environment.
+
To get the full set of requirements for a `Distribution Package <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package>`_,
-use the ``requires()``
+use the :func:`!requires`
function::
>>> requires('wheel') # doctest: +SKIP
@@ -301,6 +372,16 @@ function::
Mapping import to distribution packages
---------------------------------------
+.. function:: packages_distributions()
+
+ Return a mapping from the top level module and import package
+ names found via :data:`sys.meta_path` to the names of the distribution
+ packages (if any) that provide the corresponding files.
+
+ To allow for namespace packages (which may have members provided by
+ multiple distribution packages), each top level import name maps to a
+ list of distribution names rather than mapping directly to a single name.
+
A convenience method to resolve the `Distribution Package <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package>`_
name (or names, in the case of a namespace package)
that provide each importable top-level
@@ -320,37 +401,56 @@ function is not reliable with such installs.
Distributions
=============
-While the above API is the most common and convenient usage, you can get all
-of that information from the ``Distribution`` class. A ``Distribution`` is an
-abstract object that represents the metadata for
-a Python `Distribution Package <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package>`_. You can
-get the ``Distribution`` instance::
+.. function:: distribution(distribution_name)
+
+ Return a :class:`Distribution` instance describing the named
+ distribution package.
+
+ Raises :exc:`PackageNotFoundError` if the named distribution
+ package is not installed in the current Python environment.
+
+.. class:: Distribution
+
+ Details of an installed distribution package.
+
+ Note: different :class:`!Distribution` instances do not currently compare
+ equal, even if they relate to the same installed distribution and
+ accordingly have the same attributes.
+
+While the module level API described above is the most common and convenient usage,
+you can get all of that information from the :class:`!Distribution` class.
+:class:`!Distribution` is an abstract object that represents the metadata for
+a Python `Distribution Package <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package>`_.
+You can get the concrete :class:`!Distribution` subclass instance for an installed
+distribution package by calling the :func:`distribution` function::
>>> from importlib.metadata import distribution # doctest: +SKIP
>>> dist = distribution('wheel') # doctest: +SKIP
+ >>> type(dist) # doctest: +SKIP
+ <class 'importlib.metadata.PathDistribution'>
Thus, an alternative way to get the version number is through the
-``Distribution`` instance::
+:class:`!Distribution` instance::
>>> dist.version # doctest: +SKIP
'0.32.3'
-There are all kinds of additional metadata available on the ``Distribution``
-instance::
+There are all kinds of additional metadata available on :class:`!Distribution`
+instances::
>>> dist.metadata['Requires-Python'] # doctest: +SKIP
'>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'
>>> dist.metadata['License'] # doctest: +SKIP
'MIT'
-For editable packages, an origin property may present :pep:`610`
+For editable packages, an ``origin`` property may present :pep:`610`
metadata::
>>> dist.origin.url
'file:///path/to/wheel-0.32.3.editable-py3-none-any.whl'
The full set of available metadata is not described here.
-See the `Core metadata specifications <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata>`_ for additional details.
+See the PyPA `Core metadata specification <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata>`_ for additional details.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
The ``.origin`` property was added.
@@ -455,7 +555,7 @@ path.
``DatabaseDistribution``, then, would look something like::
- class DatabaseDistribution(importlib.metadata.Distributon):
+ class DatabaseDistribution(importlib.metadata.Distribution):
def __init__(self, record):
self.record = record
@@ -483,7 +583,3 @@ packages served by the ``DatabaseImporter``, assuming that the
The ``DatabaseDistribution`` may also provide other metadata files, like
``RECORD`` (required for ``Distribution.files``) or override the
implementation of ``Distribution.files``. See the source for more inspiration.
-
-
-.. _`entry point API`: https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#entry-points
-.. _`metadata API`: https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#metadata-api
diff --git a/Doc/library/importlib.resources.abc.rst b/Doc/library/importlib.resources.abc.rst
index c25c48530722e64..45979c5691270aa 100644
--- a/Doc/library/importlib.resources.abc.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/importlib.resources.abc.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`importlib.resources.abc` -- Abstract base classes for resources
----------------------------------------------------------------------
+:mod:`!importlib.resources.abc` -- Abstract base classes for resources
+----------------------------------------------------------------------
.. module:: importlib.resources.abc
:synopsis: Abstract base classes for resources
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@
something like a data file that lives next to the ``__init__.py``
file of the package. The purpose of this class is to help abstract
out the accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if
- the package and its data file(s) are stored in a e.g. zip file
+ the package and its data file(s) are stored e.g. in a zip file
versus on the file system.
For any of methods of this class, a *resource* argument is
@@ -43,46 +43,53 @@
:const:`None`. An object compatible with this ABC should only be
returned when the specified module is a package.
- .. deprecated-removed:: 3.12 3.14
+ .. deprecated:: 3.12
Use :class:`importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources` instead.
- .. abstractmethod:: open_resource(resource)
+ .. method:: open_resource(resource)
+ :abstractmethod:
- Returns an opened, :term:`file-like object` for binary reading
- of the *resource*.
+ Returns an opened, :term:`file-like object` for binary reading
+ of the *resource*.
- If the resource cannot be found, :exc:`FileNotFoundError` is
- raised.
+ If the resource cannot be found, :exc:`FileNotFoundError` is
+ raised.
- .. abstractmethod:: resource_path(resource)
+ .. method:: resource_path(resource)
+ :abstractmethod:
- Returns the file system path to the *resource*.
+ Returns the file system path to the *resource*.
- If the resource does not concretely exist on the file system,
- raise :exc:`FileNotFoundError`.
+ If the resource does not concretely exist on the file system,
+ raise :exc:`FileNotFoundError`.
- .. abstractmethod:: is_resource(name)
+ .. method:: is_resource(path)
+ :abstractmethod:
- Returns ``True`` if the named *name* is considered a resource.
- :exc:`FileNotFoundError` is raised if *name* does not exist.
+ Returns ``True`` if the named *path* is considered a resource.
+ :exc:`FileNotFoundError` is raised if *path* does not exist.
- .. abstractmethod:: contents()
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ The argument *name* was renamed to *path*.
- Returns an :term:`iterable` of strings over the contents of
- the package. Do note that it is not required that all names
- returned by the iterator be actual resources, e.g. it is
- acceptable to return names for which :meth:`is_resource` would
- be false.
+ .. method:: contents()
+ :abstractmethod:
- Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow for
- situations where how a package and its resources are stored
- are known a priori and the non-resource names would be useful.
- For instance, returning subdirectory names is allowed so that
- when it is known that the package and resources are stored on
- the file system then those subdirectory names can be used
- directly.
+ Returns an :term:`iterable` of strings over the contents of
+ the package. Do note that it is not required that all names
+ returned by the iterator be actual resources, e.g. it is
+ acceptable to return names for which :meth:`is_resource` would
+ be false.
- The abstract method returns an iterable of no items.
+ Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow for
+ situations where how a package and its resources are stored
+ are known a priori and the non-resource names would be useful.
+ For instance, returning subdirectory names is allowed so that
+ when it is known that the package and resources are stored on
+ the file system then those subdirectory names can be used
+ directly.
+
+ The abstract method returns an iterable of no items.
.. class:: Traversable
@@ -97,19 +104,23 @@
Abstract. The base name of this object without any parent references.
- .. abstractmethod:: iterdir()
+ .. method:: iterdir()
+ :abstractmethod:
Yield Traversable objects in self.
- .. abstractmethod:: is_dir()
+ .. method:: is_dir()
+ :abstractmethod:
- Return True if self is a directory.
+ Return ``True`` if self is a directory.
- .. abstractmethod:: is_file()
+ .. method:: is_file()
+ :abstractmethod:
- Return True if self is a file.
+ Return ``True`` if self is a file.
- .. abstractmethod:: joinpath(*pathsegments)
+ .. method:: joinpath(*pathsegments)
+ :abstractmethod:
Traverse directories according to *pathsegments* and return
the result as :class:`!Traversable`.
@@ -134,12 +145,14 @@
may contain forward slashes as path separators.
Previously, only a single *child* argument was accepted.
- .. abstractmethod:: __truediv__(child)
+ .. method:: __truediv__(child)
+ :abstractmethod:
Return Traversable child in self.
Equivalent to ``joinpath(child)``.
- .. abstractmethod:: open(mode='r', *args, **kwargs)
+ .. method:: open(mode='r', *args, **kwargs)
+ :abstractmethod:
*mode* may be 'r' or 'rb' to open as text or binary. Return a handle
suitable for reading (same as :attr:`pathlib.Path.open`).
@@ -168,7 +181,8 @@
Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
implement this interface.
- .. abstractmethod:: files()
+ .. method:: files()
+ :abstractmethod:
Returns a :class:`importlib.resources.abc.Traversable` object for the loaded
package.
diff --git a/Doc/library/importlib.resources.rst b/Doc/library/importlib.resources.rst
index 9a5e4c76e7bd8f1..0bebd974d3ad308 100644
--- a/Doc/library/importlib.resources.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/importlib.resources.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`importlib.resources` -- Package resource reading, opening and access
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:mod:`!importlib.resources` -- Package resource reading, opening and access
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------
.. module:: importlib.resources
:synopsis: Package resource reading, opening, and access
@@ -16,11 +16,12 @@ within *packages*.
"Resources" are file-like resources associated with a module or package in
Python. The resources may be contained directly in a package, within a
subdirectory contained in that package, or adjacent to modules outside a
-package. Resources may be text or binary. As a result, Python module sources
-(.py) of a package and compilation artifacts (pycache) are technically
-de-facto resources of that package. In practice, however, resources are
-primarily those non-Python artifacts exposed specifically by the package
-author.
+package. Resources may be text or binary. As a result, a package's Python
+module sources (.py), compilation artifacts (pycache), and installation
+artifacts (like :func:`reserved filenames <os.path.isreserved>`
+in directories) are technically de-facto resources of that package.
+In practice, however, resources are primarily those non-Python artifacts
+exposed specifically by the package author.
Resources can be opened or read in either binary or text mode.
@@ -30,15 +31,13 @@ not** have to exist as physical files and directories on the file system:
for example, a package and its resources can be imported from a zip file using
:py:mod:`zipimport`.
-.. note::
+.. warning::
+
+ :mod:`importlib.resources` follows the same security model as the built-in
+ :func:`open` function. Passing untrusted inputs to the functions
+ in this module is unsafe.
- This module provides functionality similar to `pkg_resources
- <https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html>`_ `Basic
- Resource Access
- <https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#basic-resource-access>`_
- without the performance overhead of that package. This makes reading
- resources included in packages easier, with more stable and consistent
- semantics.
+.. note::
The standalone backport of this module provides more information
on `using importlib.resources
@@ -238,7 +237,6 @@ For all the following functions:
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
Multiple *path_names* are accepted.
- *encoding* and *errors* must be given as keyword arguments.
.. function:: is_resource(anchor, *path_names)
diff --git a/Doc/library/importlib.rst b/Doc/library/importlib.rst
index b58ef359378e4f7..e3006abec91d21e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/importlib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/importlib.rst
@@ -206,6 +206,10 @@ Functions
:exc:`ModuleNotFoundError` is raised when the module being reloaded lacks
a :class:`~importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec`.
+ .. warning::
+ This function is not thread-safe. Calling it from multiple threads can result
+ in unexpected behavior. It's recommended to use the :class:`threading.Lock`
+ or other synchronization primitives for thread-safe module reloading.
:mod:`importlib.abc` -- Abstract base classes related to import
---------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -249,7 +253,7 @@ ABC hierarchy::
An abstract method for finding a :term:`spec <module spec>` for
the specified module. If this is a top-level import, *path* will
be ``None``. Otherwise, this is a search for a subpackage or
- module and *path* will be the value of :attr:`__path__` from the
+ module and *path* will be the value of :attr:`~module.__path__` from the
parent package. If a spec cannot be found, ``None`` is returned.
When passed in, ``target`` is a module object that the finder may
use to make a more educated guess about what spec to return.
@@ -355,34 +359,12 @@ ABC hierarchy::
(note that some of these attributes can change when a module is
reloaded):
- - :attr:`__name__`
- The module's fully qualified name.
- It is ``'__main__'`` for an executed module.
-
- - :attr:`__file__`
- The location the :term:`loader` used to load the module.
- For example, for modules loaded from a .py file this is the filename.
- It is not set on all modules (e.g. built-in modules).
-
- - :attr:`__cached__`
- The filename of a compiled version of the module's code.
- It is not set on all modules (e.g. built-in modules).
-
- - :attr:`__path__`
- The list of locations where the package's submodules will be found.
- Most of the time this is a single directory.
- The import system passes this attribute to ``__import__()`` and to finders
- in the same way as :data:`sys.path` but just for the package.
- It is not set on non-package modules so it can be used
- as an indicator that the module is a package.
-
- - :attr:`__package__`
- The fully qualified name of the package the module is in (or the
- empty string for a top-level module).
- If the module is a package then this is the same as :attr:`__name__`.
-
- - :attr:`__loader__`
- The :term:`loader` used to load the module.
+ - :attr:`module.__name__`
+ - :attr:`module.__file__`
+ - :attr:`module.__cached__` *(deprecated)*
+ - :attr:`module.__path__`
+ - :attr:`module.__package__` *(deprecated)*
+ - :attr:`module.__loader__` *(deprecated)*
When :meth:`exec_module` is available then backwards-compatible
functionality is provided.
@@ -392,7 +374,7 @@ ABC hierarchy::
:exc:`NotImplementedError`. Functionality provided when
:meth:`exec_module` is available.
- .. deprecated:: 3.4
+ .. deprecated-removed:: 3.4 3.15
The recommended API for loading a module is :meth:`exec_module`
(and :meth:`create_module`). Loaders should implement it instead of
:meth:`load_module`. The import machinery takes care of all the
@@ -402,15 +384,18 @@ ABC hierarchy::
.. class:: ResourceLoader
+ *Superseded by TraversableResources*
+
An abstract base class for a :term:`loader` which implements the optional
:pep:`302` protocol for loading arbitrary resources from the storage
back-end.
.. deprecated:: 3.7
This ABC is deprecated in favour of supporting resource loading
- through :class:`importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader`.
+ through :class:`importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources`.
- .. abstractmethod:: get_data(path)
+ .. method:: get_data(path)
+ :abstractmethod:
An abstract method to return the bytes for the data located at *path*.
Loaders that have a file-like storage back-end
@@ -418,7 +403,8 @@ ABC hierarchy::
can implement this abstract method to give direct access
to the data stored. :exc:`OSError` is to be raised if the *path* cannot
be found. The *path* is expected to be constructed using a module's
- :attr:`__file__` attribute or an item from a package's :attr:`__path__`.
+ :attr:`~module.__file__` attribute or an item from a package's
+ :attr:`~module.__path__`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
Raises :exc:`OSError` instead of :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
@@ -446,7 +432,8 @@ ABC hierarchy::
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
No longer abstract and a concrete implementation is provided.
- .. abstractmethod:: get_source(fullname)
+ .. method:: get_source(fullname)
+ :abstractmethod:
An abstract method to return the source of a module. It is returned as
a text string using :term:`universal newlines`, translating all
@@ -493,7 +480,7 @@ ABC hierarchy::
Implementation of :meth:`Loader.load_module`.
- .. deprecated:: 3.4
+ .. deprecated-removed:: 3.4 3.15
use :meth:`exec_module` instead.
@@ -503,11 +490,12 @@ ABC hierarchy::
when implemented, helps a module to be executed as a script. The ABC
represents an optional :pep:`302` protocol.
- .. abstractmethod:: get_filename(fullname)
+ .. method:: get_filename(fullname)
+ :abstractmethod:
- An abstract method that is to return the value of :attr:`__file__` for
- the specified module. If no path is available, :exc:`ImportError` is
- raised.
+ An abstract method that is to return the value of
+ :attr:`~module.__file__` for the specified module. If no path is
+ available, :exc:`ImportError` is raised.
If source code is available, then the method should return the path to
the source file, regardless of whether a bytecode was used to load the
@@ -540,14 +528,16 @@ ABC hierarchy::
Calls super's ``load_module()``.
- .. deprecated:: 3.4
+ .. deprecated-removed:: 3.4 3.15
Use :meth:`Loader.exec_module` instead.
- .. abstractmethod:: get_filename(fullname)
+ .. method:: get_filename(fullname)
+ :abstractmethod:
Returns :attr:`path`.
- .. abstractmethod:: get_data(path)
+ .. method:: get_data(path)
+ :abstractmethod:
Reads *path* as a binary file and returns the bytes from it.
@@ -629,7 +619,7 @@ ABC hierarchy::
Concrete implementation of :meth:`Loader.load_module`.
- .. deprecated:: 3.4
+ .. deprecated-removed:: 3.4 3.15
Use :meth:`exec_module` instead.
.. method:: get_source(fullname)
@@ -657,7 +647,7 @@ ABC hierarchy::
something like a data file that lives next to the ``__init__.py``
file of the package. The purpose of this class is to help abstract
out the accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if
- the package and its data file(s) are stored in a e.g. zip file
+ the package and its data file(s) are stored e.g. in a zip file
versus on the file system.
For any of methods of this class, a *resource* argument is
@@ -683,7 +673,8 @@ ABC hierarchy::
.. deprecated-removed:: 3.12 3.14
Use :class:`importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources` instead.
- .. abstractmethod:: open_resource(resource)
+ .. method:: open_resource(resource)
+ :abstractmethod:
Returns an opened, :term:`file-like object` for binary reading
of the *resource*.
@@ -691,19 +682,22 @@ ABC hierarchy::
If the resource cannot be found, :exc:`FileNotFoundError` is
raised.
- .. abstractmethod:: resource_path(resource)
+ .. method:: resource_path(resource)
+ :abstractmethod:
Returns the file system path to the *resource*.
If the resource does not concretely exist on the file system,
raise :exc:`FileNotFoundError`.
- .. abstractmethod:: is_resource(name)
+ .. method:: is_resource(name)
+ :abstractmethod:
Returns ``True`` if the named *name* is considered a resource.
:exc:`FileNotFoundError` is raised if *name* does not exist.
- .. abstractmethod:: contents()
+ .. method:: contents()
+ :abstractmethod:
Returns an :term:`iterable` of strings over the contents of
the package. Do note that it is not required that all names
@@ -739,33 +733,39 @@ ABC hierarchy::
Abstract. The base name of this object without any parent references.
- .. abstractmethod:: iterdir()
+ .. method:: iterdir()
+ :abstractmethod:
Yield ``Traversable`` objects in ``self``.
- .. abstractmethod:: is_dir()
+ .. method:: is_dir()
+ :abstractmethod:
Return ``True`` if ``self`` is a directory.
- .. abstractmethod:: is_file()
+ .. method:: is_file()
+ :abstractmethod:
Return ``True`` if ``self`` is a file.
- .. abstractmethod:: joinpath(child)
+ .. method:: joinpath(child)
+ :abstractmethod:
Return Traversable child in ``self``.
- .. abstractmethod:: __truediv__(child)
+ .. method:: __truediv__(child)
+ :abstractmethod:
Return ``Traversable`` child in ``self``.
- .. abstractmethod:: open(mode='r', *args, **kwargs)
+ .. method:: open(mode='r', *args, **kwargs)
+ :abstractmethod:
*mode* may be 'r' or 'rb' to open as text or binary. Return a handle
suitable for reading (same as :attr:`pathlib.Path.open`).
When opening as text, accepts encoding parameters such as those
- accepted by :attr:`io.TextIOWrapper`.
+ accepted by :class:`io.TextIOWrapper`.
.. method:: read_bytes()
@@ -793,7 +793,8 @@ ABC hierarchy::
.. deprecated-removed:: 3.12 3.14
Use :class:`importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources` instead.
- .. abstractmethod:: files()
+ .. method:: files()
+ :abstractmethod:
Returns a :class:`importlib.resources.abc.Traversable` object for the loaded
package.
@@ -813,14 +814,14 @@ ABC hierarchy::
This module contains the various objects that help :keyword:`import`
find and load modules.
-.. attribute:: SOURCE_SUFFIXES
+.. data:: SOURCE_SUFFIXES
A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for source
modules.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
-.. attribute:: DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES
+.. data:: DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES
A list of strings representing the file suffixes for non-optimized bytecode
modules.
@@ -828,9 +829,9 @@ find and load modules.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. deprecated:: 3.5
- Use :attr:`BYTECODE_SUFFIXES` instead.
+ Use :const:`BYTECODE_SUFFIXES` instead.
-.. attribute:: OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES
+.. data:: OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES
A list of strings representing the file suffixes for optimized bytecode
modules.
@@ -838,9 +839,9 @@ find and load modules.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. deprecated:: 3.5
- Use :attr:`BYTECODE_SUFFIXES` instead.
+ Use :const:`BYTECODE_SUFFIXES` instead.
-.. attribute:: BYTECODE_SUFFIXES
+.. data:: BYTECODE_SUFFIXES
A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for bytecode
modules (including the leading dot).
@@ -850,7 +851,7 @@ find and load modules.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
The value is no longer dependent on ``__debug__``.
-.. attribute:: EXTENSION_SUFFIXES
+.. data:: EXTENSION_SUFFIXES
A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
extension modules.
@@ -1039,7 +1040,7 @@ find and load modules.
Concrete implementation of :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.load_module` where
specifying the name of the module to load is optional.
- .. deprecated:: 3.6
+ .. deprecated-removed:: 3.6 3.15
Use :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module` instead.
@@ -1082,7 +1083,7 @@ find and load modules.
Concrete implementation of :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.load_module` where
specifying the name of the module to load is optional.
- .. deprecated:: 3.6
+ .. deprecated-removed:: 3.6 3.15
Use :meth:`importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module` instead.
@@ -1128,7 +1129,7 @@ find and load modules.
.. method:: is_package(fullname)
Returns ``True`` if the file path points to a package's ``__init__``
- module based on :attr:`EXTENSION_SUFFIXES`.
+ module based on :const:`EXTENSION_SUFFIXES`.
.. method:: get_code(fullname)
@@ -1166,79 +1167,74 @@ find and load modules.
.. class:: ModuleSpec(name, loader, *, origin=None, loader_state=None, is_package=None)
A specification for a module's import-system-related state. This is
- typically exposed as the module's :attr:`__spec__` attribute. In the
- descriptions below, the names in parentheses give the corresponding
- attribute available directly on the module object,
- e.g. ``module.__spec__.origin == module.__file__``. Note, however, that
+ typically exposed as the module's :attr:`~module.__spec__` attribute. Many
+ of these attributes are also available directly on a module: for example,
+ ``module.__spec__.origin == module.__file__``. Note, however, that
while the *values* are usually equivalent, they can differ since there is
- no synchronization between the two objects. For example, it is possible to update
- the module's :attr:`__file__` at runtime and this will not be automatically
- reflected in the module's :attr:`__spec__.origin`, and vice versa.
+ no synchronization between the two objects. For example, it is possible to
+ update the module's :attr:`~module.__file__` at runtime and this will not be
+ automatically reflected in the module's
+ :attr:`__spec__.origin <ModuleSpec.origin>`, and vice versa.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
.. attribute:: name
- (:attr:`__name__`)
-
- The module's fully qualified name.
- The :term:`finder` should always set this attribute to a non-empty string.
+ The module's fully qualified name (see :attr:`module.__name__`).
+ The :term:`finder` should always set this attribute to a non-empty string.
.. attribute:: loader
- (:attr:`__loader__`)
-
- The :term:`loader` used to load the module.
- The :term:`finder` should always set this attribute.
+ The :term:`loader` used to load the module (see :attr:`module.__loader__`).
+ The :term:`finder` should always set this attribute.
.. attribute:: origin
- (:attr:`__file__`)
-
- The location the :term:`loader` should use to load the module.
- For example, for modules loaded from a .py file this is the filename.
- The :term:`finder` should always set this attribute to a meaningful value
- for the :term:`loader` to use. In the uncommon case that there is not one
- (like for namespace packages), it should be set to ``None``.
+ The location the :term:`loader` should use to load the module
+ (see :attr:`module.__file__`).
+ For example, for modules loaded from a ``.py`` file this is the filename.
+ The :term:`finder` should always set this attribute to a meaningful value
+ for the :term:`loader` to use. In the uncommon case that there is not one
+ (like for namespace packages), it should be set to ``None``.
.. attribute:: submodule_search_locations
- (:attr:`__path__`)
+ A (possibly empty) :term:`sequence` of strings enumerating the locations
+ in which a package's submodules will be found
+ (see :attr:`module.__path__`). Most of the time there will only be a
+ single directory in this list.
- The list of locations where the package's submodules will be found.
- Most of the time this is a single directory.
- The :term:`finder` should set this attribute to a list, even an empty one, to indicate
- to the import system that the module is a package. It should be set to ``None`` for
- non-package modules. It is set automatically later to a special object for
- namespace packages.
+ The :term:`finder` should set this attribute to a sequence, even an empty
+ one, to indicate
+ to the import system that the module is a package. It should be set to ``None`` for
+ non-package modules. It is set automatically later to a special object for
+ namespace packages.
.. attribute:: loader_state
- The :term:`finder` may set this attribute to an object containing additional,
- module-specific data to use when loading the module. Otherwise it should be
- set to ``None``.
+ The :term:`finder` may set this attribute to an object containing additional,
+ module-specific data to use when loading the module. Otherwise it should be
+ set to ``None``.
.. attribute:: cached
- (:attr:`__cached__`)
-
- The filename of a compiled version of the module's code.
- The :term:`finder` should always set this attribute but it may be ``None``
- for modules that do not need compiled code stored.
+ The filename of a compiled version of the module's code
+ (see :attr:`module.__cached__`).
+ The :term:`finder` should always set this attribute but it may be ``None``
+ for modules that do not need compiled code stored.
.. attribute:: parent
- (:attr:`__package__`)
-
- (Read-only) The fully qualified name of the package the module is in (or the
- empty string for a top-level module).
- If the module is a package then this is the same as :attr:`name`.
+ (Read-only) The fully qualified name of the package the module is in (or the
+ empty string for a top-level module).
+ See :attr:`module.__package__`.
+ If the module is a package then this is the same as :attr:`name`.
.. attribute:: has_location
- ``True`` if the spec's :attr:`origin` refers to a loadable location,
- ``False`` otherwise. This value impacts how :attr:`origin` is interpreted
- and how the module's :attr:`__file__` is populated.
+ ``True`` if the spec's :attr:`origin` refers to a loadable location,
+ ``False`` otherwise. This value impacts how :attr:`!origin` is interpreted
+ and how the module's :attr:`~module.__file__` is populated.
.. class:: AppleFrameworkLoader(name, path)
@@ -1252,10 +1248,10 @@ find and load modules.
be only a single binary per framework, and there can be no executable binary
material outside the Frameworks folder.
- To accomodate this requirement, when running on iOS, extension module
+ To accommodate this requirement, when running on iOS, extension module
binaries are *not* packaged as ``.so`` files on ``sys.path``, but as
individual standalone frameworks. To discover those frameworks, this loader
- is be registered against the ``.fwork`` file extension, with a ``.fwork``
+ is registered against the ``.fwork`` file extension, with a ``.fwork``
file acting as a placeholder in the original location of the binary on
``sys.path``. The ``.fwork`` file contains the path of the actual binary in
the ``Frameworks`` folder, relative to the app bundle. To allow for
@@ -1318,7 +1314,7 @@ find and load modules.
This module contains the various objects that help in the construction of
an :term:`importer`.
-.. attribute:: MAGIC_NUMBER
+.. data:: MAGIC_NUMBER
The bytes which represent the bytecode version number. If you need help with
loading/writing bytecode then consider :class:`importlib.abc.SourceLoader`.
@@ -1423,8 +1419,8 @@ an :term:`importer`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Raises :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError` instead of :exc:`AttributeError` if
- **package** is in fact not a package (i.e. lacks a :attr:`__path__`
- attribute).
+ **package** is in fact not a package (i.e. lacks a
+ :attr:`~module.__path__` attribute).
.. function:: module_from_spec(spec)
@@ -1584,20 +1580,34 @@ Note that if ``name`` is a submodule (contains a dot),
Importing a source file directly
''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
-To import a Python source file directly, use the following recipe::
+This recipe should be used with caution: it is an approximation of an import
+statement where the file path is specified directly, rather than
+:data:`sys.path` being searched. Alternatives should first be considered first,
+such as modifying :data:`sys.path` when a proper module is required, or using
+:func:`runpy.run_path` when the global namespace resulting from running a Python
+file is appropriate.
- import importlib.util
- import sys
+To import a Python source file directly from a path, use the following recipe::
- # For illustrative purposes.
- import tokenize
- file_path = tokenize.__file__
- module_name = tokenize.__name__
+ import importlib.util
+ import sys
+
+
+ def import_from_path(module_name, file_path):
+ spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(module_name, file_path)
+ module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
+ sys.modules[module_name] = module
+ spec.loader.exec_module(module)
+ return module
- spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(module_name, file_path)
- module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
- sys.modules[module_name] = module
- spec.loader.exec_module(module)
+
+ # For illustrative purposes only (use of `json` is arbitrary).
+ import json
+ file_path = json.__file__
+ module_name = json.__name__
+
+ # Similar outcome as `import json`.
+ json = import_from_path(module_name, file_path)
Implementing lazy imports
@@ -1623,7 +1633,6 @@ The example below shows how to implement lazy imports::
False
-
Setting up an importer
''''''''''''''''''''''
diff --git a/Doc/library/index.rst b/Doc/library/index.rst
index 0b348ae6f5c8c0a..078adf4c261d553 100644
--- a/Doc/library/index.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/index.rst
@@ -1,16 +1,18 @@
.. _library-index:
###############################
- The Python Standard Library
+ The Python standard library
###############################
-While :ref:`reference-index` describes the exact syntax and
-semantics of the Python language, this library reference manual
-describes the standard library that is distributed with Python. It also
-describes some of the optional components that are commonly included
-in Python distributions.
+This library reference manual describes the standard library
+distributed with Python. It also describes some of the optional
+components that are commonly included in Python distributions.
-Python's standard library is very extensive, offering a wide range of
+Elsewhere, :ref:`reference-index` describes the exact syntax and
+semantics of the Python language, and :ref:`builtins-index` describes
+the built-in functions.
+
+Python's standard library is extensive, offering a wide range of
facilities as indicated by the long table of contents listed below. The
library contains built-in modules (written in C) that provide access to
system functionality such as file I/O that would otherwise be
@@ -39,11 +41,6 @@ the `Python Package Index <https://pypi.org>`_.
:maxdepth: 2
intro.rst
- functions.rst
- constants.rst
- stdtypes.rst
- exceptions.rst
-
text.rst
binary.rst
datatypes.rst
@@ -55,6 +52,7 @@ the `Python Package Index <https://pypi.org>`_.
fileformats.rst
crypto.rst
allos.rst
+ cmdlinelibs.rst
concurrency.rst
ipc.rst
netdata.rst
@@ -62,7 +60,6 @@ the `Python Package Index <https://pypi.org>`_.
internet.rst
mm.rst
i18n.rst
- frameworks.rst
tk.rst
development.rst
debug.rst
@@ -75,4 +72,5 @@ the `Python Package Index <https://pypi.org>`_.
unix.rst
cmdline.rst
superseded.rst
+ removed.rst
security_warnings.rst
diff --git a/Doc/library/inspect.rst b/Doc/library/inspect.rst
index 4a0a090facb8bb4..96d78ca122a870c 100644
--- a/Doc/library/inspect.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/inspect.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`inspect` --- Inspect live objects
-=======================================
+:mod:`!inspect` --- Inspect live objects
+========================================
.. testsetup:: *
@@ -42,220 +42,242 @@ attributes (see :ref:`import-mod-attrs` for module attributes):
.. this function name is too big to fit in the ascii-art table below
.. |coroutine-origin-link| replace:: :func:`sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth`
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| Type | Attribute | Description |
-+===========+===================+===========================+
-| class | __doc__ | documentation string |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __name__ | name with which this |
-| | | class was defined |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __qualname__ | qualified name |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __module__ | name of module in which |
-| | | this class was defined |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __type_params__ | A tuple containing the |
-| | | :ref:`type parameters |
-| | | <type-params>` of |
-| | | a generic class |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| method | __doc__ | documentation string |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __name__ | name with which this |
-| | | method was defined |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __qualname__ | qualified name |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __func__ | function object |
-| | | containing implementation |
-| | | of method |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __self__ | instance to which this |
-| | | method is bound, or |
-| | | ``None`` |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __module__ | name of module in which |
-| | | this method was defined |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| function | __doc__ | documentation string |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __name__ | name with which this |
-| | | function was defined |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __qualname__ | qualified name |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __code__ | code object containing |
-| | | compiled function |
-| | | :term:`bytecode` |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __defaults__ | tuple of any default |
-| | | values for positional or |
-| | | keyword parameters |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __kwdefaults__ | mapping of any default |
-| | | values for keyword-only |
-| | | parameters |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __globals__ | global namespace in which |
-| | | this function was defined |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __builtins__ | builtins namespace |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __annotations__ | mapping of parameters |
-| | | names to annotations; |
-| | | ``"return"`` key is |
-| | | reserved for return |
-| | | annotations. |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __type_params__ | A tuple containing the |
-| | | :ref:`type parameters |
-| | | <type-params>` of |
-| | | a generic function |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __module__ | name of module in which |
-| | | this function was defined |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| traceback | tb_frame | frame object at this |
-| | | level |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | tb_lasti | index of last attempted |
-| | | instruction in bytecode |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | tb_lineno | current line number in |
-| | | Python source code |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | tb_next | next inner traceback |
-| | | object (called by this |
-| | | level) |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| frame | f_back | next outer frame object |
-| | | (this frame's caller) |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | f_builtins | builtins namespace seen |
-| | | by this frame |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | f_code | code object being |
-| | | executed in this frame |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | f_globals | global namespace seen by |
-| | | this frame |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | f_lasti | index of last attempted |
-| | | instruction in bytecode |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | f_lineno | current line number in |
-| | | Python source code |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | f_locals | local namespace seen by |
-| | | this frame |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | f_trace | tracing function for this |
-| | | frame, or ``None`` |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| code | co_argcount | number of arguments (not |
-| | | including keyword only |
-| | | arguments, \* or \*\* |
-| | | args) |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_code | string of raw compiled |
-| | | bytecode |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_cellvars | tuple of names of cell |
-| | | variables (referenced by |
-| | | containing scopes) |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_consts | tuple of constants used |
-| | | in the bytecode |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_filename | name of file in which |
-| | | this code object was |
-| | | created |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_firstlineno | number of first line in |
-| | | Python source code |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_flags | bitmap of ``CO_*`` flags, |
-| | | read more :ref:`here |
-| | | <inspect-module-co-flags>`|
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_lnotab | encoded mapping of line |
-| | | numbers to bytecode |
-| | | indices |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_freevars | tuple of names of free |
-| | | variables (referenced via |
-| | | a function's closure) |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_posonlyargcount| number of positional only |
-| | | arguments |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_kwonlyargcount | number of keyword only |
-| | | arguments (not including |
-| | | \*\* arg) |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_name | name with which this code |
-| | | object was defined |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_qualname | fully qualified name with |
-| | | which this code object |
-| | | was defined |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_names | tuple of names other |
-| | | than arguments and |
-| | | function locals |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_nlocals | number of local variables |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_stacksize | virtual machine stack |
-| | | space required |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | co_varnames | tuple of names of |
-| | | arguments and local |
-| | | variables |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| generator | __name__ | name |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __qualname__ | qualified name |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | gi_frame | frame |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | gi_running | is the generator running? |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | gi_code | code |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | gi_yieldfrom | object being iterated by |
-| | | ``yield from``, or |
-| | | ``None`` |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| coroutine | __name__ | name |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __qualname__ | qualified name |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | cr_await | object being awaited on, |
-| | | or ``None`` |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | cr_frame | frame |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | cr_running | is the coroutine running? |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | cr_code | code |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | cr_origin | where coroutine was |
-| | | created, or ``None``. See |
-| | | |coroutine-origin-link| |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| builtin | __doc__ | documentation string |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __name__ | original name of this |
-| | | function or method |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __qualname__ | qualified name |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
-| | __self__ | instance to which a |
-| | | method is bound, or |
-| | | ``None`` |
-+-----------+-------------------+---------------------------+
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| Type | Attribute | Description |
++=================+===================+===========================+
+| class | __doc__ | documentation string |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __name__ | name with which this |
+| | | class was defined |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __qualname__ | qualified name |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __module__ | name of module in which |
+| | | this class was defined |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __type_params__ | A tuple containing the |
+| | | :ref:`type parameters |
+| | | <type-params>` of |
+| | | a generic class |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| method | __doc__ | documentation string |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __name__ | name with which this |
+| | | method was defined |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __qualname__ | qualified name |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __func__ | function object |
+| | | containing implementation |
+| | | of method |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __self__ | instance to which this |
+| | | method is bound, or |
+| | | ``None`` |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __module__ | name of module in which |
+| | | this method was defined |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| function | __doc__ | documentation string |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __name__ | name with which this |
+| | | function was defined |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __qualname__ | qualified name |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __code__ | code object containing |
+| | | compiled function |
+| | | :term:`bytecode` |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __defaults__ | tuple of any default |
+| | | values for positional or |
+| | | keyword parameters |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __kwdefaults__ | mapping of any default |
+| | | values for keyword-only |
+| | | parameters |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __globals__ | global namespace in which |
+| | | this function was defined |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __builtins__ | builtins namespace |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __annotations__ | mapping of parameters |
+| | | names to annotations; |
+| | | ``"return"`` key is |
+| | | reserved for return |
+| | | annotations. |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __type_params__ | A tuple containing the |
+| | | :ref:`type parameters |
+| | | <type-params>` of |
+| | | a generic function |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __module__ | name of module in which |
+| | | this function was defined |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| traceback | tb_frame | frame object at this |
+| | | level |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | tb_lasti | index of last attempted |
+| | | instruction in bytecode |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | tb_lineno | current line number in |
+| | | Python source code |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | tb_next | next inner traceback |
+| | | object (called by this |
+| | | level) |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| frame | f_back | next outer frame object |
+| | | (this frame's caller) |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | f_builtins | builtins namespace seen |
+| | | by this frame |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | f_code | code object being |
+| | | executed in this frame |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | f_globals | global namespace seen by |
+| | | this frame |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | f_lasti | index of last attempted |
+| | | instruction in bytecode |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | f_lineno | current line number in |
+| | | Python source code |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | f_locals | local namespace seen by |
+| | | this frame |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | f_trace | tracing function for this |
+| | | frame, or ``None`` |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| code | co_argcount | number of arguments (not |
+| | | including keyword only |
+| | | arguments, \* or \*\* |
+| | | args) |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_code | string of raw compiled |
+| | | bytecode |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_cellvars | tuple of names of cell |
+| | | variables (referenced by |
+| | | containing scopes) |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_consts | tuple of constants used |
+| | | in the bytecode |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_filename | name of file in which |
+| | | this code object was |
+| | | created |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_firstlineno | number of first line in |
+| | | Python source code |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_flags | bitmap of ``CO_*`` flags, |
+| | | read more :ref:`here |
+| | | <inspect-module-co-flags>`|
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_lnotab | encoded mapping of line |
+| | | numbers to bytecode |
+| | | indices |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_freevars | tuple of names of free |
+| | | variables (referenced via |
+| | | a function's closure) |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_posonlyargcount| number of positional only |
+| | | arguments |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_kwonlyargcount | number of keyword only |
+| | | arguments (not including |
+| | | \*\* arg) |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_name | name with which this code |
+| | | object was defined |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_qualname | fully qualified name with |
+| | | which this code object |
+| | | was defined |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_names | tuple of names other |
+| | | than arguments and |
+| | | function locals |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_nlocals | number of local variables |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_stacksize | virtual machine stack |
+| | | space required |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | co_varnames | tuple of names of |
+| | | arguments and local |
+| | | variables |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| generator | __name__ | name |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __qualname__ | qualified name |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | gi_frame | frame |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | gi_running | is the generator running? |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | gi_suspended | is the generator |
+| | | suspended? |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | gi_code | code |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | gi_yieldfrom | object being iterated by |
+| | | ``yield from``, or |
+| | | ``None`` |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| async generator | __name__ | name |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __qualname__ | qualified name |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | ag_await | object being awaited on, |
+| | | or ``None`` |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | ag_frame | frame |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | ag_running | is the generator running? |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | ag_suspended | is the generator |
+| | | suspended? |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | ag_code | code |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| coroutine | __name__ | name |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __qualname__ | qualified name |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | cr_await | object being awaited on, |
+| | | or ``None`` |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | cr_frame | frame |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | cr_running | is the coroutine running? |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | cr_suspended | is the coroutine |
+| | | suspended? |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | cr_code | code |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | cr_origin | where coroutine was |
+| | | created, or ``None``. See |
+| | | |coroutine-origin-link| |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| builtin | __doc__ | documentation string |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __name__ | original name of this |
+| | | function or method |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __qualname__ | qualified name |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
+| | __self__ | instance to which a |
+| | | method is bound, or |
+| | | ``None`` |
++-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------+
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
@@ -272,6 +294,19 @@ attributes (see :ref:`import-mod-attrs` for module attributes):
Add ``__builtins__`` attribute to functions.
+.. versionchanged:: 3.11
+
+ Add ``gi_suspended`` attribute to generators.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.11
+
+ Add ``cr_suspended`` attribute to coroutines.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.12
+
+ Add ``ag_suspended`` attribute to async generators.
+
+
.. function:: getmembers(object[, predicate])
Return all the members of an object in a list of ``(name, value)``
@@ -330,6 +365,9 @@ attributes (see :ref:`import-mod-attrs` for module attributes):
Return ``True`` if the object is a class, whether built-in or created in Python
code.
+ This function returns ``False`` for :ref:`generic aliases <types-genericalias>` of classes,
+ such as ``list[int]``.
+
.. function:: ismethod(object)
@@ -350,6 +388,10 @@ attributes (see :ref:`import-mod-attrs` for module attributes):
Functions wrapped in :func:`functools.partial` now return ``True`` if the
wrapped function is a Python generator function.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10.6
+ :term:`Duck-typed <duck-typing>` function-like objects now return
+ ``True`` if their code object has the :data:`CO_GENERATOR` flag.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
Functions wrapped in :func:`functools.partialmethod` now return ``True``
if the wrapped function is a Python generator function.
@@ -372,6 +414,10 @@ attributes (see :ref:`import-mod-attrs` for module attributes):
Functions wrapped in :func:`functools.partial` now return ``True`` if the
wrapped function is a :term:`coroutine function`.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10.6
+ :term:`Duck-typed <duck-typing>` function-like objects now return
+ ``True`` if their code object has the :data:`CO_COROUTINE` flag.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
Sync functions marked with :func:`markcoroutinefunction` now return
``True``.
@@ -444,11 +490,15 @@ attributes (see :ref:`import-mod-attrs` for module attributes):
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
Functions wrapped in :func:`functools.partial` now return ``True`` if the
- wrapped function is a :term:`asynchronous generator` function.
+ wrapped function is an :term:`asynchronous generator` function.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10.6
+ :term:`Duck-typed <duck-typing>` function-like objects now return
+ ``True`` if their code object has the :data:`CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR` flag.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
Functions wrapped in :func:`functools.partialmethod` now return ``True``
- if the wrapped function is a :term:`coroutine function`.
+ if the wrapped function is a :term:`asynchronous generator` function.
.. function:: isasyncgen(object)
@@ -500,34 +550,50 @@ attributes (see :ref:`import-mod-attrs` for module attributes):
.. function:: ismethoddescriptor(object)
Return ``True`` if the object is a method descriptor, but not if
- :func:`ismethod`, :func:`isclass`, :func:`isfunction` or :func:`isbuiltin`
- are true.
+ :func:`isclass`, :func:`ismethod` or :func:`isfunction` is true.
This, for example, is true of ``int.__add__``. An object passing this test
- has a :meth:`~object.__get__` method but not a :meth:`~object.__set__`
- method, but beyond that the set of attributes varies. A
- :attr:`~definition.__name__` attribute is usually
- sensible, and :attr:`!__doc__` often is.
-
- Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other tests
- return ``False`` from the :func:`ismethoddescriptor` test, simply because the
- other tests promise more -- you can, e.g., count on having the
- :attr:`~method.__func__` attribute (etc) when an object passes
+ has a :meth:`~object.__get__` method, but not a :meth:`~object.__set__`
+ method or a :meth:`~object.__delete__` method. Beyond that, the set of
+ attributes varies. A :attr:`~definition.__name__` attribute is usually
+ sensible, and :attr:`~definition.__doc__` often is.
+
+ Method descriptors that also pass any of the other tests (:func:`!isclass`,
+ :func:`!ismethod` or :func:`!isfunction`) make this function return ``False``,
+ simply because those other tests promise more -- you can, for example, count
+ on having the :attr:`~method.__func__` attribute when an object passes
:func:`ismethod`.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ This function no longer incorrectly reports objects with :meth:`~object.__get__`
+ and :meth:`~object.__delete__`, but not :meth:`~object.__set__`, as being method
+ descriptors (such objects are data descriptors, not method descriptors).
+
.. function:: isdatadescriptor(object)
- Return ``True`` if the object is a data descriptor.
+ Return ``True`` if the object is a data descriptor, but not if
+ :func:`isclass`, :func:`ismethod` or :func:`isfunction` is true.
+
+ Data descriptors always have a :meth:`~object.__set__` method and/or
+ a :meth:`~object.__delete__` method. Optionally, they may also have a
+ :meth:`~object.__get__` method.
+
+ Examples of data descriptors are :func:`properties <property>`, getsets and
+ member descriptors. Note that for the latter two (defined only in C extension
+ modules), more specific tests are available: :func:`isgetsetdescriptor` and
+ :func:`ismemberdescriptor`, respectively.
- Data descriptors have a :attr:`~object.__set__` or a :attr:`~object.__delete__` method.
- Examples are properties (defined in Python), getsets, and members. The
- latter two are defined in C and there are more specific tests available for
- those types, which is robust across Python implementations. Typically, data
- descriptors will also have :attr:`~definition.__name__` and :attr:`!__doc__` attributes
- (properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes), but this is
- not guaranteed.
+ While data descriptors may also have :attr:`~definition.__name__` and
+ :attr:`!__doc__` attributes (as properties, getsets and member descriptors
+ do), this is not necessarily the case in general.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.8
+ This function now reports objects with only a :meth:`~object.__set__` method
+ as being data descriptors (the presence of :meth:`~object.__get__` is no
+ longer required for that). Moreover, objects with :meth:`~object.__delete__`,
+ but not :meth:`~object.__set__`, are now properly recognized as data
+ descriptors as well, which was not the case previously.
.. function:: isgetsetdescriptor(object)
@@ -580,6 +646,7 @@ Retrieving source code
.. function:: getfile(object)
Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was defined.
+ An :exc:`OSError` is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved.
This will fail with a :exc:`TypeError` if the object is a built-in module,
class, or function.
@@ -593,9 +660,10 @@ Retrieving source code
.. function:: getsourcefile(object)
Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was defined
- or ``None`` if no way can be identified to get the source. This
- will fail with a :exc:`TypeError` if the object is a built-in module, class, or
- function.
+ or ``None`` if no way can be identified to get the source. An :exc:`OSError` is
+ raised if the source code cannot be retrieved.
+ This will fail with a :exc:`TypeError` if the object is a built-in module,
+ class, or function.
.. function:: getsourcelines(object)
@@ -920,7 +988,7 @@ function.
.. attribute:: Parameter.kind.description
- Describes a enum value of :attr:`Parameter.kind`.
+ Describes an enum value of :attr:`Parameter.kind`.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
@@ -1000,7 +1068,8 @@ function.
.. attribute:: BoundArguments.kwargs
A dict of keyword arguments values. Dynamically computed from the
- :attr:`arguments` attribute.
+ :attr:`arguments` attribute. Arguments that can be passed positionally
+ are included in :attr:`args` instead.
.. attribute:: BoundArguments.signature
@@ -1101,7 +1170,7 @@ Classes and functions
:func:`signature` in Python 3.5, but that decision has been reversed
in order to restore a clearly supported standard interface for
single-source Python 2/3 code migrating away from the legacy
- :func:`getargspec` API.
+ :func:`!getargspec` API.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration
@@ -1218,7 +1287,7 @@ Classes and functions
This function handles several details for you:
* If ``eval_str`` is true, values of type ``str`` will
- be un-stringized using :func:`eval()`. This is intended
+ be un-stringized using :func:`eval`. This is intended
for use with stringized annotations
(``from __future__ import annotations``).
* If ``obj`` doesn't have an annotations dict, returns an
@@ -1232,16 +1301,16 @@ Classes and functions
* Always, always, always returns a freshly created dict.
``eval_str`` controls whether or not values of type ``str`` are replaced
- with the result of calling :func:`eval()` on those values:
+ with the result of calling :func:`eval` on those values:
- * If eval_str is true, :func:`eval()` is called on values of type ``str``.
- (Note that ``get_annotations`` doesn't catch exceptions; if :func:`eval()`
+ * If eval_str is true, :func:`eval` is called on values of type ``str``.
+ (Note that ``get_annotations`` doesn't catch exceptions; if :func:`eval`
raises an exception, it will unwind the stack past the ``get_annotations``
call.)
* If eval_str is false (the default), values of type ``str`` are unchanged.
- ``globals`` and ``locals`` are passed in to :func:`eval()`; see the documentation
- for :func:`eval()` for more information. If ``globals`` or ``locals``
+ ``globals`` and ``locals`` are passed in to :func:`eval`; see the documentation
+ for :func:`eval` for more information. If ``globals`` or ``locals``
is ``None``, this function may replace that value with a context-specific
default, contingent on ``type(obj)``:
@@ -1471,10 +1540,11 @@ properties, will be invoked and :meth:`~object.__getattr__` and
may be called.
For cases where you want passive introspection, like documentation tools, this
-can be inconvenient. :func:`getattr_static` has the same signature as :func:`getattr`
+can be inconvenient. :func:`getattr_static` has a similar signature as :func:`getattr`
but avoids executing code when it fetches attributes.
-.. function:: getattr_static(obj, attr, default=None)
+.. function:: getattr_static(obj, attr)
+ getattr_static(obj, attr, default)
Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the
descriptor protocol, :meth:`~object.__getattr__`
@@ -1718,7 +1788,7 @@ Buffer flags
.. _inspect-module-cli:
-Command Line Interface
+Command-line interface
----------------------
The :mod:`inspect` module also provides a basic introspection capability
diff --git a/Doc/library/intro.rst b/Doc/library/intro.rst
index ffc8939d21157de..fcd2175dbccc01b 100644
--- a/Doc/library/intro.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/intro.rst
@@ -4,48 +4,34 @@
Introduction
************
-The "Python library" contains several different kinds of components.
-
-It contains data types that would normally be considered part of the "core" of a
-language, such as numbers and lists. For these types, the Python language core
-defines the form of literals and places some constraints on their semantics, but
-does not fully define the semantics. (On the other hand, the language core does
-define syntactic properties like the spelling and priorities of operators.)
-
-The library also contains built-in functions and exceptions --- objects that can
-be used by all Python code without the need of an :keyword:`import` statement.
-Some of these are defined by the core language, but many are not essential for
-the core semantics and are only described here.
-
-The bulk of the library, however, consists of a collection of modules. There are
-many ways to dissect this collection. Some modules are written in C and built
-in to the Python interpreter; others are written in Python and imported in
-source form. Some modules provide interfaces that are highly specific to
+The Python standard library consists of a collection of modules. There are
+many ways to dissect this collection. Most modules are written in Python,
+but some are written in C. All can be imported into your program to add
+functionality. Some modules provide interfaces that are highly specific to
Python, like printing a stack trace; some provide interfaces that are specific
to particular operating systems, such as access to specific hardware; others
provide interfaces that are specific to a particular application domain, like
-the World Wide Web. Some modules are available in all versions and ports of
+web development. Some modules are available in all versions and ports of
Python; others are only available when the underlying system supports or
requires them; yet others are available only when a particular configuration
option was chosen at the time when Python was compiled and installed.
-This manual is organized "from the inside out:" it first describes the built-in
-functions, data types and exceptions, and finally the modules, grouped in
-chapters of related modules.
-
-This means that if you start reading this manual from the start, and skip to the
+If you start reading this manual from the start, and skip to the
next chapter when you get bored, you will get a reasonable overview of the
available modules and application areas that are supported by the Python
library. Of course, you don't *have* to read it like a novel --- you can also
browse the table of contents (in front of the manual), or look for a specific
function, module or term in the index (in the back). And finally, if you enjoy
-learning about random subjects, you choose a random page number (see module
-:mod:`random`) and read a section or two. Regardless of the order in which you
-read the sections of this manual, it helps to start with chapter
-:ref:`built-in-funcs`, as the remainder of the manual assumes familiarity with
-this material.
+learning about random subjects, you choose a random page
+and read a section or two. Regardless of the order in which you
+read the sections of this manual, it helps to first read
+:ref:`built-in-funcs`, as the remainder of this section
+assumes familiarity with this material.
+
+.. seealso::
-Let the show begin!
+ The built-in functions and classes (which can be used without an
+ :keyword:`import` statement) are described in :ref:`builtins-index`.
.. _availability:
@@ -58,7 +44,7 @@ Notes on availability
operating system.
* If not separately noted, all functions that claim "Availability: Unix" are
- supported on macOS and iOS, both of which build on a Unix core.
+ supported on macOS, iOS and Android, all of which build on a Unix core.
* If an availability note contains both a minimum Kernel version and a minimum
libc version, then both conditions must hold. For example a feature with note
@@ -120,43 +106,57 @@ DOM APIs as well as limited networking capabilities with JavaScript's
.. _Pyodide: https://pyodide.org/
.. _PyScript: https://pyscript.net/
+.. _mobile-availability:
.. _iOS-availability:
-iOS
----
+Mobile platforms
+----------------
-iOS is, in most respects, a POSIX operating system. File I/O, socket handling,
+Android and iOS are, in most respects, POSIX operating systems. File I/O, socket handling,
and threading all behave as they would on any POSIX operating system. However,
-there are several major differences between iOS and other POSIX systems.
-
-* iOS can only use Python in "embedded" mode. There is no Python REPL, and no
- ability to execute binaries that are part of the normal Python developer
- experience, such as :program:`pip`. To add Python code to your iOS app, you must use
- the :ref:`Python embedding API <embedding>` to add a Python interpreter to an
- iOS app created with Xcode. See the :ref:`iOS usage guide <using-ios>` for
- more details.
-
-* An iOS app cannot use any form of subprocessing, background processing, or
- inter-process communication. If an iOS app attempts to create a subprocess,
- the process creating the subprocess will either lock up, or crash. An iOS app
- has no visibility of other applications that are running, nor any ability to
- communicate with other running applications, outside of the iOS-specific APIs
- that exist for this purpose.
-
-* iOS apps have limited access to modify system resources (such as the system
+there are several major differences:
+
+* Mobile platforms can only use Python in "embedded" mode. There is no Python
+ REPL, and no ability to use separate executables such as :program:`python` or
+ :program:`pip`. To add Python code to your mobile app, you must use
+ the :ref:`Python embedding API <embedding>`. For more details, see
+ :ref:`using-android` and :ref:`using-ios`.
+
+* Subprocesses:
+
+ * On Android, creating subprocesses is possible but `officially unsupported
+ <https://issuetracker.google.com/issues/128554619#comment4>`__.
+ In particular, Android does not support any part of the System V IPC API,
+ so :mod:`multiprocessing` is not available.
+
+ * An iOS app cannot use any form of subprocessing, multiprocessing, or
+ inter-process communication. If an iOS app attempts to create a subprocess,
+ the process creating the subprocess will either lock up, or crash. An iOS app
+ has no visibility of other applications that are running, nor any ability to
+ communicate with other running applications, outside of the iOS-specific APIs
+ that exist for this purpose.
+
+* Mobile apps have limited access to modify system resources (such as the system
clock). These resources will often be *readable*, but attempts to modify
those resources will usually fail.
-* iOS apps have a limited concept of console input and output. ``stdout`` and
- ``stderr`` *exist*, and content written to ``stdout`` and ``stderr`` will be
- visible in logs when running in Xcode, but this content *won't* be recorded
- in the system log. If a user who has installed your app provides their app
- logs as a diagnostic aid, they will not include any detail written to
- ``stdout`` or ``stderr``.
+* Console input and output:
+
+ * On Android, the native ``stdout`` and ``stderr`` are not connected to
+ anything, so Python installs its own streams which redirect messages to the
+ system log. These can be seen under the tags ``python.stdout`` and
+ ``python.stderr`` respectively.
+
+ * iOS apps have a limited concept of console output. ``stdout`` and
+ ``stderr`` *exist*, and content written to ``stdout`` and ``stderr`` will be
+ visible in logs when running in Xcode, but this content *won't* be recorded
+ in the system log. If a user who has installed your app provides their app
+ logs as a diagnostic aid, they will not include any detail written to
+ ``stdout`` or ``stderr``.
- iOS apps have no concept of ``stdin`` at all. While iOS apps can have a
- keyboard, this is a software feature, not something that is attached to
- ``stdin``.
+ * Mobile apps have no usable ``stdin`` at all. While apps can display an on-screen
+ keyboard, this is a software feature, not something that is attached to
+ ``stdin``.
- As a result, Python library that involve console manipulation (such as
- :mod:`curses` and :mod:`readline`) are not available on iOS.
+ As a result, Python modules that involve console manipulation (such as
+ :mod:`curses` and :mod:`readline`) are not available on mobile platforms.
diff --git a/Doc/library/io.rst b/Doc/library/io.rst
index 8eb531aa4ea2487..21420b3ca574097 100644
--- a/Doc/library/io.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/io.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`io` --- Core tools for working with streams
-=================================================
+:mod:`!io` --- Core tools for working with streams
+==================================================
.. module:: io
:synopsis: Core tools for working with streams.
@@ -46,6 +46,7 @@ will raise a :exc:`TypeError`. So will giving a :class:`bytes` object to the
Operations that used to raise :exc:`IOError` now raise :exc:`OSError`, since
:exc:`IOError` is now an alias of :exc:`OSError`.
+.. _text-io:
Text I/O
^^^^^^^^
@@ -55,7 +56,7 @@ the backing store is natively made of bytes (such as in the case of a file),
encoding and decoding of data is made transparently as well as optional
translation of platform-specific newline characters.
-The easiest way to create a text stream is with :meth:`open()`, optionally
+The easiest way to create a text stream is with :meth:`open`, optionally
specifying an encoding::
f = open("myfile.txt", "r", encoding="utf-8")
@@ -67,6 +68,7 @@ In-memory text streams are also available as :class:`StringIO` objects::
The text stream API is described in detail in the documentation of
:class:`TextIOBase`.
+.. _binary-io:
Binary I/O
^^^^^^^^^^
@@ -77,7 +79,7 @@ objects. No encoding, decoding, or newline translation is performed. This
category of streams can be used for all kinds of non-text data, and also when
manual control over the handling of text data is desired.
-The easiest way to create a binary stream is with :meth:`open()` with ``'b'`` in
+The easiest way to create a binary stream is with :meth:`open` with ``'b'`` in
the mode string::
f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb")
@@ -105,6 +107,13 @@ stream by opening a file in binary mode with buffering disabled::
The raw stream API is described in detail in the docs of :class:`RawIOBase`.
+.. warning::
+ Raw I/O is a low-level interface and methods generally must have their return
+ values checked and be explicitly retried to ensure an operation completes.
+ For instance :meth:`~RawIOBase.write` returns the number of bytes written
+ which may be less than the number of bytes provided (a partial write).
+ High-level I/O objects like :ref:`binary-io` and :ref:`text-io` implement
+ retry behavior.
.. _io-text-encoding:
@@ -480,8 +489,11 @@ I/O Base Classes
Read up to *size* bytes from the object and return them. As a convenience,
if *size* is unspecified or -1, all bytes until EOF are returned.
- Otherwise, only one system call is ever made. Fewer than *size* bytes may
- be returned if the operating system call returns fewer than *size* bytes.
+
+ Attempts to make only one system call but will retry if interrupted and
+ the signal handler does not raise an exception (see :pep:`475` for the
+ rationale). This means fewer than *size* bytes may be returned if the
+ operating system call returns fewer than *size* bytes.
If 0 bytes are returned, and *size* was not 0, this indicates end of file.
If the object is in non-blocking mode and no bytes are available,
@@ -495,13 +507,19 @@ I/O Base Classes
Read and return all the bytes from the stream until EOF, using multiple
calls to the stream if necessary.
+ If ``0`` bytes are returned this indicates end of file. If the object is in
+ non-blocking mode and the underlying :meth:`read` returns ``None``
+ indicating no bytes are available, ``None`` is returned.
+
.. method:: readinto(b, /)
Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable
:term:`bytes-like object` *b*, and return the
number of bytes read. For example, *b* might be a :class:`bytearray`.
- If the object is in non-blocking mode and no bytes
- are available, ``None`` is returned.
+
+ If ``0`` is returned and ``len(b)`` is not ``0``, this indicates end of file. If
+ the object is in non-blocking mode and no bytes are available, ``None`` is
+ returned.
.. method:: write(b, /)
@@ -515,6 +533,13 @@ I/O Base Classes
this method returns, so the implementation should only access *b*
during the method call.
+ .. warning::
+
+ This function does not ensure all bytes are written or an exception is
+ thrown. Callers may implement that behavior by checking the return
+ value and, if it is less than the length of *b*, looping with additional
+ write calls until all unwritten bytes are written. High-level I/O
+ objects like :ref:`binary-io` and :ref:`text-io` implement retry behavior.
.. class:: BufferedIOBase
@@ -522,14 +547,13 @@ I/O Base Classes
It inherits from :class:`IOBase`.
The main difference with :class:`RawIOBase` is that methods :meth:`read`,
- :meth:`readinto` and :meth:`write` will try (respectively) to read as much
- input as requested or to consume all given output, at the expense of
- making perhaps more than one system call.
+ :meth:`readinto` and :meth:`write` will try (respectively) to read
+ as much input as requested or to emit all provided data.
- In addition, those methods can raise :exc:`BlockingIOError` if the
- underlying raw stream is in non-blocking mode and cannot take or give
- enough data; unlike their :class:`RawIOBase` counterparts, they will
- never return ``None``.
+ In addition, if the underlying raw stream is in non-blocking mode, when the
+ system returns would block :meth:`write` will raise :exc:`BlockingIOError`
+ with :attr:`BlockingIOError.characters_written` and :meth:`read` will return
+ data read so far or ``None`` if no data is available.
Besides, the :meth:`read` method does not have a default
implementation that defers to :meth:`readinto`.
@@ -562,29 +586,40 @@ I/O Base Classes
.. method:: read(size=-1, /)
- Read and return up to *size* bytes. If the argument is omitted, ``None``,
- or negative, data is read and returned until EOF is reached. An empty
- :class:`bytes` object is returned if the stream is already at EOF.
+ Read and return up to *size* bytes. If the argument is omitted, ``None``,
+ or negative read as much as possible.
+
+ Fewer bytes may be returned than requested. An empty :class:`bytes` object
+ is returned if the stream is already at EOF. More than one read may be
+ made and calls may be retried if specific errors are encountered, see
+ :meth:`os.read` and :pep:`475` for more details. Less than size bytes
+ being returned does not imply that EOF is imminent.
+
+ When reading as much as possible the default implementation will use
+ ``raw.readall`` if available (which should implement
+ :meth:`RawIOBase.readall`), otherwise will read in a loop until read
+ returns ``None``, an empty :class:`bytes`, or a non-retryable error. For
+ most streams this is to EOF, but for non-blocking streams more data may
+ become available.
- If the argument is positive, and the underlying raw stream is not
- interactive, multiple raw reads may be issued to satisfy the byte count
- (unless EOF is reached first). But for interactive raw streams, at most
- one raw read will be issued, and a short result does not imply that EOF is
- imminent.
+ .. note::
- A :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised if the underlying raw stream is in
- non blocking-mode, and has no data available at the moment.
+ When the underlying raw stream is non-blocking, implementations may
+ either raise :exc:`BlockingIOError` or return ``None`` if no data is
+ available. :mod:`io` implementations return ``None``.
.. method:: read1(size=-1, /)
- Read and return up to *size* bytes, with at most one call to the
- underlying raw stream's :meth:`~RawIOBase.read` (or
- :meth:`~RawIOBase.readinto`) method. This can be useful if you are
- implementing your own buffering on top of a :class:`BufferedIOBase`
- object.
+ Read and return up to *size* bytes, calling :meth:`~RawIOBase.readinto`
+ which may retry if :py:const:`~errno.EINTR` is encountered per
+ :pep:`475`. If *size* is ``-1`` or not provided, the implementation will
+ choose an arbitrary value for *size*.
+
+ .. note::
- If *size* is ``-1`` (the default), an arbitrary number of bytes are
- returned (more than zero unless EOF is reached).
+ When the underlying raw stream is non-blocking, implementations may
+ either raise :exc:`BlockingIOError` or return ``None`` if no data is
+ available. :mod:`io` implementations return ``None``.
.. method:: readinto(b, /)
@@ -633,7 +668,11 @@ Raw File I/O
.. class:: FileIO(name, mode='r', closefd=True, opener=None)
A raw binary stream representing an OS-level file containing bytes data. It
- inherits from :class:`RawIOBase`.
+ inherits from :class:`RawIOBase` and implements its low-level access design.
+ This means :meth:`~RawIOBase.write` does not guarantee all bytes are written
+ and :meth:`~RawIOBase.read` may read less bytes than requested even when more
+ bytes may be present in the underlying file. To get "write all" and
+ "read at least" behavior, use :ref:`binary-io`.
The *name* can be one of two things:
@@ -653,10 +692,6 @@ Raw File I/O
implies writing, so this mode behaves in a similar way to ``'w'``. Add a
``'+'`` to the mode to allow simultaneous reading and writing.
- The :meth:`~RawIOBase.read` (when called with a positive argument),
- :meth:`~RawIOBase.readinto` and :meth:`~RawIOBase.write` methods on this
- class will only make one system call.
-
A custom opener can be used by passing a callable as *opener*. The underlying
file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling *opener* with
(*name*, *flags*). *opener* must return an open file descriptor (passing
@@ -668,6 +703,13 @@ Raw File I/O
See the :func:`open` built-in function for examples on using the *opener*
parameter.
+ .. warning::
+ :class:`FileIO` is a low-level I/O object and members, such as
+ :meth:`~RawIOBase.read` and :meth:`~RawIOBase.write`, need to have their
+ return values checked explicitly in a retry loop to implement "write all"
+ and "read at least" behavior. High-level I/O objects :ref:`binary-io` and
+ :ref:`text-io` implement retry behavior.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
The *opener* parameter was added.
The ``'x'`` mode was added.
@@ -761,20 +803,17 @@ than raw I/O does.
.. method:: peek(size=0, /)
- Return bytes from the stream without advancing the position. At most one
- single read on the raw stream is done to satisfy the call. The number of
- bytes returned may be less or more than requested.
+ Return bytes from the stream without advancing the position. The number of
+ bytes returned may be less or more than requested. If the underlying raw
+ stream is non-blocking and the operation would block, returns empty bytes.
.. method:: read(size=-1, /)
- Read and return *size* bytes, or if *size* is not given or negative, until
- EOF or if the read call would block in non-blocking mode.
+ In :class:`BufferedReader` this is the same as :meth:`io.BufferedIOBase.read`
.. method:: read1(size=-1, /)
- Read and return up to *size* bytes with only one call on the raw stream.
- If at least one byte is buffered, only buffered bytes are returned.
- Otherwise, one raw stream read call is made.
+ In :class:`BufferedReader` this is the same as :meth:`io.BufferedIOBase.read1`
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
The *size* argument is now optional.
@@ -811,15 +850,15 @@ than raw I/O does.
Write the :term:`bytes-like object`, *b*, and return the
number of bytes written. When in non-blocking mode, a
- :exc:`BlockingIOError` is raised if the buffer needs to be written out but
- the raw stream blocks.
+ :exc:`BlockingIOError` with :attr:`BlockingIOError.characters_written` set
+ is raised if the buffer needs to be written out but the raw stream blocks.
.. class:: BufferedRandom(raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)
- A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a seekable
- :class:`RawIOBase` raw binary stream. It inherits from :class:`BufferedReader`
- and :class:`BufferedWriter`.
+ A buffered binary stream implementing :class:`BufferedIOBase` interfaces
+ providing higher-level access to a seekable :class:`RawIOBase` raw binary
+ stream.
The constructor creates a reader and writer for a seekable raw stream, given
in the first argument. If the *buffer_size* is omitted it defaults to
@@ -879,9 +918,10 @@ Text I/O
.. attribute:: buffer
- The underlying binary buffer (a :class:`BufferedIOBase` instance) that
- :class:`TextIOBase` deals with. This is not part of the
- :class:`TextIOBase` API and may not exist in some implementations.
+ The underlying binary buffer (a :class:`BufferedIOBase`
+ or :class:`RawIOBase` instance) that :class:`TextIOBase` deals with.
+ This is not part of the :class:`TextIOBase` API and may not exist
+ in some implementations.
.. method:: detach()
@@ -950,7 +990,8 @@ Text I/O
:class:`TextIOBase`.
*encoding* gives the name of the encoding that the stream will be decoded or
- encoded with. It defaults to :func:`locale.getencoding()`.
+ encoded with. In :ref:`UTF-8 Mode <utf8-mode>`, this defaults to UTF-8.
+ Otherwise, it defaults to :func:`locale.getencoding`.
``encoding="locale"`` can be used to specify the current locale's encoding
explicitly. See :ref:`io-text-encoding` for more information.
@@ -1182,7 +1223,7 @@ re-enter a buffered object which it is already accessing, a :exc:`RuntimeError`
is raised. Note this doesn't prohibit a different thread from entering the
buffered object.
-The above implicitly extends to text files, since the :func:`open()` function
+The above implicitly extends to text files, since the :func:`open` function
will wrap a buffered object inside a :class:`TextIOWrapper`. This includes
-standard streams and therefore affects the built-in :func:`print()` function as
+standard streams and therefore affects the built-in :func:`print` function as
well.
diff --git a/Doc/library/ipaddress.rst b/Doc/library/ipaddress.rst
index a4073a4dac86b9f..e00e1b2cea446a5 100644
--- a/Doc/library/ipaddress.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/ipaddress.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`ipaddress` --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
-===================================================
+:mod:`!ipaddress` --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
+====================================================
.. module:: ipaddress
:synopsis: IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library.
@@ -232,7 +232,16 @@ write code that handles both IP versions correctly. Address objects are
.. attribute:: is_reserved
- ``True`` if the address is otherwise IETF reserved.
+ ``True`` if the address is noted as reserved by the IETF.
+ For IPv4, this is only ``240.0.0.0/4``, the ``Reserved`` address block.
+ For IPv6, this is all addresses `allocated <iana-ipv6-address-space_>`__ as
+ ``Reserved by IETF`` for future use.
+
+ .. note:: For IPv4, ``is_reserved`` is not related to the address block value of the
+ ``Reserved-by-Protocol`` column in iana-ipv4-special-registry_.
+
+ .. caution:: For IPv6, ``fec0::/10`` a former Site-Local scoped address prefix is
+ currently excluded from that list (see :attr:`~IPv6Address.is_site_local` & :rfc:`3879`).
.. attribute:: is_loopback
@@ -253,6 +262,7 @@ write code that handles both IP versions correctly. Address objects are
.. _iana-ipv4-special-registry: https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml
.. _iana-ipv6-special-registry: https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml
+.. _iana-ipv6-address-space: https://www.iana.org/assignments/ipv6-address-space/ipv6-address-space.xhtml
.. method:: IPv4Address.__format__(fmt)
@@ -351,9 +361,9 @@ write code that handles both IP versions correctly. Address objects are
.. attribute:: ipv4_mapped
- For addresses that appear to be IPv4 mapped addresses (starting with
- ``::FFFF/96``), this property will report the embedded IPv4 address.
- For any other address, this property will be ``None``.
+ For addresses that appear to be IPv4 mapped addresses in the range
+ ``::FFFF:0:0/96`` as defined by :RFC:`4291`, this property reports the
+ embedded IPv4 address. For any other address, this property will be ``None``.
.. attribute:: scope_id
@@ -990,7 +1000,7 @@ The module also provides the following module level functions:
.. function:: collapse_addresses(addresses)
Return an iterator of the collapsed :class:`IPv4Network` or
- :class:`IPv6Network` objects. *addresses* is an iterator of
+ :class:`IPv6Network` objects. *addresses* is an :term:`iterable` of
:class:`IPv4Network` or :class:`IPv6Network` objects. A :exc:`TypeError` is
raised if *addresses* contains mixed version objects.
@@ -1010,7 +1020,7 @@ The module also provides the following module level functions:
doesn't make sense. There are some times however, where you may wish to
have :mod:`ipaddress` sort these anyway. If you need to do this, you can use
- this function as the *key* argument to :func:`sorted()`.
+ this function as the *key* argument to :func:`sorted`.
*obj* is either a network or address object.
diff --git a/Doc/library/itertools.rst b/Doc/library/itertools.rst
index fb3f33370e3faa2..47c5326d137c50d 100644
--- a/Doc/library/itertools.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/itertools.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`itertools` --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
-=======================================================================
+:mod:`!itertools` --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
+========================================================================
.. module:: itertools
:synopsis: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping.
@@ -30,11 +30,6 @@ For instance, SML provides a tabulation tool: ``tabulate(f)`` which produces a
sequence ``f(0), f(1), ...``. The same effect can be achieved in Python
by combining :func:`map` and :func:`count` to form ``map(f, count())``.
-These tools and their built-in counterparts also work well with the high-speed
-functions in the :mod:`operator` module. For example, the multiplication
-operator can be mapped across two vectors to form an efficient dot-product:
-``sum(starmap(operator.mul, zip(vec1, vec2, strict=True)))``.
-
**Infinite iterators:**
@@ -56,13 +51,13 @@ Iterator Arguments Results
:func:`chain` p, q, ... p0, p1, ... plast, q0, q1, ... ``chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F``
:func:`chain.from_iterable` iterable p0, p1, ... plast, q0, q1, ... ``chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F``
:func:`compress` data, selectors (d[0] if s[0]), (d[1] if s[1]), ... ``compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F``
-:func:`dropwhile` predicate, seq seq[n], seq[n+1], starting when predicate fails ``dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,4,1]) → 6 4 1``
-:func:`filterfalse` predicate, seq elements of seq where predicate(elem) fails ``filterfalse(lambda x: x%2, range(10)) → 0 2 4 6 8``
-:func:`groupby` iterable[, key] sub-iterators grouped by value of key(v)
+:func:`dropwhile` predicate, seq seq[n], seq[n+1], starting when predicate fails ``dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8``
+:func:`filterfalse` predicate, seq elements of seq where predicate(elem) fails ``filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8``
+:func:`groupby` iterable[, key] sub-iterators grouped by value of key(v) ``groupby(['A','B','DEF'], len) → (1, A B) (3, DEF)``
:func:`islice` seq, [start,] stop [, step] elements from seq[start:stop:step] ``islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G``
:func:`pairwise` iterable (p[0], p[1]), (p[1], p[2]) ``pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG``
:func:`starmap` func, seq func(\*seq[0]), func(\*seq[1]), ... ``starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000``
-:func:`takewhile` predicate, seq seq[0], seq[1], until predicate fails ``takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,4,1]) → 1 4``
+:func:`takewhile` predicate, seq seq[0], seq[1], until predicate fails ``takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4``
:func:`tee` it, n it1, it2, ... itn splits one iterator into n
:func:`zip_longest` p, q, ... (p[0], q[0]), (p[1], q[1]), ... ``zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-``
============================ ============================ ================================================= =============================================================
@@ -93,63 +88,62 @@ Examples Results
Itertool Functions
------------------
-The following module functions all construct and return iterators. Some provide
+The following functions all construct and return iterators. Some provide
streams of infinite length, so they should only be accessed by functions or
loops that truncate the stream.
-.. function:: accumulate(iterable[, func, *, initial=None])
- Make an iterator that returns accumulated sums, or accumulated
- results of other binary functions (specified via the optional
- *func* argument).
+.. function:: accumulate(iterable[, function, *, initial=None])
+
+ Make an iterator that returns accumulated sums or accumulated
+ results from other binary functions.
- If *func* is supplied, it should be a function
- of two arguments. Elements of the input *iterable* may be any type
- that can be accepted as arguments to *func*. (For example, with
- the default operation of addition, elements may be any addable
- type including :class:`~decimal.Decimal` or
- :class:`~fractions.Fraction`.)
+ The *function* defaults to addition. The *function* should accept
+ two arguments, an accumulated total and a value from the *iterable*.
- Usually, the number of elements output matches the input iterable.
- However, if the keyword argument *initial* is provided, the
- accumulation leads off with the *initial* value so that the output
- has one more element than the input iterable.
+ If an *initial* value is provided, the accumulation will start with
+ that value and the output will have one more element than the input
+ iterable.
Roughly equivalent to::
- def accumulate(iterable, func=operator.add, *, initial=None):
+ def accumulate(iterable, function=operator.add, *, initial=None):
'Return running totals'
# accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15
# accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], initial=100) → 100 101 103 106 110 115
# accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], operator.mul) → 1 2 6 24 120
- it = iter(iterable)
+
+ iterator = iter(iterable)
total = initial
if initial is None:
try:
- total = next(it)
+ total = next(iterator)
except StopIteration:
return
+
yield total
- for element in it:
- total = func(total, element)
+ for element in iterator:
+ total = function(total, element)
yield total
- There are a number of uses for the *func* argument. It can be set to
- :func:`min` for a running minimum, :func:`max` for a running maximum, or
- :func:`operator.mul` for a running product. Amortization tables can be
- built by accumulating interest and applying payments:
+ To compute a running minimum, set *function* to :func:`min`.
+ For a running maximum, set *function* to :func:`max`.
+ Or for a running product, set *function* to :func:`operator.mul`.
+ To build an `amortization table
+ <https://www.ramseysolutions.com/real-estate/amortization-schedule>`_,
+ accumulate the interest and apply payments:
.. doctest::
>>> data = [3, 4, 6, 2, 1, 9, 0, 7, 5, 8]
- >>> list(accumulate(data, operator.mul)) # running product
- [3, 12, 72, 144, 144, 1296, 0, 0, 0, 0]
>>> list(accumulate(data, max)) # running maximum
[3, 4, 6, 6, 6, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9]
+ >>> list(accumulate(data, operator.mul)) # running product
+ [3, 12, 72, 144, 144, 1296, 0, 0, 0, 0]
# Amortize a 5% loan of 1000 with 10 annual payments of 90
- >>> account_update = lambda bal, pmt: round(bal * 1.05) + pmt
- >>> list(accumulate(repeat(-90, 10), account_update, initial=1_000))
+ >>> update = lambda balance, payment: round(balance * 1.05) - payment
+ >>> list(accumulate(repeat(90, 10), update, initial=1_000))
[1000, 960, 918, 874, 828, 779, 728, 674, 618, 559, 497]
See :func:`functools.reduce` for a similar function that returns only the
@@ -158,7 +152,7 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
- Added the optional *func* parameter.
+ Added the optional *function* parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
Added the optional *initial* parameter.
@@ -184,21 +178,14 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
>>> unflattened
[('roses', 'red'), ('violets', 'blue'), ('sugar', 'sweet')]
- >>> for batch in batched('ABCDEFG', 3):
- ... print(batch)
- ...
- ('A', 'B', 'C')
- ('D', 'E', 'F')
- ('G',)
-
Roughly equivalent to::
def batched(iterable, n, *, strict=False):
# batched('ABCDEFG', 3) → ABC DEF G
if n < 1:
raise ValueError('n must be at least one')
- it = iter(iterable)
- while batch := tuple(islice(it, n)):
+ iterator = iter(iterable)
+ while batch := tuple(islice(iterator, n)):
if strict and len(batch) != n:
raise ValueError('batched(): incomplete batch')
yield batch
@@ -211,16 +198,15 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
.. function:: chain(*iterables)
- Make an iterator that returns elements from the first iterable until it is
- exhausted, then proceeds to the next iterable, until all of the iterables are
- exhausted. Used for treating consecutive sequences as a single sequence.
- Roughly equivalent to::
+ Make an iterator that returns elements from the first iterable until
+ it is exhausted, then proceeds to the next iterable, until all of the
+ iterables are exhausted. This combines multiple data sources into a
+ single iterator. Roughly equivalent to::
def chain(*iterables):
# chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F
- for it in iterables:
- for element in it:
- yield element
+ for iterable in iterables:
+ yield from iterable
.. classmethod:: chain.from_iterable(iterable)
@@ -230,33 +216,39 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
def from_iterable(iterables):
# chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F
- for it in iterables:
- for element in it:
- yield element
+ for iterable in iterables:
+ yield from iterable
.. function:: combinations(iterable, r)
Return *r* length subsequences of elements from the input *iterable*.
- The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic ordering according to
- the order of the input *iterable*. So, if the input *iterable* is sorted,
+ The output is a subsequence of :func:`product` keeping only entries that
+ are subsequences of the *iterable*. The length of the output is given
+ by :func:`math.comb` which computes ``n! / r! / (n - r)!`` when ``0 ≤ r
+ ≤ n`` or zero when ``r > n``.
+
+ The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according to
+ the order of the input *iterable*. If the input *iterable* is sorted,
the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.
Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on their
- value. So if the input elements are unique, there will be no repeated
- values in each combination.
+ value. If the input elements are unique, there will be no repeated
+ values within each combination.
Roughly equivalent to::
def combinations(iterable, r):
# combinations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BC BD CD
# combinations(range(4), 3) → 012 013 023 123
+
pool = tuple(iterable)
n = len(pool)
if r > n:
return
indices = list(range(r))
+
yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
while True:
for i in reversed(range(r)):
@@ -269,42 +261,36 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
indices[j] = indices[j-1] + 1
yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
- The code for :func:`combinations` can be also expressed as a subsequence
- of :func:`permutations` after filtering entries where the elements are not
- in sorted order (according to their position in the input pool)::
-
- def combinations(iterable, r):
- pool = tuple(iterable)
- n = len(pool)
- for indices in permutations(range(n), r):
- if sorted(indices) == list(indices):
- yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
-
- The number of items returned is ``n! / r! / (n-r)!`` when ``0 <= r <= n``
- or zero when ``r > n``.
.. function:: combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r)
Return *r* length subsequences of elements from the input *iterable*
allowing individual elements to be repeated more than once.
- The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic ordering according to
- the order of the input *iterable*. So, if the input *iterable* is sorted,
+ The output is a subsequence of :func:`product` that keeps only entries
+ that are subsequences (with possible repeated elements) of the
+ *iterable*. The number of subsequence returned is ``(n + r - 1)! / r! /
+ (n - 1)!`` when ``n > 0``.
+
+ The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according to
+ the order of the input *iterable*. if the input *iterable* is sorted,
the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.
Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on their
- value. So if the input elements are unique, the generated combinations
+ value. If the input elements are unique, the generated combinations
will also be unique.
Roughly equivalent to::
def combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r):
# combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2) → AA AB AC BB BC CC
+
pool = tuple(iterable)
n = len(pool)
if not n and r:
return
indices = [0] * r
+
yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
while True:
for i in reversed(range(r)):
@@ -315,41 +301,29 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
indices[i:] = [indices[i] + 1] * (r - i)
yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
- The code for :func:`combinations_with_replacement` can be also expressed as
- a subsequence of :func:`product` after filtering entries where the elements
- are not in sorted order (according to their position in the input pool)::
-
- def combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r):
- pool = tuple(iterable)
- n = len(pool)
- for indices in product(range(n), repeat=r):
- if sorted(indices) == list(indices):
- yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
-
- The number of items returned is ``(n+r-1)! / r! / (n-1)!`` when ``n > 0``.
-
.. versionadded:: 3.1
.. function:: compress(data, selectors)
- Make an iterator that filters elements from *data* returning only those that
- have a corresponding element in *selectors* that evaluates to ``True``.
- Stops when either the *data* or *selectors* iterables has been exhausted.
- Roughly equivalent to::
+ Make an iterator that returns elements from *data* where the
+ corresponding element in *selectors* is true. Stops when either the
+ *data* or *selectors* iterables have been exhausted. Roughly
+ equivalent to::
def compress(data, selectors):
# compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F
- return (d for d, s in zip(data, selectors) if s)
+ return (datum for datum, selector in zip(data, selectors) if selector)
.. versionadded:: 3.1
.. function:: count(start=0, step=1)
- Make an iterator that returns evenly spaced values starting with number *start*. Often
- used as an argument to :func:`map` to generate consecutive data points.
- Also, used with :func:`zip` to add sequence numbers. Roughly equivalent to::
+ Make an iterator that returns evenly spaced values beginning with
+ *start*. Can be used with :func:`map` to generate consecutive data
+ points or with :func:`zip` to add sequence numbers. Roughly
+ equivalent to::
def count(start=0, step=1):
# count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...
@@ -359,60 +333,71 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
yield n
n += step
- When counting with floating point numbers, better accuracy can sometimes be
+ When counting with floating-point numbers, better accuracy can sometimes be
achieved by substituting multiplicative code such as: ``(start + step * i
for i in count())``.
.. versionchanged:: 3.1
Added *step* argument and allowed non-integer arguments.
+
.. function:: cycle(iterable)
- Make an iterator returning elements from the iterable and saving a copy of each.
- When the iterable is exhausted, return elements from the saved copy. Repeats
- indefinitely. Roughly equivalent to::
+ Make an iterator returning elements from the *iterable* and saving a
+ copy of each. When the iterable is exhausted, return elements from
+ the saved copy. Repeats indefinitely. Roughly equivalent to::
def cycle(iterable):
# cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D A B C D ...
+
saved = []
for element in iterable:
yield element
saved.append(element)
+
while saved:
for element in saved:
- yield element
+ yield element
- Note, this member of the toolkit may require significant auxiliary storage
- (depending on the length of the iterable).
+ This itertool may require significant auxiliary storage (depending on
+ the length of the iterable).
.. function:: dropwhile(predicate, iterable)
- Make an iterator that drops elements from the iterable as long as the predicate
- is true; afterwards, returns every element. Note, the iterator does not produce
- *any* output until the predicate first becomes false, so it may have a lengthy
- start-up time. Roughly equivalent to::
+ Make an iterator that drops elements from the *iterable* while the
+ *predicate* is true and afterwards returns every element. Roughly
+ equivalent to::
def dropwhile(predicate, iterable):
- # dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,4,1]) → 6 4 1
- iterable = iter(iterable)
- for x in iterable:
+ # dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8
+
+ iterator = iter(iterable)
+ for x in iterator:
if not predicate(x):
yield x
break
- for x in iterable:
+
+ for x in iterator:
yield x
+ Note this does not produce *any* output until the predicate first
+ becomes false, so this itertool may have a lengthy start-up time.
+
+
.. function:: filterfalse(predicate, iterable)
- Make an iterator that filters elements from iterable returning only those for
- which the predicate is false. If *predicate* is ``None``, return the items
- that are false. Roughly equivalent to::
+ Make an iterator that filters elements from the *iterable* returning
+ only those for which the *predicate* returns a false value. If
+ *predicate* is ``None``, returns the items that are false. Roughly
+ equivalent to::
def filterfalse(predicate, iterable):
- # filterfalse(lambda x: x%2, range(10)) → 0 2 4 6 8
+ # filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8
+
if predicate is None:
predicate = bool
+
for x in iterable:
if not predicate(x):
yield x
@@ -446,55 +431,55 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
:func:`groupby` is roughly equivalent to::
- class groupby:
+ def groupby(iterable, key=None):
# [k for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCDAABBB')] → A B C D A B
# [list(g) for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCD')] → AAAA BBB CC D
- def __init__(self, iterable, key=None):
- if key is None:
- key = lambda x: x
- self.keyfunc = key
- self.it = iter(iterable)
- self.tgtkey = self.currkey = self.currvalue = object()
-
- def __iter__(self):
- return self
-
- def __next__(self):
- self.id = object()
- while self.currkey == self.tgtkey:
- self.currvalue = next(self.it) # Exit on StopIteration
- self.currkey = self.keyfunc(self.currvalue)
- self.tgtkey = self.currkey
- return (self.currkey, self._grouper(self.tgtkey, self.id))
-
- def _grouper(self, tgtkey, id):
- while self.id is id and self.currkey == tgtkey:
- yield self.currvalue
- try:
- self.currvalue = next(self.it)
- except StopIteration:
+ keyfunc = (lambda x: x) if key is None else key
+ iterator = iter(iterable)
+ exhausted = False
+
+ def _grouper(target_key):
+ nonlocal curr_value, curr_key, exhausted
+ yield curr_value
+ for curr_value in iterator:
+ curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)
+ if curr_key != target_key:
return
- self.currkey = self.keyfunc(self.currvalue)
+ yield curr_value
+ exhausted = True
+
+ try:
+ curr_value = next(iterator)
+ except StopIteration:
+ return
+ curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)
+
+ while not exhausted:
+ target_key = curr_key
+ curr_group = _grouper(target_key)
+ yield curr_key, curr_group
+ if curr_key == target_key:
+ for _ in curr_group:
+ pass
.. function:: islice(iterable, stop)
islice(iterable, start, stop[, step])
- Make an iterator that returns selected elements from the iterable. If *start* is
- non-zero, then elements from the iterable are skipped until start is reached.
- Afterward, elements are returned consecutively unless *step* is set higher than
- one which results in items being skipped. If *stop* is ``None``, then iteration
- continues until the iterator is exhausted, if at all; otherwise, it stops at the
- specified position.
+ Make an iterator that returns selected elements from the iterable.
+ Works like sequence slicing but does not support negative values for
+ *start*, *stop*, or *step*.
+
+ If *start* is zero or ``None``, iteration starts at zero. Otherwise,
+ elements from the iterable are skipped until *start* is reached.
- If *start* is ``None``, then iteration starts at zero. If *step* is ``None``,
- then the step defaults to one.
+ If *stop* is ``None``, iteration continues until the input is
+ exhausted, if at all. Otherwise, it stops at the specified position.
- Unlike regular slicing, :func:`islice` does not support negative values for
- *start*, *stop*, or *step*. Can be used to extract related fields from
- data where the internal structure has been flattened (for example, a
- multi-line report may list a name field on every third line).
+ If *step* is ``None``, the step defaults to one. Elements are returned
+ consecutively unless *step* is set higher than one which results in
+ items being skipped.
Roughly equivalent to::
@@ -503,19 +488,25 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
# islice('ABCDEFG', 2, 4) → C D
# islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G
# islice('ABCDEFG', 0, None, 2) → A C E G
+
s = slice(*args)
start = 0 if s.start is None else s.start
stop = s.stop
step = 1 if s.step is None else s.step
if start < 0 or (stop is not None and stop < 0) or step <= 0:
raise ValueError
- indices = count() if stop is None else range(max(stop, start))
+
+ indices = count() if stop is None else range(max(start, stop))
next_i = start
for i, element in zip(indices, iterable):
if i == next_i:
yield element
next_i += step
+ If the input is an iterator, then fully consuming the *islice*
+ advances the input iterator by ``max(start, stop)`` steps regardless
+ of the *step* value.
+
.. function:: pairwise(iterable)
@@ -529,8 +520,10 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
def pairwise(iterable):
# pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG
+
iterator = iter(iterable)
a = next(iterator, None)
+
for b in iterator:
yield a, b
a = b
@@ -540,18 +533,24 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
.. function:: permutations(iterable, r=None)
- Return successive *r* length permutations of elements in the *iterable*.
+ Return successive *r* length `permutations of elements
+ <https://www.britannica.com/science/permutation>`_ from the *iterable*.
If *r* is not specified or is ``None``, then *r* defaults to the length
of the *iterable* and all possible full-length permutations
are generated.
+ The output is a subsequence of :func:`product` where entries with
+ repeated elements have been filtered out. The length of the output is
+ given by :func:`math.perm` which computes ``n! / (n - r)!`` when
+ ``0 ≤ r ≤ n`` or zero when ``r > n``.
+
The permutation tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according to
- the order of the input *iterable*. So, if the input *iterable* is sorted,
+ the order of the input *iterable*. If the input *iterable* is sorted,
the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.
Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on their
- value. So if the input elements are unique, there will be no repeated
+ value. If the input elements are unique, there will be no repeated
values within a permutation.
Roughly equivalent to::
@@ -559,14 +558,17 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
def permutations(iterable, r=None):
# permutations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC
# permutations(range(3)) → 012 021 102 120 201 210
+
pool = tuple(iterable)
n = len(pool)
r = n if r is None else r
if r > n:
return
+
indices = list(range(n))
cycles = list(range(n, n-r, -1))
yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])
+
while n:
for i in reversed(range(r)):
cycles[i] -= 1
@@ -581,24 +583,11 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
else:
return
- The code for :func:`permutations` can be also expressed as a subsequence of
- :func:`product`, filtered to exclude entries with repeated elements (those
- from the same position in the input pool)::
-
- def permutations(iterable, r=None):
- pool = tuple(iterable)
- n = len(pool)
- r = n if r is None else r
- for indices in product(range(n), repeat=r):
- if len(set(indices)) == r:
- yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
-
- The number of items returned is ``n! / (n-r)!`` when ``0 <= r <= n``
- or zero when ``r > n``.
.. function:: product(*iterables, repeat=1)
- Cartesian product of input iterables.
+ `Cartesian product <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_product>`_
+ of the input iterables.
Roughly equivalent to nested for-loops in a generator expression. For example,
``product(A, B)`` returns the same as ``((x,y) for x in A for y in B)``.
@@ -615,13 +604,18 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
This function is roughly equivalent to the following code, except that the
actual implementation does not build up intermediate results in memory::
- def product(*args, repeat=1):
+ def product(*iterables, repeat=1):
# product('ABCD', 'xy') → Ax Ay Bx By Cx Cy Dx Dy
# product(range(2), repeat=3) → 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
- pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in args] * repeat
+
+ if repeat < 0:
+ raise ValueError('repeat argument cannot be negative')
+ pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in iterables] * repeat
+
result = [[]]
for pool in pools:
result = [x+[y] for x in result for y in pool]
+
for prod in result:
yield tuple(prod)
@@ -629,6 +623,7 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
keeping pools of values in memory to generate the products. Accordingly,
it is only useful with finite inputs.
+
.. function:: repeat(object[, times])
Make an iterator that returns *object* over and over again. Runs indefinitely
@@ -653,12 +648,12 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
>>> list(map(pow, range(10), repeat(2)))
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
+
.. function:: starmap(function, iterable)
- Make an iterator that computes the function using arguments obtained from
- the iterable. Used instead of :func:`map` when argument parameters are already
- grouped in tuples from a single iterable (when the data has been
- "pre-zipped").
+ Make an iterator that computes the *function* using arguments obtained
+ from the *iterable*. Used instead of :func:`map` when argument
+ parameters have already been "pre-zipped" into tuples.
The difference between :func:`map` and :func:`starmap` parallels the
distinction between ``function(a,b)`` and ``function(*c)``. Roughly
@@ -672,22 +667,21 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
.. function:: takewhile(predicate, iterable)
- Make an iterator that returns elements from the iterable as long as the
- predicate is true. Roughly equivalent to::
+ Make an iterator that returns elements from the *iterable* as long as
+ the *predicate* is true. Roughly equivalent to::
def takewhile(predicate, iterable):
- # takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,4,1]) → 1 4
+ # takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4
for x in iterable:
- if predicate(x):
- yield x
- else:
+ if not predicate(x):
break
+ yield x
Note, the element that first fails the predicate condition is
consumed from the input iterator and there is no way to access it.
This could be an issue if an application wants to further consume the
- input iterator after takewhile has been run to exhaustion. To work
- around this problem, consider using `more-iterools before_and_after()
+ input iterator after *takewhile* has been run to exhaustion. To work
+ around this problem, consider using `more-itertools before_and_after()
<https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.before_and_after>`_
instead.
@@ -696,28 +690,66 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
Return *n* independent iterators from a single iterable.
- The following Python code helps explain what *tee* does (although the actual
- implementation is more complex and uses only a single underlying
- :abbr:`FIFO (first-in, first-out)` queue)::
+ Roughly equivalent to::
def tee(iterable, n=2):
- it = iter(iterable)
- deques = [collections.deque() for i in range(n)]
- def gen(mydeque):
- while True:
- if not mydeque: # when the local deque is empty
- try:
- newval = next(it) # fetch a new value and
- except StopIteration:
- return
- for d in deques: # load it to all the deques
- d.append(newval)
- yield mydeque.popleft()
- return tuple(gen(d) for d in deques)
-
- Once a :func:`tee` has been created, the original *iterable* should not be
- used anywhere else; otherwise, the *iterable* could get advanced without
- the tee objects being informed.
+ if n < 0:
+ raise ValueError
+ if n == 0:
+ return ()
+ iterator = _tee(iterable)
+ result = [iterator]
+ for _ in range(n - 1):
+ result.append(_tee(iterator))
+ return tuple(result)
+
+ class _tee:
+
+ def __init__(self, iterable):
+ it = iter(iterable)
+ if isinstance(it, _tee):
+ self.iterator = it.iterator
+ self.link = it.link
+ else:
+ self.iterator = it
+ self.link = [None, None]
+
+ def __iter__(self):
+ return self
+
+ def __next__(self):
+ link = self.link
+ if link[1] is None:
+ link[0] = next(self.iterator)
+ link[1] = [None, None]
+ value, self.link = link
+ return value
+
+ When the input *iterable* is already a tee iterator object, all
+ members of the return tuple are constructed as if they had been
+ produced by the upstream :func:`tee` call. This "flattening step"
+ allows nested :func:`tee` calls to share the same underlying data
+ chain and to have a single update step rather than a chain of calls.
+
+ The flattening property makes tee iterators efficiently peekable:
+
+ .. testcode::
+
+ def lookahead(tee_iterator):
+ "Return the next value without moving the input forward"
+ [forked_iterator] = tee(tee_iterator, 1)
+ return next(forked_iterator)
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> iterator = iter('abcdef')
+ >>> [iterator] = tee(iterator, 1) # Make the input peekable
+ >>> next(iterator) # Move the iterator forward
+ 'a'
+ >>> lookahead(iterator) # Check next value
+ 'b'
+ >>> next(iterator) # Continue moving forward
+ 'b'
``tee`` iterators are not threadsafe. A :exc:`RuntimeError` may be
raised when simultaneously using iterators returned by the same :func:`tee`
@@ -731,21 +763,29 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
.. function:: zip_longest(*iterables, fillvalue=None)
- Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the iterables. If the
- iterables are of uneven length, missing values are filled-in with *fillvalue*.
- Iteration continues until the longest iterable is exhausted. Roughly equivalent to::
+ Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the
+ *iterables*.
+
+ If the iterables are of uneven length, missing values are filled-in
+ with *fillvalue*. If not specified, *fillvalue* defaults to ``None``.
+
+ Iteration continues until the longest iterable is exhausted.
- def zip_longest(*args, fillvalue=None):
+ Roughly equivalent to::
+
+ def zip_longest(*iterables, fillvalue=None):
# zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-
- iterators = [iter(it) for it in args]
+
+ iterators = list(map(iter, iterables))
num_active = len(iterators)
if not num_active:
return
+
while True:
values = []
- for i, it in enumerate(iterators):
+ for i, iterator in enumerate(iterators):
try:
- value = next(it)
+ value = next(iterator)
except StopIteration:
num_active -= 1
if not num_active:
@@ -757,8 +797,7 @@ loops that truncate the stream.
If one of the iterables is potentially infinite, then the :func:`zip_longest`
function should be wrapped with something that limits the number of calls
- (for example :func:`islice` or :func:`takewhile`). If not specified,
- *fillvalue* defaults to ``None``.
+ (for example :func:`islice` or :func:`takewhile`).
.. _itertools-recipes:
@@ -799,11 +838,11 @@ and :term:`generators <generator>` which incur interpreter overhead.
.. testcode::
- import collections
- import functools
- import math
- import operator
- import random
+ from collections import Counter, deque
+ from contextlib import suppress
+ from functools import reduce
+ from math import comb, prod, sumprod, isqrt
+ from operator import itemgetter, getitem, mul, neg, truediv
def take(n, iterable):
"Return first n items of the iterable as a list."
@@ -814,15 +853,16 @@ and :term:`generators <generator>` which incur interpreter overhead.
# prepend(1, [2, 3, 4]) → 1 2 3 4
return chain([value], iterable)
- def tabulate(function, start=0):
- "Return function(0), function(1), ..."
- return map(function, count(start))
+ def running_mean(iterable):
+ "Yield the average of all values seen so far."
+ # running_mean([8.5, 9.5, 7.5, 6.5]) → 8.5 9.0 8.5 8.0
+ return map(truediv, accumulate(iterable), count(1))
- def repeatfunc(func, times=None, *args):
- "Repeat calls to func with specified arguments."
+ def repeatfunc(function, times=None, *args):
+ "Repeat calls to a function with specified arguments."
if times is None:
- return starmap(func, repeat(args))
- return starmap(func, repeat(args, times))
+ return starmap(function, repeat(args))
+ return starmap(function, repeat(args, times))
def flatten(list_of_lists):
"Flatten one level of nesting."
@@ -832,16 +872,21 @@ and :term:`generators <generator>` which incur interpreter overhead.
"Returns the sequence elements n times."
return chain.from_iterable(repeat(tuple(iterable), n))
+ def loops(n):
+ "Loop n times. Like range(n) but without creating integers."
+ # for _ in loops(100): ...
+ return repeat(None, n)
+
def tail(n, iterable):
"Return an iterator over the last n items."
# tail(3, 'ABCDEFG') → E F G
- return iter(collections.deque(iterable, maxlen=n))
+ return iter(deque(iterable, maxlen=n))
def consume(iterator, n=None):
"Advance the iterator n-steps ahead. If n is None, consume entirely."
# Use functions that consume iterators at C speed.
if n is None:
- collections.deque(iterator, maxlen=0)
+ deque(iterator, maxlen=0)
else:
next(islice(iterator, n, n), None)
@@ -865,15 +910,15 @@ and :term:`generators <generator>` which incur interpreter overhead.
return len(take(2, groupby(iterable, key))) <= 1
def unique_justseen(iterable, key=None):
- "List unique elements, preserving order. Remember only the element just seen."
+ "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember only the element just seen."
# unique_justseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D A B
# unique_justseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c A D
if key is None:
- return map(operator.itemgetter(0), groupby(iterable))
- return map(next, map(operator.itemgetter(1), groupby(iterable, key)))
+ return map(itemgetter(0), groupby(iterable))
+ return map(next, map(itemgetter(1), groupby(iterable, key)))
def unique_everseen(iterable, key=None):
- "List unique elements, preserving order. Remember all elements ever seen."
+ "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember all elements ever seen."
# unique_everseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D
# unique_everseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c D
seen = set()
@@ -888,11 +933,17 @@ and :term:`generators <generator>` which incur interpreter overhead.
seen.add(k)
yield element
+ def unique(iterable, key=None, reverse=False):
+ "Yield unique elements in sorted order. Supports unhashable inputs."
+ # unique([[1, 2], [3, 4], [1, 2]]) → [1, 2] [3, 4]
+ sequenced = sorted(iterable, key=key, reverse=reverse)
+ return unique_justseen(sequenced, key=key)
+
def sliding_window(iterable, n):
"Collect data into overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
# sliding_window('ABCDEFG', 4) → ABCD BCDE CDEF DEFG
iterator = iter(iterable)
- window = collections.deque(islice(iterator, n - 1), maxlen=n)
+ window = deque(islice(iterator, n - 1), maxlen=n)
for x in iterator:
window.append(x)
yield tuple(window)
@@ -922,72 +973,64 @@ and :term:`generators <generator>` which incur interpreter overhead.
iterators = cycle(islice(iterators, num_active))
yield from map(next, iterators)
- def partition(predicate, iterable):
- """Partition entries into false entries and true entries.
-
- If *predicate* is slow, consider wrapping it with functools.lru_cache().
- """
- # partition(is_odd, range(10)) → 0 2 4 6 8 and 1 3 5 7 9
- t1, t2 = tee(iterable)
- return filterfalse(predicate, t1), filter(predicate, t2)
-
def subslices(seq):
"Return all contiguous non-empty subslices of a sequence."
# subslices('ABCD') → A AB ABC ABCD B BC BCD C CD D
slices = starmap(slice, combinations(range(len(seq) + 1), 2))
- return map(operator.getitem, repeat(seq), slices)
+ return map(getitem, repeat(seq), slices)
def iter_index(iterable, value, start=0, stop=None):
"Return indices where a value occurs in a sequence or iterable."
# iter_index('AABCADEAF', 'A') → 0 1 4 7
seq_index = getattr(iterable, 'index', None)
if seq_index is None:
- # Path for general iterables
iterator = islice(iterable, start, stop)
for i, element in enumerate(iterator, start):
if element is value or element == value:
yield i
else:
- # Path for sequences with an index() method
stop = len(iterable) if stop is None else stop
i = start
- try:
+ with suppress(ValueError):
while True:
yield (i := seq_index(value, i, stop))
i += 1
- except ValueError:
- pass
- def iter_except(func, exception, first=None):
+ def iter_except(function, exception, first=None):
"Convert a call-until-exception interface to an iterator interface."
# iter_except(d.popitem, KeyError) → non-blocking dictionary iterator
- try:
+ with suppress(exception):
if first is not None:
yield first()
while True:
- yield func()
- except exception:
- pass
+ yield function()
The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
.. testcode::
+ def multinomial(*counts):
+ "Number of distinct arrangements of a multiset."
+ # Counter('abracadabra').values() → 5 2 2 1 1
+ # multinomial(5, 2, 2, 1, 1) → 83160
+ return prod(map(comb, accumulate(counts), counts))
+
def powerset(iterable):
- "powerset([1,2,3]) → () (1,) (2,) (3,) (1,2) (1,3) (2,3) (1,2,3)"
+ "Subsequences of the iterable from shortest to longest."
+ # powerset([1,2,3]) → () (1,) (2,) (3,) (1,2) (1,3) (2,3) (1,2,3)
s = list(iterable)
return chain.from_iterable(combinations(s, r) for r in range(len(s)+1))
def sum_of_squares(iterable):
"Add up the squares of the input values."
# sum_of_squares([10, 20, 30]) → 1400
- return math.sumprod(*tee(iterable))
+ return sumprod(*tee(iterable))
- def reshape(matrix, cols):
+ def reshape(matrix, columns):
"Reshape a 2-D matrix to have a given number of columns."
# reshape([(0, 1), (2, 3), (4, 5)], 3) → (0, 1, 2), (3, 4, 5)
- return batched(chain.from_iterable(matrix), cols, strict=True)
+ return batched(chain.from_iterable(matrix), columns, strict=True)
def transpose(matrix):
"Swap the rows and columns of a 2-D matrix."
@@ -998,7 +1041,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
"Multiply two matrices."
# matmul([(7, 5), (3, 5)], [(2, 5), (7, 9)]) → (49, 80), (41, 60)
n = len(m2[0])
- return batched(starmap(math.sumprod, product(m1, transpose(m2))), n)
+ return batched(starmap(sumprod, product(m1, transpose(m2))), n)
def convolve(signal, kernel):
"""Discrete linear convolution of two iterables.
@@ -1019,7 +1062,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
n = len(kernel)
padded_signal = chain(repeat(0, n-1), signal, repeat(0, n-1))
windowed_signal = sliding_window(padded_signal, n)
- return map(math.sumprod, repeat(kernel), windowed_signal)
+ return map(sumprod, repeat(kernel), windowed_signal)
def polynomial_from_roots(roots):
"""Compute a polynomial's coefficients from its roots.
@@ -1027,8 +1070,8 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
(x - 5) (x + 4) (x - 3) expands to: x³ -4x² -17x + 60
"""
# polynomial_from_roots([5, -4, 3]) → [1, -4, -17, 60]
- factors = zip(repeat(1), map(operator.neg, roots))
- return list(functools.reduce(convolve, factors, [1]))
+ factors = zip(repeat(1), map(neg, roots))
+ return list(reduce(convolve, factors, [1]))
def polynomial_eval(coefficients, x):
"""Evaluate a polynomial at a specific value.
@@ -1041,7 +1084,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
if not n:
return type(x)(0)
powers = map(pow, repeat(x), reversed(range(n)))
- return math.sumprod(coefficients, powers)
+ return sumprod(coefficients, powers)
def polynomial_derivative(coefficients):
"""Compute the first derivative of a polynomial.
@@ -1052,7 +1095,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
# polynomial_derivative([1, -4, -17, 60]) → [3, -8, -17]
n = len(coefficients)
powers = reversed(range(1, n))
- return list(map(operator.mul, coefficients, powers))
+ return list(map(mul, coefficients, powers))
def sieve(n):
"Primes less than n."
@@ -1060,7 +1103,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
if n > 2:
yield 2
data = bytearray((0, 1)) * (n // 2)
- for p in iter_index(data, 1, start=3, stop=math.isqrt(n) + 1):
+ for p in iter_index(data, 1, start=3, stop=isqrt(n) + 1):
data[p*p : n : p+p] = bytes(len(range(p*p, n, p+p)))
yield from iter_index(data, 1, start=3)
@@ -1069,7 +1112,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
# factor(99) → 3 3 11
# factor(1_000_000_000_000_007) → 47 59 360620266859
# factor(1_000_000_000_000_403) → 1000000000000403
- for prime in sieve(math.isqrt(n) + 1):
+ for prime in sieve(isqrt(n) + 1):
while not n % prime:
yield prime
n //= prime
@@ -1078,6 +1121,11 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
if n > 1:
yield n
+ def is_prime(n):
+ "Return True if n is prime."
+ # is_prime(1_000_000_000_000_403) → True
+ return n > 1 and next(factor(n)) == n
+
def totient(n):
"Count of natural numbers up to n that are coprime to n."
# https://mathworld.wolfram.com/TotientFunction.html
@@ -1154,14 +1202,28 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> list(it)
['d', 'e', 'f']
+
>>> list(prepend(1, [2, 3, 4]))
[1, 2, 3, 4]
+
>>> list(enumerate('abc'))
[(0, 'a'), (1, 'b'), (2, 'c')]
- >>> list(islice(tabulate(lambda x: 2*x), 4))
- [0, 2, 4, 6]
+
+ >>> list(running_mean([8.5, 9.5, 7.5, 6.5]))
+ [8.5, 9.0, 8.5, 8.0]
+
+
+ >>> for _ in loops(5):
+ ... print('hi')
+ ...
+ hi
+ hi
+ hi
+ hi
+ hi
+
>>> list(tail(3, 'ABCDEFG'))
['E', 'F', 'G']
@@ -1171,6 +1233,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> list(input_iterator)
[]
+
>>> it = iter(range(10))
>>> consume(it, 3)
>>> # Verify the input is consumed lazily
@@ -1181,6 +1244,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> next(it, 'Done')
'Done'
+
>>> nth('abcde', 3)
'd'
>>> nth('abcde', 9) is None
@@ -1192,6 +1256,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> list(it)
['d', 'e']
+
>>> [all_equal(s) for s in ('', 'A', 'AAAA', 'AAAB', 'AAABA')]
[True, True, True, False, False]
>>> [all_equal(s, key=str.casefold) for s in ('', 'A', 'AaAa', 'AAAB', 'AAABA')]
@@ -1205,24 +1270,19 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> ''.join(it)
'bbccc'
+
>>> quantify(range(99), lambda x: x%2==0)
50
-
>>> quantify([True, False, False, True, True])
3
-
>>> quantify(range(12), predicate=lambda x: x%2==1)
6
+
>>> a = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
>>> list(flatten(a))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
- >>> list(repeatfunc(pow, 5, 2, 3))
- [8, 8, 8, 8, 8]
-
- >>> take(5, map(int, repeatfunc(random.random)))
- [0, 0, 0, 0, 0]
>>> list(ncycles('abc', 3))
['a', 'b', 'c', 'a', 'b', 'c', 'a', 'b', 'c']
@@ -1232,9 +1292,11 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> list(input_iterator)
[]
+
>>> sum_of_squares([10, 20, 30])
1400
+
>>> list(reshape([(0, 1), (2, 3), (4, 5)], 3))
[(0, 1, 2), (3, 4, 5)]
>>> M = [(0, 1, 2, 3), (4, 5, 6, 7), (8, 9, 10, 11)]
@@ -1255,6 +1317,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> list(reshape(M, 12))
[(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11)]
+
>>> list(transpose([(1, 2, 3), (11, 22, 33)]))
[(1, 11), (2, 22), (3, 33)]
>>> # Verify that the inputs are consumed lazily
@@ -1266,11 +1329,13 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> list(zip(input1, input2))
[(2, 22), (3, 33)]
+
>>> list(matmul([(7, 5), (3, 5)], [[2, 5], [7, 9]]))
[(49, 80), (41, 60)]
>>> list(matmul([[2, 5], [7, 9], [3, 4]], [[7, 11, 5, 4, 9], [3, 5, 2, 6, 3]]))
[(29, 47, 20, 38, 33), (76, 122, 53, 82, 90), (33, 53, 23, 36, 39)]
+
>>> list(convolve([1, -1, -20], [1, -3])) == [1, -4, -17, 60]
True
>>> data = [20, 40, 24, 32, 20, 28, 16]
@@ -1293,6 +1358,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> list(signal_iterator)
[30, 40, 50]
+
>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> from decimal import Decimal
>>> polynomial_eval([1, -4, -17, 60], x=5)
@@ -1324,6 +1390,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> polynomial_eval([11, 2], 7) == 11 * 7 + 2
True
+
>>> polynomial_from_roots([5, -4, 3])
[1, -4, -17, 60]
>>> factored = lambda x: (x - 5) * (x + 4) * (x - 3)
@@ -1331,9 +1398,11 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> all(factored(x) == expanded(x) for x in range(-10, 11))
True
+
>>> polynomial_derivative([1, -4, -17, 60])
[3, -8, -17]
+
>>> list(iter_index('AABCADEAF', 'A'))
[0, 1, 4, 7]
>>> list(iter_index('AABCADEAF', 'B'))
@@ -1391,12 +1460,14 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> ''.join(input_iterator)
'DEAF'
+
>>> # Verify that the target value can be a sequence.
>>> seq = [[10, 20], [30, 40], 30, 40, [30, 40], 50]
>>> target = [30, 40]
>>> list(iter_index(seq, target))
[1, 4]
+
>>> # Verify faithfulness to type specific index() method behaviors.
>>> # For example, bytes and str perform continuous-subsequence searches
>>> # that do not match the general behavior specified
@@ -1426,6 +1497,24 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> set(sieve(10_000)).isdisjoint(carmichael)
True
+
+ >>> small_primes = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97]
+ >>> list(filter(is_prime, range(-100, 100))) == small_primes
+ True
+ >>> carmichael = {561, 1105, 1729, 2465, 2821, 6601, 8911} # https://oeis.org/A002997
+ >>> any(map(is_prime, carmichael))
+ False
+ >>> # https://www.wolframalpha.com/input?i=is+128884753939+prime
+ >>> is_prime(128_884_753_939) # large prime
+ True
+ >>> is_prime(999953 * 999983) # large semiprime
+ False
+ >>> is_prime(1_000_000_000_000_007) # factor() example
+ False
+ >>> is_prime(1_000_000_000_000_403) # factor() example
+ True
+
+
>>> list(factor(99)) # Code example 1
[3, 3, 11]
>>> list(factor(1_000_000_000_000_007)) # Code example 2
@@ -1471,6 +1560,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> all(list(factor(n)) == sorted(factor(n)) for n in range(2_000))
True
+
>>> totient(0) # https://www.wolframalpha.com/input?i=totient+0
0
>>> first_totients = [1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 2, 6, 4, 6, 4, 10, 4, 12, 6, 8, 8, 16, 6,
@@ -1490,9 +1580,15 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> totient(6 ** 20) == 1 * 2**19 * 2 * 3**19 # repeated primes
True
+
>>> list(flatten([('a', 'b'), (), ('c', 'd', 'e'), ('f',), ('g', 'h', 'i')]))
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g', 'h', 'i']
+
+ >>> list(repeatfunc(pow, 5, 2, 3))
+ [8, 8, 8, 8, 8]
+ >>> take(5, map(int, repeatfunc(random.random)))
+ [0, 0, 0, 0, 0]
>>> random.seed(85753098575309)
>>> list(repeatfunc(random.random, 3))
[0.16370491282496968, 0.45889608687313455, 0.3747076837820118]
@@ -1501,9 +1597,11 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> list(repeatfunc(pow, 3, 2, 5))
[32, 32, 32]
+
>>> list(grouper('abcdefg', 3, fillvalue='x'))
[('a', 'b', 'c'), ('d', 'e', 'f'), ('g', 'x', 'x')]
+
>>> it = grouper('abcdefg', 3, incomplete='strict')
>>> next(it)
('a', 'b', 'c')
@@ -1517,6 +1615,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> list(grouper('abcdefg', n=3, incomplete='ignore'))
[('a', 'b', 'c'), ('d', 'e', 'f')]
+
>>> list(sliding_window('ABCDEFG', 1))
[('A',), ('B',), ('C',), ('D',), ('E',), ('F',), ('G',)]
>>> list(sliding_window('ABCDEFG', 2))
@@ -1546,6 +1645,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
...
'zero or negative n not supported'
+
>>> list(roundrobin('abc', 'd', 'ef'))
['a', 'd', 'e', 'b', 'f', 'c']
>>> ranges = [range(5, 1000), range(4, 3000), range(0), range(3, 2000), range(2, 5000), range(1, 3500)]
@@ -1559,38 +1659,19 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> ''.join(chain(*input_iterators))
'dijkopqr'
- >>> def is_odd(x):
- ... return x % 2 == 1
-
- >>> evens, odds = partition(is_odd, range(10))
- >>> list(evens)
- [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
- >>> list(odds)
- [1, 3, 5, 7, 9]
- >>> # Verify that the input is consumed lazily
- >>> input_iterator = iter(range(10))
- >>> evens, odds = partition(is_odd, input_iterator)
- >>> next(odds)
- 1
- >>> next(odds)
- 3
- >>> next(evens)
- 0
- >>> list(input_iterator)
- [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
>>> list(subslices('ABCD'))
['A', 'AB', 'ABC', 'ABCD', 'B', 'BC', 'BCD', 'C', 'CD', 'D']
+
>>> list(powerset([1,2,3]))
[(), (1,), (2,), (3,), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), (1, 2, 3)]
-
>>> all(len(list(powerset(range(n)))) == 2**n for n in range(18))
True
-
>>> list(powerset('abcde')) == sorted(sorted(set(powerset('abcde'))), key=len)
True
+
>>> list(unique_everseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB'))
['A', 'B', 'C', 'D']
>>> list(unique_everseen('ABBCcAD', str.casefold))
@@ -1605,6 +1686,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> ''.join(input_iterator)
'AAABBBCCDAABBB'
+
>>> list(unique_justseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB'))
['A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'A', 'B']
>>> list(unique_justseen('ABBCcAD', str.casefold))
@@ -1619,6 +1701,15 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> ''.join(input_iterator)
'AAABBBCCDAABBB'
+
+ >>> list(unique([[1, 2], [3, 4], [1, 2]]))
+ [[1, 2], [3, 4]]
+ >>> list(unique('ABBcCAD', str.casefold))
+ ['A', 'B', 'c', 'D']
+ >>> list(unique('ABBcCAD', str.casefold, reverse=True))
+ ['D', 'c', 'B', 'A']
+
+
>>> d = dict(a=1, b=2, c=3)
>>> it = iter_except(d.popitem, KeyError)
>>> d['d'] = 4
@@ -1636,6 +1727,7 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> next(it, 'empty')
'empty'
+
>>> first_true('ABC0DEF1', '9', str.isdigit)
'0'
>>> # Verify that inputs are consumed lazily
@@ -1645,13 +1737,23 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
>>> ''.join(it)
'DEF1'
+ >>> multinomial(5, 2, 2, 1, 1)
+ 83160
+ >>> word = 'coffee'
+ >>> multinomial(*Counter(word).values()) == len(set(permutations(word)))
+ True
+
.. testcode::
:hide:
# Old recipes and their tests which are guaranteed to continue to work.
- def sumprod(vec1, vec2):
+ def tabulate(function, start=0):
+ "Return function(0), function(1), ..."
+ return map(function, count(start))
+
+ def old_sumprod_recipe(vec1, vec2):
"Compute a sum of products."
return sum(starmap(operator.mul, zip(vec1, vec2, strict=True)))
@@ -1716,21 +1818,40 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
return true_iterator(), chain(transition, it)
+ def partition(predicate, iterable):
+ """Partition entries into false entries and true entries.
+
+ If *predicate* is slow, consider wrapping it with functools.lru_cache().
+ """
+ # partition(is_odd, range(10)) → 0 2 4 6 8 and 1 3 5 7 9
+ t1, t2 = tee(iterable)
+ return filterfalse(predicate, t1), filter(predicate, t2)
+
+
+
.. doctest::
:hide:
+ >>> list(islice(tabulate(lambda x: 2*x), 4))
+ [0, 2, 4, 6]
+
+
>>> dotproduct([1,2,3], [4,5,6])
32
- >>> sumprod([1,2,3], [4,5,6])
+
+ >>> old_sumprod_recipe([1,2,3], [4,5,6])
32
+
>>> list(islice(pad_none('abc'), 0, 6))
['a', 'b', 'c', None, None, None]
+
>>> list(triplewise('ABCDEFG'))
[('A', 'B', 'C'), ('B', 'C', 'D'), ('C', 'D', 'E'), ('D', 'E', 'F'), ('E', 'F', 'G')]
+
>>> population = 'ABCDEFGH'
>>> for r in range(len(population) + 1):
... seq = list(combinations(population, r))
@@ -1738,16 +1859,38 @@ The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:
... assert nth_combination(population, r, i) == seq[i]
... for i in range(-len(seq), 0):
... assert nth_combination(population, r, i) == seq[i]
-
+ ...
>>> iterable = 'abcde'
>>> r = 3
>>> combos = list(combinations(iterable, r))
>>> all(nth_combination(iterable, r, i) == comb for i, comb in enumerate(combos))
True
+
>>> it = iter('ABCdEfGhI')
>>> all_upper, remainder = before_and_after(str.isupper, it)
>>> ''.join(all_upper)
'ABC'
>>> ''.join(remainder)
'dEfGhI'
+
+
+ >>> def is_odd(x):
+ ... return x % 2 == 1
+ ...
+ >>> evens, odds = partition(is_odd, range(10))
+ >>> list(evens)
+ [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
+ >>> list(odds)
+ [1, 3, 5, 7, 9]
+ >>> # Verify that the input is consumed lazily
+ >>> input_iterator = iter(range(10))
+ >>> evens, odds = partition(is_odd, input_iterator)
+ >>> next(odds)
+ 1
+ >>> next(odds)
+ 3
+ >>> next(evens)
+ 0
+ >>> list(input_iterator)
+ [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
diff --git a/Doc/library/json.rst b/Doc/library/json.rst
index c82ff9dc325b4c8..48a2a8e4797acba 100644
--- a/Doc/library/json.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/json.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`json` --- JSON encoder and decoder
-========================================
+:mod:`!json` --- JSON encoder and decoder
+=========================================
.. module:: json
:synopsis: Encode and decode the JSON format.
@@ -13,17 +13,22 @@
`JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) <https://json.org>`_, specified by
:rfc:`7159` (which obsoletes :rfc:`4627`) and by
-`ECMA-404 <https://www.ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/>`_,
+`ECMA-404 <https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/>`_,
is a lightweight data interchange format inspired by
`JavaScript <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript>`_ object literal syntax
(although it is not a strict subset of JavaScript [#rfc-errata]_ ).
+.. note::
+ The term "object" in the context of JSON processing in Python can be
+ ambiguous. All values in Python are objects. In JSON, an object refers to
+ any data wrapped in curly braces, similar to a Python dictionary.
+
.. warning::
Be cautious when parsing JSON data from untrusted sources. A malicious
JSON string may cause the decoder to consume considerable CPU and memory
resources. Limiting the size of data to be parsed is recommended.
-:mod:`json` exposes an API familiar to users of the standard library
+This module exposes an API familiar to users of the standard library
:mod:`marshal` and :mod:`pickle` modules.
Encoding basic Python object hierarchies::
@@ -60,7 +65,7 @@ Pretty printing::
"6": 7
}
-Specializing JSON object encoding::
+Customizing JSON object encoding::
>>> import json
>>> def custom_json(obj):
@@ -83,7 +88,7 @@ Decoding JSON::
>>> json.load(io)
['streaming API']
-Specializing JSON object decoding::
+Customizing JSON object decoding::
>>> import json
>>> def as_complex(dct):
@@ -151,69 +156,96 @@ Basic Usage
sort_keys=False, **kw)
Serialize *obj* as a JSON formatted stream to *fp* (a ``.write()``-supporting
- :term:`file-like object`) using this :ref:`conversion table
+ :term:`file-like object`) using this :ref:`Python-to-JSON conversion table
<py-to-json-table>`.
- If *skipkeys* is true (default: ``False``), then dict keys that are not
- of a basic type (:class:`str`, :class:`int`, :class:`float`, :class:`bool`,
- ``None``) will be skipped instead of raising a :exc:`TypeError`.
-
- The :mod:`json` module always produces :class:`str` objects, not
- :class:`bytes` objects. Therefore, ``fp.write()`` must support :class:`str`
- input.
-
- If *ensure_ascii* is true (the default), the output is guaranteed to
- have all incoming non-ASCII characters escaped. If *ensure_ascii* is
- false, these characters will be output as-is.
-
- If *check_circular* is false (default: ``True``), then the circular
- reference check for container types will be skipped and a circular reference
- will result in a :exc:`RecursionError` (or worse).
+ .. note::
- If *allow_nan* is false (default: ``True``), then it will be a
- :exc:`ValueError` to serialize out of range :class:`float` values (``nan``,
- ``inf``, ``-inf``) in strict compliance of the JSON specification.
- If *allow_nan* is true, their JavaScript equivalents (``NaN``,
- ``Infinity``, ``-Infinity``) will be used.
+ Unlike :mod:`pickle` and :mod:`marshal`, JSON is not a framed protocol,
+ so trying to serialize multiple objects with repeated calls to
+ :func:`dump` using the same *fp* will result in an invalid JSON file.
- If *indent* is a non-negative integer or string, then JSON array elements and
- object members will be pretty-printed with that indent level. An indent level
- of 0, negative, or ``""`` will only insert newlines. ``None`` (the default)
- selects the most compact representation. Using a positive integer indent
- indents that many spaces per level. If *indent* is a string (such as ``"\t"``),
- that string is used to indent each level.
+ :param object obj:
+ The Python object to be serialized.
+
+ :param fp:
+ The file-like object *obj* will be serialized to.
+ The :mod:`!json` module always produces :class:`str` objects,
+ not :class:`bytes` objects,
+ therefore ``fp.write()`` must support :class:`str` input.
+ :type fp: :term:`file-like object`
+
+ :param bool skipkeys:
+ If ``True``, keys that are not of a basic type
+ (:class:`str`, :class:`int`, :class:`float`, :class:`bool`, ``None``)
+ will be skipped instead of raising a :exc:`TypeError`.
+ Default ``False``.
+
+ :param bool ensure_ascii:
+ If ``True`` (the default), the output is guaranteed to
+ have all incoming non-ASCII and non-printable characters escaped.
+ If ``False``, all characters will be outputted as-is, except for
+ the characters that must be escaped: quotation mark, reverse solidus,
+ and the control characters U+0000 through U+001F.
+
+ :param bool check_circular:
+ If ``False``, the circular reference check for container types is skipped
+ and a circular reference will result in a :exc:`RecursionError` (or worse).
+ Default ``True``.
+
+ :param bool allow_nan:
+ If ``False``, serialization of out-of-range :class:`float` values
+ (``nan``, ``inf``, ``-inf``) will result in a :exc:`ValueError`,
+ in strict compliance with the JSON specification.
+ If ``True`` (the default), their JavaScript equivalents
+ (``NaN``, ``Infinity``, ``-Infinity``) are used.
+
+ :param cls:
+ If set, a custom JSON encoder with the
+ :meth:`~JSONEncoder.default` method overridden,
+ for serializing into custom datatypes.
+ If ``None`` (the default), :class:`!JSONEncoder` is used.
+ :type cls: a :class:`JSONEncoder` subclass
+
+ :param indent:
+ If a positive integer or string, JSON array elements and
+ object members will be pretty-printed with that indent level.
+ A positive integer indents that many spaces per level;
+ a string (such as ``"\t"``) is used to indent each level.
+ If zero, negative, or ``""`` (the empty string),
+ only newlines are inserted.
+ If ``None`` (the default), no newlines are inserted.
+ :type indent: int | str | None
+
+ :param separators:
+ A two-tuple: ``(item_separator, key_separator)``.
+ If ``None`` (the default), *separators* defaults to
+ ``(', ', ': ')`` if *indent* is ``None``,
+ and ``(',', ': ')`` otherwise.
+ For the most compact JSON,
+ specify ``(',', ':')`` to eliminate whitespace.
+ :type separators: tuple | None
+
+ :param default:
+ A function that is called for objects that can't otherwise be serialized.
+ It should return a JSON encodable version of the object
+ or raise a :exc:`TypeError`.
+ If ``None`` (the default), :exc:`!TypeError` is raised.
+ :type default: :term:`callable` | None
+
+ :param bool sort_keys:
+ If ``True``, dictionaries will be outputted sorted by key.
+ Default ``False``.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
Allow strings for *indent* in addition to integers.
- If specified, *separators* should be an ``(item_separator, key_separator)``
- tuple. The default is ``(', ', ': ')`` if *indent* is ``None`` and
- ``(',', ': ')`` otherwise. To get the most compact JSON representation,
- you should specify ``(',', ':')`` to eliminate whitespace.
-
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
Use ``(',', ': ')`` as default if *indent* is not ``None``.
- If specified, *default* should be a function that gets called for objects that
- can't otherwise be serialized. It should return a JSON encodable version of
- the object or raise a :exc:`TypeError`. If not specified, :exc:`TypeError`
- is raised.
-
- If *sort_keys* is true (default: ``False``), then the output of
- dictionaries will be sorted by key.
-
- To use a custom :class:`JSONEncoder` subclass (e.g. one that overrides the
- :meth:`~JSONEncoder.default` method to serialize additional types), specify it with the
- *cls* kwarg; otherwise :class:`JSONEncoder` is used.
-
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
All optional parameters are now :ref:`keyword-only <keyword-only_parameter>`.
- .. note::
-
- Unlike :mod:`pickle` and :mod:`marshal`, JSON is not a framed protocol,
- so trying to serialize multiple objects with repeated calls to
- :func:`dump` using the same *fp* will result in an invalid JSON file.
.. function:: dumps(obj, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True, \
check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, \
@@ -232,37 +264,89 @@ Basic Usage
into JSON and then back into a dictionary, the dictionary may not equal
the original one. That is, ``loads(dumps(x)) != x`` if x has non-string
keys.
-
-.. function:: load(fp, *, cls=None, object_hook=None, parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None, object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)
-
- Deserialize *fp* (a ``.read()``-supporting :term:`text file` or
- :term:`binary file` containing a JSON document) to a Python object using
- this :ref:`conversion table <json-to-py-table>`.
-
- *object_hook* is an optional function that will be called with the result of
- any object literal decoded (a :class:`dict`). The return value of
- *object_hook* will be used instead of the :class:`dict`. This feature can be used
- to implement custom decoders (e.g. `JSON-RPC <https://www.jsonrpc.org>`_
- class hinting).
-
- *object_pairs_hook* is an optional function that will be called with the
- result of any object literal decoded with an ordered list of pairs. The
- return value of *object_pairs_hook* will be used instead of the
- :class:`dict`. This feature can be used to implement custom decoders.
- If *object_hook* is also defined, the *object_pairs_hook* takes priority.
+ *sort_keys* sorts the keys before they are coerced to strings,
+ so numeric keys are sorted by value, not by their string representation.
+
+.. function:: load(fp, *, cls=None, object_hook=None, parse_float=None, \
+ parse_int=None, parse_constant=None, \
+ object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)
+
+ Deserialize *fp* to a Python object
+ using the :ref:`JSON-to-Python conversion table <json-to-py-table>`.
+
+ :param fp:
+ A ``.read()``-supporting :term:`text file` or :term:`binary file`
+ containing the JSON document to be deserialized.
+ :type fp: :term:`file-like object`
+
+ :param cls:
+ If set, a custom JSON decoder.
+ Additional keyword arguments to :func:`!load`
+ will be passed to the constructor of *cls*.
+ If ``None`` (the default), :class:`!JSONDecoder` is used.
+ :type cls: a :class:`JSONDecoder` subclass
+
+ :param object_hook:
+ If set, a function that is called with the result of
+ any JSON object literal decoded (a :class:`dict`).
+ The return value of this function will be used
+ instead of the :class:`dict`.
+ This feature can be used to implement custom decoders,
+ for example `JSON-RPC <https://www.jsonrpc.org>`_ class hinting.
+ Default ``None``.
+ :type object_hook: :term:`callable` | None
+
+ :param object_pairs_hook:
+ If set, a function that is called with the result of
+ any JSON object literal decoded with an ordered list of pairs.
+ The return value of this function will be used
+ instead of the :class:`dict`.
+ This feature can be used to implement custom decoders.
+ If *object_hook* is also set, *object_pairs_hook* takes priority.
+ Default ``None``.
+ :type object_pairs_hook: :term:`callable` | None
+
+ :param parse_float:
+ If set, a function that is called with
+ the string of every JSON float to be decoded.
+ If ``None`` (the default), it is equivalent to ``float(num_str)``.
+ This can be used to parse JSON floats into custom datatypes,
+ for example :class:`decimal.Decimal`.
+ :type parse_float: :term:`callable` | None
+
+ :param parse_int:
+ If set, a function that is called with
+ the string of every JSON int to be decoded.
+ If ``None`` (the default), it is equivalent to ``int(num_str)``.
+ This can be used to parse JSON integers into custom datatypes,
+ for example :class:`float`.
+ :type parse_int: :term:`callable` | None
+
+ :param parse_constant:
+ If set, a function that is called with one of the following strings:
+ ``'-Infinity'``, ``'Infinity'``, or ``'NaN'``.
+ This can be used to raise an exception
+ if invalid JSON numbers are encountered.
+ Default ``None``.
+ :type parse_constant: :term:`callable` | None
+
+ :raises JSONDecodeError:
+ When the data being deserialized is not a valid JSON document.
+
+ :raises UnicodeDecodeError:
+ When the data being deserialized does not contain
+ UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32 encoded data.
.. versionchanged:: 3.1
- Added support for *object_pairs_hook*.
- *parse_float*, if specified, will be called with the string of every JSON
- float to be decoded. By default, this is equivalent to ``float(num_str)``.
- This can be used to use another datatype or parser for JSON floats
- (e.g. :class:`decimal.Decimal`).
+ * Added the optional *object_pairs_hook* parameter.
+ * *parse_constant* doesn't get called on 'null', 'true', 'false' anymore.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.6
- *parse_int*, if specified, will be called with the string of every JSON int
- to be decoded. By default, this is equivalent to ``int(num_str)``. This can
- be used to use another datatype or parser for JSON integers
- (e.g. :class:`float`).
+ * All optional parameters are now :ref:`keyword-only <keyword-only_parameter>`.
+ * *fp* can now be a :term:`binary file`.
+ The input encoding should be UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
The default *parse_int* of :func:`int` now limits the maximum length of
@@ -270,39 +354,13 @@ Basic Usage
conversion length limitation <int_max_str_digits>` to help avoid denial
of service attacks.
- *parse_constant*, if specified, will be called with one of the following
- strings: ``'-Infinity'``, ``'Infinity'``, ``'NaN'``.
- This can be used to raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers
- are encountered.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.1
- *parse_constant* doesn't get called on 'null', 'true', 'false' anymore.
-
- To use a custom :class:`JSONDecoder` subclass, specify it with the ``cls``
- kwarg; otherwise :class:`JSONDecoder` is used. Additional keyword arguments
- will be passed to the constructor of the class.
-
- If the data being deserialized is not a valid JSON document, a
- :exc:`JSONDecodeError` will be raised.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.6
- All optional parameters are now :ref:`keyword-only <keyword-only_parameter>`.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.6
- *fp* can now be a :term:`binary file`. The input encoding should be
- UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32.
-
.. function:: loads(s, *, cls=None, object_hook=None, parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None, object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)
- Deserialize *s* (a :class:`str`, :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray`
+ Identical to :func:`load`, but instead of a file-like object,
+ deserialize *s* (a :class:`str`, :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray`
instance containing a JSON document) to a Python object using this
:ref:`conversion table <json-to-py-table>`.
- The other arguments have the same meaning as in :func:`load`.
-
- If the data being deserialized is not a valid JSON document, a
- :exc:`JSONDecodeError` will be raised.
-
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
*s* can now be of type :class:`bytes` or :class:`bytearray`. The
input encoding should be UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32.
@@ -345,34 +403,33 @@ Encoders and Decoders
It also understands ``NaN``, ``Infinity``, and ``-Infinity`` as their
corresponding ``float`` values, which is outside the JSON spec.
- *object_hook*, if specified, will be called with the result of every JSON
- object decoded and its return value will be used in place of the given
- :class:`dict`. This can be used to provide custom deserializations (e.g. to
- support `JSON-RPC <https://www.jsonrpc.org>`_ class hinting).
+ *object_hook* is an optional function that will be called with the result of
+ every JSON object decoded and its return value will be used in place of the
+ given :class:`dict`. This can be used to provide custom deserializations
+ (e.g. to support `JSON-RPC <https://www.jsonrpc.org>`_ class hinting).
- *object_pairs_hook*, if specified will be called with the result of every
- JSON object decoded with an ordered list of pairs. The return value of
- *object_pairs_hook* will be used instead of the :class:`dict`. This
- feature can be used to implement custom decoders. If *object_hook* is also
- defined, the *object_pairs_hook* takes priority.
+ *object_pairs_hook* is an optional function that will be called with the
+ result of every JSON object decoded with an ordered list of pairs. The
+ return value of *object_pairs_hook* will be used instead of the
+ :class:`dict`. This feature can be used to implement custom decoders. If
+ *object_hook* is also defined, the *object_pairs_hook* takes priority.
.. versionchanged:: 3.1
Added support for *object_pairs_hook*.
- *parse_float*, if specified, will be called with the string of every JSON
- float to be decoded. By default, this is equivalent to ``float(num_str)``.
- This can be used to use another datatype or parser for JSON floats
- (e.g. :class:`decimal.Decimal`).
+ *parse_float* is an optional function that will be called with the string of
+ every JSON float to be decoded. By default, this is equivalent to
+ ``float(num_str)``. This can be used to use another datatype or parser for
+ JSON floats (e.g. :class:`decimal.Decimal`).
- *parse_int*, if specified, will be called with the string of every JSON int
- to be decoded. By default, this is equivalent to ``int(num_str)``. This can
- be used to use another datatype or parser for JSON integers
- (e.g. :class:`float`).
+ *parse_int* is an optional function that will be called with the string of
+ every JSON int to be decoded. By default, this is equivalent to
+ ``int(num_str)``. This can be used to use another datatype or parser for
+ JSON integers (e.g. :class:`float`).
- *parse_constant*, if specified, will be called with one of the following
- strings: ``'-Infinity'``, ``'Infinity'``, ``'NaN'``.
- This can be used to raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers
- are encountered.
+ *parse_constant* is an optional function that will be called with one of the
+ following strings: ``'-Infinity'``, ``'Infinity'``, ``'NaN'``. This can be
+ used to raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers are encountered.
If *strict* is false (``True`` is the default), then control characters
will be allowed inside strings. Control characters in this context are
@@ -438,12 +495,14 @@ Encoders and Decoders
(to raise :exc:`TypeError`).
If *skipkeys* is false (the default), a :exc:`TypeError` will be raised when
- trying to encode keys that are not :class:`str`, :class:`int`, :class:`float`
- or ``None``. If *skipkeys* is true, such items are simply skipped.
+ trying to encode keys that are not :class:`str`, :class:`int`, :class:`float`,
+ :class:`bool` or ``None``. If *skipkeys* is true, such items are simply skipped.
If *ensure_ascii* is true (the default), the output is guaranteed to
- have all incoming non-ASCII characters escaped. If *ensure_ascii* is
- false, these characters will be output as-is.
+ have all incoming non-ASCII and non-printable characters escaped.
+ If *ensure_ascii* is false, all characters will be output as-is, except for
+ the characters that must be escaped: quotation mark, reverse solidus,
+ and the control characters U+0000 through U+001F.
If *check_circular* is true (the default), then lists, dicts, and custom
encoded objects will be checked for circular references during encoding to
@@ -559,7 +618,7 @@ Standard Compliance and Interoperability
----------------------------------------
The JSON format is specified by :rfc:`7159` and by
-`ECMA-404 <https://www.ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/>`_.
+`ECMA-404 <https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/>`_.
This section details this module's level of compliance with the RFC.
For simplicity, :class:`JSONEncoder` and :class:`JSONDecoder` subclasses, and
parameters other than those explicitly mentioned, are not considered.
@@ -583,7 +642,7 @@ UTF-32, with UTF-8 being the recommended default for maximum interoperability.
As permitted, though not required, by the RFC, this module's serializer sets
*ensure_ascii=True* by default, thus escaping the output so that the resulting
-strings only contain ASCII characters.
+strings only contain printable ASCII characters.
Other than the *ensure_ascii* parameter, this module is defined strictly in
terms of conversion between Python objects and
diff --git a/Doc/library/keyword.rst b/Doc/library/keyword.rst
index c3b4699cb05af6e..ac57140f888024c 100644
--- a/Doc/library/keyword.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/keyword.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`keyword` --- Testing for Python keywords
-==============================================
+:mod:`!keyword` --- Testing for Python keywords
+===============================================
.. module:: keyword
:synopsis: Test whether a string is a keyword in Python.
diff --git a/Doc/library/linecache.rst b/Doc/library/linecache.rst
index dd9f4ee45ba82eb..88c6079a05b7fa3 100644
--- a/Doc/library/linecache.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/linecache.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`linecache` --- Random access to text lines
-================================================
+:mod:`!linecache` --- Random access to text lines
+=================================================
.. module:: linecache
:synopsis: Provides random access to individual lines from text files.
diff --git a/Doc/library/locale.rst b/Doc/library/locale.rst
index 414979524e57b6f..5807a05ea2e0d9b 100644
--- a/Doc/library/locale.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/locale.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`locale` --- Internationalization services
-===============================================
+:mod:`!locale` --- Internationalization services
+================================================
.. module:: locale
:synopsis: Internationalization services.
@@ -34,17 +34,33 @@ The :mod:`locale` module defines the following exception and functions:
If *locale* is given and not ``None``, :func:`setlocale` modifies the locale
setting for the *category*. The available categories are listed in the data
- description below. *locale* may be a string, or an iterable of two strings
- (language code and encoding). If it's an iterable, it's converted to a locale
- name using the locale aliasing engine. An empty string specifies the user's
+ description below. *locale* may be a :ref:`string <locale_name>`, or a pair,
+ language code and encoding. An empty string specifies the user's
default settings. If the modification of the locale fails, the exception
:exc:`Error` is raised. If successful, the new locale setting is returned.
+ If *locale* is a pair, it is converted to a locale name using
+ the locale aliasing engine.
+ The language code has the same format as a :ref:`locale name <locale_name>`,
+ but without encoding and ``@``-modifier.
+ The language code and encoding can be ``None``.
+
If *locale* is omitted or ``None``, the current setting for *category* is
returned.
+ Example::
+
+ >>> import locale
+ >>> loc = locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL) # get current locale
+ # use German locale; name and availability varies with platform
+ >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'de_DE.UTF-8')
+ >>> locale.strcoll('f\xe4n', 'foo') # compare a string containing an umlaut
+ >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '') # use user's preferred locale
+ >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'C') # use default (C) locale
+ >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, loc) # restore saved locale
+
:func:`setlocale` is not thread-safe on most systems. Applications typically
- start with a call of ::
+ start with a call of::
import locale
locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')
@@ -281,7 +297,8 @@ The :mod:`locale` module defines the following exception and functions:
.. data:: ERA
- Get a string that represents the era used in the current locale.
+ Get a string which describes how years are counted and displayed for
+ each era in a locale.
Most locales do not define this value. An example of a locale which does
define this value is the Japanese one. In Japan, the traditional
@@ -290,9 +307,10 @@ The :mod:`locale` module defines the following exception and functions:
Normally it should not be necessary to use this value directly. Specifying
the ``E`` modifier in their format strings causes the :func:`time.strftime`
- function to use this information. The format of the returned string is not
- specified, and therefore you should not assume knowledge of it on different
- systems.
+ function to use this information.
+ The format of the returned string is specified in *The Open Group Base
+ Specifications Issue 8*, paragraph `7.3.5.2 LC_TIME C-Language Access
+ <https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/basedefs/V1_chap07.html#tag_07_03_05_02>`_.
.. data:: ERA_D_T_FMT
@@ -311,8 +329,9 @@ The :mod:`locale` module defines the following exception and functions:
.. data:: ALT_DIGITS
- Get a representation of up to 100 values used to represent the values
- 0 to 99.
+ Get a string consisting of up to 100 semicolon-separated symbols used
+ to represent the values 0 to 99 in a locale-specific way.
+ In most locales this is an empty string.
.. function:: getdefaultlocale([envvars])
@@ -333,22 +352,24 @@ The :mod:`locale` module defines the following exception and functions:
``'LANG'``. The GNU gettext search path contains ``'LC_ALL'``,
``'LC_CTYPE'``, ``'LANG'`` and ``'LANGUAGE'``, in that order.
- Except for the code ``'C'``, the language code corresponds to :rfc:`1766`.
- *language code* and *encoding* may be ``None`` if their values cannot be
+ The language code has the same format as a :ref:`locale name <locale_name>`,
+ but without encoding and ``@``-modifier.
+ The language code and encoding may be ``None`` if their values cannot be
determined.
-
- .. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.15
+ The "C" locale is represented as ``(None, None)``.
.. function:: getlocale(category=LC_CTYPE)
- Returns the current setting for the given locale category as sequence containing
- *language code*, *encoding*. *category* may be one of the :const:`!LC_\*` values
- except :const:`LC_ALL`. It defaults to :const:`LC_CTYPE`.
+ Returns the current setting for the given locale category as a tuple containing
+ the language code and encoding. *category* may be one of the :const:`!LC_\*`
+ values except :const:`LC_ALL`. It defaults to :const:`LC_CTYPE`.
- Except for the code ``'C'``, the language code corresponds to :rfc:`1766`.
- *language code* and *encoding* may be ``None`` if their values cannot be
+ The language code has the same format as a :ref:`locale name <locale_name>`,
+ but without encoding and ``@``-modifier.
+ The language code and encoding may be ``None`` if their values cannot be
determined.
+ The "C" locale is represented as ``(None, None)``.
.. function:: getpreferredencoding(do_setlocale=True)
@@ -424,7 +445,7 @@ The :mod:`locale` module defines the following exception and functions:
.. function:: format_string(format, val, grouping=False, monetary=False)
Formats a number *val* according to the current :const:`LC_NUMERIC` setting.
- The format follows the conventions of the ``%`` operator. For floating point
+ The format follows the conventions of the ``%`` operator. For floating-point
values, the decimal point is modified if appropriate. If *grouping* is ``True``,
also takes the grouping into account.
@@ -455,7 +476,7 @@ The :mod:`locale` module defines the following exception and functions:
.. function:: str(float)
- Formats a floating point number using the same format as the built-in function
+ Formats a floating-point number using the same format as the built-in function
``str(float)``, but takes the decimal point into account.
@@ -496,8 +517,8 @@ The :mod:`locale` module defines the following exception and functions:
SSH connections.
Python doesn't internally use locale-dependent character transformation functions
- from ``ctype.h``. Instead, an internal ``pyctype.h`` provides locale-independent
- equivalents like :c:macro:`!Py_TOLOWER`.
+ from ``ctype.h``. Instead, ``pyctype.h`` provides locale-independent
+ equivalents like :c:macro:`Py_TOLOWER`.
.. data:: LC_COLLATE
@@ -552,18 +573,6 @@ The :mod:`locale` module defines the following exception and functions:
:func:`localeconv`.
-Example::
-
- >>> import locale
- >>> loc = locale.getlocale() # get current locale
- # use German locale; name might vary with platform
- >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'de_DE')
- >>> locale.strcoll('f\xe4n', 'foo') # compare a string containing an umlaut
- >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '') # use user's preferred locale
- >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'C') # use default (C) locale
- >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, loc) # restore saved locale
-
-
Background, details, hints, tips and caveats
--------------------------------------------
@@ -603,6 +612,61 @@ whose high bit is set (i.e., non-ASCII bytes) are never converted or considered
part of a character class such as letter or whitespace.
+.. _locale_name:
+
+Locale names
+------------
+
+The format of the locale name is platform dependent, and the set of supported
+locales can depend on the system configuration.
+
+On Posix platforms, it usually has the format [1]_:
+
+.. productionlist:: locale_name
+ : language ["_" territory] ["." charset] ["@" modifier]
+
+where *language* is a two- or three-letter language code from `ISO 639`_,
+*territory* is a two-letter country or region code from `ISO 3166`_,
+*charset* is a locale encoding, and *modifier* is a script name,
+a language subtag, a sort order identifier, or other locale modifier
+(for example, "latin", "valencia", "stroke" and "euro").
+
+On Windows, several formats are supported. [2]_ [3]_
+A subset of `IETF BCP 47`_ tags:
+
+.. productionlist:: locale_name
+ : language ["-" script] ["-" territory] ["." charset]
+ : language ["-" script] "-" territory "-" modifier
+
+where *language* and *territory* have the same meaning as in Posix,
+*script* is a four-letter script code from `ISO 15924`_,
+and *modifier* is a language subtag, a sort order identifier
+or custom modifier (for example, "valencia", "stroke" or "x-python").
+Both hyphen (``'-'``) and underscore (``'_'``) separators are supported.
+Only UTF-8 encoding is allowed for BCP 47 tags.
+
+Windows also supports locale names in the format:
+
+.. productionlist:: locale_name
+ : language ["_" territory] ["." charset]
+
+where *language* and *territory* are full names, such as "English" and
+"United States", and *charset* is either a code page number (for example, "1252")
+or UTF-8.
+Only the underscore separator is supported in this format.
+
+The "C" locale is supported on all platforms.
+
+.. _ISO 639: https://www.iso.org/iso-639-language-code
+.. _ISO 3166: https://www.iso.org/iso-3166-country-codes.html
+.. _IETF BCP 47: https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/bcp47
+.. _ISO 15924: https://www.unicode.org/iso15924/
+
+.. [1] `IEEE Std 1003.1-2024; 8.2 Internationalization Variables <https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/basedefs/V1_chap08.html#tag_08_02>`_
+.. [2] `UCRT Locale names, Languages, and Country/Region strings <https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/c-runtime-library/locale-names-languages-and-country-region-strings>`_
+.. [3] `Locale Names <https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/intl/locale-names>`_
+
+
.. _embedding-locale:
For extension writers and programs that embed Python
diff --git a/Doc/library/logging.config.rst b/Doc/library/logging.config.rst
index 13850c91446da52..f1998d8f4823ff1 100644
--- a/Doc/library/logging.config.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/logging.config.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`logging.config` --- Logging configuration
-===============================================
+:mod:`!logging.config` --- Logging configuration
+================================================
.. module:: logging.config
:synopsis: Configuration of the logging module.
@@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ in :mod:`logging` itself) and defining handlers which are declared either in
dictConfigClass(config).configure()
For example, a subclass of :class:`DictConfigurator` could call
- ``DictConfigurator.__init__()`` in its own :meth:`__init__()`, then
+ ``DictConfigurator.__init__()`` in its own :meth:`__init__`, then
set up custom prefixes which would be usable in the subsequent
:meth:`configure` call. :attr:`dictConfigClass` would be bound to
this new subclass, and then :func:`dictConfig` could be called exactly as
@@ -548,7 +548,7 @@ mnemonic that the corresponding value is a callable.
The ``filters`` member of ``handlers`` and ``loggers`` can take
filter instances in addition to ids.
-You can also specify a special key ``'.'`` whose value is a dictionary is a
+You can also specify a special key ``'.'`` whose value is a
mapping of attribute names to values. If found, the specified attributes will
be set on the user-defined object before it is returned. Thus, with the
following configuration::
@@ -558,7 +558,7 @@ following configuration::
'bar' : 'baz',
'spam' : 99.9,
'answer' : 42,
- '.' {
+ '.' : {
'foo': 'bar',
'baz': 'bozz'
}
@@ -586,7 +586,7 @@ configuration dictionary for the handler named ``foo``, and later (once that
handler has been configured) it points to the configured handler instance.
Thus, ``cfg://handlers.foo`` could resolve to either a dictionary or a handler
instance. In general, it is wise to name handlers in a way such that dependent
-handlers are configured _after_ any handlers they depend on; that allows
+handlers are configured *after* any handlers they depend on; that allows
something like ``cfg://handlers.foo`` to be used in configuring a handler that
depends on handler ``foo``. If that dependent handler were named ``bar``,
problems would result, because the configuration of ``bar`` would be attempted
@@ -753,13 +753,17 @@ The ``queue`` and ``listener`` keys are optional.
If the ``queue`` key is present, the corresponding value can be one of the following:
-* An actual instance of :class:`queue.Queue` or a subclass thereof. This is of course
- only possible if you are constructing or modifying the configuration dictionary in
- code.
+* An object implementing the :meth:`Queue.put_nowait <queue.Queue.put_nowait>`
+ and :meth:`Queue.get <queue.Queue.get>` public API. For instance, this may be
+ an actual instance of :class:`queue.Queue` or a subclass thereof, or a proxy
+ obtained by :meth:`multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Queue`.
+
+ This is of course only possible if you are constructing or modifying
+ the configuration dictionary in code.
* A string that resolves to a callable which, when called with no arguments, returns
- the :class:`queue.Queue` instance to use. That callable could be a
- :class:`queue.Queue` subclass or a function which returns a suitable queue instance,
+ the queue instance to use. That callable could be a :class:`queue.Queue` subclass
+ or a function which returns a suitable queue instance,
such as ``my.module.queue_factory()``.
* A dict with a ``'()'`` key which is constructed in the usual way as discussed in
diff --git a/Doc/library/logging.handlers.rst b/Doc/library/logging.handlers.rst
index 2fe9370333beaf5..aa2afb2cb39be42 100644
--- a/Doc/library/logging.handlers.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/logging.handlers.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`logging.handlers` --- Logging handlers
-============================================
+:mod:`!logging.handlers` --- Logging handlers
+=============================================
.. module:: logging.handlers
:synopsis: Handlers for the logging module.
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ and :meth:`flush` methods).
:param stream: The stream that the handler should use.
- :return: the old stream, if the stream was changed, or *None* if it wasn't.
+ :return: the old stream, if the stream was changed, or ``None`` if it wasn't.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
@@ -352,6 +352,10 @@ module, supports rotation of disk log files.
Outputs the record to the file, catering for rollover as described
previously.
+ .. method:: shouldRollover(record)
+
+ See if the supplied record would cause the file to exceed the configured size limit.
+
.. _timed-rotating-file-handler:
TimedRotatingFileHandler
@@ -461,6 +465,11 @@ timed intervals.
Returns a list of filenames which should be deleted as part of rollover. These
are the absolute paths of the oldest backup log files written by the handler.
+ .. method:: shouldRollover(record)
+
+ See if enough time has passed for a rollover to occur and if it has, compute
+ the next rollover time.
+
.. _socket-handler:
SocketHandler
@@ -1044,6 +1053,15 @@ possible, while any potentially slow operations (such as sending an email via
.. note:: If you are using :mod:`multiprocessing`, you should avoid using
:class:`~queue.SimpleQueue` and instead use :class:`multiprocessing.Queue`.
+ .. warning::
+
+ The :mod:`multiprocessing` module uses an internal logger created and
+ accessed via :meth:`~multiprocessing.get_logger`.
+ :class:`multiprocessing.Queue` will log ``DEBUG`` level messages upon
+ items being queued. If those log messages are processed by a
+ :class:`QueueHandler` using the same :class:`multiprocessing.Queue` instance,
+ it will cause a deadlock or infinite recursion.
+
.. method:: emit(record)
Enqueues the result of preparing the LogRecord. Should an exception
@@ -1172,6 +1190,10 @@ possible, while any potentially slow operations (such as sending an email via
This starts up a background thread to monitor the queue for
LogRecords to process.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.4
+ Raises :exc:`RuntimeError` if called and the listener is already
+ running.
+
.. method:: stop()
Stops the listener.
diff --git a/Doc/library/logging.rst b/Doc/library/logging.rst
index a733b288ecb6d02..6b7d858c182cee0 100644
--- a/Doc/library/logging.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/logging.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`logging` --- Logging facility for Python
-==============================================
+:mod:`!logging` --- Logging facility for Python
+===============================================
.. module:: logging
:synopsis: Flexible event logging system for applications.
@@ -109,11 +109,11 @@ The ``name`` is potentially a period-separated hierarchical value, like
Loggers that are further down in the hierarchical list are children of loggers
higher up in the list. For example, given a logger with a name of ``foo``,
loggers with names of ``foo.bar``, ``foo.bar.baz``, and ``foo.bam`` are all
-descendants of ``foo``. The logger name hierarchy is analogous to the Python
-package hierarchy, and identical to it if you organise your loggers on a
-per-module basis using the recommended construction
-``logging.getLogger(__name__)``. That's because in a module, ``__name__``
-is the module's name in the Python package namespace.
+descendants of ``foo``. In addition, all loggers are descendants of the root
+logger. The logger name hierarchy is analogous to the Python package hierarchy,
+and identical to it if you organise your loggers on a per-module basis using
+the recommended construction ``logging.getLogger(__name__)``. That's because
+in a module, ``__name__`` is the module's name in the Python package namespace.
.. class:: Logger
@@ -304,7 +304,8 @@ is the module's name in the Python package namespace.
parameter mirrors the equivalent one in the :mod:`warnings` module.
The fourth keyword argument is *extra* which can be used to pass a
- dictionary which is used to populate the __dict__ of the :class:`LogRecord`
+ dictionary which is used to populate the :attr:`~object.__dict__` of the
+ :class:`LogRecord`
created for the logging event with user-defined attributes. These custom
attributes can then be used as you like. For example, they could be
incorporated into logged messages. For example::
@@ -341,7 +342,7 @@ is the module's name in the Python package namespace.
If no handler is attached to this logger (or any of its ancestors,
taking into account the relevant :attr:`Logger.propagate` attributes),
- the message will be sent to the handler set on :attr:`lastResort`.
+ the message will be sent to the handler set on :data:`lastResort`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
The *stack_info* parameter was added.
@@ -352,10 +353,6 @@ is the module's name in the Python package namespace.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
The *stacklevel* parameter was added.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.13
- Remove the undocumented ``warn()`` method which was an alias to the
- :meth:`warning` method.
-
.. method:: Logger.info(msg, *args, **kwargs)
@@ -368,6 +365,10 @@ is the module's name in the Python package namespace.
Logs a message with level :const:`WARNING` on this logger. The arguments are
interpreted as for :meth:`debug`.
+ .. note:: There is an obsolete method ``warn`` which is functionally
+ identical to ``warning``. As ``warn`` is deprecated, please do not use
+ it - use ``warning`` instead.
+
.. method:: Logger.error(msg, *args, **kwargs)
Logs a message with level :const:`ERROR` on this logger. The arguments are
@@ -561,7 +562,8 @@ subclasses. However, the :meth:`!__init__` method in subclasses needs to call
.. method:: Handler.setFormatter(fmt)
- Sets the :class:`Formatter` for this handler to *fmt*.
+ Sets the formatter for this handler to *fmt*.
+ The *fmt* argument must be a :class:`Formatter` instance or ``None``.
.. method:: Handler.addFilter(filter)
@@ -591,10 +593,12 @@ subclasses. However, the :meth:`!__init__` method in subclasses needs to call
.. method:: Handler.close()
- Tidy up any resources used by the handler. This version does no output but
- removes the handler from an internal list of handlers which is closed when
- :func:`shutdown` is called. Subclasses should ensure that this gets called
- from overridden :meth:`close` methods.
+ Tidy up any resources used by the handler. This version does no output
+ but removes the handler from an internal map of handlers, which is used
+ for handler lookup by name.
+
+ Subclasses should ensure that this gets called from overridden :meth:`close`
+ methods.
.. method:: Handler.handle(record)
@@ -667,8 +671,7 @@ Formatter Objects
which is just the logged message.
:type fmt: str
- :param datefmt: A format string in the given *style* for
- the date/time portion of the logged output.
+ :param datefmt: A format string for the date/time portion of the logged output.
If not specified, the default described in :meth:`formatTime` is used.
:type datefmt: str
@@ -676,7 +679,7 @@ Formatter Objects
how the format string will be merged with its data: using one of
:ref:`old-string-formatting` (``%``), :meth:`str.format` (``{``)
or :class:`string.Template` (``$``). This only applies to
- *fmt* and *datefmt* (e.g. ``'%(message)s'`` versus ``'{message}'``),
+ *fmt* (e.g. ``'%(message)s'`` versus ``'{message}'``),
not to the actual log messages passed to the logging methods.
However, there are :ref:`other ways <formatting-styles>`
to use ``{``- and ``$``-formatting for log messages.
@@ -1008,6 +1011,11 @@ the options available to you.
| exc_info | You shouldn't need to | Exception tuple (à la ``sys.exc_info``) or, |
| | format this yourself. | if no exception has occurred, ``None``. |
+----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| exc_text | You shouldn't need to | Exception information formatted as a string. |
+| | format this yourself. | This is set when :meth:`Formatter.format` is |
+| | | invoked, or ``None`` if no exception has |
+| | | occurred. |
++----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| filename | ``%(filename)s`` | Filename portion of ``pathname``. |
+----------------+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| funcName | ``%(funcName)s`` | Name of function containing the logging call. |
@@ -1079,12 +1087,13 @@ LoggerAdapter Objects
information into logging calls. For a usage example, see the section on
:ref:`adding contextual information to your logging output <context-info>`.
-.. class:: LoggerAdapter(logger, extra, merge_extra=False)
+.. class:: LoggerAdapter(logger, extra=None, merge_extra=False)
Returns an instance of :class:`LoggerAdapter` initialized with an
- underlying :class:`Logger` instance, a dict-like object (*extra*), and a
- boolean (*merge_extra*) indicating whether or not the *extra* argument of
- individual log calls should be merged with the :class:`LoggerAdapter` extra.
+ underlying :class:`Logger` instance, an optional dict-like object (*extra*),
+ and an optional boolean (*merge_extra*) indicating whether or not
+ the *extra* argument of individual log calls should be merged with
+ the :class:`LoggerAdapter` extra.
The default behavior is to ignore the *extra* argument of individual log
calls and only use the one of the :class:`LoggerAdapter` instance
@@ -1098,11 +1107,11 @@ information into logging calls. For a usage example, see the section on
.. attribute:: manager
- Delegates to the underlying :attr:`!manager`` on *logger*.
+ Delegates to the underlying :attr:`!manager` on *logger*.
.. attribute:: _log
- Delegates to the underlying :meth:`!_log`` method on *logger*.
+ Delegates to the underlying :meth:`!_log` method on *logger*.
In addition to the above, :class:`LoggerAdapter` supports the following
methods of :class:`Logger`: :meth:`~Logger.debug`, :meth:`~Logger.info`,
@@ -1124,21 +1133,20 @@ information into logging calls. For a usage example, see the section on
Attribute :attr:`!manager` and method :meth:`!_log` were added, which
delegate to the underlying logger and allow adapters to be nested.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
- Remove the undocumented :meth:`!warn`` method which was an alias to the
- :meth:`!warning` method.
+ The *extra* argument is now optional.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
- The *merge_extra* argument was added.
+ The *merge_extra* parameter was added.
Thread Safety
-------------
The logging module is intended to be thread-safe without any special work
-needing to be done by its clients. It achieves this though using threading
+needing to be done by its clients. It achieves this through using threading
locks; there is one lock to serialize access to the module's shared data, and
each handler also creates a lock to serialize access to its underlying I/O.
@@ -1157,10 +1165,12 @@ functions.
.. function:: getLogger(name=None)
- Return a logger with the specified name or, if name is ``None``, return a
- logger which is the root logger of the hierarchy. If specified, the name is
- typically a dot-separated hierarchical name like *'a'*, *'a.b'* or *'a.b.c.d'*.
- Choice of these names is entirely up to the developer who is using logging.
+ Return a logger with the specified name or, if name is ``None``, return the
+ root logger of the hierarchy. If specified, the name is typically a
+ dot-separated hierarchical name like *'a'*, *'a.b'* or *'a.b.c.d'*. Choice
+ of these names is entirely up to the developer who is using logging, though
+ it is recommended that ``__name__`` be used unless you have a specific
+ reason for not doing that, as mentioned in :ref:`logger`.
All calls to this function with a given name return the same logger instance.
This means that logger instances never need to be passed between different parts
@@ -1222,10 +1232,6 @@ functions.
identical to ``warning``. As ``warn`` is deprecated, please do not use
it - use ``warning`` instead.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.13
- Remove the undocumented ``warn()`` function which was an alias to the
- :func:`warning` function.
-
.. function:: error(msg, *args, **kwargs)
@@ -1501,7 +1507,7 @@ functions.
Module-Level Attributes
-----------------------
-.. attribute:: lastResort
+.. data:: lastResort
A "handler of last resort" is available through this attribute. This
is a :class:`StreamHandler` writing to ``sys.stderr`` with a level of
@@ -1513,7 +1519,7 @@ Module-Level Attributes
.. versionadded:: 3.2
-.. attribute:: raiseExceptions
+.. data:: raiseExceptions
Used to see if exceptions during handling should be propagated.
diff --git a/Doc/library/lzma.rst b/Doc/library/lzma.rst
index 74bf2670f9def68..ea94b41dc394cfa 100644
--- a/Doc/library/lzma.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/lzma.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`lzma` --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm
-====================================================
+:mod:`!lzma` --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm
+=====================================================
.. module:: lzma
:synopsis: A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library.
@@ -153,35 +153,14 @@ Compressing and decompressing data in memory
:func:`compress`.
The *format* argument specifies what container format should be used.
- Possible values are:
-
- * :const:`FORMAT_XZ`: The ``.xz`` container format.
- This is the default format.
-
- * :const:`FORMAT_ALONE`: The legacy ``.lzma`` container format.
- This format is more limited than ``.xz`` -- it does not support integrity
- checks or multiple filters.
-
- * :const:`FORMAT_RAW`: A raw data stream, not using any container format.
- This format specifier does not support integrity checks, and requires that
- you always specify a custom filter chain (for both compression and
- decompression). Additionally, data compressed in this manner cannot be
- decompressed using :const:`FORMAT_AUTO` (see :class:`LZMADecompressor`).
+ Possible values are :const:`FORMAT_XZ` (the default),
+ :const:`FORMAT_ALONE` and :const:`FORMAT_RAW`.
The *check* argument specifies the type of integrity check to include in the
compressed data. This check is used when decompressing, to ensure that the
- data has not been corrupted. Possible values are:
-
- * :const:`CHECK_NONE`: No integrity check.
- This is the default (and the only acceptable value) for
- :const:`FORMAT_ALONE` and :const:`FORMAT_RAW`.
-
- * :const:`CHECK_CRC32`: 32-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check.
-
- * :const:`CHECK_CRC64`: 64-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check.
- This is the default for :const:`FORMAT_XZ`.
-
- * :const:`CHECK_SHA256`: 256-bit Secure Hash Algorithm.
+ data has not been corrupted. Possible values are :const:`CHECK_NONE`,
+ :const:`CHECK_CRC32`, :const:`CHECK_CRC64` (the default for
+ :const:`FORMAT_XZ`) and :const:`CHECK_SHA256`.
If the specified check is not supported, an :class:`LZMAError` is raised.
@@ -357,12 +336,12 @@ options. Valid filter IDs are as follows:
* Branch-Call-Jump (BCJ) filters:
- * :const:`FILTER_X86`
- * :const:`FILTER_IA64`
- * :const:`FILTER_ARM`
- * :const:`FILTER_ARMTHUMB`
- * :const:`FILTER_POWERPC`
- * :const:`FILTER_SPARC`
+ * :const:`!FILTER_X86`
+ * :const:`!FILTER_IA64`
+ * :const:`!FILTER_ARM`
+ * :const:`!FILTER_ARMTHUMB`
+ * :const:`!FILTER_POWERPC`
+ * :const:`!FILTER_SPARC`
A filter chain can consist of up to 4 filters, and cannot be empty. The last
filter in the chain must be a compression filter, and any other filters must be
@@ -399,6 +378,106 @@ These filters support one option, ``start_offset``. This specifies the address
that should be mapped to the beginning of the input data. The default is 0.
+Constants
+---------
+
+The following module-level constants are provided for use as the *format*,
+*check*, *preset* and *filters* arguments of the classes and functions above.
+
+Container formats:
+
+.. data:: FORMAT_XZ
+
+ The ``.xz`` container format.
+
+.. data:: FORMAT_ALONE
+
+ The legacy ``.lzma`` container format. This format is more limited than
+ ``.xz`` -- it does not support integrity checks or multiple filters.
+
+.. data:: FORMAT_RAW
+
+ A raw data stream, not using any container format. This format specifier
+ does not support integrity checks, and requires that you always specify a
+ custom filter chain (for both compression and decompression). Additionally,
+ data compressed in this manner cannot be decompressed using
+ :const:`FORMAT_AUTO`.
+
+.. data:: FORMAT_AUTO
+
+ Used for decompression only. The container format is detected
+ automatically, so that both ``.xz`` and ``.lzma`` files can be decompressed.
+
+Integrity checks:
+
+.. data:: CHECK_NONE
+
+ No integrity check. This is the default (and the only acceptable value) for
+ :const:`FORMAT_ALONE` and :const:`FORMAT_RAW`.
+
+.. data:: CHECK_CRC32
+
+ A 32-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check.
+
+.. data:: CHECK_CRC64
+
+ A 64-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check. This is the default for
+ :const:`FORMAT_XZ`.
+
+.. data:: CHECK_SHA256
+
+ A 256-bit Secure Hash Algorithm.
+
+.. data:: CHECK_UNKNOWN
+
+ The integrity check used by a stream could not yet be determined. This may
+ be the value of the :attr:`LZMADecompressor.check` attribute until enough of
+ the input has been decoded.
+
+.. data:: CHECK_ID_MAX
+
+ The largest supported integrity-check ID.
+
+Compression presets:
+
+.. data:: PRESET_DEFAULT
+
+ The default compression preset, equivalent to preset level ``6``.
+
+.. data:: PRESET_EXTREME
+
+ A flag that may be bitwise OR-ed with a preset level (``0`` to ``9``) to
+ select a slower but more thorough variant of that preset.
+
+Filter IDs and options:
+
+.. data:: FILTER_LZMA1
+ FILTER_LZMA2
+
+ The LZMA1 and LZMA2 compression filters. :const:`FILTER_LZMA1` is for use
+ with :const:`FORMAT_ALONE`, while :const:`FILTER_LZMA2` is for use with
+ :const:`FORMAT_XZ` and :const:`FORMAT_RAW`.
+
+.. data:: FILTER_DELTA
+
+ The delta filter.
+
+.. data:: MODE_FAST
+ MODE_NORMAL
+
+ Compression modes that may be used as the ``mode`` option of a filter
+ specifier (see :ref:`filter-chain-specs`).
+
+.. data:: MF_HC3
+ MF_HC4
+ MF_BT2
+ MF_BT3
+ MF_BT4
+
+ Match finders that may be used as the ``mf`` option of a filter specifier
+ (see :ref:`filter-chain-specs`).
+
+
Examples
--------
diff --git a/Doc/library/mailbox.rst b/Doc/library/mailbox.rst
index a613548c9e518e0..ed135bf02cb968d 100644
--- a/Doc/library/mailbox.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/mailbox.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`mailbox` --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
-==========================================================
+:mod:`!mailbox` --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
+===========================================================
.. module:: mailbox
:synopsis: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
@@ -587,12 +587,27 @@ Supported mailbox formats are Maildir, mbox, MH, Babyl, and MMDF.
remarks:
- .. method:: get_file(key)
+ .. method:: get_bytes(key, from_=False)
+
+ Note: This method has an extra parameter (*from_*) compared with other classes.
+ The first line of an mbox file entry is the Unix "From " line.
+ If *from_* is False, the first line of the file is dropped.
+
+ .. method:: get_file(key, from_=False)
Using the file after calling :meth:`~Mailbox.flush` or
:meth:`~Mailbox.close` on the :class:`!mbox` instance may yield
unpredictable results or raise an exception.
+ Note: This method has an extra parameter (*from_*) compared with other classes.
+ The first line of an mbox file entry is the Unix "From " line.
+ If *from_* is False, the first line of the file is dropped.
+
+ .. method:: get_string(key, from_=False)
+
+ Note: This method has an extra parameter (*from_*) compared with other classes.
+ The first line of an mbox file entry is the Unix "From " line.
+ If *from_* is False, the first line of the file is dropped.
.. method:: lock()
unlock()
@@ -851,12 +866,22 @@ Supported mailbox formats are Maildir, mbox, MH, Babyl, and MMDF.
remarks:
- .. method:: get_file(key)
+ .. method:: get_bytes(key, from_=False)
+
+ Note: This method has an extra parameter (*from_*) compared with other classes.
+ The first line of an mbox file entry is the Unix "From " line.
+ If *from_* is False, the first line of the file is dropped.
+
+ .. method:: get_file(key, from_=False)
Using the file after calling :meth:`~Mailbox.flush` or
:meth:`~Mailbox.close` on the :class:`!MMDF` instance may yield
unpredictable results or raise an exception.
+ Note: This method has an extra parameter (*from_*) compared with other classes.
+ The first line of an mbox file entry is the Unix "From " line.
+ If *from_* is False, the first line of the file is dropped.
+
.. method:: lock()
unlock()
@@ -892,7 +917,7 @@ Supported mailbox formats are Maildir, mbox, MH, Babyl, and MMDF.
copied; furthermore, any format-specific information is converted insofar as
possible if *message* is a :class:`!Message` instance. If *message* is a string,
a byte string,
- or a file, it should contain an :rfc:`2822`\ -compliant message, which is read
+ or a file, it should contain an :rfc:`5322`\ -compliant message, which is read
and parsed. Files should be open in binary mode, but text mode files
are accepted for backward compatibility.
@@ -1000,7 +1025,7 @@ Supported mailbox formats are Maildir, mbox, MH, Babyl, and MMDF.
.. method:: remove_flag(flag)
Unset the flag(s) specified by *flag* without changing other flags. To
- remove more than one flag at a time, *flag* maybe a string of more than
+ remove more than one flag at a time, *flag* may be a string of more than
one character. If "info" contains experimental information rather than
flags, the current "info" is not modified.
@@ -1165,7 +1190,7 @@ When a :class:`!MaildirMessage` instance is created based upon a
.. method:: remove_flag(flag)
Unset the flag(s) specified by *flag* without changing other flags. To
- remove more than one flag at a time, *flag* maybe a string of more than
+ remove more than one flag at a time, *flag* may be a string of more than
one character.
When an :class:`!mboxMessage` instance is created based upon a
@@ -1387,7 +1412,7 @@ When an :class:`!MHMessage` instance is created based upon a
.. method:: get_visible()
- Return an :class:`Message` instance whose headers are the message's
+ Return a :class:`Message` instance whose headers are the message's
visible headers and whose body is empty.
@@ -1537,7 +1562,7 @@ When a :class:`!BabylMessage` instance is created based upon an
.. method:: remove_flag(flag)
Unset the flag(s) specified by *flag* without changing other flags. To
- remove more than one flag at a time, *flag* maybe a string of more than
+ remove more than one flag at a time, *flag* may be a string of more than
one character.
When an :class:`!MMDFMessage` instance is created based upon a
@@ -1616,7 +1641,7 @@ The following exception classes are defined in the :mod:`!mailbox` module:
.. exception:: Error()
- The based class for all other module-specific exceptions.
+ The base class for all other module-specific exceptions.
.. exception:: NoSuchMailboxError()
@@ -1636,7 +1661,7 @@ The following exception classes are defined in the :mod:`!mailbox` module:
Raised when some mailbox-related condition beyond the control of the program
causes it to be unable to proceed, such as when failing to acquire a lock that
- another program already holds a lock, or when a uniquely generated file name
+ another program already holds, or when a uniquely generated file name
already exists.
diff --git a/Doc/library/mailcap.rst b/Doc/library/mailcap.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..4467da146a5a05a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/mailcap.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+:mod:`!mailcap` --- Mailcap file handling
+=========================================
+
+.. module:: mailcap
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!mailcap` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/mailcap.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/marshal.rst b/Doc/library/marshal.rst
index c6a006b7b4028a8..9e4606df0f774ed 100644
--- a/Doc/library/marshal.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/marshal.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`marshal` --- Internal Python object serialization
-=======================================================
+:mod:`!marshal` --- Internal Python object serialization
+========================================================
.. module:: marshal
:synopsis: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
This module contains functions that can read and write Python values in a binary
format. The format is specific to Python, but independent of machine
architecture issues (e.g., you can write a Python value to a file on a PC,
-transport the file to a Sun, and read it back there). Details of the format are
+transport the file to a Mac, and read it back there). Details of the format are
undocumented on purpose; it may change between Python versions (although it
rarely does). [#]_
@@ -42,8 +42,8 @@ supports a substantially wider range of objects than marshal.
Not all Python object types are supported; in general, only objects whose value
is independent from a particular invocation of Python can be written and read by
-this module. The following types are supported: booleans, integers, floating
-point numbers, complex numbers, strings, bytes, bytearrays, tuples, lists, sets,
+this module. The following types are supported: booleans, integers, floating-point
+numbers, complex numbers, strings, bytes, bytearrays, tuples, lists, sets,
frozensets, dictionaries, and code objects (if *allow_code* is true),
where it should be understood that
tuples, lists, sets, frozensets and dictionaries are only supported as long as
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ In addition, the following constants are defined:
Indicates the format that the module uses. Version 0 is the historical
format, version 1 shares interned strings and version 2 uses a binary format
- for floating point numbers.
+ for floating-point numbers.
Version 3 adds support for object instancing and recursion.
The current version is 4.
diff --git a/Doc/library/math.rst b/Doc/library/math.rst
index ab9236cc7cfb81f..ebf0ea3901bb6db 100644
--- a/Doc/library/math.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/math.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`math` --- Mathematical functions
-======================================
+:mod:`!math` --- Mathematical functions
+=======================================
.. module:: math
:synopsis: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.).
@@ -10,8 +10,8 @@
--------------
-This module provides access to the mathematical functions defined by the C
-standard.
+This module provides access to common mathematical functions and constants,
+including those defined by the C standard.
These functions cannot be used with complex numbers; use the functions of the
same name from the :mod:`cmath` module if you require support for complex
@@ -26,15 +26,103 @@ The following functions are provided by this module. Except when explicitly
noted otherwise, all return values are floats.
-Number-theoretic and representation functions
----------------------------------------------
-
-.. function:: ceil(x)
-
- Return the ceiling of *x*, the smallest integer greater than or equal to *x*.
- If *x* is not a float, delegates to :meth:`x.__ceil__ <object.__ceil__>`,
- which should return an :class:`~numbers.Integral` value.
-
+==================================================== ============================================
+**Number-theoretic functions**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:func:`comb(n, k) <comb>` Number of ways to choose *k* items from *n* items without repetition and without order
+:func:`factorial(n) <factorial>` *n* factorial
+:func:`gcd(*integers) <gcd>` Greatest common divisor of the integer arguments
+:func:`isqrt(n) <isqrt>` Integer square root of a nonnegative integer *n*
+:func:`lcm(*integers) <lcm>` Least common multiple of the integer arguments
+:func:`perm(n, k) <perm>` Number of ways to choose *k* items from *n* items without repetition and with order
+
+**Floating point arithmetic**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:func:`ceil(x) <ceil>` Ceiling of *x*, the smallest integer greater than or equal to *x*
+:func:`fabs(x) <fabs>` Absolute value of *x*
+:func:`floor(x) <floor>` Floor of *x*, the largest integer less than or equal to *x*
+:func:`fma(x, y, z) <fma>` Fused multiply-add operation: ``(x * y) + z``
+:func:`fmod(x, y) <fmod>` Remainder of division ``x / y``
+:func:`modf(x) <modf>` Fractional and integer parts of *x*
+:func:`remainder(x, y) <remainder>` Remainder of *x* with respect to *y*
+:func:`trunc(x) <trunc>` Integer part of *x*
+
+**Floating point manipulation functions**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:func:`copysign(x, y) <copysign>` Magnitude (absolute value) of *x* with the sign of *y*
+:func:`frexp(x) <frexp>` Mantissa and exponent of *x*
+:func:`isclose(a, b, rel_tol, abs_tol) <isclose>` Check if the values *a* and *b* are close to each other
+:func:`isfinite(x) <isfinite>` Check if *x* is neither an infinity nor a NaN
+:func:`isinf(x) <isinf>` Check if *x* is a positive or negative infinity
+:func:`isnan(x) <isnan>` Check if *x* is a NaN (not a number)
+:func:`ldexp(x, i) <ldexp>` ``x * (2**i)``, inverse of function :func:`frexp`
+:func:`nextafter(x, y, steps) <nextafter>` Floating-point value *steps* steps after *x* towards *y*
+:func:`ulp(x) <ulp>` Value of the least significant bit of *x*
+
+**Power, exponential and logarithmic functions**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:func:`cbrt(x) <cbrt>` Cube root of *x*
+:func:`exp(x) <exp>` *e* raised to the power *x*
+:func:`exp2(x) <exp2>` *2* raised to the power *x*
+:func:`expm1(x) <expm1>` *e* raised to the power *x*, minus 1
+:func:`log(x, base) <log>` Logarithm of *x* to the given base (*e* by default)
+:func:`log1p(x) <log1p>` Natural logarithm of *1+x* (base *e*)
+:func:`log2(x) <log2>` Base-2 logarithm of *x*
+:func:`log10(x) <log10>` Base-10 logarithm of *x*
+:func:`pow(x, y) <math.pow>` *x* raised to the power *y*
+:func:`sqrt(x) <sqrt>` Square root of *x*
+
+**Summation and product functions**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:func:`dist(p, q) <dist>` Euclidean distance between two points *p* and *q* given as an iterable of coordinates
+:func:`fsum(iterable) <fsum>` Sum of values in the input *iterable*
+:func:`hypot(*coordinates) <hypot>` Euclidean norm of an iterable of coordinates
+:func:`prod(iterable, start) <prod>` Product of elements in the input *iterable* with a *start* value
+:func:`sumprod(p, q) <sumprod>` Sum of products from two iterables *p* and *q*
+
+**Angular conversion**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:func:`degrees(x) <degrees>` Convert angle *x* from radians to degrees
+:func:`radians(x) <radians>` Convert angle *x* from degrees to radians
+
+**Trigonometric functions**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:func:`acos(x) <acos>` Arc cosine of *x*
+:func:`asin(x) <asin>` Arc sine of *x*
+:func:`atan(x) <atan>` Arc tangent of *x*
+:func:`atan2(y, x) <atan2>` ``atan(y / x)``
+:func:`cos(x) <cos>` Cosine of *x*
+:func:`sin(x) <sin>` Sine of *x*
+:func:`tan(x) <tan>` Tangent of *x*
+
+**Hyperbolic functions**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:func:`acosh(x) <acosh>` Inverse hyperbolic cosine of *x*
+:func:`asinh(x) <asinh>` Inverse hyperbolic sine of *x*
+:func:`atanh(x) <atanh>` Inverse hyperbolic tangent of *x*
+:func:`cosh(x) <cosh>` Hyperbolic cosine of *x*
+:func:`sinh(x) <sinh>` Hyperbolic sine of *x*
+:func:`tanh(x) <tanh>` Hyperbolic tangent of *x*
+
+**Special functions**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:func:`erf(x) <erf>` `Error function <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function>`_ at *x*
+:func:`erfc(x) <erfc>` `Complementary error function <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function>`_ at *x*
+:func:`gamma(x) <gamma>` `Gamma function <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function>`_ at *x*
+:func:`lgamma(x) <lgamma>` Natural logarithm of the absolute value of the `Gamma function <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function>`_ at *x*
+
+**Constants**
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+:data:`pi` *π* = 3.141592...
+:data:`e` *e* = 2.718281...
+:data:`tau` *τ* = 2\ *π* = 6.283185...
+:data:`inf` Positive infinity
+:data:`nan` "Not a number" (NaN)
+==================================================== ============================================
+
+
+Number-theoretic functions
+--------------------------
.. function:: comb(n, k)
@@ -54,25 +142,84 @@ Number-theoretic and representation functions
.. versionadded:: 3.8
-.. function:: copysign(x, y)
+.. function:: factorial(n)
- Return a float with the magnitude (absolute value) of *x* but the sign of
- *y*. On platforms that support signed zeros, ``copysign(1.0, -0.0)``
- returns *-1.0*.
+ Return factorial of the nonnegative integer *n*.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ Floats with integral values (like ``5.0``) are no longer accepted.
-.. function:: fabs(x)
- Return the absolute value of *x*.
+.. function:: gcd(*integers)
+ Return the greatest common divisor of the specified integer arguments.
+ If any of the arguments is nonzero, then the returned value is the largest
+ positive integer that is a divisor of all arguments. If all arguments
+ are zero, then the returned value is ``0``. ``gcd()`` without arguments
+ returns ``0``.
-.. function:: factorial(n)
+ .. versionadded:: 3.5
- Return *n* factorial as an integer. Raises :exc:`ValueError` if *n* is not integral or
- is negative.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.9
+ Added support for an arbitrary number of arguments. Formerly, only two
+ arguments were supported.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.10
- Floats with integral values (like ``5.0``) are no longer accepted.
+
+.. function:: isqrt(n)
+
+ Return the integer square root of the nonnegative integer *n*. This is the
+ floor of the exact square root of *n*, or equivalently the greatest integer
+ *a* such that *a*\ ² |nbsp| ≤ |nbsp| *n*.
+
+ For some applications, it may be more convenient to have the least integer
+ *a* such that *n* |nbsp| ≤ |nbsp| *a*\ ², or in other words the ceiling of
+ the exact square root of *n*. For positive *n*, this can be computed using
+ ``a = 1 + isqrt(n - 1)``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+
+.. function:: lcm(*integers)
+
+ Return the least common multiple of the specified integer arguments.
+ If all arguments are nonzero, then the returned value is the smallest
+ positive integer that is a multiple of all arguments. If any of the arguments
+ is zero, then the returned value is ``0``. ``lcm()`` without arguments
+ returns ``1``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.9
+
+
+.. function:: perm(n, k=None)
+
+ Return the number of ways to choose *k* items from *n* items
+ without repetition and with order.
+
+ Evaluates to ``n! / (n - k)!`` when ``k <= n`` and evaluates
+ to zero when ``k > n``.
+
+ If *k* is not specified or is ``None``, then *k* defaults to *n*
+ and the function returns ``n!``.
+
+ Raises :exc:`TypeError` if either of the arguments are not integers.
+ Raises :exc:`ValueError` if either of the arguments are negative.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+
+Floating point arithmetic
+-------------------------
+
+.. function:: ceil(x)
+
+ Return the ceiling of *x*, the smallest integer greater than or equal to *x*.
+ If *x* is not a float, delegates to :meth:`x.__ceil__ <object.__ceil__>`,
+ which should return an :class:`~numbers.Integral` value.
+
+
+.. function:: fabs(x)
+
+ Return the absolute value of *x*.
.. function:: floor(x)
@@ -100,7 +247,8 @@ Number-theoretic and representation functions
.. function:: fmod(x, y)
- Return ``fmod(x, y)``, as defined by the platform C library. Note that the
+ Return the floating-point remainder of ``x / y``,
+ as defined by the platform C library function ``fmod(x, y)``. Note that the
Python expression ``x % y`` may not return the same result. The intent of the C
standard is that ``fmod(x, y)`` be exactly (mathematically; to infinite
precision) equal to ``x - n*y`` for some integer *n* such that the result has
@@ -113,44 +261,77 @@ Number-theoretic and representation functions
floats, while Python's ``x % y`` is preferred when working with integers.
-.. function:: frexp(x)
+.. function:: modf(x)
- Return the mantissa and exponent of *x* as the pair ``(m, e)``. *m* is a float
- and *e* is an integer such that ``x == m * 2**e`` exactly. If *x* is zero,
- returns ``(0.0, 0)``, otherwise ``0.5 <= abs(m) < 1``. This is used to "pick
- apart" the internal representation of a float in a portable way.
+ Return the fractional and integer parts of *x*. Both results carry the sign
+ of *x* and are floats.
+ Note that :func:`modf` has a different call/return pattern
+ than its C equivalents: it takes a single argument and return a pair of
+ values, rather than returning its second return value through an 'output
+ parameter' (there is no such thing in Python).
-.. function:: fsum(iterable)
- Return an accurate floating point sum of values in the iterable. Avoids
- loss of precision by tracking multiple intermediate partial sums.
+.. function:: remainder(x, y)
- The algorithm's accuracy depends on IEEE-754 arithmetic guarantees and the
- typical case where the rounding mode is half-even. On some non-Windows
- builds, the underlying C library uses extended precision addition and may
- occasionally double-round an intermediate sum causing it to be off in its
- least significant bit.
+ Return the IEEE 754-style remainder of *x* with respect to *y*. For
+ finite *x* and finite nonzero *y*, this is the difference ``x - n*y``,
+ where ``n`` is the closest integer to the exact value of the quotient ``x /
+ y``. If ``x / y`` is exactly halfway between two consecutive integers, the
+ nearest *even* integer is used for ``n``. The remainder ``r = remainder(x,
+ y)`` thus always satisfies ``abs(r) <= 0.5 * abs(y)``.
- For further discussion and two alternative approaches, see the `ASPN cookbook
- recipes for accurate floating point summation
- <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/393090-binary-floating-point-summation-accurate-to-full-p/>`_\.
+ Special cases follow IEEE 754: in particular, ``remainder(x, math.inf)`` is
+ *x* for any finite *x*, and ``remainder(x, 0)`` and
+ ``remainder(math.inf, x)`` raise :exc:`ValueError` for any non-NaN *x*.
+ If the result of the remainder operation is zero, that zero will have
+ the same sign as *x*.
+ On platforms using IEEE 754 binary floating point, the result of this
+ operation is always exactly representable: no rounding error is introduced.
-.. function:: gcd(*integers)
+ .. versionadded:: 3.7
- Return the greatest common divisor of the specified integer arguments.
- If any of the arguments is nonzero, then the returned value is the largest
- positive integer that is a divisor of all arguments. If all arguments
- are zero, then the returned value is ``0``. ``gcd()`` without arguments
- returns ``0``.
- .. versionadded:: 3.5
+.. function:: trunc(x)
+
+ Return *x* with the fractional part
+ removed, leaving the integer part. This rounds toward 0: ``trunc()`` is
+ equivalent to :func:`floor` for positive *x*, and equivalent to :func:`ceil`
+ for negative *x*. If *x* is not a float, delegates to :meth:`x.__trunc__
+ <object.__trunc__>`, which should return an :class:`~numbers.Integral` value.
+
+
+For the :func:`ceil`, :func:`floor`, and :func:`modf` functions, note that *all*
+floating-point numbers of sufficiently large magnitude are exact integers.
+Python floats typically carry no more than 53 bits of precision (the same as the
+platform C double type), in which case any float *x* with ``abs(x) >= 2**52``
+necessarily has no fractional bits.
+
+
+Floating point manipulation functions
+-------------------------------------
+
+.. function:: copysign(x, y)
+
+ Return a float with the magnitude (absolute value) of *x* but the sign of
+ *y*. On platforms that support signed zeros, ``copysign(1.0, -0.0)``
+ returns *-1.0*.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.9
- Added support for an arbitrary number of arguments. Formerly, only two
- arguments were supported.
+.. function:: frexp(x)
+
+ Return the mantissa and exponent of *x* as the pair ``(m, e)``.
+ If *x* is a finite nonzero number, then *m* is a float with
+ ``0.5 <= abs(m) < 1.0`` and an integer *e* is such that
+ ``x == m * 2**e`` exactly. Else, return ``(x, 0)``.
+ This is used to "pick apart" the internal representation of
+ a float in a portable way.
+
+ Note that :func:`frexp` has a different call/return pattern
+ than its C equivalents: it takes a single argument and return a pair of
+ values, rather than returning its second return value through an 'output
+ parameter' (there is no such thing in Python).
.. function:: isclose(a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)
@@ -158,19 +339,21 @@ Number-theoretic and representation functions
``False`` otherwise.
Whether or not two values are considered close is determined according to
- given absolute and relative tolerances.
+ given absolute and relative tolerances. If no errors occur, the result will
+ be: ``abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a), abs(b)), abs_tol)``.
*rel_tol* is the relative tolerance -- it is the maximum allowed difference
between *a* and *b*, relative to the larger absolute value of *a* or *b*.
For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass ``rel_tol=0.05``. The default
tolerance is ``1e-09``, which assures that the two values are the same
- within about 9 decimal digits. *rel_tol* must be greater than zero.
+ within about 9 decimal digits. *rel_tol* must be nonnegative and less
+ than ``1.0``.
- *abs_tol* is the minimum absolute tolerance -- useful for comparisons near
- zero. *abs_tol* must be at least zero.
-
- If no errors occur, the result will be:
- ``abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a), abs(b)), abs_tol)``.
+ *abs_tol* is the absolute tolerance; it defaults to ``0.0`` and it must be
+ nonnegative. When comparing ``x`` to ``0.0``, ``isclose(x, 0)`` is computed
+ as ``abs(x) <= rel_tol * abs(x)``, which is ``False`` for any nonzero ``x`` and
+ *rel_tol* less than ``1.0``. So add an appropriate positive *abs_tol* argument
+ to the call.
The IEEE 754 special values of ``NaN``, ``inf``, and ``-inf`` will be
handled according to IEEE rules. Specifically, ``NaN`` is not considered
@@ -203,43 +386,12 @@ Number-theoretic and representation functions
Return ``True`` if *x* is a NaN (not a number), and ``False`` otherwise.
-.. function:: isqrt(n)
-
- Return the integer square root of the nonnegative integer *n*. This is the
- floor of the exact square root of *n*, or equivalently the greatest integer
- *a* such that *a*\ ² |nbsp| ≤ |nbsp| *n*.
-
- For some applications, it may be more convenient to have the least integer
- *a* such that *n* |nbsp| ≤ |nbsp| *a*\ ², or in other words the ceiling of
- the exact square root of *n*. For positive *n*, this can be computed using
- ``a = 1 + isqrt(n - 1)``.
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.8
-
-
-.. function:: lcm(*integers)
-
- Return the least common multiple of the specified integer arguments.
- If all arguments are nonzero, then the returned value is the smallest
- positive integer that is a multiple of all arguments. If any of the arguments
- is zero, then the returned value is ``0``. ``lcm()`` without arguments
- returns ``1``.
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.9
-
-
.. function:: ldexp(x, i)
Return ``x * (2**i)``. This is essentially the inverse of function
:func:`frexp`.
-.. function:: modf(x)
-
- Return the fractional and integer parts of *x*. Both results carry the sign
- of *x* and are floats.
-
-
.. function:: nextafter(x, y, steps=1)
Return the floating-point value *steps* steps after *x* towards *y*.
@@ -260,79 +412,6 @@ Number-theoretic and representation functions
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
Added the *steps* argument.
-.. function:: perm(n, k=None)
-
- Return the number of ways to choose *k* items from *n* items
- without repetition and with order.
-
- Evaluates to ``n! / (n - k)!`` when ``k <= n`` and evaluates
- to zero when ``k > n``.
-
- If *k* is not specified or is None, then *k* defaults to *n*
- and the function returns ``n!``.
-
- Raises :exc:`TypeError` if either of the arguments are not integers.
- Raises :exc:`ValueError` if either of the arguments are negative.
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.8
-
-
-.. function:: prod(iterable, *, start=1)
-
- Calculate the product of all the elements in the input *iterable*.
- The default *start* value for the product is ``1``.
-
- When the iterable is empty, return the start value. This function is
- intended specifically for use with numeric values and may reject
- non-numeric types.
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.8
-
-
-.. function:: remainder(x, y)
-
- Return the IEEE 754-style remainder of *x* with respect to *y*. For
- finite *x* and finite nonzero *y*, this is the difference ``x - n*y``,
- where ``n`` is the closest integer to the exact value of the quotient ``x /
- y``. If ``x / y`` is exactly halfway between two consecutive integers, the
- nearest *even* integer is used for ``n``. The remainder ``r = remainder(x,
- y)`` thus always satisfies ``abs(r) <= 0.5 * abs(y)``.
-
- Special cases follow IEEE 754: in particular, ``remainder(x, math.inf)`` is
- *x* for any finite *x*, and ``remainder(x, 0)`` and
- ``remainder(math.inf, x)`` raise :exc:`ValueError` for any non-NaN *x*.
- If the result of the remainder operation is zero, that zero will have
- the same sign as *x*.
-
- On platforms using IEEE 754 binary floating-point, the result of this
- operation is always exactly representable: no rounding error is introduced.
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.7
-
-
-.. function:: sumprod(p, q)
-
- Return the sum of products of values from two iterables *p* and *q*.
-
- Raises :exc:`ValueError` if the inputs do not have the same length.
-
- Roughly equivalent to::
-
- sum(itertools.starmap(operator.mul, zip(p, q, strict=True)))
-
- For float and mixed int/float inputs, the intermediate products
- and sums are computed with extended precision.
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.12
-
-
-.. function:: trunc(x)
-
- Return *x* with the fractional part
- removed, leaving the integer part. This rounds toward 0: ``trunc()`` is
- equivalent to :func:`floor` for positive *x*, and equivalent to :func:`ceil`
- for negative *x*. If *x* is not a float, delegates to :meth:`x.__trunc__
- <object.__trunc__>`, which should return an :class:`~numbers.Integral` value.
.. function:: ulp(x)
@@ -359,20 +438,8 @@ Number-theoretic and representation functions
.. versionadded:: 3.9
-Note that :func:`frexp` and :func:`modf` have a different call/return pattern
-than their C equivalents: they take a single argument and return a pair of
-values, rather than returning their second return value through an 'output
-parameter' (there is no such thing in Python).
-
-For the :func:`ceil`, :func:`floor`, and :func:`modf` functions, note that *all*
-floating-point numbers of sufficiently large magnitude are exact integers.
-Python floats typically carry no more than 53 bits of precision (the same as the
-platform C double type), in which case any float *x* with ``abs(x) >= 2**52``
-necessarily has no fractional bits.
-
-
-Power and logarithmic functions
--------------------------------
+Power, exponential and logarithmic functions
+--------------------------------------------
.. function:: cbrt(x)
@@ -447,11 +514,11 @@ Power and logarithmic functions
.. function:: pow(x, y)
- Return ``x`` raised to the power ``y``. Exceptional cases follow
+ Return *x* raised to the power *y*. Exceptional cases follow
the IEEE 754 standard as far as possible. In particular,
``pow(1.0, x)`` and ``pow(x, 0.0)`` always return ``1.0``, even
- when ``x`` is a zero or a NaN. If both ``x`` and ``y`` are finite,
- ``x`` is negative, and ``y`` is not an integer then ``pow(x, y)``
+ when *x* is a zero or a NaN. If both *x* and *y* are finite,
+ *x* is negative, and *y* is not an integer then ``pow(x, y)``
is undefined, and raises :exc:`ValueError`.
Unlike the built-in ``**`` operator, :func:`math.pow` converts both
@@ -469,41 +536,8 @@ Power and logarithmic functions
Return the square root of *x*.
-Trigonometric functions
------------------------
-
-.. function:: acos(x)
-
- Return the arc cosine of *x*, in radians. The result is between ``0`` and
- ``pi``.
-
-
-.. function:: asin(x)
-
- Return the arc sine of *x*, in radians. The result is between ``-pi/2`` and
- ``pi/2``.
-
-
-.. function:: atan(x)
-
- Return the arc tangent of *x*, in radians. The result is between ``-pi/2`` and
- ``pi/2``.
-
-
-.. function:: atan2(y, x)
-
- Return ``atan(y / x)``, in radians. The result is between ``-pi`` and ``pi``.
- The vector in the plane from the origin to point ``(x, y)`` makes this angle
- with the positive X axis. The point of :func:`atan2` is that the signs of both
- inputs are known to it, so it can compute the correct quadrant for the angle.
- For example, ``atan(1)`` and ``atan2(1, 1)`` are both ``pi/4``, but ``atan2(-1,
- -1)`` is ``-3*pi/4``.
-
-
-.. function:: cos(x)
-
- Return the cosine of *x* radians.
-
+Summation and product functions
+-------------------------------
.. function:: dist(p, q)
@@ -518,6 +552,22 @@ Trigonometric functions
.. versionadded:: 3.8
+.. function:: fsum(iterable)
+
+ Return an accurate floating-point sum of values in the iterable. Avoids
+ loss of precision by tracking multiple intermediate partial sums.
+
+ The algorithm's accuracy depends on IEEE-754 arithmetic guarantees and the
+ typical case where the rounding mode is half-even. On some non-Windows
+ builds, the underlying C library uses extended precision addition and may
+ occasionally double-round an intermediate sum causing it to be off in its
+ least significant bit.
+
+ For further discussion and two alternative approaches, see the `ASPN cookbook
+ recipes for accurate floating-point summation
+ <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/393090-binary-floating-point-summation-accurate-to-full-p/>`_\.
+
+
.. function:: hypot(*coordinates)
Return the Euclidean norm, ``sqrt(sum(x**2 for x in coordinates))``.
@@ -538,14 +588,32 @@ Trigonometric functions
is almost always correctly rounded to within 1/2 ulp.
-.. function:: sin(x)
+.. function:: prod(iterable, *, start=1)
- Return the sine of *x* radians.
+ Calculate the product of all the elements in the input *iterable*.
+ The default *start* value for the product is ``1``.
+
+ When the iterable is empty, return the start value. This function is
+ intended specifically for use with numeric values and may reject
+ non-numeric types.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
-.. function:: tan(x)
- Return the tangent of *x* radians.
+.. function:: sumprod(p, q)
+
+ Return the sum of products of values from two iterables *p* and *q*.
+
+ Raises :exc:`ValueError` if the inputs do not have the same length.
+
+ Roughly equivalent to::
+
+ sum(itertools.starmap(operator.mul, zip(p, q, strict=True)))
+
+ For float and mixed int/float inputs, the intermediate products
+ and sums are computed with extended precision.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.12
Angular conversion
@@ -561,6 +629,52 @@ Angular conversion
Convert angle *x* from degrees to radians.
+Trigonometric functions
+-----------------------
+
+.. function:: acos(x)
+
+ Return the arc cosine of *x*, in radians. The result is between ``0`` and
+ ``pi``.
+
+
+.. function:: asin(x)
+
+ Return the arc sine of *x*, in radians. The result is between ``-pi/2`` and
+ ``pi/2``.
+
+
+.. function:: atan(x)
+
+ Return the arc tangent of *x*, in radians. The result is between ``-pi/2`` and
+ ``pi/2``.
+
+
+.. function:: atan2(y, x)
+
+ Return ``atan(y / x)``, in radians. The result is between ``-pi`` and ``pi``.
+ The vector in the plane from the origin to point ``(x, y)`` makes this angle
+ with the positive X axis. The point of :func:`atan2` is that the signs of both
+ inputs are known to it, so it can compute the correct quadrant for the angle.
+ For example, ``atan(1)`` and ``atan2(1, 1)`` are both ``pi/4``, but ``atan2(-1,
+ -1)`` is ``-3*pi/4``.
+
+
+.. function:: cos(x)
+
+ Return the cosine of *x* radians.
+
+
+.. function:: sin(x)
+
+ Return the sine of *x* radians.
+
+
+.. function:: tan(x)
+
+ Return the tangent of *x* radians.
+
+
Hyperbolic functions
--------------------
@@ -662,7 +776,7 @@ Constants
The mathematical constant *τ* = 6.283185..., to available precision.
Tau is a circle constant equal to 2\ *π*, the ratio of a circle's circumference to
its radius. To learn more about Tau, check out Vi Hart's video `Pi is (still)
- Wrong <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jG7vhMMXagQ>`_, and start celebrating
+ Wrong <https://vimeo.com/147792667>`_, and start celebrating
`Tau day <https://tauday.com/>`_ by eating twice as much pie!
.. versionadded:: 3.6
diff --git a/Doc/library/mimetypes.rst b/Doc/library/mimetypes.rst
index a24eab21d573437..9b06b8a2163bbd7 100644
--- a/Doc/library/mimetypes.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/mimetypes.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`mimetypes` --- Map filenames to MIME types
-================================================
+:mod:`!mimetypes` --- Map filenames to MIME types
+=================================================
.. module:: mimetypes
:synopsis: Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types.
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ the information :func:`init` sets up.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
Added support for *url* being a :term:`path-like object`.
- .. deprecated:: 3.13
+ .. soft-deprecated:: 3.13
Passing a file path instead of URL is :term:`soft deprecated`.
Use :func:`guess_file_type` for this.
@@ -116,12 +116,13 @@ behavior of the module.
Previously, Windows registry settings were ignored.
-.. function:: read_mime_types(filename)
+.. function:: read_mime_types(file)
- Load the type map given in the file *filename*, if it exists. The type map is
- returned as a dictionary mapping filename extensions, including the leading dot
- (``'.'``), to strings of the form ``'type/subtype'``. If the file *filename*
- does not exist or cannot be read, ``None`` is returned.
+ Load the type map given in the file named by *file*, if it exists. *file*
+ must be a string specifying the name of the file to read. The type map is
+ returned as a dictionary mapping file extensions, including the leading dot
+ (``'.'``), to strings of the form ``'type/subtype'``. If the file does not
+ exist or cannot be read, ``None`` is returned.
.. function:: add_type(type, ext, strict=True)
@@ -200,8 +201,8 @@ than one MIME-type database; it provides an interface similar to the one of the
.. class:: MimeTypes(filenames=(), strict=True)
This class represents a MIME-types database. By default, it provides access to
- the same database as the rest of this module. The initial database is a copy of
- that provided by the module, and may be extended by loading additional
+ the same database as the rest of this module. The initial database is created from
+ Python's built-in MIME type tables. It may be extended by loading additional
:file:`mime.types`\ -style files into the database using the :meth:`read` or
:meth:`readfp` methods. The mapping dictionaries may also be cleared before
loading additional data if the default data is not desired.
@@ -215,30 +216,32 @@ than one MIME-type database; it provides an interface similar to the one of the
Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes. This is used to allow recognition of
encoded files for which the encoding and the type are indicated by the same
extension. For example, the :file:`.tgz` extension is mapped to :file:`.tar.gz`
- to allow the encoding and type to be recognized separately. This is initially a
- copy of the global :data:`suffix_map` defined in the module.
+ to allow the encoding and type to be recognized separately.
+ This is initialized with some predefined values.
.. attribute:: MimeTypes.encodings_map
- Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types. This is initially a
- copy of the global :data:`encodings_map` defined in the module.
+ Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types.
+ This is initialized with some predefined values.
.. attribute:: MimeTypes.types_map
Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping filename extensions to MIME types:
the first dictionary is for the non-standards types and the second one is for
- the standard types. They are initialized by :data:`common_types` and
- :data:`types_map`.
+ the standard types.
+ They are initialized with some predefined values and MIME type
+ information loaded from files specified by the *filenames* argument.
.. attribute:: MimeTypes.types_map_inv
Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping MIME types to a list of filename
extensions: the first dictionary is for the non-standards types and the
- second one is for the standard types. They are initialized by
- :data:`common_types` and :data:`types_map`.
+ second one is for the standard types.
+ They are initialized with some predefined values and MIME type
+ information loaded from files specified by the *filenames* argument.
.. method:: MimeTypes.guess_extension(type, strict=True)
@@ -295,3 +298,13 @@ than one MIME-type database; it provides an interface similar to the one of the
types, else to the list of non-standard types.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+
+ .. method:: MimeTypes.add_type(type, ext, strict=True)
+
+ Add a mapping from the MIME type *type* to the extension *ext*. When the
+ extension is already known, the new type will replace the old one. When the type
+ is already known the extension will be added to the list of known extensions.
+
+ When *strict* is ``True`` (the default), the mapping will be added to the
+ official MIME types, otherwise to the non-standard ones.
diff --git a/Doc/library/mmap.rst b/Doc/library/mmap.rst
index 758721433f77de9..f78518ac2232a0e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/mmap.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/mmap.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`mmap` --- Memory-mapped file support
-==========================================
+:mod:`!mmap` --- Memory-mapped file support
+===========================================
.. module:: mmap
:synopsis: Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows.
@@ -200,7 +200,8 @@ To map anonymous memory, -1 should be passed as the fileno along with the length
Writable :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
- .. method:: flush([offset[, size]])
+ .. method:: flush()
+ flush(offset, size, /)
Flushes changes made to the in-memory copy of a file back to disk. Without
use of this call there is no guarantee that changes are written back before
@@ -269,7 +270,7 @@ To map anonymous memory, -1 should be passed as the fileno along with the length
Resizing a map created with *access* of :const:`ACCESS_READ` or
:const:`ACCESS_COPY`, will raise a :exc:`TypeError` exception.
- Resizing a map created with with *trackfd* set to ``False``,
+ Resizing a map created with *trackfd* set to ``False``,
will raise a :exc:`ValueError` exception.
**On Windows**: Resizing the map will raise an :exc:`OSError` if there are other
diff --git a/Doc/library/modulefinder.rst b/Doc/library/modulefinder.rst
index 526f0ff868c2b7b..823d853f1ed8ebe 100644
--- a/Doc/library/modulefinder.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/modulefinder.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`modulefinder` --- Find modules used by a script
-=====================================================
+:mod:`!modulefinder` --- Find modules used by a script
+======================================================
.. module:: modulefinder
:synopsis: Find modules used by a script.
diff --git a/Doc/library/msilib.rst b/Doc/library/msilib.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..eb1ac551ded456b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/msilib.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+:mod:`!msilib` --- Read and write Microsoft Installer files
+===========================================================
+
+.. module:: msilib
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!msilib` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/msilib.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/msvcrt.rst b/Doc/library/msvcrt.rst
index 72da777cd1407e3..79069c136c28416 100644
--- a/Doc/library/msvcrt.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/msvcrt.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`msvcrt` --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
-==========================================================
+:mod:`!msvcrt` --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
+===========================================================
.. module:: msvcrt
- :platform: Windows
:synopsis: Miscellaneous useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime.
.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
@@ -22,6 +21,8 @@ api. The normal API deals only with ASCII characters and is of limited use
for internationalized applications. The wide char API should be used where
ever possible.
+.. availability:: Windows.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
Operations in this module now raise :exc:`OSError` where :exc:`IOError`
was raised.
diff --git a/Doc/library/multiprocessing.rst b/Doc/library/multiprocessing.rst
index afc148c78e97bd7..d62628d2c53b540 100644
--- a/Doc/library/multiprocessing.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/multiprocessing.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`multiprocessing` --- Process-based parallelism
-====================================================
+:mod:`!multiprocessing` --- Process-based parallelism
+=====================================================
.. module:: multiprocessing
:synopsis: Process-based parallelism.
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
--------------
-.. include:: ../includes/wasm-ios-notavail.rst
+.. include:: ../includes/wasm-mobile-notavail.rst
Introduction
------------
@@ -22,8 +22,7 @@ to this, the :mod:`multiprocessing` module allows the programmer to fully
leverage multiple processors on a given machine. It runs on both POSIX and
Windows.
-The :mod:`multiprocessing` module also introduces APIs which do not have
-analogs in the :mod:`threading` module. A prime example of this is the
+The :mod:`multiprocessing` module also introduces the
:class:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool` object which offers a convenient means of
parallelizing the execution of a function across multiple input values,
distributing the input data across processes (data parallelism). The following
@@ -44,6 +43,10 @@ will print to standard output ::
[1, 4, 9]
+The :mod:`multiprocessing` module also introduces APIs which do not have
+analogs in the :mod:`threading` module, like the ability to :meth:`terminate
+<Process.terminate>`, :meth:`interrupt <Process.interrupt>` or :meth:`kill
+<Process.kill>` a running process.
.. seealso::
@@ -97,6 +100,10 @@ To show the individual process IDs involved, here is an expanded example::
For an explanation of why the ``if __name__ == '__main__'`` part is
necessary, see :ref:`multiprocessing-programming`.
+The arguments to :class:`Process` usually need to be picklable so they can be
+passed to the child process. If you tried typing the above example directly
+into a REPL it could lead to an :exc:`AttributeError` in the child process
+trying to locate the *f* function in the ``__main__`` module.
.. _multiprocessing-start-methods:
@@ -107,6 +114,8 @@ Contexts and start methods
Depending on the platform, :mod:`multiprocessing` supports three ways
to start a process. These *start methods* are
+ .. _multiprocessing-start-method-spawn:
+
*spawn*
The parent process starts a fresh Python interpreter process. The
child process will only inherit those resources necessary to run
@@ -117,6 +126,8 @@ to start a process. These *start methods* are
Available on POSIX and Windows platforms. The default on Windows and macOS.
+ .. _multiprocessing-start-method-fork:
+
*fork*
The parent process uses :func:`os.fork` to fork the Python
interpreter. The child process, when it begins, is effectively
@@ -137,6 +148,8 @@ to start a process. These *start methods* are
raise a :exc:`DeprecationWarning`. Use a different start method.
See the :func:`os.fork` documentation for further explanation.
+ .. _multiprocessing-start-method-forkserver:
+
*forkserver*
When the program starts and selects the *forkserver* start method,
a server process is spawned. From then on, whenever a new process
@@ -218,9 +231,12 @@ processes for a different context. In particular, locks created using
the *fork* context cannot be passed to processes started using the
*spawn* or *forkserver* start methods.
-A library which wants to use a particular start method should probably
-use :func:`get_context` to avoid interfering with the choice of the
-library user.
+Libraries using :mod:`multiprocessing` or
+:class:`~concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor` should be designed to allow
+their users to provide their own multiprocessing context. Using a specific
+context of your own within a library can lead to incompatibilities with the
+rest of the library user's application. Always document if your library
+requires a specific start method.
.. warning::
@@ -254,6 +270,7 @@ processes:
p.join()
Queues are thread and process safe.
+ Any object put into a :mod:`~multiprocessing` queue will be serialized.
**Pipes**
@@ -281,6 +298,8 @@ processes:
of corruption from processes using different ends of the pipe at the same
time.
+ The :meth:`~Connection.send` method serializes the object and
+ :meth:`~Connection.recv` re-creates the object.
Synchronization between processes
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
@@ -488,6 +507,21 @@ Reference
The :mod:`multiprocessing` package mostly replicates the API of the
:mod:`threading` module.
+.. _global-start-method:
+
+Global start method
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Python supports several ways to create and initialize a process.
+The global start method sets the default mechanism for creating a process.
+
+Several multiprocessing functions and methods that may also instantiate
+certain objects will implicitly set the global start method to the system's default,
+if it hasn’t been set already. The global start method can only be set once.
+If you need to change the start method from the system default, you must
+proactively set the global start method before calling functions or methods,
+or creating these objects.
+
:class:`Process` and exceptions
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
@@ -502,7 +536,7 @@ The :mod:`multiprocessing` package mostly replicates the API of the
The constructor should always be called with keyword arguments. *group*
should always be ``None``; it exists solely for compatibility with
:class:`threading.Thread`. *target* is the callable object to be invoked by
- the :meth:`run()` method. It defaults to ``None``, meaning nothing is
+ the :meth:`run` method. It defaults to ``None``, meaning nothing is
called. *name* is the process name (see :attr:`name` for more details).
*args* is the argument tuple for the target invocation. *kwargs* is a
dictionary of keyword arguments for the target invocation. If provided,
@@ -515,9 +549,42 @@ The :mod:`multiprocessing` package mostly replicates the API of the
to pass to *target*.
If a subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure it invokes the
- base class constructor (:meth:`Process.__init__`) before doing anything else
+ base class constructor (``super().__init__()``) before doing anything else
to the process.
+ .. note::
+
+ In general, all arguments to :class:`Process` must be picklable. This is
+ frequently observed when trying to create a :class:`Process` or use a
+ :class:`concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor` from a REPL with a
+ locally defined *target* function.
+
+ Passing a callable object defined in the current REPL session causes the
+ child process to die via an uncaught :exc:`AttributeError` exception when
+ starting as *target* must have been defined within an importable module
+ in order to be loaded during unpickling.
+
+ Example of this uncatchable error from the child::
+
+ >>> import multiprocessing as mp
+ >>> def knigit():
+ ... print("Ni!")
+ ...
+ >>> process = mp.Process(target=knigit)
+ >>> process.start()
+ >>> Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File ".../multiprocessing/spawn.py", line ..., in spawn_main
+ File ".../multiprocessing/spawn.py", line ..., in _main
+ AttributeError: module '__main__' has no attribute 'knigit'
+ >>> process
+ <SpawnProcess name='SpawnProcess-1' pid=379473 parent=378707 stopped exitcode=1>
+
+ See :ref:`multiprocessing-programming-spawn`. While this restriction is
+ not true if using the ``"fork"`` start method, as of Python ``3.14`` that
+ is no longer the default on any platform. See
+ :ref:`multiprocessing-start-methods`.
+ See also :gh:`132898`.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
Added the *daemon* parameter.
@@ -639,7 +706,7 @@ The :mod:`multiprocessing` package mostly replicates the API of the
You can use this value if you want to wait on several events at
once using :func:`multiprocessing.connection.wait`. Otherwise
- calling :meth:`join()` is simpler.
+ calling :meth:`join` is simpler.
On Windows, this is an OS handle usable with the ``WaitForSingleObject``
and ``WaitForMultipleObjects`` family of API calls. On POSIX, this is
@@ -666,7 +733,7 @@ The :mod:`multiprocessing` package mostly replicates the API of the
.. method:: kill()
- Same as :meth:`terminate()` but using the ``SIGKILL`` signal on POSIX.
+ Same as :meth:`terminate` but using the ``SIGKILL`` signal on POSIX.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
@@ -709,7 +776,7 @@ The :mod:`multiprocessing` package mostly replicates the API of the
.. exception:: BufferTooShort
- Exception raised by :meth:`Connection.recv_bytes_into()` when the supplied
+ Exception raised by :meth:`Connection.recv_bytes_into` when the supplied
buffer object is too small for the message read.
If ``e`` is an instance of :exc:`BufferTooShort` then ``e.args[0]`` will give
@@ -745,6 +812,11 @@ If you use :class:`JoinableQueue` then you **must** call
semaphore used to count the number of unfinished tasks may eventually overflow,
raising an exception.
+One difference from other Python queue implementations, is that :mod:`multiprocessing`
+queues serializes all objects that are put into them using :mod:`pickle`.
+The object return by the get method is a re-created object that does not share memory
+with the original object.
+
Note that one can also create a shared queue by using a manager object -- see
:ref:`multiprocessing-managers`.
@@ -811,6 +883,8 @@ For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see
used for receiving messages and ``conn2`` can only be used for sending
messages.
+ The :meth:`~multiprocessing.Connection.send` method serializes the object using
+ :mod:`pickle` and the :meth:`~multiprocessing.Connection.recv` re-creates the object.
.. class:: Queue([maxsize])
@@ -818,11 +892,15 @@ For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see
locks/semaphores. When a process first puts an item on the queue a feeder
thread is started which transfers objects from a buffer into the pipe.
+ Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
+
The usual :exc:`queue.Empty` and :exc:`queue.Full` exceptions from the
standard library's :mod:`queue` module are raised to signal timeouts.
:class:`Queue` implements all the methods of :class:`queue.Queue` except for
- :meth:`~queue.Queue.task_done` and :meth:`~queue.Queue.join`.
+ :meth:`~queue.Queue.task_done`, :meth:`~queue.Queue.join`, and
+ :meth:`~queue.Queue.shutdown`.
.. method:: qsize()
@@ -837,6 +915,8 @@ For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see
Return ``True`` if the queue is empty, ``False`` otherwise. Because of
multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this is not reliable.
+ May raise an :exc:`OSError` on closed queues. (not guaranteed)
+
.. method:: full()
Return ``True`` if the queue is full, ``False`` otherwise. Because of
@@ -885,8 +965,13 @@ For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see
.. method:: close()
- Indicate that no more data will be put on this queue by the current
- process. The background thread will quit once it has flushed all buffered
+ Close the queue: release internal resources.
+
+ A queue must not be used anymore after it is closed. For example,
+ :meth:`~Queue.get`, :meth:`~Queue.put` and :meth:`~Queue.empty`
+ methods must no longer be called.
+
+ The background thread will quit once it has flushed all buffered
data to the pipe. This is called automatically when the queue is garbage
collected.
@@ -926,6 +1011,9 @@ For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see
It is a simplified :class:`Queue` type, very close to a locked :class:`Pipe`.
+ Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
+
.. method:: close()
Close the queue: release internal resources.
@@ -940,6 +1028,8 @@ For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see
Return ``True`` if the queue is empty, ``False`` otherwise.
+ Always raises an :exc:`OSError` if the SimpleQueue is closed.
+
.. method:: get()
Remove and return an item from the queue.
@@ -954,6 +1044,9 @@ For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see
:class:`JoinableQueue`, a :class:`Queue` subclass, is a queue which
additionally has :meth:`task_done` and :meth:`join` methods.
+ Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
+
.. method:: task_done()
Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete. Used by queue
@@ -1028,7 +1121,7 @@ Miscellaneous
.. function:: freeze_support()
Add support for when a program which uses :mod:`multiprocessing` has been
- frozen to produce a Windows executable. (Has been tested with **py2exe**,
+ frozen to produce an executable. (Has been tested with **py2exe**,
**PyInstaller** and **cx_Freeze**.)
One needs to call this function straight after the ``if __name__ ==
@@ -1046,10 +1139,10 @@ Miscellaneous
If the ``freeze_support()`` line is omitted then trying to run the frozen
executable will raise :exc:`RuntimeError`.
- Calling ``freeze_support()`` has no effect when invoked on any operating
- system other than Windows. In addition, if the module is being run
- normally by the Python interpreter on Windows (the program has not been
- frozen), then ``freeze_support()`` has no effect.
+ Calling ``freeze_support()`` has no effect when the start method is not
+ *spawn*. In addition, if the module is being run normally by the Python
+ interpreter (the program has not been frozen), then ``freeze_support()``
+ has no effect.
.. function:: get_all_start_methods()
@@ -1065,7 +1158,9 @@ Miscellaneous
Return a context object which has the same attributes as the
:mod:`multiprocessing` module.
- If *method* is ``None`` then the default context is returned.
+ If *method* is ``None`` then the default context is returned. Note that if
+ the global start method has not been set, this will set it to the system default
+ See :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
Otherwise *method* should be ``'fork'``, ``'spawn'``,
``'forkserver'``. :exc:`ValueError` is raised if the specified
start method is not available. See :ref:`multiprocessing-start-methods`.
@@ -1076,10 +1171,9 @@ Miscellaneous
Return the name of start method used for starting processes.
- If the start method has not been fixed and *allow_none* is false,
- then the start method is fixed to the default and the name is
- returned. If the start method has not been fixed and *allow_none*
- is true then ``None`` is returned.
+ If the global start method is not set and *allow_none* is ``False``, the global start
+ method is set to the default, and its name is returned. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
The return value can be ``'fork'``, ``'spawn'``, ``'forkserver'``
or ``None``. See :ref:`multiprocessing-start-methods`.
@@ -1096,7 +1190,7 @@ Miscellaneous
Set the path of the Python interpreter to use when starting a child process.
(By default :data:`sys.executable` is used). Embedders will probably need to
- do some thing like ::
+ do something like ::
set_executable(os.path.join(sys.exec_prefix, 'pythonw.exe'))
@@ -1199,12 +1293,12 @@ Connection objects are usually created using
Note that multiple connection objects may be polled at once by
using :func:`multiprocessing.connection.wait`.
- .. method:: send_bytes(buffer[, offset[, size]])
+ .. method:: send_bytes(buf[, offset[, size]])
Send byte data from a :term:`bytes-like object` as a complete message.
- If *offset* is given then data is read from that position in *buffer*. If
- *size* is given then that many bytes will be read from buffer. Very large
+ If *offset* is given then data is read from that position in *buf*. If
+ *size* is given then that many bytes will be read from *buf*. Very large
buffers (approximately 32 MiB+, though it depends on the OS) may raise a
:exc:`ValueError` exception
@@ -1224,18 +1318,18 @@ Connection objects are usually created using
alias of :exc:`OSError`.
- .. method:: recv_bytes_into(buffer[, offset])
+ .. method:: recv_bytes_into(buf[, offset])
- Read into *buffer* a complete message of byte data sent from the other end
+ Read into *buf* a complete message of byte data sent from the other end
of the connection and return the number of bytes in the message. Blocks
until there is something to receive. Raises
:exc:`EOFError` if there is nothing left to receive and the other end was
closed.
- *buffer* must be a writable :term:`bytes-like object`. If
+ *buf* must be a writable :term:`bytes-like object`. If
*offset* is given then the message will be written into the buffer from
that position. Offset must be a non-negative integer less than the
- length of *buffer* (in bytes).
+ length of *buf* (in bytes).
If the buffer is too short then a :exc:`BufferTooShort` exception is
raised and the complete message is available as ``e.args[0]`` where ``e``
@@ -1306,6 +1400,9 @@ object -- see :ref:`multiprocessing-managers`.
A barrier object: a clone of :class:`threading.Barrier`.
+ Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. class:: BoundedSemaphore([value])
@@ -1313,6 +1410,9 @@ object -- see :ref:`multiprocessing-managers`.
A bounded semaphore object: a close analog of
:class:`threading.BoundedSemaphore`.
+ Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
+
A solitary difference from its close analog exists: its ``acquire`` method's
first argument is named *block*, as is consistent with :meth:`Lock.acquire`.
@@ -1327,6 +1427,9 @@ object -- see :ref:`multiprocessing-managers`.
If *lock* is specified then it should be a :class:`Lock` or :class:`RLock`
object from :mod:`multiprocessing`.
+ Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
The :meth:`~threading.Condition.wait_for` method was added.
@@ -1334,6 +1437,8 @@ object -- see :ref:`multiprocessing-managers`.
A clone of :class:`threading.Event`.
+ Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
.. class:: Lock()
@@ -1349,6 +1454,9 @@ object -- see :ref:`multiprocessing-managers`.
instance of ``multiprocessing.synchronize.Lock`` initialized with a
default context.
+ Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
+
:class:`Lock` supports the :term:`context manager` protocol and thus may be
used in :keyword:`with` statements.
@@ -1399,6 +1507,9 @@ object -- see :ref:`multiprocessing-managers`.
instance of ``multiprocessing.synchronize.RLock`` initialized with a
default context.
+ Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
+
:class:`RLock` supports the :term:`context manager` protocol and thus may be
used in :keyword:`with` statements.
@@ -1451,6 +1562,9 @@ object -- see :ref:`multiprocessing-managers`.
A semaphore object: a close analog of :class:`threading.Semaphore`.
+ Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
+
A solitary difference from its close analog exists: its ``acquire`` method's
first argument is named *block*, as is consistent with :meth:`Lock.acquire`.
@@ -1459,17 +1573,6 @@ object -- see :ref:`multiprocessing-managers`.
On macOS, ``sem_timedwait`` is unsupported, so calling ``acquire()`` with
a timeout will emulate that function's behavior using a sleeping loop.
-.. note::
-
- If the SIGINT signal generated by :kbd:`Ctrl-C` arrives while the main thread is
- blocked by a call to :meth:`BoundedSemaphore.acquire`, :meth:`Lock.acquire`,
- :meth:`RLock.acquire`, :meth:`Semaphore.acquire`, :meth:`Condition.acquire`
- or :meth:`Condition.wait` then the call will be immediately interrupted and
- :exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` will be raised.
-
- This differs from the behaviour of :mod:`threading` where SIGINT will be
- ignored while the equivalent blocking calls are in progress.
-
.. note::
Some of this package's functionality requires a functioning shared semaphore
@@ -1522,11 +1625,14 @@ inherited by child processes.
value is actually a synchronized wrapper for the array.
*typecode_or_type* determines the type of the elements of the returned array:
- it is either a ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind used by
- the :mod:`array` module. If *size_or_initializer* is an integer, then it
- determines the length of the array, and the array will be initially zeroed.
- Otherwise, *size_or_initializer* is a sequence which is used to initialize
- the array and whose length determines the length of the array.
+ it is either a :ref:`ctypes type <ctypes-fundamental-data-types>` or a one
+ character typecode of the kind used by the :mod:`array` module with the
+ exception of ``'w'``, which is not supported. In addition, the ``'c'``
+ typecode is an alias for :class:`ctypes.c_char`. If *size_or_initializer*
+ is an integer, then it determines the length of the array, and the array
+ will be initially zeroed. Otherwise, *size_or_initializer* is a sequence
+ which is used to initialize the array and whose length determines the length
+ of the array.
If *lock* is ``True`` (the default) then a new lock object is created to
synchronize access to the value. If *lock* is a :class:`Lock` or
@@ -1538,7 +1644,10 @@ inherited by child processes.
Note that *lock* is a keyword only argument.
Note that an array of :data:`ctypes.c_char` has *value* and *raw*
- attributes which allow one to use it to store and retrieve strings.
+ attributes which can both be used to store and retrieve byte strings.
+ While *raw* allows interaction with a :class:`bytes` object the full size of
+ the array, reading *value* will terminate after a null byte, like most
+ programming languages handle strings.
The :mod:`multiprocessing.sharedctypes` module
@@ -1590,7 +1699,7 @@ processes.
attributes which allow one to use it to store and retrieve strings -- see
documentation for :mod:`ctypes`.
-.. function:: Array(typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer, *, lock=True)
+.. function:: Array(typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer, *, lock=True, ctx=None)
The same as :func:`RawArray` except that depending on the value of *lock* a
process-safe synchronization wrapper may be returned instead of a raw ctypes
@@ -1604,9 +1713,13 @@ processes.
automatically protected by a lock, so it will not necessarily be
"process-safe".
- Note that *lock* is a keyword-only argument.
+ *ctx* is a context object, or ``None`` (use the current context). If ``None``,
+ calling this may set the global start method. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
-.. function:: Value(typecode_or_type, *args, lock=True)
+ Note that *lock* and *ctx* are keyword-only parameters.
+
+.. function:: Value(typecode_or_type, *args, lock=True, ctx=None)
The same as :func:`RawValue` except that depending on the value of *lock* a
process-safe synchronization wrapper may be returned instead of a raw ctypes
@@ -1619,19 +1732,27 @@ processes.
automatically protected by a lock, so it will not necessarily be
"process-safe".
- Note that *lock* is a keyword-only argument.
+ *ctx* is a context object, or ``None`` (use the current context). If ``None``,
+ calling this may set the global start method. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
+
+ Note that *lock* and *ctx* are keyword-only parameters.
.. function:: copy(obj)
Return a ctypes object allocated from shared memory which is a copy of the
ctypes object *obj*.
-.. function:: synchronized(obj[, lock])
+.. function:: synchronized(obj, lock=None, ctx=None)
Return a process-safe wrapper object for a ctypes object which uses *lock* to
synchronize access. If *lock* is ``None`` (the default) then a
:class:`multiprocessing.RLock` object is created automatically.
+ *ctx* is a context object, or ``None`` (use the current context). If ``None``,
+ calling this may set the global start method. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
+
A synchronized wrapper will have two methods in addition to those of the
object it wraps: :meth:`get_obj` returns the wrapped object and
:meth:`get_lock` returns the lock object used for synchronization.
@@ -1749,8 +1870,9 @@ their parent process exits. The manager classes are defined in the
*serializer* must be ``'pickle'`` (use :mod:`pickle` serialization) or
``'xmlrpclib'`` (use :mod:`xmlrpc.client` serialization).
- *ctx* is a context object, or ``None`` (use the current context). See the
- :func:`get_context` function.
+ *ctx* is a context object, or ``None`` (use the current context). If ``None``,
+ calling this may set the global start method. See
+ :ref:`global-start-method` for more details.
*shutdown_timeout* is a timeout in seconds used to wait until the process
used by the manager completes in the :meth:`shutdown` method. If the
@@ -2234,7 +2356,9 @@ with the :class:`Pool` class.
the worker processes. Usually a pool is created using the
function :func:`multiprocessing.Pool` or the :meth:`Pool` method
of a context object. In both cases *context* is set
- appropriately.
+ appropriately. If ``None``, calling this function will have the side effect
+ of setting the current global start method if it has not been set already.
+ See the :func:`get_context` function.
Note that the methods of the pool object should only be called by
the process which created the pool.
@@ -2265,7 +2389,7 @@ with the :class:`Pool` class.
duration of the Pool's work queue. A frequent pattern found in other
systems (such as Apache, mod_wsgi, etc) to free resources held by
workers is to allow a worker within a pool to complete only a set
- amount of work before being exiting, being cleaned up and a new
+ amount of work before exiting, being cleaned up and a new
process spawned to replace the old one. The *maxtasksperchild*
argument to the :class:`Pool` exposes this ability to the end user.
@@ -2326,7 +2450,7 @@ with the :class:`Pool` class.
.. method:: imap(func, iterable[, chunksize])
- A lazier version of :meth:`.map`.
+ An iterator-based version of :meth:`.map`.
The *chunksize* argument is the same as the one used by the :meth:`.map`
method. For very long iterables using a large value for *chunksize* can
@@ -2483,9 +2607,9 @@ multiple connections at the same time.
generally be omitted since it can usually be inferred from the format of
*address*. (See :ref:`multiprocessing-address-formats`)
- If *authkey* is given and not None, it should be a byte string and will be
+ If *authkey* is given and not ``None``, it should be a byte string and will be
used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication challenge. No
- authentication is done if *authkey* is None.
+ authentication is done if *authkey* is ``None``.
:exc:`~multiprocessing.AuthenticationError` is raised if authentication fails.
See :ref:`multiprocessing-auth-keys`.
@@ -2518,9 +2642,9 @@ multiple connections at the same time.
to the :meth:`~socket.socket.listen` method of the socket once it has been
bound.
- If *authkey* is given and not None, it should be a byte string and will be
+ If *authkey* is given and not ``None``, it should be a byte string and will be
used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication challenge. No
- authentication is done if *authkey* is None.
+ authentication is done if *authkey* is ``None``.
:exc:`~multiprocessing.AuthenticationError` is raised if authentication fails.
See :ref:`multiprocessing-auth-keys`.
@@ -2708,6 +2832,16 @@ between themselves.
Suitable authentication keys can also be generated by using :func:`os.urandom`.
+This authentication protects :class:`Listener` and :func:`Client` connections,
+which are reachable by address. It is not applied to the anonymous pipes
+created by :func:`~multiprocessing.Pipe` or used internally by
+:class:`~multiprocessing.Queue`.
+:mod:`multiprocessing` treats all local processes running as the same user as
+trusted; on most operating systems such processes can access each other's pipe
+file descriptors regardless. Applications that require isolation between
+processes of the same user must arrange it at the operating-system level --
+for example, by running workers under a different user account or in a sandbox.
+
Logging
^^^^^^^
@@ -2958,7 +3092,7 @@ Beware of replacing :data:`sys.stdin` with a "file like object"
resulting in a bad file descriptor error, but introduces a potential danger
to applications which replace :func:`sys.stdin` with a "file-like object"
with output buffering. This danger is that if multiple processes call
- :meth:`~io.IOBase.close()` on this file-like object, it could result in the same
+ :meth:`~io.IOBase.close` on this file-like object, it could result in the same
data being flushed to the object multiple times, resulting in corruption.
If you write a file-like object and implement your own caching, you can
@@ -2975,6 +3109,9 @@ Beware of replacing :data:`sys.stdin` with a "file like object"
For more information, see :issue:`5155`, :issue:`5313` and :issue:`5331`
+.. _multiprocessing-programming-spawn:
+.. _multiprocessing-programming-forkserver:
+
The *spawn* and *forkserver* start methods
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
@@ -2983,10 +3120,10 @@ start method.
More picklability
- Ensure that all arguments to :meth:`Process.__init__` are picklable.
- Also, if you subclass :class:`~multiprocessing.Process` then make sure that
- instances will be picklable when the :meth:`Process.start
- <multiprocessing.Process.start>` method is called.
+ Ensure that all arguments to :class:`~multiprocessing.Process` are
+ picklable. Also, if you subclass ``Process.__init__``, you must make sure
+ that instances will be picklable when the
+ :meth:`Process.start <multiprocessing.Process.start>` method is called.
Global variables
diff --git a/Doc/library/multiprocessing.shared_memory.rst b/Doc/library/multiprocessing.shared_memory.rst
index 933fd07d62418a8..e8f04a6ac7b95db 100644
--- a/Doc/library/multiprocessing.shared_memory.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/multiprocessing.shared_memory.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`multiprocessing.shared_memory` --- Shared memory for direct access across processes
-=========================================================================================
+:mod:`!multiprocessing.shared_memory` --- Shared memory for direct access across processes
+==========================================================================================
.. module:: multiprocessing.shared_memory
:synopsis: Provides shared memory for direct access across processes.
diff --git a/Doc/library/netrc.rst b/Doc/library/netrc.rst
index c36e5cfecfc6a8a..74c97e8c9a97598 100644
--- a/Doc/library/netrc.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/netrc.rst
@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
-
-:mod:`netrc` --- netrc file processing
-======================================
+:mod:`!netrc` --- netrc file processing
+=======================================
.. module:: netrc
:synopsis: Loading of .netrc files.
@@ -25,12 +24,14 @@ the Unix :program:`ftp` program and other FTP clients.
a :exc:`FileNotFoundError` exception will be raised.
Parse errors will raise :exc:`NetrcParseError` with diagnostic
information including the file name, line number, and terminating token.
+
If no argument is specified on a POSIX system, the presence of passwords in
the :file:`.netrc` file will raise a :exc:`NetrcParseError` if the file
ownership or permissions are insecure (owned by a user other than the user
running the process, or accessible for read or write by any other user).
This implements security behavior equivalent to that of ftp and other
- programs that use :file:`.netrc`.
+ programs that use :file:`.netrc`. Such security checks are not available
+ on platforms that do not support :func:`os.getuid`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4 Added the POSIX permission check.
diff --git a/Doc/library/nis.rst b/Doc/library/nis.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..dcc36dd43fc313a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/nis.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+:mod:`!nis` --- Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)
+=====================================================
+
+.. module:: nis
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!nis` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/nis.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/nntplib.rst b/Doc/library/nntplib.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..8053fe8cb8b9e12
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/nntplib.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+:mod:`!nntplib` --- NNTP protocol client
+========================================
+
+.. module:: nntplib
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!nntplib` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/nntplib.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/numbers.rst b/Doc/library/numbers.rst
index 306bdd94aaca130..0ed24b4e6c5225d 100644
--- a/Doc/library/numbers.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/numbers.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`numbers` --- Numeric abstract base classes
-================================================
+:mod:`!numbers` --- Numeric abstract base classes
+=================================================
.. module:: numbers
:synopsis: Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.).
@@ -38,7 +38,8 @@ The numeric tower
Abstract. Retrieves the imaginary component of this number.
- .. abstractmethod:: conjugate()
+ .. method:: conjugate()
+ :abstractmethod:
Abstract. Returns the complex conjugate. For example, ``(1+3j).conjugate()
== (1-3j)``.
@@ -68,11 +69,11 @@ The numeric tower
.. attribute:: numerator
- Abstract.
+ Abstract. The numerator of this rational number.
.. attribute:: denominator
- Abstract.
+ Abstract. The denominator of this rational number.
.. class:: Integral
@@ -84,25 +85,12 @@ The numeric tower
``~``.
-Notes for type implementors
+Notes for type implementers
---------------------------
-Implementors should be careful to make equal numbers equal and hash
+Implementers should be careful to make equal numbers equal and hash
them to the same values. This may be subtle if there are two different
-extensions of the real numbers. For example, :class:`fractions.Fraction`
-implements :func:`hash` as follows::
-
- def __hash__(self):
- if self.denominator == 1:
- # Get integers right.
- return hash(self.numerator)
- # Expensive check, but definitely correct.
- if self == float(self):
- return hash(float(self))
- else:
- # Use tuple's hash to avoid a high collision rate on
- # simple fractions.
- return hash((self.numerator, self.denominator))
+extensions of the real numbers. See also :ref:`numeric-hash`.
Adding More Numeric ABCs
diff --git a/Doc/library/operator.rst b/Doc/library/operator.rst
index 96f2c287875d412..9f291309a752c83 100644
--- a/Doc/library/operator.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/operator.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`operator` --- Standard operators as functions
-===================================================
+:mod:`!operator` --- Standard operators as functions
+====================================================
.. module:: operator
:synopsis: Functions corresponding to the standard operators.
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ The mathematical and bitwise operations are the most numerous:
.. function:: and_(a, b)
__and__(a, b)
- Return the bitwise and of *a* and *b*.
+ Return ``a & b``.
.. function:: floordiv(a, b)
@@ -122,13 +122,13 @@ The mathematical and bitwise operations are the most numerous:
__inv__(obj)
__invert__(obj)
- Return the bitwise inverse of the number *obj*. This is equivalent to ``~obj``.
+ Return ``~obj``.
.. function:: lshift(a, b)
__lshift__(a, b)
- Return *a* shifted left by *b*.
+ Return ``a << b``.
.. function:: mod(a, b)
@@ -140,7 +140,7 @@ The mathematical and bitwise operations are the most numerous:
.. function:: mul(a, b)
__mul__(a, b)
- Return ``a * b``, for *a* and *b* numbers.
+ Return ``a * b``.
.. function:: matmul(a, b)
@@ -160,25 +160,25 @@ The mathematical and bitwise operations are the most numerous:
.. function:: or_(a, b)
__or__(a, b)
- Return the bitwise or of *a* and *b*.
+ Return ``a | b``.
.. function:: pos(obj)
__pos__(obj)
- Return *obj* positive (``+obj``).
+ Return ``+obj``.
.. function:: pow(a, b)
__pow__(a, b)
- Return ``a ** b``, for *a* and *b* numbers.
+ Return ``a ** b``.
.. function:: rshift(a, b)
__rshift__(a, b)
- Return *a* shifted right by *b*.
+ Return ``a >> b``.
.. function:: sub(a, b)
@@ -197,7 +197,7 @@ The mathematical and bitwise operations are the most numerous:
.. function:: xor(a, b)
__xor__(a, b)
- Return the bitwise exclusive or of *a* and *b*.
+ Return ``a ^ b``.
Operations which work with sequences (some of them with mappings too) include:
@@ -391,13 +391,18 @@ Python syntax and the functions in the :mod:`operator` module.
+-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
| Division | ``a // b`` | ``floordiv(a, b)`` |
+-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
-| Bitwise And | ``a & b`` | ``and_(a, b)`` |
+| Bitwise And, or | ``a & b`` | ``and_(a, b)`` |
+| Intersection | | |
+-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
-| Bitwise Exclusive Or | ``a ^ b`` | ``xor(a, b)`` |
+| Bitwise Exclusive Or, | ``a ^ b`` | ``xor(a, b)`` |
+| or Symmetric | | |
+| Difference | | |
+-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
-| Bitwise Inversion | ``~ a`` | ``invert(a)`` |
+| Bitwise Inversion, or | ``~ a`` | ``invert(a)`` |
+| Complement | | |
+-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
-| Bitwise Or | ``a | b`` | ``or_(a, b)`` |
+| Bitwise Or, or | ``a | b`` | ``or_(a, b)`` |
+| Union | | |
+-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
| Exponentiation | ``a ** b`` | ``pow(a, b)`` |
+-----------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------+
diff --git a/Doc/library/optparse.rst b/Doc/library/optparse.rst
index 015e83ed2ce5f77..ff327cf9162a8cc 100644
--- a/Doc/library/optparse.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/optparse.rst
@@ -1,27 +1,137 @@
-:mod:`optparse` --- Parser for command line options
-===================================================
+:mod:`!optparse` --- Parser for command line options
+====================================================
.. module:: optparse
:synopsis: Command-line option parsing library.
- :deprecated:
.. moduleauthor:: Greg Ward <gward@python.net>
.. sectionauthor:: Greg Ward <gward@python.net>
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/optparse.py`
-.. deprecated:: 3.2
- The :mod:`optparse` module is :term:`soft deprecated` and will not be
- developed further; development will continue with the :mod:`argparse`
- module.
-
--------------
+.. _choosing-an-argument-parser:
+
+Choosing an argument parsing library
+------------------------------------
+
+The standard library includes three argument parsing libraries:
+
+* :mod:`getopt`: a module that closely mirrors the procedural C ``getopt`` API.
+ Included in the standard library since before the initial Python 1.0 release.
+* :mod:`optparse`: a declarative replacement for ``getopt`` that
+ provides equivalent functionality without requiring each application
+ to implement its own procedural option parsing logic. Included
+ in the standard library since the Python 2.3 release.
+* :mod:`argparse`: a more opinionated alternative to ``optparse`` that
+ provides more functionality by default, at the expense of reduced application
+ flexibility in controlling exactly how arguments are processed. Included in
+ the standard library since the Python 2.7 and Python 3.2 releases.
+
+In the absence of more specific argument parsing design constraints, :mod:`argparse`
+is the recommended choice for implementing command line applications, as it offers
+the highest level of baseline functionality with the least application level code.
+
+:mod:`getopt` is retained almost entirely for backwards compatibility reasons.
+However, it also serves a niche use case as a tool for prototyping and testing
+command line argument handling in ``getopt``-based C applications.
+
+:mod:`optparse` should be considered as an alternative to :mod:`argparse` in the
+following cases:
+
+* an application is already using :mod:`optparse` and doesn't want to risk the
+ subtle behavioural changes that may arise when migrating to :mod:`argparse`
+* the application requires additional control over the way options and
+ positional parameters are interleaved on the command line (including
+ the ability to disable the interleaving feature completely)
+* the application requires additional control over the incremental parsing
+ of command line elements (while ``argparse`` does support this, the
+ exact way it works in practice is undesirable for some use cases)
+* the application requires additional control over the handling of options
+ which accept parameter values that may start with ``-`` (such as delegated
+ options to be passed to invoked subprocesses)
+* the application requires some other command line parameter processing
+ behavior which ``argparse`` does not support, but which can be implemented
+ in terms of the lower level interface offered by ``optparse``
+
+These considerations also mean that :mod:`optparse` is likely to provide a
+better foundation for library authors writing third party command line
+argument processing libraries.
+
+As a concrete example, consider the following two command line argument
+parsing configurations, the first using ``optparse``, and the second
+using ``argparse``:
+
+.. testcode::
+
+ import optparse
+
+ if __name__ == '__main__':
+ parser = optparse.OptionParser()
+ parser.add_option('-o', '--output')
+ parser.add_option('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
+ opts, args = parser.parse_args()
+ process(args, output=opts.output, verbose=opts.verbose)
+
+.. testcode::
+
+ import argparse
+
+ if __name__ == '__main__':
+ parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
+ parser.add_argument('-o', '--output')
+ parser.add_argument('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
+ parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*')
+ args = parser.parse_args()
+ process(args.rest, output=args.output, verbose=args.verbose)
+
+The most obvious difference is that in the ``optparse`` version, the non-option
+arguments are processed separately by the application after the option processing
+is complete. In the ``argparse`` version, positional arguments are declared and
+processed in the same way as the named options.
+
+However, the ``argparse`` version will also handle some parameter combination
+differently from the way the ``optparse`` version would handle them.
+For example (amongst other differences):
+
+* supplying ``-o -v`` gives ``output="-v"`` and ``verbose=False``
+ when using ``optparse``, but a usage error with ``argparse``
+ (complaining that no value has been supplied for ``-o/--output``,
+ since ``-v`` is interpreted as meaning the verbosity flag)
+* similarly, supplying ``-o --`` gives ``output="--"`` and ``args=()``
+ when using ``optparse``, but a usage error with ``argparse``
+ (also complaining that no value has been supplied for ``-o/--output``,
+ since ``--`` is interpreted as terminating the option processing
+ and treating all remaining values as positional arguments)
+* supplying ``-o=foo`` gives ``output="=foo"`` when using ``optparse``,
+ but gives ``output="foo"`` with ``argparse`` (since ``=`` is special
+ cased as an alternative separator for option parameter values)
+
+Whether these differing behaviors in the ``argparse`` version are
+considered desirable or a problem will depend on the specific command line
+application use case.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+ :pypi:`click` is a third party argument processing library (originally
+ based on ``optparse``), which allows command line applications to be
+ developed as a set of decorated command implementation functions.
+
+ Other third party libraries, such as :pypi:`typer` or :pypi:`msgspec-click`,
+ allow command line interfaces to be specified in ways that more effectively
+ integrate with static checking of Python type annotations.
+
+
+Introduction
+------------
+
:mod:`optparse` is a more convenient, flexible, and powerful library for parsing
-command-line options than the old :mod:`getopt` module. :mod:`optparse` uses a
-more declarative style of command-line parsing: you create an instance of
-:class:`OptionParser`, populate it with options, and parse the command
-line. :mod:`optparse` allows users to specify options in the conventional
+command-line options than the minimalist :mod:`getopt` module.
+:mod:`optparse` uses a more declarative style of command-line parsing:
+you create an instance of :class:`OptionParser`,
+populate it with options, and parse the command line.
+:mod:`optparse` allows users to specify options in the conventional
GNU/POSIX syntax, and additionally generates usage and help messages for you.
Here's an example of using :mod:`optparse` in a simple script::
@@ -82,10 +192,11 @@ Background
----------
:mod:`optparse` was explicitly designed to encourage the creation of programs
-with straightforward, conventional command-line interfaces. To that end, it
-supports only the most common command-line syntax and semantics conventionally
-used under Unix. If you are unfamiliar with these conventions, read this
-section to acquaint yourself with them.
+with straightforward command-line interfaces that follow the conventions
+established by the :c:func:`!getopt` family of functions available to C developers.
+To that end, it supports only the most common command-line syntax and semantics
+conventionally used under Unix. If you are unfamiliar with these conventions,
+reading this section will allow you to acquaint yourself with them.
.. _optparse-terminology:
@@ -1352,7 +1463,7 @@ The whole point of creating and populating an OptionParser is to call its
the list of arguments to process (default: ``sys.argv[1:]``)
``values``
- an :class:`Values` object to store option arguments in (default: a
+ a :class:`Values` object to store option arguments in (default: a
new instance of :class:`Values`) -- if you give an existing object, the
option defaults will not be initialized on it
@@ -1739,7 +1850,7 @@ seen, but blow up if it comes after ``-b`` in the command-line. ::
Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-If you want to re-use this callback for several similar options (set a flag, but
+If you want to reuse this callback for several similar options (set a flag, but
blow up if ``-b`` has already been seen), it needs a bit of work: the error
message and the flag that it sets must be generalized. ::
diff --git a/Doc/library/os.path.rst b/Doc/library/os.path.rst
index 24d423eb5fbfed7..14bb3ba96b19c63 100644
--- a/Doc/library/os.path.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/os.path.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`os.path` --- Common pathname manipulations
-================================================
+:mod:`!os.path` --- Common pathname manipulations
+=================================================
.. module:: os.path
:synopsis: Operations on pathnames.
@@ -42,8 +42,8 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
a path that is *always* in one of the different formats. They all have the
same interface:
- * :mod:`posixpath` for UNIX-style paths
- * :mod:`ntpath` for Windows paths
+ * :mod:`!posixpath` for UNIX-style paths
+ * :mod:`!ntpath` for Windows paths
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
@@ -57,14 +57,27 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
.. function:: abspath(path)
Return a normalized absolutized version of the pathname *path*. On most
- platforms, this is equivalent to calling the function :func:`normpath` as
- follows: ``normpath(join(os.getcwd(), path))``.
+ platforms, this is equivalent to calling ``normpath(join(os.getcwd(), path))``.
+
+ On Windows the path is normalized by the operating system,
+ therefore the result can differ from ``normpath(join(os.getcwd(), path))``.
+ A drive-relative path is resolved against the current directory
+ of the specified drive, and the drive letter is capitalized.
+ Trailing dots and spaces are stripped.
+ For example::
+
+ >>> os.path.abspath('c:spam')
+ 'C:\\Temp\\spam'
+ >>> os.path.abspath('c:/temp/spam. . .')
+ 'c:\\temp\\spam'
+
+ .. seealso:: :func:`os.path.join` and :func:`os.path.normpath`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-.. function:: basename(path)
+.. function:: basename(path, /)
Return the base name of pathname *path*. This is the second element of the
pair returned by passing *path* to the function :func:`split`. Note that
@@ -81,7 +94,7 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
Return the longest common sub-path of each pathname in the iterable
*paths*. Raise :exc:`ValueError` if *paths* contain both absolute
- and relative pathnames, the *paths* are on the different drives or
+ and relative pathnames, if *paths* are on different drives, or
if *paths* is empty. Unlike :func:`commonprefix`, this returns a
valid path.
@@ -94,17 +107,19 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
Any iterable can now be passed, rather than just sequences.
-.. function:: commonprefix(list)
+.. function:: commonprefix(list, /)
- Return the longest path prefix (taken character-by-character) that is a
- prefix of all paths in *list*. If *list* is empty, return the empty string
+ Return the longest string prefix (taken character-by-character) that is a
+ prefix of all strings in *list*. If *list* is empty, return the empty string
(``''``).
- .. note::
+ .. warning::
This function may return invalid paths because it works a
- character at a time. To obtain a valid path, see
- :func:`commonpath`.
+ character at a time.
+ If you need a **common path prefix**, then the algorithm
+ implemented in this function is not secure. Use
+ :func:`commonpath` for finding a common path prefix.
::
@@ -118,7 +133,7 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-.. function:: dirname(path)
+.. function:: dirname(path, /)
Return the directory name of pathname *path*. This is the first element of
the pair returned by passing *path* to the function :func:`split`.
@@ -199,16 +214,16 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-.. function:: getatime(path)
+.. function:: getatime(path, /)
- Return the time of last access of *path*. The return value is a floating point number giving
+ Return the time of last access of *path*. The return value is a floating-point number giving
the number of seconds since the epoch (see the :mod:`time` module). Raise
:exc:`OSError` if the file does not exist or is inaccessible.
-.. function:: getmtime(path)
+.. function:: getmtime(path, /)
- Return the time of last modification of *path*. The return value is a floating point number
+ Return the time of last modification of *path*. The return value is a floating-point number
giving the number of seconds since the epoch (see the :mod:`time` module).
Raise :exc:`OSError` if the file does not exist or is inaccessible.
@@ -216,7 +231,7 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-.. function:: getctime(path)
+.. function:: getctime(path, /)
Return the system's ctime which, on some systems (like Unix) is the time of the
last metadata change, and, on others (like Windows), is the creation time for *path*.
@@ -228,7 +243,7 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-.. function:: getsize(path)
+.. function:: getsize(path, /)
Return the size, in bytes, of *path*. Raise :exc:`OSError` if the file does
not exist or is inaccessible.
@@ -237,12 +252,14 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-.. function:: isabs(path)
+.. function:: isabs(path, /)
Return ``True`` if *path* is an absolute pathname. On Unix, that means it
begins with a slash, on Windows that it begins with two (back)slashes, or a
drive letter, colon, and (back)slash together.
+ .. seealso:: :func:`abspath`
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
@@ -261,7 +278,7 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-.. function:: isdir(path)
+.. function:: isdir(path, /)
Return ``True`` if *path* is an :func:`existing <exists>` directory. This
follows symbolic links, so both :func:`islink` and :func:`isdir` can be true
@@ -298,9 +315,10 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
device than *path*, or whether :file:`{path}/..` and *path* point to the same
i-node on the same device --- this should detect mount points for all Unix
and POSIX variants. It is not able to reliably detect bind mounts on the
- same filesystem. On Windows, a drive letter root and a share UNC are
- always mount points, and for any other path ``GetVolumePathName`` is called
- to see if it is different from the input path.
+ same filesystem. On Linux systems, it will always return ``True`` for btrfs
+ subvolumes, even if they aren't mount points. On Windows, a drive letter root
+ and a share UNC are always mount points, and for any other path
+ ``GetVolumePathName`` is called to see if it is different from the input path.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
Added support for detecting non-root mount points on Windows.
@@ -350,20 +368,34 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
.. versionadded:: 3.13
-.. function:: join(path, *paths)
+.. function:: join(path, /, *paths)
Join one or more path segments intelligently. The return value is the
concatenation of *path* and all members of *\*paths*, with exactly one
directory separator following each non-empty part, except the last. That is,
the result will only end in a separator if the last part is either empty or
- ends in a separator. If a segment is an absolute path (which on Windows
- requires both a drive and a root), then all previous segments are ignored and
- joining continues from the absolute path segment.
+ ends in a separator.
+
+ If a segment is an absolute path (which on Windows requires both a drive and
+ a root), then all previous segments are ignored and joining continues from the
+ absolute path segment. On Linux, for example::
+
+ >>> os.path.join('/home/foo', 'bar')
+ '/home/foo/bar'
+ >>> os.path.join('/home/foo', '/home/bar')
+ '/home/bar'
On Windows, the drive is not reset when a rooted path segment (e.g.,
``r'\foo'``) is encountered. If a segment is on a different drive or is an
- absolute path, all previous segments are ignored and the drive is reset. Note
- that since there is a current directory for each drive,
+ absolute path, all previous segments are ignored and the drive is reset. For
+ example::
+
+ >>> os.path.join('c:\\', 'foo')
+ 'c:\\foo'
+ >>> os.path.join('c:\\foo', 'd:\\bar')
+ 'd:\\bar'
+
+ Note that since there is a current directory for each drive,
``os.path.join("c:", "foo")`` represents a path relative to the current
directory on drive :file:`C:` (:file:`c:foo`), not :file:`c:\\foo`.
@@ -371,7 +403,7 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
Accepts a :term:`path-like object` for *path* and *paths*.
-.. function:: normcase(path)
+.. function:: normcase(path, /)
Normalize the case of a pathname. On Windows, convert all characters in the
pathname to lowercase, and also convert forward slashes to backward slashes.
@@ -389,7 +421,7 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
that contains symbolic links. On Windows, it converts forward slashes to
backward slashes. To normalize case, use :func:`normcase`.
- .. note::
+ .. note::
On POSIX systems, in accordance with `IEEE Std 1003.1 2013 Edition; 4.13
Pathname Resolution <https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_13>`_,
if a pathname begins with exactly two slashes, the first component
@@ -401,16 +433,36 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-.. function:: realpath(path, *, strict=False)
+.. function:: realpath(path, /, *, strict=False)
Return the canonical path of the specified filename, eliminating any symbolic
links encountered in the path (if they are supported by the operating
system). On Windows, this function will also resolve MS-DOS (also called 8.3)
style names such as ``C:\\PROGRA~1`` to ``C:\\Program Files``.
+ The returned path uses the case reported by the operating system,
+ which can differ from the case of *path*,
+ in particular the drive letter is capitalized.
+
+ By default, the path is evaluated up to the first component that does not
+ exist, is a symlink loop, or whose evaluation raises :exc:`OSError`.
+ All such components are appended unchanged to the existing part of the path.
+
+ Some errors that are handled this way include "access denied", "not a
+ directory", or "bad argument to internal function". Thus, the
+ resulting path may be missing or inaccessible, may still contain
+ links or loops, and may traverse non-directories.
- If a path doesn't exist or a symlink loop is encountered, and *strict* is
- ``True``, :exc:`OSError` is raised. If *strict* is ``False`` these errors
- are ignored, and so the result might be missing or otherwise inaccessible.
+ This behavior can be modified by keyword arguments:
+
+ If *strict* is ``True``, the first error encountered when evaluating the path is
+ re-raised.
+ In particular, :exc:`FileNotFoundError` is raised if *path* does not exist,
+ or another :exc:`OSError` if it is otherwise inaccessible.
+
+ If *strict* is :py:data:`os.path.ALLOW_MISSING`, errors other than
+ :exc:`FileNotFoundError` are re-raised (as with ``strict=True``).
+ Thus, the returned path will not contain any symbolic links, but the named
+ file and some of its parent directories may be missing.
.. note::
This function emulates the operating system's procedure for making a path
@@ -429,6 +481,15 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
The *strict* parameter was added.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.4
+ The :py:data:`~os.path.ALLOW_MISSING` value for the *strict* parameter
+ was added.
+
+.. data:: ALLOW_MISSING
+
+ Special value used for the *strict* argument in :func:`realpath`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13.4
.. function:: relpath(path, start=os.curdir)
@@ -444,7 +505,7 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-.. function:: samefile(path1, path2)
+.. function:: samefile(path1, path2, /)
Return ``True`` if both pathname arguments refer to the same file or directory.
This is determined by the device number and i-node number and raises an
@@ -471,7 +532,7 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-.. function:: samestat(stat1, stat2)
+.. function:: samestat(stat1, stat2, /)
Return ``True`` if the stat tuples *stat1* and *stat2* refer to the same file.
These structures may have been returned by :func:`os.fstat`,
@@ -481,11 +542,8 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
Added Windows support.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.6
- Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-
-.. function:: split(path)
+.. function:: split(path, /)
Split the pathname *path* into a pair, ``(head, tail)`` where *tail* is the
last pathname component and *head* is everything leading up to that. The
@@ -494,14 +552,14 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
*path* is empty, both *head* and *tail* are empty. Trailing slashes are
stripped from *head* unless it is the root (one or more slashes only). In
all cases, ``join(head, tail)`` returns a path to the same location as *path*
- (but the strings may differ). Also see the functions :func:`dirname` and
- :func:`basename`.
+ (but the strings may differ). Also see the functions :func:`join`,
+ :func:`dirname` and :func:`basename`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-.. function:: splitdrive(path)
+.. function:: splitdrive(path, /)
Split the pathname *path* into a pair ``(drive, tail)`` where *drive* is either
a mount point or the empty string. On systems which do not use drive
@@ -526,7 +584,7 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-.. function:: splitroot(path)
+.. function:: splitroot(path, /)
Split the pathname *path* into a 3-item tuple ``(drive, root, tail)`` where
*drive* is a device name or mount point, *root* is a string of separators
@@ -559,7 +617,7 @@ the :mod:`glob` module.)
.. versionadded:: 3.12
-.. function:: splitext(path)
+.. function:: splitext(path, /)
Split the pathname *path* into a pair ``(root, ext)`` such that ``root + ext ==
path``, and the extension, *ext*, is empty or begins with a period and contains at
diff --git a/Doc/library/os.rst b/Doc/library/os.rst
index 6c92eed9c063f13..c360307252b33b8 100644
--- a/Doc/library/os.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/os.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`os` --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
-=======================================================
+:mod:`!os` --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
+========================================================
.. module:: os
:synopsis: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
@@ -34,8 +34,8 @@ Notes on the availability of these functions:
* On VxWorks, os.popen, os.fork, os.execv and os.spawn*p* are not supported.
-* On WebAssembly platforms, and on iOS, large parts of the :mod:`os` module are
- not available or behave differently. API related to processes (e.g.
+* On WebAssembly platforms, Android and iOS, large parts of the :mod:`os` module are
+ not available or behave differently. APIs related to processes (e.g.
:func:`~os.fork`, :func:`~os.execve`) and resources (e.g. :func:`~os.nice`)
are not available. Others like :func:`~os.getuid` and :func:`~os.getpid` are
emulated or stubs. WebAssembly platforms also lack support for signals (e.g.
@@ -113,8 +113,8 @@ of the UTF-8 encoding:
* Use UTF-8 as the :term:`filesystem encoding <filesystem encoding and error
handler>`.
-* :func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding()` returns ``'utf-8'``.
-* :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding()` returns ``'utf-8'`` (the *do_setlocale*
+* :func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding` returns ``'utf-8'``.
+* :func:`locale.getpreferredencoding` returns ``'utf-8'`` (the *do_setlocale*
argument has no effect).
* :data:`sys.stdin`, :data:`sys.stdout`, and :data:`sys.stderr` all use
UTF-8 as their text encoding, with the ``surrogateescape``
@@ -133,8 +133,8 @@ level APIs also exhibit different default behaviours:
* Command line arguments, environment variables and filenames are decoded
to text using the UTF-8 encoding.
-* :func:`os.fsdecode()` and :func:`os.fsencode()` use the UTF-8 encoding.
-* :func:`open()`, :func:`io.open()`, and :func:`codecs.open()` use the UTF-8
+* :func:`os.fsdecode` and :func:`os.fsencode` use the UTF-8 encoding.
+* :func:`open`, :func:`io.open`, and :func:`codecs.open` use the UTF-8
encoding by default. However, they still use the strict error handler by
default so that attempting to open a binary file in text mode is likely
to raise an exception rather than producing nonsense data.
@@ -299,7 +299,8 @@ process and user.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
- .. abstractmethod:: __fspath__()
+ .. method:: __fspath__()
+ :abstractmethod:
Return the file system path representation of the object.
@@ -509,7 +510,7 @@ process and user.
Return a tuple (ruid, euid, suid) denoting the current process's
real, effective, and saved user ids.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not macOS, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
@@ -519,7 +520,7 @@ process and user.
Return a tuple (rgid, egid, sgid) denoting the current process's
real, effective, and saved group ids.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not macOS, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
@@ -538,11 +539,11 @@ process and user.
.. function:: initgroups(username, gid, /)
- Call the system initgroups() to initialize the group access list with all of
+ Call the system ``initgroups()`` to initialize the group access list with all of
the groups of which the specified username is a member, plus the specified
group id.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
@@ -576,21 +577,21 @@ process and user.
Set the current process's effective group id.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. function:: seteuid(euid, /)
Set the current process's effective user id.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. function:: setgid(gid, /)
Set the current process' group id.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. function:: setgroups(groups, /)
@@ -684,14 +685,14 @@ process and user.
Set the current process's real and effective group ids.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. function:: setresgid(rgid, egid, sgid, /)
Set the current process's real, effective, and saved group ids.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not macOS, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
@@ -700,7 +701,7 @@ process and user.
Set the current process's real, effective, and saved user ids.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not macOS, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
@@ -709,7 +710,7 @@ process and user.
Set the current process's real and effective user ids.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. function:: getsid(pid, /)
@@ -732,7 +733,7 @@ process and user.
Set the current process's user id.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. placed in this section since it relates to errno.... a little weak
@@ -766,28 +767,18 @@ process and user.
single: gethostbyaddr() (in module socket)
Returns information identifying the current operating system.
- The return value is an object with five attributes:
-
- * :attr:`sysname` - operating system name
- * :attr:`nodename` - name of machine on network (implementation-defined)
- * :attr:`release` - operating system release
- * :attr:`version` - operating system version
- * :attr:`machine` - hardware identifier
+ The return value is a :class:`uname_result`.
- For backwards compatibility, this object is also iterable, behaving
- like a five-tuple containing :attr:`sysname`, :attr:`nodename`,
- :attr:`release`, :attr:`version`, and :attr:`machine`
- in that order.
+ On macOS, iOS and Android, this returns the *kernel* name and release (i.e.,
+ ``'Darwin'`` on macOS and iOS; ``'Linux'`` on Android). :func:`platform.uname`
+ can be used to get the user-facing operating system name and release on iOS and
+ Android.
- Some systems truncate :attr:`nodename` to 8 characters or to the
- leading component; a better way to get the hostname is
- :func:`socket.gethostname` or even
- ``socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname())``.
+ .. seealso::
+ :data:`sys.platform` which has finer granularity.
- On macOS, iOS and Android, this returns the *kernel* name and version (i.e.,
- ``'Darwin'`` on macOS and iOS; ``'Linux'`` on Android). :func:`platform.uname()`
- can be used to get the user-facing operating system name and version on iOS and
- Android.
+ The :mod:`platform` module provides detailed checks for the
+ system's identity.
.. availability:: Unix.
@@ -796,6 +787,41 @@ process and user.
with named attributes.
+.. class:: uname_result
+
+ Name and information about the system returned by :func:`os.uname`.
+ These attributes correspond to the members described in :manpage:`uname(2)`.
+
+ For backwards compatibility, this object is also iterable, behaving
+ like a five-tuple containing :attr:`~uname_result.sysname`,
+ :attr:`~uname_result.nodename`, :attr:`~uname_result.release`,
+ :attr:`~uname_result.version`, and :attr:`~uname_result.machine`
+ in that order.
+
+ .. attribute:: sysname
+
+ Operating system name.
+
+ .. attribute:: nodename
+
+ Name of machine on network. Some systems truncate
+ :attr:`~uname_result.nodename` to 8 characters or to the leading
+ component; a better way to get the hostname is :func:`socket.gethostname`
+ or even ``socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname())``.
+
+ .. attribute:: release
+
+ Operating system release.
+
+ .. attribute:: version
+
+ Operating system version.
+
+ .. attribute:: machine
+
+ Hardware identifier.
+
+
.. function:: unsetenv(key, /)
.. index:: single: environment variables; deleting
@@ -923,7 +949,7 @@ as internal buffering of data.
Copy *count* bytes from file descriptor *src*, starting from offset
*offset_src*, to file descriptor *dst*, starting from offset *offset_dst*.
- If *offset_src* is None, then *src* is read from the current position;
+ If *offset_src* is ``None``, then *src* is read from the current position;
respectively for *offset_dst*.
In Linux kernel older than 5.3, the files pointed to by *src* and *dst*
@@ -1035,10 +1061,7 @@ as internal buffering of data.
Force write of file with filedescriptor *fd* to disk. Does not force update of
metadata.
- .. availability:: Unix.
-
- .. note::
- This function is not available on MacOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not macOS, not iOS.
.. function:: fpathconf(fd, name, /)
@@ -1076,8 +1099,8 @@ as internal buffering of data.
.. function:: fstatvfs(fd, /)
Return information about the filesystem containing the file associated with
- file descriptor *fd*, like :func:`statvfs`. As of Python 3.3, this is
- equivalent to ``os.statvfs(fd)``.
+ file descriptor *fd* in a :class:`statvfs_result`, like :func:`statvfs`.
+ As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ``os.statvfs(fd)``.
.. availability:: Unix.
@@ -1270,8 +1293,8 @@ as internal buffering of data.
This function is intended for low-level I/O. For normal usage, use the
built-in function :func:`open`, which returns a :term:`file object` with
- :meth:`~file.read` and :meth:`~file.write` methods (and many more). To
- wrap a file descriptor in a file object, use :func:`fdopen`.
+ :meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.read` and :meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.write` methods.
+ To wrap a file descriptor in a file object, use :func:`fdopen`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
Added the *dir_fd* parameter.
@@ -1390,7 +1413,7 @@ or `the MSDN <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx>`_ on Windo
Return a pair of file descriptors ``(r, w)`` usable for reading and writing,
respectively.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not macOS, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -1400,7 +1423,7 @@ or `the MSDN <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx>`_ on Windo
Ensures that enough disk space is allocated for the file specified by *fd*
starting from *offset* and continuing for *len* bytes.
- .. availability:: Unix.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not macOS, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -1415,7 +1438,7 @@ or `the MSDN <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx>`_ on Windo
:data:`POSIX_FADV_RANDOM`, :data:`POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE`,
:data:`POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED` or :data:`POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED`.
- .. availability:: Unix.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not macOS, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -1551,7 +1574,7 @@ or `the MSDN <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx>`_ on Windo
.. function:: pwritev(fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)
- Write the *buffers* contents to file descriptor *fd* at a offset *offset*,
+ Write the *buffers* contents to file descriptor *fd* at an offset *offset*,
leaving the file offset unchanged. *buffers* must be a sequence of
:term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`. Buffers are processed in
array order. Entire contents of the first buffer is written before
@@ -1625,7 +1648,7 @@ or `the MSDN <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx>`_ on Windo
descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open` or :func:`pipe`. To read a
"file object" returned by the built-in function :func:`open` or by
:func:`popen` or :func:`fdopen`, or :data:`sys.stdin`, use its
- :meth:`~file.read` or :meth:`~file.readline` methods.
+ :meth:`~io.TextIOBase.read` or :meth:`~io.IOBase.readline` methods.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
@@ -1718,7 +1741,7 @@ or `the MSDN <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx>`_ on Windo
Transfer *count* bytes from file descriptor *src*, starting from offset
*offset_src*, to file descriptor *dst*, starting from offset *offset_dst*.
At least one of the file descriptors must refer to a pipe. If *offset_src*
- is None, then *src* is read from the current position; respectively for
+ is ``None``, then *src* is read from the current position; respectively for
*offset_dst*. The offset associated to the file descriptor that refers to a
pipe must be ``None``. The files pointed to by *src* and *dst* must reside in
the same filesystem, otherwise an :exc:`OSError` is raised with
@@ -1814,7 +1837,7 @@ or `the MSDN <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx>`_ on Windo
descriptor as returned by :func:`os.open` or :func:`pipe`. To write a "file
object" returned by the built-in function :func:`open` or by :func:`popen` or
:func:`fdopen`, or :data:`sys.stdout` or :data:`sys.stderr`, use its
- :meth:`~file.write` method.
+ :meth:`~io.TextIOBase.write` method.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
@@ -1888,7 +1911,8 @@ can be inherited by child processes. Since Python 3.4, file descriptors
created by Python are non-inheritable by default.
On UNIX, non-inheritable file descriptors are closed in child processes at the
-execution of a new program, other file descriptors are inherited.
+execution of a new program, other file descriptors are inherited. Note that
+non-inheritable file descriptors are still *inherited* by child processes on :func:`os.fork`.
On Windows, non-inheritable handles and file descriptors are closed in child
processes, except for standard streams (file descriptors 0, 1 and 2: stdin, stdout
@@ -1936,8 +1960,8 @@ features:
must be a string specifying a file path. However, some functions now
alternatively accept an open file descriptor for their *path* argument.
The function will then operate on the file referred to by the descriptor.
- (For POSIX systems, Python will call the variant of the function prefixed
- with ``f`` (e.g. call ``fchdir`` instead of ``chdir``).)
+ For POSIX systems, Python will call the variant of the function prefixed
+ with ``f`` (e.g. call ``fchdir`` instead of ``chdir``).
You can check whether or not *path* can be specified as a file descriptor
for a particular function on your platform using :data:`os.supports_fd`.
@@ -1952,7 +1976,7 @@ features:
* **paths relative to directory descriptors:** If *dir_fd* is not ``None``, it
should be a file descriptor referring to a directory, and the path to operate
on should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory. If the
- path is absolute, *dir_fd* is ignored. (For POSIX systems, Python will call
+ path is absolute, *dir_fd* is ignored. For POSIX systems, Python will call
the variant of the function with an ``at`` suffix and possibly prefixed with
``f`` (e.g. call ``faccessat`` instead of ``access``).
@@ -1965,8 +1989,8 @@ features:
* **not following symlinks:** If *follow_symlinks* is
``False``, and the last element of the path to operate on is a symbolic link,
the function will operate on the symbolic link itself rather than the file
- pointed to by the link. (For POSIX systems, Python will call the ``l...``
- variant of the function.)
+ pointed to by the link. For POSIX systems, Python will call the ``l...``
+ variant of the function.
You can check whether or not *follow_symlinks* is supported for a particular
function on your platform using :data:`os.supports_follow_symlinks`.
@@ -2054,6 +2078,11 @@ features:
.. audit-event:: os.chdir path os.chdir
+ .. seealso::
+
+ The :func:`contextlib.chdir` context manager, which changes the current
+ working directory on entering and restores the previous one on exit.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
Added support for specifying *path* as a file descriptor
on some platforms.
@@ -2178,7 +2207,7 @@ features:
Change the root directory of the current process to *path*.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
@@ -2830,7 +2859,7 @@ features:
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Added support for the :term:`context manager` protocol and the
- :func:`~scandir.close()` method. If a :func:`scandir` iterator is neither
+ :func:`~scandir.close` method. If a :func:`scandir` iterator is neither
exhausted nor explicitly closed a :exc:`ResourceWarning` will be emitted
in its destructor.
@@ -2862,6 +2891,9 @@ features:
To be directly usable as a :term:`path-like object`, ``os.DirEntry``
implements the :class:`PathLike` interface.
+ :class:`!DirEntry` objects are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the type of the
+ path (:class:`str` or :class:`bytes`).
+
Attributes and methods on a ``os.DirEntry`` instance are as follows:
.. attribute:: name
@@ -2875,10 +2907,16 @@ features:
.. attribute:: path
- The entry's full path name: equivalent to ``os.path.join(scandir_path,
- entry.name)`` where *scandir_path* is the :func:`scandir` *path*
- argument. The path is only absolute if the :func:`scandir` *path*
- argument was absolute. If the :func:`scandir` *path*
+ The entry's path name: equivalent to ``os.path.join(scandir_path,
+ entry.name)`` where *scandir_path* is the original :func:`scandir`
+ *path* argument. Apart from the filename, the path preserves the
+ original :func:`scandir` argument. If the :func:`scandir` *path*
+ argument was relative, the :attr:`path` attribute is also relative.
+ Changing the current working directory after creating the
+ :func:`scandir` iterator may cause later uses of :attr:`path` to resolve
+ differently. On some platforms, the constructed path may not be valid
+ if the original :func:`scandir` argument was usable for enumeration but
+ not for joining with the entry name. If the :func:`scandir` *path*
argument was a :ref:`file descriptor <path_fd>`, the :attr:`path`
attribute is the same as the :attr:`name` attribute.
@@ -3296,48 +3334,174 @@ features:
.. function:: statvfs(path)
- Perform a :c:func:`!statvfs` system call on the given path. The return value is
- an object whose attributes describe the filesystem on the given path, and
- correspond to the members of the :c:struct:`statvfs` structure, namely:
- :attr:`f_bsize`, :attr:`f_frsize`, :attr:`f_blocks`, :attr:`f_bfree`,
- :attr:`f_bavail`, :attr:`f_files`, :attr:`f_ffree`, :attr:`f_favail`,
- :attr:`f_flag`, :attr:`f_namemax`, :attr:`f_fsid`.
-
- Two module-level constants are defined for the :attr:`f_flag` attribute's
- bit-flags: if :const:`ST_RDONLY` is set, the filesystem is mounted
- read-only, and if :const:`ST_NOSUID` is set, the semantics of
- setuid/setgid bits are disabled or not supported.
-
- Additional module-level constants are defined for GNU/glibc based systems.
- These are :const:`ST_NODEV` (disallow access to device special files),
- :const:`ST_NOEXEC` (disallow program execution), :const:`ST_SYNCHRONOUS`
- (writes are synced at once), :const:`ST_MANDLOCK` (allow mandatory locks on an FS),
- :const:`ST_WRITE` (write on file/directory/symlink), :const:`ST_APPEND`
- (append-only file), :const:`ST_IMMUTABLE` (immutable file), :const:`ST_NOATIME`
- (do not update access times), :const:`ST_NODIRATIME` (do not update directory access
- times), :const:`ST_RELATIME` (update atime relative to mtime/ctime).
+ Perform a :manpage:`statvfs(3)` system call on the given path. The return value
+ is a :class:`statvfs_result` whose attributes describe the filesystem
+ on the given path and correspond to the members of the :c:struct:`statvfs`
+ structure.
This function can support :ref:`specifying a file descriptor <path_fd>`.
.. availability:: Unix.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.2
- The :const:`ST_RDONLY` and :const:`ST_NOSUID` constants were added.
-
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
Added support for specifying *path* as an open file descriptor.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.4
- The :const:`ST_NODEV`, :const:`ST_NOEXEC`, :const:`ST_SYNCHRONOUS`,
- :const:`ST_MANDLOCK`, :const:`ST_WRITE`, :const:`ST_APPEND`,
- :const:`ST_IMMUTABLE`, :const:`ST_NOATIME`, :const:`ST_NODIRATIME`,
- and :const:`ST_RELATIME` constants were added.
-
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
Accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.7
- Added the :attr:`f_fsid` attribute.
+
+.. class:: statvfs_result
+
+ Filesystem statistics returned by :func:`os.statvfs` and :func:`os.fstatvfs`.
+ See :manpage:`statvfs(3)` for more details.
+
+ .. attribute:: f_bsize
+
+ Block size.
+
+ .. attribute:: f_frsize
+
+ Fragment size.
+
+ .. attribute:: f_blocks
+
+ Number of :attr:`~statvfs_result.f_frsize` sized blocks the filesystem
+ can contain.
+
+ .. attribute:: f_bfree
+
+ Number of free blocks.
+
+ .. attribute:: f_bavail
+
+ Number of free blocks for unprivileged users.
+
+ .. attribute:: f_files
+
+ Number of file entries, inodes, the filesystem can contain.
+
+ .. attribute:: f_ffree
+
+ Number of free files entries.
+
+ .. attribute:: f_favail
+
+ Number of free file entries for unprivileged users.
+
+ .. attribute:: f_flag
+
+ Bit-mask of mount flags. The following flags are defined:
+ :data:`ST_RDONLY`, :data:`ST_NOSUID`, :data:`ST_NODEV`,
+ :data:`ST_NOEXEC`, :data:`ST_SYNCHRONOUS`, :data:`ST_MANDLOCK`,
+ :data:`ST_WRITE`, :data:`ST_APPEND`, :data:`ST_IMMUTABLE`,
+ :data:`ST_NOATIME`, :data:`ST_NODIRATIME`, and :data:`ST_RELATIME`.
+
+ .. attribute:: f_namemax
+
+ Filesystem max filename length. OS specific limitations such as
+ :ref:`Windows MAX_PATH <max-path>` and those described in Linux
+ :manpage:`pathname(7)` may exist.
+
+ .. attribute:: f_fsid
+
+ Filesystem ID.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.7
+
+
+The following flags are used in :attr:`statvfs_result.f_flag`.
+
+.. data:: ST_RDONLY
+
+ Read-only filesystem.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. data:: ST_NOSUID
+
+ Setuid/setgid bits are disabled or not supported.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
+
+.. data:: ST_NODEV
+
+ Disallow access to device special files.
+
+ .. availability:: Linux.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: ST_NOEXEC
+
+ Disallow program execution.
+
+ .. availability:: Linux.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: ST_SYNCHRONOUS
+
+ Writes are synced at once.
+
+ .. availability:: Linux.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: ST_MANDLOCK
+
+ Allow mandatory locks on an FS.
+
+ .. availability:: Linux.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: ST_WRITE
+
+ Write on file/directory/symlink.
+
+ .. availability:: Linux.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: ST_APPEND
+
+ Append-only file.
+
+ .. availability:: Linux.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: ST_IMMUTABLE
+
+ Immutable file.
+
+ .. availability:: Linux.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: ST_NOATIME
+
+ Do not update access times.
+
+ .. availability:: Linux.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: ST_NODIRATIME
+
+ Do not update directory access times.
+
+ .. availability:: Linux.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. data:: ST_RELATIME
+
+ Update atime relative to mtime/ctime.
+
+ .. availability:: Linux.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
.. data:: supports_dir_fd
@@ -3431,6 +3595,9 @@ features:
Create a symbolic link pointing to *src* named *dst*.
+ The *src* parameter refers to the target of the link (the file or directory being linked to),
+ and *dst* is the name of the link being created.
+
On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and does not
morph to the target dynamically. If the target is present, the type of the
symlink will be created to match. Otherwise, the symlink will be created
@@ -3620,16 +3787,16 @@ features:
This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory files in each
directory under the starting directory, except that it doesn't look under any
- CVS subdirectory::
+ ``__pycache__`` subdirectory::
import os
from os.path import join, getsize
- for root, dirs, files in os.walk('python/Lib/email'):
+ for root, dirs, files in os.walk('python/Lib/xml'):
print(root, "consumes", end=" ")
print(sum(getsize(join(root, name)) for name in files), end=" ")
print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
- if 'CVS' in dirs:
- dirs.remove('CVS') # don't visit CVS directories
+ if '__pycache__' in dirs:
+ dirs.remove('__pycache__') # don't visit __pycache__ directories
In the next example (simple implementation of :func:`shutil.rmtree`),
walking the tree bottom-up is essential, :func:`rmdir` doesn't allow
@@ -3645,6 +3812,7 @@ features:
os.remove(os.path.join(root, name))
for name in dirs:
os.rmdir(os.path.join(root, name))
+ os.rmdir(top)
.. audit-event:: os.walk top,topdown,onerror,followlinks os.walk
@@ -3681,16 +3849,16 @@ features:
This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory files in each
directory under the starting directory, except that it doesn't look under any
- CVS subdirectory::
+ ``__pycache__`` subdirectory::
import os
- for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk('python/Lib/email'):
- print(root, "consumes", end="")
+ for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk('python/Lib/xml'):
+ print(root, "consumes", end=" ")
print(sum([os.stat(name, dir_fd=rootfd).st_size for name in files]),
- end="")
+ end=" ")
print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
- if 'CVS' in dirs:
- dirs.remove('CVS') # don't visit CVS directories
+ if '__pycache__' in dirs:
+ dirs.remove('__pycache__') # don't visit __pycache__ directories
In the next example, walking the tree bottom-up is essential:
:func:`rmdir` doesn't allow deleting a directory before the directory is
@@ -3775,7 +3943,7 @@ features:
new file descriptor is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
*initval* is the initial value of the event counter. The initial value
- must be an 32 bit unsigned integer. Please note that the initial value is
+ must be a 32 bit unsigned integer. Please note that the initial value is
limited to a 32 bit unsigned int although the event counter is an unsigned
64 bit integer with a maximum value of 2\ :sup:`64`\ -\ 2.
@@ -3801,7 +3969,7 @@ features:
import os
# semaphore with start value '1'
- fd = os.eventfd(1, os.EFD_SEMAPHORE | os.EFC_CLOEXEC)
+ fd = os.eventfd(1, os.EFD_SEMAPHORE | os.EFD_CLOEXEC)
try:
# acquire semaphore
v = os.eventfd_read(fd)
@@ -3854,7 +4022,7 @@ features:
.. data:: EFD_SEMAPHORE
- Provide semaphore-like semantics for reads from a :func:`eventfd` file
+ Provide semaphore-like semantics for reads from an :func:`eventfd` file
descriptor. On read the internal counter is decremented by one.
.. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.30
@@ -3862,6 +4030,8 @@ features:
.. versionadded:: 3.10
+.. _os-timerfd:
+
Timer File Descriptors
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
@@ -3896,19 +4066,20 @@ Naturally, they are all only available on Linux.
- :const:`time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME` (Since Linux 3.15 for timerfd_create)
If *clockid* is :const:`time.CLOCK_REALTIME`, a settable system-wide
- real-time clock is used. If system clock is changed, timer setting need
- to be updated. To cancel timer when system clock is changed, see
+ real-time clock is used. If the system clock is changed, the timer setting
+ needs to be updated. To cancel the timer when the system clock is changed, see
:const:`TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET`.
If *clockid* is :const:`time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC`, a non-settable monotonically
increasing clock is used. Even if the system clock is changed, the timer
setting will not be affected.
- If *clockid* is :const:`time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME`, same as :const:`time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC`
- except it includes any time that the system is suspended.
+ If *clockid* is :const:`time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME`, it is the same as
+ :const:`time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC` except it includes any time that the system
+ is suspended.
The file descriptor's behaviour can be modified by specifying a *flags* value.
- Any of the following variables may used, combined using bitwise OR
+ Any of the following variables may be used, combined using bitwise OR
(the ``|`` operator):
- :const:`TFD_NONBLOCK`
@@ -3916,8 +4087,8 @@ Naturally, they are all only available on Linux.
If :const:`TFD_NONBLOCK` is not set as a flag, :func:`read` blocks until
the timer expires. If it is set as a flag, :func:`read` doesn't block, but
- If there hasn't been an expiration since the last call to read,
- :func:`read` raises :class:`OSError` with ``errno`` is set to
+ if there hasn't been an expiration since the last call to read,
+ :func:`read` raises :class:`OSError` with ``errno`` set to
:const:`errno.EAGAIN`.
:const:`TFD_CLOEXEC` is always set by Python automatically.
@@ -3932,7 +4103,7 @@ Naturally, they are all only available on Linux.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
-.. function:: timerfd_settime(fd, /, *, flags=flags, initial=0.0, interval=0.0)
+.. function:: timerfd_settime(fd, /, *, flags=0, initial=0.0, interval=0.0)
Alter a timer file descriptor's internal timer.
This function operates the same interval timer as :func:`timerfd_settime_ns`.
@@ -3940,19 +4111,18 @@ Naturally, they are all only available on Linux.
*fd* must be a valid timer file descriptor.
The timer's behaviour can be modified by specifying a *flags* value.
- Any of the following variables may used, combined using bitwise OR
+ Any of the following variables may be used, combined using bitwise OR
(the ``|`` operator):
- :const:`TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME`
- :const:`TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET`
The timer is disabled by setting *initial* to zero (``0``).
- If *initial* is equal to or greater than zero, the timer is enabled.
+ If *initial* is greater than zero, the timer is enabled.
If *initial* is less than zero, it raises an :class:`OSError` exception
- with ``errno`` set to :const:`errno.EINVAL`
+ with ``errno`` set to :const:`errno.EINVAL`.
By default the timer will fire when *initial* seconds have elapsed.
- (If *initial* is zero, timer will fire immediately.)
However, if the :const:`TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME` flag is set,
the timer will fire when the timer's clock
@@ -3963,13 +4133,13 @@ Naturally, they are all only available on Linux.
If *interval* is greater than zero, the timer fires every time *interval*
seconds have elapsed since the previous expiration.
If *interval* is less than zero, it raises :class:`OSError` with ``errno``
- set to :const:`errno.EINVAL`
+ set to :const:`errno.EINVAL`.
If the :const:`TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET` flag is set along with
:const:`TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME` and the clock for this timer is
:const:`time.CLOCK_REALTIME`, the timer is marked as cancelable if the
real-time clock is changed discontinuously. Reading the descriptor is
- aborted with the error ECANCELED.
+ aborted with the error :const:`errno.ECANCELED`.
Linux manages system clock as UTC. A daylight-savings time transition is
done by changing time offset only and doesn't cause discontinuous system
@@ -4009,7 +4179,7 @@ Naturally, they are all only available on Linux.
Return a two-item tuple of floats (``next_expiration``, ``interval``).
- ``next_expiration`` denotes the relative time until next the timer next fires,
+ ``next_expiration`` denotes the relative time until the timer next fires,
regardless of if the :const:`TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME` flag is set.
``interval`` denotes the timer's interval.
@@ -4245,7 +4415,7 @@ to be ignored.
The current process is replaced immediately. Open file objects and
descriptors are not flushed, so if there may be data buffered
on these open files, you should flush them using
- :func:`sys.stdout.flush` or :func:`os.fsync` before calling an
+ :func:`~io.IOBase.flush` or :func:`os.fsync` before calling an
:func:`exec\* <execl>` function.
The "l" and "v" variants of the :func:`exec\* <execl>` functions differ in how
@@ -4282,7 +4452,7 @@ to be ignored.
.. audit-event:: os.exec path,args,env os.execl
- .. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
Added support for specifying *path* as an open file descriptor
@@ -4485,7 +4655,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
for technical details of why we're surfacing this longstanding
platform compatibility problem to developers.
- .. availability:: POSIX, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: POSIX, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: forkpty()
@@ -4512,7 +4682,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
threads, this now raises a :exc:`DeprecationWarning`. See the
longer explanation on :func:`os.fork`.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: kill(pid, sig, /)
@@ -4529,8 +4699,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
only be sent to console processes which share a common console window,
e.g., some subprocesses. Any other value for *sig* will cause the process
to be unconditionally killed by the TerminateProcess API, and the exit code
- will be set to *sig*. The Windows version of :func:`kill` additionally takes
- process handles to be killed.
+ will be set to *sig*.
See also :func:`signal.pthread_kill`.
@@ -4570,7 +4739,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
See the :manpage:`pidfd_open(2)` man page for more details.
- .. availability:: Linux >= 5.3
+ .. availability:: Linux >= 5.3, Android >= :func:`build-time <sys.getandroidapilevel>` API level 31
.. versionadded:: 3.9
.. data:: PIDFD_NONBLOCK
@@ -4589,7 +4758,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
Lock program segments into memory. The value of *op* (defined in
``<sys/lock.h>``) determines which segments are locked.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not macOS, not iOS.
.. function:: popen(cmd, mode='r', buffering=-1)
@@ -4621,7 +4790,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
documentation for more powerful ways to manage and communicate with
subprocesses.
- .. availability:: not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. note::
The :ref:`Python UTF-8 Mode <utf8-mode>` affects encodings used
@@ -4729,7 +4898,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
``os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM`` is available on platforms where
:c:func:`!posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np` exists.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: posix_spawnp(path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None, \
setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(), \
@@ -4745,7 +4914,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
- .. availability:: POSIX, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: POSIX, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
See :func:`posix_spawn` documentation.
@@ -4778,7 +4947,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
There is no way to unregister a function.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
@@ -4847,7 +5016,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
.. audit-event:: os.spawn mode,path,args,env os.spawnl
- .. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
:func:`spawnlp`, :func:`spawnlpe`, :func:`spawnvp`
and :func:`spawnvpe` are not available on Windows. :func:`spawnle` and
@@ -4971,7 +5140,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
.. audit-event:: os.system command os.system
- .. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: times()
@@ -5015,7 +5184,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
:func:`waitstatus_to_exitcode` can be used to convert the exit status into an
exit code.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. seealso::
@@ -5049,7 +5218,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
Otherwise, if there are no matching children
that could be waited for, :exc:`ChildProcessError` is raised.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -5090,7 +5259,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
:func:`waitstatus_to_exitcode` can be used to convert the exit status into an
exit code.
- .. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
@@ -5110,7 +5279,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
:func:`waitstatus_to_exitcode` can be used to convert the exit status into an
exitcode.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: wait4(pid, options)
@@ -5124,7 +5293,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
:func:`waitstatus_to_exitcode` can be used to convert the exit status into an
exitcode.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. data:: P_PID
@@ -5141,7 +5310,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
* :data:`!P_PIDFD` - wait for the child identified by the file descriptor
*id* (a process file descriptor created with :func:`pidfd_open`).
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. note:: :data:`!P_PIDFD` is only available on Linux >= 5.4.
@@ -5156,7 +5325,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
:func:`waitid` causes child processes to be reported if they have been
continued from a job control stop since they were last reported.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. data:: WEXITED
@@ -5167,7 +5336,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
The other ``wait*`` functions always report children that have terminated,
so this option is not available for them.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -5179,7 +5348,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
This option is not available for the other ``wait*`` functions.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -5192,7 +5361,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
This option is not available for :func:`waitid`.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. data:: WNOHANG
@@ -5201,7 +5370,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
:func:`waitid` to return right away if no child process status is available
immediately.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. data:: WNOWAIT
@@ -5211,7 +5380,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
This option is not available for the other ``wait*`` functions.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. data:: CLD_EXITED
@@ -5224,7 +5393,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
These are the possible values for :attr:`!si_code` in the result returned by
:func:`waitid`.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -5259,7 +5428,7 @@ written in Python, such as a mail server's external command delivery program.
:func:`WIFEXITED`, :func:`WEXITSTATUS`, :func:`WIFSIGNALED`,
:func:`WTERMSIG`, :func:`WIFSTOPPED`, :func:`WSTOPSIG` functions.
- .. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.9
@@ -5275,7 +5444,7 @@ used to determine the disposition of a process.
This function should be employed only if :func:`WIFSIGNALED` is true.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: WIFCONTINUED(status)
@@ -5286,7 +5455,7 @@ used to determine the disposition of a process.
See :data:`WCONTINUED` option.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: WIFSTOPPED(status)
@@ -5298,14 +5467,14 @@ used to determine the disposition of a process.
done using :data:`WUNTRACED` option or when the process is being traced (see
:manpage:`ptrace(2)`).
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: WIFSIGNALED(status)
Return ``True`` if the process was terminated by a signal, otherwise return
``False``.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: WIFEXITED(status)
@@ -5314,7 +5483,7 @@ used to determine the disposition of a process.
by calling ``exit()`` or ``_exit()``, or by returning from ``main()``;
otherwise return ``False``.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: WEXITSTATUS(status)
@@ -5323,7 +5492,7 @@ used to determine the disposition of a process.
This function should be employed only if :func:`WIFEXITED` is true.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: WSTOPSIG(status)
@@ -5332,7 +5501,7 @@ used to determine the disposition of a process.
This function should be employed only if :func:`WIFSTOPPED` is true.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
.. function:: WTERMSIG(status)
@@ -5341,7 +5510,7 @@ used to determine the disposition of a process.
This function should be employed only if :func:`WIFSIGNALED` is true.
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.
Interface to the scheduler
@@ -5356,6 +5525,8 @@ information, consult your Unix manpages.
The following scheduling policies are exposed if they are supported by the
operating system.
+.. _os-scheduling-policy:
+
.. data:: SCHED_OTHER
The default scheduling policy.
@@ -5447,7 +5618,7 @@ operating system.
.. function:: sched_yield()
- Voluntarily relinquish the CPU.
+ Voluntarily relinquish the CPU. See :manpage:`sched_yield(2)` for details.
.. function:: sched_setaffinity(pid, mask, /)
@@ -5515,7 +5686,7 @@ Miscellaneous System Information
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
If :option:`-X cpu_count <-X>` is given or :envvar:`PYTHON_CPU_COUNT` is set,
- :func:`cpu_count` returns the overridden value *n*.
+ :func:`cpu_count` returns the override value *n*.
.. function:: getloadavg()
@@ -5537,9 +5708,9 @@ Miscellaneous System Information
in the **system**.
If :option:`-X cpu_count <-X>` is given or :envvar:`PYTHON_CPU_COUNT` is set,
- :func:`process_cpu_count` returns the overridden value *n*.
+ :func:`process_cpu_count` returns the override value *n*.
- See also the :func:`sched_getaffinity` functions.
+ See also the :func:`sched_getaffinity` function.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
diff --git a/Doc/library/ossaudiodev.rst b/Doc/library/ossaudiodev.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..320adbeff825399
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/ossaudiodev.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+:mod:`!ossaudiodev` --- Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
+==============================================================
+
+.. module:: ossaudiodev
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!ossaudiodev` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/ossaudiodev.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/pathlib.rst b/Doc/library/pathlib.rst
index 2e18e41869376e3..11ff4c4bbd4435e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/pathlib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/pathlib.rst
@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
-
-:mod:`pathlib` --- Object-oriented filesystem paths
-===================================================
+:mod:`!pathlib` --- Object-oriented filesystem paths
+====================================================
.. module:: pathlib
:synopsis: Object-oriented filesystem paths
@@ -22,6 +21,12 @@ inherit from pure paths but also provide I/O operations.
.. image:: pathlib-inheritance.png
:align: center
:class: invert-in-dark-mode
+ :alt: Inheritance diagram showing the classes available in pathlib. The
+ most basic class is PurePath, which has three direct subclasses:
+ PurePosixPath, PureWindowsPath, and Path. Further to these four
+ classes, there are two classes that use multiple inheritance:
+ PosixPath subclasses PurePosixPath and Path, and WindowsPath
+ subclasses PureWindowsPath and Path.
If you've never used this module before or just aren't sure which class is
right for your task, :class:`Path` is most likely what you need. It instantiates
@@ -173,8 +178,8 @@ we also call *flavours*:
A subclass of :class:`PurePath`, this path flavour represents non-Windows
filesystem paths::
- >>> PurePosixPath('/etc')
- PurePosixPath('/etc')
+ >>> PurePosixPath('/etc/hosts')
+ PurePosixPath('/etc/hosts')
*pathsegments* is specified similarly to :class:`PurePath`.
@@ -183,8 +188,8 @@ we also call *flavours*:
A subclass of :class:`PurePath`, this path flavour represents Windows
filesystem paths, including `UNC paths`_::
- >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/')
- PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')
+ >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/', 'Users', 'Ximénez')
+ PureWindowsPath('c:/Users/Ximénez')
>>> PureWindowsPath('//server/share/file')
PureWindowsPath('//server/share/file')
@@ -306,7 +311,7 @@ Pure paths provide the following methods and properties:
.. attribute:: PurePath.parser
The implementation of the :mod:`os.path` module used for low-level path
- parsing and joining: either :mod:`posixpath` or :mod:`ntpath`.
+ parsing and joining: either :mod:`!posixpath` or :mod:`!ntpath`.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
@@ -628,8 +633,8 @@ Pure paths provide the following methods and properties:
raise ValueError(error_message.format(str(self), str(formatted)))
ValueError: '/etc/passwd' is not in the subpath of '/usr' OR one path is relative and the other is absolute.
- When *walk_up* is False (the default), the path must start with *other*.
- When the argument is True, ``..`` entries may be added to form the
+ When *walk_up* is false (the default), the path must start with *other*.
+ When the argument is true, ``..`` entries may be added to form the
relative path. In all other cases, such as the paths referencing
different drives, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.::
@@ -765,8 +770,8 @@ calls on path objects. There are three ways to instantiate concrete paths:
A subclass of :class:`Path` and :class:`PurePosixPath`, this class
represents concrete non-Windows filesystem paths::
- >>> PosixPath('/etc')
- PosixPath('/etc')
+ >>> PosixPath('/etc/hosts')
+ PosixPath('/etc/hosts')
*pathsegments* is specified similarly to :class:`PurePath`.
@@ -780,8 +785,8 @@ calls on path objects. There are three ways to instantiate concrete paths:
A subclass of :class:`Path` and :class:`PureWindowsPath`, this class
represents concrete Windows filesystem paths::
- >>> WindowsPath('c:/Program Files/')
- WindowsPath('c:/Program Files')
+ >>> WindowsPath('c:/', 'Users', 'Ximénez')
+ WindowsPath('c:/Users/Ximénez')
*pathsegments* is specified similarly to :class:`PurePath`.
@@ -808,9 +813,12 @@ bugs or failures in your application)::
% (cls.__name__,))
UnsupportedOperation: cannot instantiate 'WindowsPath' on your system
+Some concrete path methods can raise an :exc:`OSError` if a system call fails
+(for example because the path doesn't exist).
-File URIs
-^^^^^^^^^
+
+Parsing and generating URIs
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Concrete path objects can be created from, and represented as, 'file' URIs
conforming to :rfc:`8089`.
@@ -870,21 +878,36 @@ conforming to :rfc:`8089`.
it strictly impure.
-Methods
-^^^^^^^
+Expanding and resolving paths
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-Concrete paths provide the following methods in addition to pure paths
-methods. Many of these methods can raise an :exc:`OSError` if a system
-call fails (for example because the path doesn't exist).
+.. classmethod:: Path.home()
-.. versionchanged:: 3.8
+ Return a new path object representing the user's home directory (as
+ returned by :func:`os.path.expanduser` with ``~`` construct). If the home
+ directory can't be resolved, :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.
- :meth:`~Path.exists()`, :meth:`~Path.is_dir()`, :meth:`~Path.is_file()`,
- :meth:`~Path.is_mount()`, :meth:`~Path.is_symlink()`,
- :meth:`~Path.is_block_device()`, :meth:`~Path.is_char_device()`,
- :meth:`~Path.is_fifo()`, :meth:`~Path.is_socket()` now return ``False``
- instead of raising an exception for paths that contain characters
- unrepresentable at the OS level.
+ ::
+
+ >>> Path.home()
+ PosixPath('/home/antoine')
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. method:: Path.expanduser()
+
+ Return a new path with expanded ``~`` and ``~user`` constructs,
+ as returned by :meth:`os.path.expanduser`. If a home directory can't be
+ resolved, :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.
+
+ ::
+
+ >>> p = PosixPath('~/films/Monty Python')
+ >>> p.expanduser()
+ PosixPath('/home/eric/films/Monty Python')
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.5
.. classmethod:: Path.cwd()
@@ -896,23 +919,82 @@ call fails (for example because the path doesn't exist).
PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')
-.. classmethod:: Path.home()
+.. method:: Path.absolute()
- Return a new path object representing the user's home directory (as
- returned by :func:`os.path.expanduser` with ``~`` construct). If the home
- directory can't be resolved, :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.
+ Make the path absolute, without normalization or resolving symlinks.
+ Returns a new path object::
- ::
+ >>> p = Path('tests')
+ >>> p
+ PosixPath('tests')
+ >>> p.absolute()
+ PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/tests')
- >>> Path.home()
- PosixPath('/home/antoine')
- .. versionadded:: 3.5
+.. method:: Path.resolve(strict=False)
+
+ Make the path absolute, resolving any symlinks. A new path object is
+ returned::
+
+ >>> p = Path()
+ >>> p
+ PosixPath('.')
+ >>> p.resolve()
+ PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')
+
+ "``..``" components are also eliminated (this is the only method to do so)::
+
+ >>> p = Path('docs/../setup.py')
+ >>> p.resolve()
+ PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')
+
+ If a path doesn't exist or a symlink loop is encountered, and *strict* is
+ ``True``, :exc:`OSError` is raised. If *strict* is ``False``, the path is
+ resolved as far as possible and any remainder is appended without checking
+ whether it exists.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+ The *strict* parameter was added (pre-3.6 behavior is strict).
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Symlink loops are treated like other errors: :exc:`OSError` is raised in
+ strict mode, and no exception is raised in non-strict mode. In previous
+ versions, :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised no matter the value of *strict*.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.readlink()
+
+ Return the path to which the symbolic link points (as returned by
+ :func:`os.readlink`)::
+
+ >>> p = Path('mylink')
+ >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
+ >>> p.readlink()
+ PosixPath('setup.py')
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.9
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Raises :exc:`UnsupportedOperation` if :func:`os.readlink` is not
+ available. In previous versions, :exc:`NotImplementedError` was raised.
+
+
+Querying file type and status
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.8
+
+ :meth:`~Path.exists`, :meth:`~Path.is_dir`, :meth:`~Path.is_file`,
+ :meth:`~Path.is_mount`, :meth:`~Path.is_symlink`,
+ :meth:`~Path.is_block_device`, :meth:`~Path.is_char_device`,
+ :meth:`~Path.is_fifo`, :meth:`~Path.is_socket` now return ``False``
+ instead of raising an exception for paths that contain characters
+ unrepresentable at the OS level.
.. method:: Path.stat(*, follow_symlinks=True)
- Return a :class:`os.stat_result` object containing information about this path, like :func:`os.stat`.
+ Return an :class:`os.stat_result` object containing information about this path, like :func:`os.stat`.
The result is looked up at each call to this method.
This method normally follows symlinks; to stat a symlink add the argument
@@ -929,25 +1011,12 @@ call fails (for example because the path doesn't exist).
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
The *follow_symlinks* parameter was added.
-.. method:: Path.chmod(mode, *, follow_symlinks=True)
-
- Change the file mode and permissions, like :func:`os.chmod`.
-
- This method normally follows symlinks. Some Unix flavours support changing
- permissions on the symlink itself; on these platforms you may add the
- argument ``follow_symlinks=False``, or use :meth:`~Path.lchmod`.
- ::
+.. method:: Path.lstat()
- >>> p = Path('setup.py')
- >>> p.stat().st_mode
- 33277
- >>> p.chmod(0o444)
- >>> p.stat().st_mode
- 33060
+ Like :meth:`Path.stat` but, if the path points to a symbolic link, return
+ the symbolic link's information rather than its target's.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.10
- The *follow_symlinks* parameter was added.
.. method:: Path.exists(*, follow_symlinks=True)
@@ -970,97 +1039,17 @@ call fails (for example because the path doesn't exist).
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
The *follow_symlinks* parameter was added.
-.. method:: Path.expanduser()
-
- Return a new path with expanded ``~`` and ``~user`` constructs,
- as returned by :meth:`os.path.expanduser`. If a home directory can't be
- resolved, :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised.
-
- ::
-
- >>> p = PosixPath('~/films/Monty Python')
- >>> p.expanduser()
- PosixPath('/home/eric/films/Monty Python')
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.5
-
-
-.. method:: Path.glob(pattern, *, case_sensitive=None, recurse_symlinks=False)
-
- Glob the given relative *pattern* in the directory represented by this path,
- yielding all matching files (of any kind)::
-
- >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*.py'))
- [PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'), PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]
- >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*/*.py'))
- [PosixPath('docs/conf.py')]
- >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('**/*.py'))
- [PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py'),
- PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
- PosixPath('pathlib.py'),
- PosixPath('setup.py'),
- PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]
-
- .. seealso::
- :ref:`pathlib-pattern-language` documentation.
-
- By default, or when the *case_sensitive* keyword-only argument is set to
- ``None``, this method matches paths using platform-specific casing rules:
- typically, case-sensitive on POSIX, and case-insensitive on Windows.
- Set *case_sensitive* to ``True`` or ``False`` to override this behaviour.
-
- By default, or when the *recurse_symlinks* keyword-only argument is set to
- ``False``, this method follows symlinks except when expanding "``**``"
- wildcards. Set *recurse_symlinks* to ``True`` to always follow symlinks.
-
- .. audit-event:: pathlib.Path.glob self,pattern pathlib.Path.glob
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.12
- The *case_sensitive* parameter was added.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.13
- The *recurse_symlinks* parameter was added.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.13
- The *pattern* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.13
- Any :exc:`OSError` exceptions raised from scanning the filesystem are
- suppressed. In previous versions, such exceptions are suppressed in many
- cases, but not all.
-
-
-.. method:: Path.rglob(pattern, *, case_sensitive=None, recurse_symlinks=False)
-
- Glob the given relative *pattern* recursively. This is like calling
- :func:`Path.glob` with "``**/``" added in front of the *pattern*.
-
- .. seealso::
- :ref:`pathlib-pattern-language` and :meth:`Path.glob` documentation.
-
- .. audit-event:: pathlib.Path.rglob self,pattern pathlib.Path.rglob
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.12
- The *case_sensitive* parameter was added.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.13
- The *recurse_symlinks* parameter was added.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.13
- The *pattern* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
-
-.. method:: Path.group(*, follow_symlinks=True)
+.. method:: Path.is_file(*, follow_symlinks=True)
- Return the name of the group owning the file. :exc:`KeyError` is raised
- if the file's gid isn't found in the system database.
+ Return ``True`` if the path points to a regular file, ``False`` if it
+ points to another kind of file.
- This method normally follows symlinks; to get the group of the symlink, add
- the argument ``follow_symlinks=False``.
+ ``False`` is also returned if the path doesn't exist or is a broken symlink;
+ other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.13
- Raises :exc:`UnsupportedOperation` if the :mod:`grp` module is not
- available. In previous versions, :exc:`NotImplementedError` was raised.
+ This method normally follows symlinks; to exclude symlinks, add the
+ argument ``follow_symlinks=False``.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
The *follow_symlinks* parameter was added.
@@ -1081,19 +1070,12 @@ call fails (for example because the path doesn't exist).
The *follow_symlinks* parameter was added.
-.. method:: Path.is_file(*, follow_symlinks=True)
-
- Return ``True`` if the path points to a regular file, ``False`` if it
- points to another kind of file.
-
- ``False`` is also returned if the path doesn't exist or is a broken symlink;
- other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.
+.. method:: Path.is_symlink()
- This method normally follows symlinks; to exclude symlinks, add the
- argument ``follow_symlinks=False``.
+ Return ``True`` if the path points to a symbolic link, ``False`` otherwise.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.13
- The *follow_symlinks* parameter was added.
+ ``False`` is also returned if the path doesn't exist; other errors (such
+ as permission errors) are propagated.
.. method:: Path.is_junction()
@@ -1121,14 +1103,6 @@ call fails (for example because the path doesn't exist).
Windows support was added.
-.. method:: Path.is_symlink()
-
- Return ``True`` if the path points to a symbolic link, ``False`` otherwise.
-
- ``False`` is also returned if the path doesn't exist; other errors (such
- as permission errors) are propagated.
-
-
.. method:: Path.is_socket()
Return ``True`` if the path points to a Unix socket (or a symbolic link
@@ -1165,26 +1139,220 @@ call fails (for example because the path doesn't exist).
other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.
-.. method:: Path.iterdir()
+.. method:: Path.samefile(other_path)
- When the path points to a directory, yield path objects of the directory
- contents::
+ Return whether this path points to the same file as *other_path*, which
+ can be either a Path object, or a string. The semantics are similar
+ to :func:`os.path.samefile` and :func:`os.path.samestat`.
- >>> p = Path('docs')
- >>> for child in p.iterdir(): child
- ...
- PosixPath('docs/conf.py')
- PosixPath('docs/_templates')
- PosixPath('docs/make.bat')
- PosixPath('docs/index.rst')
- PosixPath('docs/_build')
- PosixPath('docs/_static')
- PosixPath('docs/Makefile')
+ An :exc:`OSError` can be raised if either file cannot be accessed for some
+ reason.
+
+ ::
+
+ >>> p = Path('spam')
+ >>> q = Path('eggs')
+ >>> p.samefile(q)
+ False
+ >>> p.samefile('spam')
+ True
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+Reading and writing files
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+
+.. method:: Path.open(mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)
+
+ Open the file pointed to by the path, like the built-in :func:`open`
+ function does::
+
+ >>> p = Path('setup.py')
+ >>> with p.open() as f:
+ ... f.readline()
+ ...
+ '#!/usr/bin/env python3\n'
+
+
+.. method:: Path.read_text(encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)
+
+ Return the decoded contents of the pointed-to file as a string::
+
+ >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
+ >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
+ 18
+ >>> p.read_text()
+ 'Text file contents'
+
+ The file is opened and then closed. The optional parameters have the same
+ meaning as in :func:`open`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ The *newline* parameter was added.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.read_bytes()
+
+ Return the binary contents of the pointed-to file as a bytes object::
+
+ >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
+ >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
+ 20
+ >>> p.read_bytes()
+ b'Binary file contents'
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+.. method:: Path.write_text(data, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)
+
+ Open the file pointed to in text mode, write *data* to it, and close the
+ file::
+
+ >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
+ >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
+ 18
+ >>> p.read_text()
+ 'Text file contents'
+
+ An existing file of the same name is overwritten. The optional parameters
+ have the same meaning as in :func:`open`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ The *newline* parameter was added.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.write_bytes(data)
+
+ Open the file pointed to in bytes mode, write *data* to it, and close the
+ file::
+
+ >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
+ >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
+ 20
+ >>> p.read_bytes()
+ b'Binary file contents'
+
+ An existing file of the same name is overwritten.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+Reading directories
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. method:: Path.iterdir()
+
+ When the path points to a directory, yield path objects of the directory
+ contents::
+
+ >>> p = Path('docs')
+ >>> for child in p.iterdir(): child
+ ...
+ PosixPath('docs/conf.py')
+ PosixPath('docs/_templates')
+ PosixPath('docs/make.bat')
+ PosixPath('docs/index.rst')
+ PosixPath('docs/_build')
+ PosixPath('docs/_static')
+ PosixPath('docs/Makefile')
The children are yielded in arbitrary order, and the special entries
``'.'`` and ``'..'`` are not included. If a file is removed from or added
- to the directory after creating the iterator, whether a path object for
- that file be included is unspecified.
+ to the directory after creating the iterator, it is unspecified whether
+ a path object for that file is included.
+
+ If the path is not a directory or otherwise inaccessible, :exc:`OSError` is
+ raised.
+
+.. method:: Path.glob(pattern, *, case_sensitive=None, recurse_symlinks=False)
+
+ Glob the given relative *pattern* in the directory represented by this path,
+ yielding all matching files (of any kind)::
+
+ >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*.py'))
+ [PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'), PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]
+ >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*/*.py'))
+ [PosixPath('docs/conf.py')]
+ >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('**/*.py'))
+ [PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py'),
+ PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
+ PosixPath('pathlib.py'),
+ PosixPath('setup.py'),
+ PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]
+
+ .. note::
+ The paths are returned in no particular order.
+ If you need a specific order, sort the results.
+
+ .. seealso::
+ :ref:`pathlib-pattern-language` documentation.
+
+ By default, or when the *case_sensitive* keyword-only argument is set to
+ ``None``, this method matches paths using platform-specific casing rules:
+ typically, case-sensitive on POSIX, and case-insensitive on Windows.
+ Set *case_sensitive* to ``True`` or ``False`` to override this behaviour.
+
+ By default, or when the *recurse_symlinks* keyword-only argument is set to
+ ``False``, this method follows symlinks except when expanding "``**``"
+ wildcards. Set *recurse_symlinks* to ``True`` to always follow symlinks.
+
+ .. note::
+ Any :exc:`OSError` exceptions raised from scanning the filesystem are
+ suppressed. This includes :exc:`PermissionError` when accessing
+ directories without read permission.
+
+ .. audit-event:: pathlib.Path.glob self,pattern pathlib.Path.glob
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ The *case_sensitive* parameter was added.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ The *recurse_symlinks* parameter was added.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ The *pattern* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Any :exc:`OSError` exceptions raised from scanning the filesystem are
+ suppressed. In previous versions, such exceptions are suppressed in many
+ cases, but not all.
+
+
+.. method:: Path.rglob(pattern, *, case_sensitive=None, recurse_symlinks=False)
+
+ Glob the given relative *pattern* recursively. This is like calling
+ :func:`Path.glob` with "``**/``" added in front of the *pattern*.
+
+ .. note::
+ The paths are returned in no particular order.
+ If you need a specific order, sort the results.
+
+ .. note::
+ Any :exc:`OSError` exceptions raised from scanning the filesystem are
+ suppressed. This includes :exc:`PermissionError` when accessing
+ directories without read permission.
+
+ .. seealso::
+ :ref:`pathlib-pattern-language` and :meth:`Path.glob` documentation.
+
+ .. audit-event:: pathlib.Path.rglob self,pattern pathlib.Path.rglob
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ The *case_sensitive* parameter was added.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ The *recurse_symlinks* parameter was added.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ The *pattern* parameter accepts a :term:`path-like object`.
+
.. method:: Path.walk(top_down=True, on_error=None, follow_symlinks=False)
@@ -1217,7 +1385,7 @@ call fails (for example because the path doesn't exist).
This can be used to prune the search, or to impose a specific order of visiting,
or even to inform :meth:`Path.walk` about directories the caller creates or
renames before it resumes :meth:`Path.walk` again. Modifying *dirnames* when
- *top_down* is false has no effect on the behavior of :meth:`Path.walk()` since the
+ *top_down* is false has no effect on the behavior of :meth:`Path.walk` since the
directories in *dirnames* have already been generated by the time *dirnames*
is yielded to the caller.
@@ -1281,22 +1449,27 @@ call fails (for example because the path doesn't exist).
.. versionadded:: 3.12
-.. method:: Path.lchmod(mode)
- Like :meth:`Path.chmod` but, if the path points to a symbolic link, the
- symbolic link's mode is changed rather than its target's.
+Creating files and directories
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+.. method:: Path.touch(mode=0o666, exist_ok=True)
-.. method:: Path.lstat()
+ Create a file at this given path. If *mode* is given, it is combined
+ with the process's ``umask`` value to determine the file mode and access
+ flags. If the file already exists, the function succeeds when *exist_ok*
+ is true (and its modification time is updated to the current time),
+ otherwise :exc:`FileExistsError` is raised.
- Like :meth:`Path.stat` but, if the path points to a symbolic link, return
- the symbolic link's information rather than its target's.
+ .. seealso::
+ The :meth:`~Path.open`, :meth:`~Path.write_text` and
+ :meth:`~Path.write_bytes` methods are often used to create files.
.. method:: Path.mkdir(mode=0o777, parents=False, exist_ok=False)
Create a new directory at this given path. If *mode* is given, it is
- combined with the process' ``umask`` value to determine the file mode
+ combined with the process's ``umask`` value to determine the file mode
and access flags. If the path already exists, :exc:`FileExistsError`
is raised.
@@ -1318,87 +1491,59 @@ call fails (for example because the path doesn't exist).
The *exist_ok* parameter was added.
-.. method:: Path.open(mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)
-
- Open the file pointed to by the path, like the built-in :func:`open`
- function does::
+.. method:: Path.symlink_to(target, target_is_directory=False)
- >>> p = Path('setup.py')
- >>> with p.open() as f:
- ... f.readline()
- ...
- '#!/usr/bin/env python3\n'
+ Make this path a symbolic link pointing to *target*.
+ On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and does not
+ morph to the target dynamically. If the target is present, the type of the
+ symlink will be created to match. Otherwise, the symlink will be created
+ as a directory if *target_is_directory* is true or a file symlink (the
+ default) otherwise. On non-Windows platforms, *target_is_directory* is ignored.
-.. method:: Path.owner(*, follow_symlinks=True)
+ ::
- Return the name of the user owning the file. :exc:`KeyError` is raised
- if the file's uid isn't found in the system database.
+ >>> p = Path('mylink')
+ >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
+ >>> p.resolve()
+ PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')
+ >>> p.stat().st_size
+ 956
+ >>> p.lstat().st_size
+ 8
- This method normally follows symlinks; to get the owner of the symlink, add
- the argument ``follow_symlinks=False``.
+ .. note::
+ The order of arguments (link, target) is the reverse
+ of :func:`os.symlink`'s.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
- Raises :exc:`UnsupportedOperation` if the :mod:`pwd` module is not
+ Raises :exc:`UnsupportedOperation` if :func:`os.symlink` is not
available. In previous versions, :exc:`NotImplementedError` was raised.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.13
- The *follow_symlinks* parameter was added.
-
-
-.. method:: Path.read_bytes()
-
- Return the binary contents of the pointed-to file as a bytes object::
-
- >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
- >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
- 20
- >>> p.read_bytes()
- b'Binary file contents'
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.5
-
-
-.. method:: Path.read_text(encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)
-
- Return the decoded contents of the pointed-to file as a string::
-
- >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
- >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
- 18
- >>> p.read_text()
- 'Text file contents'
-
- The file is opened and then closed. The optional parameters have the same
- meaning as in :func:`open`.
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.5
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.13
- The *newline* parameter was added.
-.. method:: Path.readlink()
+.. method:: Path.hardlink_to(target)
- Return the path to which the symbolic link points (as returned by
- :func:`os.readlink`)::
+ Make this path a hard link to the same file as *target*.
- >>> p = Path('mylink')
- >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
- >>> p.readlink()
- PosixPath('setup.py')
+ .. note::
+ The order of arguments (link, target) is the reverse
+ of :func:`os.link`'s.
- .. versionadded:: 3.9
+ .. versionadded:: 3.10
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
- Raises :exc:`UnsupportedOperation` if :func:`os.readlink` is not
+ Raises :exc:`UnsupportedOperation` if :func:`os.link` is not
available. In previous versions, :exc:`NotImplementedError` was raised.
+Renaming and deleting
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
.. method:: Path.rename(target)
- Rename this file or directory to the given *target*, and return a new Path
- instance pointing to *target*. On Unix, if *target* exists and is a file,
- it will be replaced silently if the user has permission.
+ Rename this file or directory to the given *target*, and return a new
+ :class:`!Path` instance pointing to *target*. On Unix, if *target* exists
+ and is a file, it will be replaced silently if the user has permission.
On Windows, if *target* exists, :exc:`FileExistsError` will be raised.
*target* can be either a string or another path object::
@@ -1412,200 +1557,109 @@ call fails (for example because the path doesn't exist).
'some text'
The target path may be absolute or relative. Relative paths are interpreted
- relative to the current working directory, *not* the directory of the Path
- object.
+ relative to the current working directory, *not* the directory of the
+ :class:`!Path` object.
It is implemented in terms of :func:`os.rename` and gives the same guarantees.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
- Added return value, return the new Path instance.
+ Added return value, return the new :class:`!Path` instance.
.. method:: Path.replace(target)
- Rename this file or directory to the given *target*, and return a new Path
- instance pointing to *target*. If *target* points to an existing file or
- empty directory, it will be unconditionally replaced.
+ Rename this file or directory to the given *target*, and return a new
+ :class:`!Path` instance pointing to *target*. If *target* points to an
+ existing file or empty directory, it will be unconditionally replaced.
The target path may be absolute or relative. Relative paths are interpreted
- relative to the current working directory, *not* the directory of the Path
- object.
+ relative to the current working directory, *not* the directory of the
+ :class:`!Path` object.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
- Added return value, return the new Path instance.
+ Added return value, return the new :class:`!Path` instance.
-.. method:: Path.absolute()
-
- Make the path absolute, without normalization or resolving symlinks.
- Returns a new path object::
-
- >>> p = Path('tests')
- >>> p
- PosixPath('tests')
- >>> p.absolute()
- PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/tests')
-
-
-.. method:: Path.resolve(strict=False)
-
- Make the path absolute, resolving any symlinks. A new path object is
- returned::
-
- >>> p = Path()
- >>> p
- PosixPath('.')
- >>> p.resolve()
- PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')
+.. method:: Path.unlink(missing_ok=False)
- "``..``" components are also eliminated (this is the only method to do so)::
+ Remove this file or symbolic link. If the path points to a directory,
+ use :func:`Path.rmdir` instead.
- >>> p = Path('docs/../setup.py')
- >>> p.resolve()
- PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')
+ If *missing_ok* is false (the default), :exc:`FileNotFoundError` is
+ raised if the path does not exist.
- If a path doesn't exist or a symlink loop is encountered, and *strict* is
- ``True``, :exc:`OSError` is raised. If *strict* is ``False``, the path is
- resolved as far as possible and any remainder is appended without checking
- whether it exists.
+ If *missing_ok* is true, :exc:`FileNotFoundError` exceptions will be
+ ignored (same behavior as the POSIX ``rm -f`` command).
- .. versionchanged:: 3.6
- The *strict* parameter was added (pre-3.6 behavior is strict).
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.8
+ The *missing_ok* parameter was added.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.13
- Symlink loops are treated like other errors: :exc:`OSError` is raised in
- strict mode, and no exception is raised in non-strict mode. In previous
- versions, :exc:`RuntimeError` is raised no matter the value of *strict*.
.. method:: Path.rmdir()
Remove this directory. The directory must be empty.
-.. method:: Path.samefile(other_path)
-
- Return whether this path points to the same file as *other_path*, which
- can be either a Path object, or a string. The semantics are similar
- to :func:`os.path.samefile` and :func:`os.path.samestat`.
-
- An :exc:`OSError` can be raised if either file cannot be accessed for some
- reason.
-
- ::
+Permissions and ownership
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
- >>> p = Path('spam')
- >>> q = Path('eggs')
- >>> p.samefile(q)
- False
- >>> p.samefile('spam')
- True
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.5
-
-
-.. method:: Path.symlink_to(target, target_is_directory=False)
-
- Make this path a symbolic link pointing to *target*.
-
- On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and does not
- morph to the target dynamically. If the target is present, the type of the
- symlink will be created to match. Otherwise, the symlink will be created
- as a directory if *target_is_directory* is ``True`` or a file symlink (the
- default) otherwise. On non-Windows platforms, *target_is_directory* is ignored.
-
- ::
+.. method:: Path.owner(*, follow_symlinks=True)
- >>> p = Path('mylink')
- >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
- >>> p.resolve()
- PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')
- >>> p.stat().st_size
- 956
- >>> p.lstat().st_size
- 8
+ Return the name of the user owning the file. :exc:`KeyError` is raised
+ if the file's user identifier (UID) isn't found in the system database.
- .. note::
- The order of arguments (link, target) is the reverse
- of :func:`os.symlink`'s.
+ This method normally follows symlinks; to get the owner of the symlink, add
+ the argument ``follow_symlinks=False``.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
- Raises :exc:`UnsupportedOperation` if :func:`os.symlink` is not
- available. In previous versions, :exc:`NotImplementedError` was raised.
-
-
-.. method:: Path.hardlink_to(target)
-
- Make this path a hard link to the same file as *target*.
-
- .. note::
- The order of arguments (link, target) is the reverse
- of :func:`os.link`'s.
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.10
+ Raises :exc:`UnsupportedOperation` if the :mod:`pwd` module is not
+ available. In earlier versions, :exc:`NotImplementedError` was raised.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
- Raises :exc:`UnsupportedOperation` if :func:`os.link` is not
- available. In previous versions, :exc:`NotImplementedError` was raised.
-
-
-.. method:: Path.touch(mode=0o666, exist_ok=True)
-
- Create a file at this given path. If *mode* is given, it is combined
- with the process' ``umask`` value to determine the file mode and access
- flags. If the file already exists, the function succeeds if *exist_ok*
- is true (and its modification time is updated to the current time),
- otherwise :exc:`FileExistsError` is raised.
-
-
-.. method:: Path.unlink(missing_ok=False)
-
- Remove this file or symbolic link. If the path points to a directory,
- use :func:`Path.rmdir` instead.
+ The *follow_symlinks* parameter was added.
- If *missing_ok* is false (the default), :exc:`FileNotFoundError` is
- raised if the path does not exist.
- If *missing_ok* is true, :exc:`FileNotFoundError` exceptions will be
- ignored (same behavior as the POSIX ``rm -f`` command).
+.. method:: Path.group(*, follow_symlinks=True)
- .. versionchanged:: 3.8
- The *missing_ok* parameter was added.
+ Return the name of the group owning the file. :exc:`KeyError` is raised
+ if the file's group identifier (GID) isn't found in the system database.
+ This method normally follows symlinks; to get the group of the symlink, add
+ the argument ``follow_symlinks=False``.
-.. method:: Path.write_bytes(data)
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Raises :exc:`UnsupportedOperation` if the :mod:`grp` module is not
+ available. In earlier versions, :exc:`NotImplementedError` was raised.
- Open the file pointed to in bytes mode, write *data* to it, and close the
- file::
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ The *follow_symlinks* parameter was added.
- >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
- >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
- 20
- >>> p.read_bytes()
- b'Binary file contents'
- An existing file of the same name is overwritten.
+.. method:: Path.chmod(mode, *, follow_symlinks=True)
- .. versionadded:: 3.5
+ Change the file mode and permissions, like :func:`os.chmod`.
+ This method normally follows symlinks. Some Unix flavours support changing
+ permissions on the symlink itself; on these platforms you may add the
+ argument ``follow_symlinks=False``, or use :meth:`~Path.lchmod`.
-.. method:: Path.write_text(data, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)
+ ::
- Open the file pointed to in text mode, write *data* to it, and close the
- file::
+ >>> p = Path('setup.py')
+ >>> p.stat().st_mode
+ 33277
+ >>> p.chmod(0o444)
+ >>> p.stat().st_mode
+ 33060
- >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
- >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
- 18
- >>> p.read_text()
- 'Text file contents'
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ The *follow_symlinks* parameter was added.
- An existing file of the same name is overwritten. The optional parameters
- have the same meaning as in :func:`open`.
- .. versionadded:: 3.5
+.. method:: Path.lchmod(mode)
- .. versionchanged:: 3.10
- The *newline* parameter was added.
+ Like :meth:`Path.chmod` but, if the path points to a symbolic link, the
+ symbolic link's mode is changed rather than its target's.
.. _pathlib-pattern-language:
@@ -1625,9 +1679,12 @@ The following wildcards are supported in patterns for
``?``
Matches one non-separator character.
``[seq]``
- Matches one character in *seq*.
+ Matches one character in *seq*, where *seq* is a sequence of characters.
+ Range expressions are supported; for example, ``[a-z]`` matches any lowercase ASCII letter.
+ Multiple ranges can be combined: ``[a-zA-Z0-9_]`` matches any ASCII letter, digit, or underscore.
+
``[!seq]``
- Matches one character not in *seq*.
+ Matches one character not in *seq*, where *seq* follows the same rules as above.
For a literal match, wrap the meta-characters in brackets.
For example, ``"[?]"`` matches the character ``"?"``.
@@ -1729,39 +1786,54 @@ Corresponding tools
Below is a table mapping various :mod:`os` functions to their corresponding
:class:`PurePath`/:class:`Path` equivalent.
-==================================== ==============================
-:mod:`os` and :mod:`os.path` :mod:`pathlib`
-==================================== ==============================
-:func:`os.path.abspath` :meth:`Path.absolute`
-:func:`os.path.realpath` :meth:`Path.resolve`
-:func:`os.chmod` :meth:`Path.chmod`
-:func:`os.mkdir` :meth:`Path.mkdir`
-:func:`os.makedirs` :meth:`Path.mkdir`
-:func:`os.rename` :meth:`Path.rename`
-:func:`os.replace` :meth:`Path.replace`
-:func:`os.rmdir` :meth:`Path.rmdir`
-:func:`os.remove`, :func:`os.unlink` :meth:`Path.unlink`
-:func:`os.getcwd` :func:`Path.cwd`
-:func:`os.path.exists` :meth:`Path.exists`
-:func:`os.path.expanduser` :meth:`Path.expanduser` and
- :meth:`Path.home`
-:func:`os.listdir` :meth:`Path.iterdir`
-:func:`os.walk` :meth:`Path.walk`
-:func:`os.path.isdir` :meth:`Path.is_dir`
-:func:`os.path.isfile` :meth:`Path.is_file`
-:func:`os.path.islink` :meth:`Path.is_symlink`
-:func:`os.link` :meth:`Path.hardlink_to`
-:func:`os.symlink` :meth:`Path.symlink_to`
-:func:`os.readlink` :meth:`Path.readlink`
-:func:`os.path.relpath` :meth:`PurePath.relative_to`
-:func:`os.stat` :meth:`Path.stat`,
- :meth:`Path.owner`,
- :meth:`Path.group`
-:func:`os.path.isabs` :meth:`PurePath.is_absolute`
-:func:`os.path.join` :func:`PurePath.joinpath`
-:func:`os.path.basename` :attr:`PurePath.name`
-:func:`os.path.dirname` :attr:`PurePath.parent`
-:func:`os.path.samefile` :meth:`Path.samefile`
-:func:`os.path.splitext` :attr:`PurePath.stem` and
- :attr:`PurePath.suffix`
-==================================== ==============================
+===================================== ==============================================
+:mod:`os` and :mod:`os.path` :mod:`pathlib`
+===================================== ==============================================
+:func:`os.path.dirname` :attr:`PurePath.parent`
+:func:`os.path.basename` :attr:`PurePath.name`
+:func:`os.path.splitext` :attr:`PurePath.stem`, :attr:`PurePath.suffix`
+:func:`os.path.join` :meth:`PurePath.joinpath`
+:func:`os.path.isabs` :meth:`PurePath.is_absolute`
+:func:`os.path.relpath` :meth:`PurePath.relative_to` [1]_
+:func:`os.path.expanduser` :meth:`Path.expanduser` [2]_
+:func:`os.path.realpath` :meth:`Path.resolve`
+:func:`os.path.abspath` :meth:`Path.absolute` [3]_
+:func:`os.path.exists` :meth:`Path.exists`
+:func:`os.path.isfile` :meth:`Path.is_file`
+:func:`os.path.isdir` :meth:`Path.is_dir`
+:func:`os.path.islink` :meth:`Path.is_symlink`
+:func:`os.path.isjunction` :meth:`Path.is_junction`
+:func:`os.path.ismount` :meth:`Path.is_mount`
+:func:`os.path.samefile` :meth:`Path.samefile`
+:func:`os.getcwd` :meth:`Path.cwd`
+:func:`os.stat` :meth:`Path.stat`
+:func:`os.lstat` :meth:`Path.lstat`
+:func:`os.listdir` :meth:`Path.iterdir`
+:func:`os.walk` :meth:`Path.walk` [4]_
+:func:`os.mkdir`, :func:`os.makedirs` :meth:`Path.mkdir`
+:func:`os.link` :meth:`Path.hardlink_to`
+:func:`os.symlink` :meth:`Path.symlink_to`
+:func:`os.readlink` :meth:`Path.readlink`
+:func:`os.rename` :meth:`Path.rename`
+:func:`os.replace` :meth:`Path.replace`
+:func:`os.remove`, :func:`os.unlink` :meth:`Path.unlink`
+:func:`os.rmdir` :meth:`Path.rmdir`
+:func:`os.chmod` :meth:`Path.chmod`
+:func:`os.lchmod` :meth:`Path.lchmod`
+===================================== ==============================================
+
+.. rubric:: Footnotes
+
+.. [1] :func:`os.path.relpath` calls :func:`~os.path.abspath` to make paths
+ absolute and remove "``..``" parts, whereas :meth:`PurePath.relative_to`
+ is a lexical operation that raises :exc:`ValueError` when its inputs'
+ anchors differ (e.g. if one path is absolute and the other relative.)
+.. [2] :func:`os.path.expanduser` returns the path unchanged if the home
+ directory can't be resolved, whereas :meth:`Path.expanduser` raises
+ :exc:`RuntimeError`.
+.. [3] :func:`os.path.abspath` removes "``..``" components without resolving
+ symlinks, which may change the meaning of the path, whereas
+ :meth:`Path.absolute` leaves any "``..``" components in the path.
+.. [4] :func:`os.walk` always follows symlinks when categorizing paths into
+ *dirnames* and *filenames*, whereas :meth:`Path.walk` categorizes all
+ symlinks into *filenames* when *follow_symlinks* is false (the default.)
diff --git a/Doc/library/pdb.rst b/Doc/library/pdb.rst
index 7a47a7d5d6754f3..1430fe0608d2ddc 100644
--- a/Doc/library/pdb.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/pdb.rst
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ You can then step through the code following this statement, and continue
running without the debugger using the :pdbcmd:`continue` command.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- The built-in :func:`breakpoint()`, when called with defaults, can be used
+ The built-in :func:`breakpoint`, when called with defaults, can be used
instead of ``import pdb; pdb.set_trace()``.
::
@@ -75,10 +75,17 @@ The debugger's prompt is ``(Pdb)``, which is the indicator that you are in debug
arguments of the ``p`` command.
+.. _pdb-cli:
+
+Command-line interface
+----------------------
+
+.. program:: pdb
+
You can also invoke :mod:`pdb` from the command line to debug other scripts. For
example::
- python -m pdb myscript.py
+ python -m pdb [-c command] (-m module | pyfile) [args ...]
When invoked as a module, pdb will automatically enter post-mortem debugging if
the program being debugged exits abnormally. After post-mortem debugging (or
@@ -86,14 +93,21 @@ after normal exit of the program), pdb will restart the program. Automatic
restarting preserves pdb's state (such as breakpoints) and in most cases is more
useful than quitting the debugger upon program's exit.
-.. versionchanged:: 3.2
- Added the ``-c`` option to execute commands as if given
- in a :file:`.pdbrc` file; see :ref:`debugger-commands`.
+.. option:: -c, --command <command>
-.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- Added the ``-m`` option to execute modules similar to the way
- ``python -m`` does. As with a script, the debugger will pause execution just
- before the first line of the module.
+ To execute commands as if given in a :file:`.pdbrc` file; see
+ :ref:`debugger-commands`.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+ Added the ``-c`` option.
+
+.. option:: -m <module>
+
+ To execute modules similar to the way ``python -m`` does. As with a script,
+ the debugger will pause execution just before the first line of the module.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+ Added the ``-m`` option.
Typical usage to execute a statement under control of the debugger is::
@@ -123,6 +137,11 @@ The typical usage to inspect a crashed program is::
0
(Pdb)
+.. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ The implementation of :pep:`667` means that name assignments made via ``pdb``
+ will immediately affect the active scope, even when running inside an
+ :term:`optimized scope`.
+
The module defines the following functions; each enters the debugger in a
slightly different way:
@@ -168,13 +187,15 @@ slightly different way:
:func:`set_trace` will enter the debugger immediately, rather than
on the next line of code to be executed.
-.. function:: post_mortem(traceback=None)
+.. function:: post_mortem(t=None)
- Enter post-mortem debugging of the given *traceback* object. If no
- *traceback* is given, it uses the one of the exception that is currently
- being handled (an exception must be being handled if the default is to be
- used).
+ Enter post-mortem debugging of the given exception or
+ :ref:`traceback object <traceback-objects>`. If no value is given, it uses
+ the exception that is currently being handled, or raises ``ValueError`` if
+ there isn’t one.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Support for exception objects was added.
.. function:: pm()
@@ -232,7 +253,7 @@ access further features, you have to do this yourself:
.. _debugger-commands:
-Debugger Commands
+Debugger commands
-----------------
The commands recognized by the debugger are listed below. Most commands can be
@@ -285,6 +306,8 @@ There are three preset *convenience variables*:
.. versionadded:: 3.12
+ Added the *convenience variable* feature.
+
.. index::
pair: .pdbrc; file
triple: debugger; configuration; file
@@ -579,18 +602,17 @@ can be overridden by the local file.
.. pdbcommand:: interact
- Start an interactive interpreter (using the :mod:`code` module) whose global
- namespace contains all the (global and local) names found in the current
- scope. Use ``exit()`` or ``quit()`` to exit the interpreter and return to
- the debugger.
+ Start an interactive interpreter (using the :mod:`code` module) in a new
+ global namespace initialised from the local and global namespaces for the
+ current scope. Use ``exit()`` or ``quit()`` to exit the interpreter and
+ return to the debugger.
.. note::
- Because interact creates a new global namespace with the current global
- and local namespace for execution, assignment to variables will not
- affect the original namespaces.
- However, modification to the mutable objects will be reflected in the
- original namespaces.
+ As ``interact`` creates a new dedicated namespace for code execution,
+ assignments to variables will not affect the original namespaces.
+ However, modifications to any referenced mutable objects will be reflected
+ in the original namespaces as usual.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
@@ -678,7 +700,7 @@ can be overridden by the local file.
When using ``pdb.pm()`` or ``Pdb.post_mortem(...)`` with a chained exception
instead of a traceback, it allows the user to move between the
chained exceptions using ``exceptions`` command to list exceptions, and
- ``exception <number>`` to switch to that exception.
+ ``exceptions <number>`` to switch to that exception.
Example::
@@ -698,7 +720,7 @@ can be overridden by the local file.
def inner(x):
1 / x
- out()
+ out()
calling ``pdb.pm()`` will allow to move between exceptions::
diff --git a/Doc/library/pickle.rst b/Doc/library/pickle.rst
index 223c27237e4d34c..fd2b5ceffa015b5 100644
--- a/Doc/library/pickle.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/pickle.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`pickle` --- Python object serialization
-=============================================
+:mod:`!pickle` --- Python object serialization
+==============================================
.. module:: pickle
:synopsis: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back.
@@ -56,23 +56,10 @@ files.
The :mod:`pickle` module differs from :mod:`marshal` in several significant ways:
-* The :mod:`pickle` module keeps track of the objects it has already serialized,
- so that later references to the same object won't be serialized again.
- :mod:`marshal` doesn't do this.
-
- This has implications both for recursive objects and object sharing. Recursive
- objects are objects that contain references to themselves. These are not
- handled by marshal, and in fact, attempting to marshal recursive objects will
- crash your Python interpreter. Object sharing happens when there are multiple
- references to the same object in different places in the object hierarchy being
- serialized. :mod:`pickle` stores such objects only once, and ensures that all
- other references point to the master copy. Shared objects remain shared, which
- can be very important for mutable objects.
-
* :mod:`marshal` cannot be used to serialize user-defined classes and their
instances. :mod:`pickle` can save and restore class instances transparently,
however the class definition must be importable and live in the same module as
- when the object was stored.
+ when the object was pickled.
* The :mod:`marshal` serialization format is not guaranteed to be portable
across Python versions. Because its primary job in life is to support
@@ -314,16 +301,16 @@ The :mod:`pickle` module exports three classes, :class:`Pickler`,
map the new Python 3 names to the old module names used in Python 2, so
that the pickle data stream is readable with Python 2.
- If *buffer_callback* is None (the default), buffer views are
+ If *buffer_callback* is ``None`` (the default), buffer views are
serialized into *file* as part of the pickle stream.
- If *buffer_callback* is not None, then it can be called any number
+ If *buffer_callback* is not ``None``, then it can be called any number
of times with a buffer view. If the callback returns a false value
- (such as None), the given buffer is :ref:`out-of-band <pickle-oob>`;
+ (such as ``None``), the given buffer is :ref:`out-of-band <pickle-oob>`;
otherwise the buffer is serialized in-band, i.e. inside the pickle stream.
- It is an error if *buffer_callback* is not None and *protocol* is
- None or smaller than 5.
+ It is an error if *buffer_callback* is not ``None`` and *protocol* is
+ ``None`` or smaller than 5.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
The *buffer_callback* argument was added.
@@ -420,12 +407,12 @@ The :mod:`pickle` module exports three classes, :class:`Pickler`,
instances of :class:`~datetime.datetime`, :class:`~datetime.date` and
:class:`~datetime.time` pickled by Python 2.
- If *buffers* is None (the default), then all data necessary for
+ If *buffers* is ``None`` (the default), then all data necessary for
deserialization must be contained in the pickle stream. This means
- that the *buffer_callback* argument was None when a :class:`Pickler`
+ that the *buffer_callback* argument was ``None`` when a :class:`Pickler`
was instantiated (or when :func:`dump` or :func:`dumps` was called).
- If *buffers* is not None, it should be an iterable of buffer-enabled
+ If *buffers* is not ``None``, it should be an iterable of buffer-enabled
objects that is consumed each time the pickle stream references
an :ref:`out-of-band <pickle-oob>` buffer view. Such buffers have been
given in order to the *buffer_callback* of a Pickler object.
@@ -516,7 +503,7 @@ The following types can be pickled:
* classes accessible from the top level of a module;
-* instances of such classes whose the result of calling :meth:`~object.__getstate__`
+* instances of such classes for which the result of calling :meth:`~object.__getstate__`
is picklable (see section :ref:`pickle-inst` for details).
Attempts to pickle unpicklable objects will raise the :exc:`PicklingError`
@@ -585,7 +572,7 @@ methods:
.. method:: object.__getnewargs_ex__()
- In protocols 2 and newer, classes that implements the
+ In protocols 2 and newer, classes that implement the
:meth:`__getnewargs_ex__` method can dictate the values passed to the
:meth:`__new__` method upon unpickling. The method must return a pair
``(args, kwargs)`` where *args* is a tuple of positional arguments
@@ -693,7 +680,10 @@ or both.
If a string is returned, the string should be interpreted as the name of a
global variable. It should be the object's local name relative to its
module; the pickle module searches the module namespace to determine the
- object's module. This behaviour is typically useful for singletons.
+ object's module: for a given ``obj`` to be pickled, the ``__module__``
+ attribute is looked up on ``obj`` directly, which falls back to a lookup
+ on the type of ``obj`` if no ``__module__`` instance attribute is set.
+ This behaviour is typically useful for singletons.
When a tuple is returned, it must be between two and six items long.
Optional items can either be omitted, or ``None`` can be provided as their
@@ -716,8 +706,8 @@ or both.
These items will be appended to the object either using
``obj.append(item)`` or, in batch, using ``obj.extend(list_of_items)``.
This is primarily used for list subclasses, but may be used by other
- classes as long as they have
- :ref:`append and extend methods <typesseq-common>` with
+ classes as long as they have :meth:`~sequence.append`
+ and :meth:`~sequence.extend` methods with
the appropriate signature. (Whether :meth:`!append` or :meth:`!extend` is
used depends on which pickle protocol version is used as well as the number
of items to append, so both must be supported.)
diff --git a/Doc/library/pickletools.rst b/Doc/library/pickletools.rst
index 9739207a224431d..e072605974f6c29 100644
--- a/Doc/library/pickletools.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/pickletools.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`pickletools` --- Tools for pickle developers
-==================================================
+:mod:`!pickletools` --- Tools for pickle developers
+===================================================
.. module:: pickletools
:synopsis: Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols and
diff --git a/Doc/library/pipes.rst b/Doc/library/pipes.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..d9bcc3a5d99c9b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/pipes.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+:mod:`!pipes` --- Interface to shell pipelines
+==============================================
+
+.. module:: pipes
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+Applications should use the :mod:`subprocess` module instead.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!pipes` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/pipes.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/pkgutil.rst b/Doc/library/pkgutil.rst
index 891a867d1ceb68d..c791ad5de26d631 100644
--- a/Doc/library/pkgutil.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/pkgutil.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`pkgutil` --- Package extension utility
-============================================
+:mod:`!pkgutil` --- Package extension utility
+=============================================
.. module:: pkgutil
:synopsis: Utilities for the import system.
@@ -26,7 +26,8 @@ support.
__path__ = extend_path(__path__, __name__)
For each directory on :data:`sys.path` that has a subdirectory that matches the
- package name, add the subdirectory to the package's :attr:`__path__`. This is useful
+ package name, add the subdirectory to the package's
+ :attr:`~module.__path__`. This is useful
if one wants to distribute different parts of a single logical package as multiple
directories.
@@ -34,9 +35,9 @@ support.
*name* argument. This feature is similar to :file:`\*.pth` files (see the
:mod:`site` module for more information), except that it doesn't special-case
lines starting with ``import``. A :file:`\*.pkg` file is trusted at face
- value: apart from checking for duplicates, all entries found in a
- :file:`\*.pkg` file are added to the path, regardless of whether they exist
- on the filesystem. (This is a feature.)
+ value: apart from skipping blank lines and ignoring comments, all entries
+ found in a :file:`\*.pkg` file are added to the path, regardless of whether
+ they exist on the filesystem (this is a feature).
If the input path is not a list (as is the case for frozen packages) it is
returned unchanged. The input path is not modified; an extended copy is
@@ -108,8 +109,8 @@ support.
Yield :term:`finder` objects for the given module name.
- If fullname contains a ``'.'``, the finders will be for the package
- containing fullname, otherwise they will be all registered top level
+ If *fullname* contains a ``'.'``, the finders will be for the package
+ containing *fullname*, otherwise they will be all registered top level
finders (i.e. those on both :data:`sys.meta_path` and :data:`sys.path_hooks`).
If the named module is in a package, that package is imported as a side
@@ -190,24 +191,48 @@ support.
:meth:`get_data <importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data>` API. The
*package* argument should be the name of a package, in standard module format
(``foo.bar``). The *resource* argument should be in the form of a relative
- filename, using ``/`` as the path separator. The parent directory name
- ``..`` is not allowed, and nor is a rooted name (starting with a ``/``).
+ filename, using ``/`` as the path separator.
The function returns a binary string that is the contents of the specified
resource.
+ This function uses the :term:`loader` method
+ :func:`~importlib.abc.FileLoader.get_data`
+ to support modules installed in the filesystem, but also in zip files,
+ databases, or elsewhere.
+
For packages located in the filesystem, which have already been imported,
this is the rough equivalent of::
d = os.path.dirname(sys.modules[package].__file__)
data = open(os.path.join(d, resource), 'rb').read()
+ Like the :func:`open` function, :func:`!get_data` can follow parent
+ directories (``../``) and absolute paths (starting with ``/`` or ``C:/``,
+ for example).
+ It can open compilation/installation artifacts like ``.py`` and ``.pyc``
+ files or files with :func:`reserved filenames <os.path.isreserved>`.
+ To be compatible with non-filesystem loaders, avoid using these features.
+
+ .. warning::
+
+ This function is intended for trusted input.
+ It does not verify that *resource* "belongs" to *package*.
+
+ If you use a user-provided *resource* path, consider verifying it.
+ For example, require an alphanumeric filename with a known extension, or
+ install and check a list of known resources.
+
If the package cannot be located or loaded, or it uses a :term:`loader`
which does not support :meth:`get_data <importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data>`,
then ``None`` is returned. In particular, the :term:`loader` for
:term:`namespace packages <namespace package>` does not support
:meth:`get_data <importlib.abc.ResourceLoader.get_data>`.
+ .. seealso::
+
+ The :mod:`importlib.resources` module provides structured access to
+ module resources.
.. function:: resolve_name(name)
diff --git a/Doc/library/platform.rst b/Doc/library/platform.rst
index 66af37e30738521..4886c125fede487 100644
--- a/Doc/library/platform.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/platform.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`platform` --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data
-=====================================================================
+:mod:`!platform` --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data
+======================================================================
.. module:: platform
:synopsis: Retrieves as much platform identifying data as possible.
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@
section.
-Cross Platform
+Cross platform
--------------
@@ -56,6 +56,8 @@ Cross Platform
Returns the machine type, e.g. ``'AMD64'``. An empty string is returned if the
value cannot be determined.
+ The output is platform-dependent and may differ in casing and naming conventions.
+
.. function:: node()
@@ -142,6 +144,8 @@ Cross Platform
Returns the system's release, e.g. ``'2.2.0'`` or ``'NT'``. An empty string is
returned if the value cannot be determined.
+ On iOS and Android, this is the user-facing OS release. To obtain the
+ Darwin or Linux kernel release, use :func:`os.uname`.
.. function:: system()
@@ -150,7 +154,7 @@ Cross Platform
On iOS and Android, this returns the user-facing OS name (i.e, ``'iOS``,
``'iPadOS'`` or ``'Android'``). To obtain the kernel name (``'Darwin'`` or
- ``'Linux'``), use :func:`os.uname()`.
+ ``'Linux'``), use :func:`os.uname`.
.. function:: system_alias(system, release, version)
@@ -164,9 +168,6 @@ Cross Platform
Returns the system's release version, e.g. ``'#3 on degas'``. An empty string is
returned if the value cannot be determined.
- On iOS and Android, this is the user-facing OS version. To obtain the
- Darwin or Linux kernel version, use :func:`os.uname()`.
-
.. function:: uname()
Fairly portable uname interface. Returns a :func:`~collections.namedtuple`
@@ -176,8 +177,8 @@ Cross Platform
:attr:`processor` is resolved late, on demand.
Note: the first two attribute names differ from the names presented by
- :func:`os.uname`, where they are named :attr:`sysname` and
- :attr:`nodename`.
+ :func:`os.uname`, where they are named :attr:`!sysname` and
+ :attr:`!nodename`.
Entries which cannot be determined are set to ``''``.
@@ -188,7 +189,7 @@ Cross Platform
:attr:`processor` is resolved late instead of immediately.
-Java Platform
+Java platform
-------------
@@ -206,7 +207,7 @@ Java Platform
and was only useful for Jython support.
-Windows Platform
+Windows platform
----------------
@@ -240,7 +241,7 @@ Windows Platform
.. versionadded:: 3.8
-macOS Platform
+macOS platform
--------------
.. function:: mac_ver(release='', versioninfo=('','',''), machine='')
@@ -252,7 +253,7 @@ macOS Platform
Entries which cannot be determined are set to ``''``. All tuple entries are
strings.
-iOS Platform
+iOS platform
------------
.. function:: ios_ver(system='', release='', model='', is_simulator=False)
@@ -271,7 +272,7 @@ iOS Platform
parameters.
-Unix Platforms
+Unix platforms
--------------
.. function:: libc_ver(executable=sys.executable, lib='', version='', chunksize=16384)
@@ -287,7 +288,7 @@ Unix Platforms
The file is read and scanned in chunks of *chunksize* bytes.
-Linux Platforms
+Linux platforms
---------------
.. function:: freedesktop_os_release()
@@ -325,7 +326,7 @@ Linux Platforms
.. versionadded:: 3.10
-Android Platform
+Android platform
----------------
.. function:: android_ver(release="", api_level=0, manufacturer="", \
@@ -359,3 +360,32 @@ Android Platform
<https://storage.googleapis.com/play_public/supported_devices.html>`__.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+.. _platform-cli:
+
+Command-line usage
+------------------
+
+:mod:`platform` can also be invoked directly using the :option:`-m`
+switch of the interpreter::
+
+ python -m platform [--terse] [--nonaliased] [{nonaliased,terse} ...]
+
+The following options are accepted:
+
+.. program:: platform
+
+.. option:: --terse
+
+ Print terse information about the platform. This is equivalent to
+ calling :func:`platform.platform` with the *terse* argument set to ``True``.
+
+.. option:: --nonaliased
+
+ Print platform information without system/OS name aliasing. This is
+ equivalent to calling :func:`platform.platform` with the *aliased* argument
+ set to ``True``.
+
+You can also pass one or more positional arguments (``terse``, ``nonaliased``)
+to explicitly control the output format. These behave similarly to their
+corresponding options.
diff --git a/Doc/library/plistlib.rst b/Doc/library/plistlib.rst
index 7416ca2650bab4b..41802ada7e1dbb0 100644
--- a/Doc/library/plistlib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/plistlib.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`plistlib` --- Generate and parse Apple ``.plist`` files
-=============================================================
+:mod:`!plistlib` --- Generate and parse Apple ``.plist`` files
+==============================================================
.. module:: plistlib
:synopsis: Generate and parse Apple plist files.
@@ -71,15 +71,14 @@ This module defines the following functions:
When *aware_datetime* is true, fields with type ``datetime.datetime`` will
be created as :ref:`aware object <datetime-naive-aware>`, with
- :attr:`!tzinfo` as :attr:`datetime.UTC`.
+ :attr:`!tzinfo` as :const:`datetime.UTC`.
XML data for the :data:`FMT_XML` format is parsed using the Expat parser
from :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` -- see its documentation for possible
exceptions on ill-formed XML. Unknown elements will simply be ignored
by the plist parser.
- The parser for the binary format raises :exc:`InvalidFileException`
- when the file cannot be parsed.
+ The parser raises :exc:`InvalidFileException` when the file cannot be parsed.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
@@ -99,7 +98,7 @@ This module defines the following functions:
.. function:: dump(value, fp, *, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True, skipkeys=False, aware_datetime=False)
- Write *value* to a plist file. *Fp* should be a writable, binary
+ Write *value* to a plist file. *fp* should be a writable, binary
file object.
The *fmt* argument specifies the format of the plist file and can be
@@ -117,7 +116,7 @@ This module defines the following functions:
when a key of a dictionary is not a string, otherwise such keys are skipped.
When *aware_datetime* is true and any field with type ``datetime.datetime``
- is set as a :ref:`aware object <datetime-naive-aware>`, it will convert to
+ is set as an :ref:`aware object <datetime-naive-aware>`, it will convert to
UTC timezone before writing it.
A :exc:`TypeError` will be raised if the object is of an unsupported type or
@@ -148,8 +147,9 @@ The following classes are available:
Wraps an :class:`int`. This is used when reading or writing NSKeyedArchiver
encoded data, which contains UID (see PList manual).
- It has one attribute, :attr:`data`, which can be used to retrieve the int value
- of the UID. :attr:`data` must be in the range ``0 <= data < 2**64``.
+ .. attribute:: data
+
+ Int value of the UID. It must be in the range ``0 <= data < 2**64``.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
@@ -170,12 +170,21 @@ The following constants are available:
.. versionadded:: 3.4
+The module defines the following exceptions:
+
+.. exception:: InvalidFileException
+
+ Raised when a file cannot be parsed.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+
Examples
--------
Generating a plist::
- import datetime
+ import datetime as dt
import plistlib
pl = dict(
@@ -191,7 +200,7 @@ Generating a plist::
),
someData = b"<binary gunk>",
someMoreData = b"<lots of binary gunk>" * 10,
- aDate = datetime.datetime.now()
+ aDate = dt.datetime.now()
)
print(plistlib.dumps(pl).decode())
diff --git a/Doc/library/poplib.rst b/Doc/library/poplib.rst
index 943eb21f6eec027..23f20b00e6dc6d8 100644
--- a/Doc/library/poplib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/poplib.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`poplib` --- POP3 protocol client
-======================================
+:mod:`!poplib` --- POP3 protocol client
+=======================================
.. module:: poplib
:synopsis: POP3 protocol client (requires sockets).
diff --git a/Doc/library/posix.rst b/Doc/library/posix.rst
index 5871574b442667e..84d757df6bd42d0 100644
--- a/Doc/library/posix.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/posix.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`posix` --- The most common POSIX system calls
-===================================================
+:mod:`!posix` --- The most common POSIX system calls
+====================================================
.. module:: posix
- :platform: Unix
:synopsis: The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os).
--------------
diff --git a/Doc/library/pprint.rst b/Doc/library/pprint.rst
index 6dfea25d755f758..f51892450798aeb 100644
--- a/Doc/library/pprint.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/pprint.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`pprint` --- Data pretty printer
-=====================================
+:mod:`!pprint` --- Data pretty printer
+======================================
.. module:: pprint
:synopsis: Data pretty printer.
@@ -22,8 +22,6 @@ The formatted representation keeps objects on a single line if it can, and
breaks them onto multiple lines if they don't fit within the allowed width,
adjustable by the *width* parameter defaulting to 80 characters.
-Dictionaries are sorted by key before the display is computed.
-
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
Added support for pretty-printing :class:`types.SimpleNamespace`.
@@ -35,24 +33,66 @@ Dictionaries are sorted by key before the display is computed.
Functions
---------
-.. function:: pp(object, *args, sort_dicts=False, **kwargs)
-
- Prints the formatted representation of *object* followed by a newline.
- If *sort_dicts* is false (the default), dictionaries will be displayed with
- their keys in insertion order, otherwise the dict keys will be sorted.
- *args* and *kwargs* will be passed to :func:`~pprint.pprint` as formatting
- parameters.
+.. function:: pp(object, stream=None, indent=1, width=80, depth=None, *, \
+ compact=False, sort_dicts=False, underscore_numbers=False)
+
+ Prints the formatted representation of *object*, followed by a newline.
+ This function may be used in the interactive interpreter
+ instead of the :func:`print` function for inspecting values.
+ Tip: you can reassign ``print = pprint.pp`` for use within a scope.
+
+ :param object:
+ The object to be printed.
+
+ :param stream:
+ A file-like object to which the output will be written
+ by calling its :meth:`!write` method.
+ If ``None`` (the default), :data:`sys.stdout` is used.
+ :type stream: :term:`file-like object` | None
+
+ :param int indent:
+ The amount of indentation added for each nesting level.
+
+ :param int width:
+ The desired maximum number of characters per line in the output.
+ If a structure cannot be formatted within the width constraint,
+ a best effort will be made.
+
+ :param depth:
+ The number of nesting levels which may be printed.
+ If the data structure being printed is too deep,
+ the next contained level is replaced by ``...``.
+ If ``None`` (the default), there is no constraint
+ on the depth of the objects being formatted.
+ :type depth: int | None
+
+ :param bool compact:
+ Control the way long :term:`sequences <sequence>` are formatted.
+ If ``False`` (the default),
+ each item of a sequence will be formatted on a separate line,
+ otherwise as many items as will fit within the *width*
+ will be formatted on each output line.
+
+ :param bool sort_dicts:
+ If ``True``, dictionaries will be formatted with
+ their keys sorted, otherwise
+ they will be displayed in insertion order (the default).
+
+ :param bool underscore_numbers:
+ If ``True``,
+ integers will be formatted with the ``_`` character for a thousands separator,
+ otherwise underscores are not displayed (the default).
- >>> import pprint
- >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
- >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff)
- >>> pprint.pp(stuff)
- [<Recursion on list with id=...>,
- 'spam',
- 'eggs',
- 'lumberjack',
- 'knights',
- 'ni']
+ >>> import pprint
+ >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
+ >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff)
+ >>> pprint.pp(stuff)
+ [<Recursion on list with id=...>,
+ 'spam',
+ 'eggs',
+ 'lumberjack',
+ 'knights',
+ 'ni']
.. versionadded:: 3.8
@@ -60,19 +100,10 @@ Functions
.. function:: pprint(object, stream=None, indent=1, width=80, depth=None, *, \
compact=False, sort_dicts=True, underscore_numbers=False)
- Prints the formatted representation of *object* on *stream*, followed by a
- newline. If *stream* is ``None``, :data:`sys.stdout` is used. This may be used
- in the interactive interpreter instead of the :func:`print` function for
- inspecting values (you can even reassign ``print = pprint.pprint`` for use
- within a scope).
-
- The configuration parameters *stream*, *indent*, *width*, *depth*,
- *compact*, *sort_dicts* and *underscore_numbers* are passed to the
- :class:`PrettyPrinter` constructor and their meanings are as
- described in its documentation below.
+ Alias for :func:`~pprint.pp` with *sort_dicts* set to ``True`` by default,
+ which would automatically sort the dictionaries' keys,
+ you might want to use :func:`~pprint.pp` instead where it is ``False`` by default.
- Note that *sort_dicts* is ``True`` by default and you might want to use
- :func:`~pprint.pp` instead where it is ``False`` by default.
.. function:: pformat(object, indent=1, width=80, depth=None, *, \
compact=False, sort_dicts=True, underscore_numbers=False)
@@ -80,7 +111,7 @@ Functions
Return the formatted representation of *object* as a string. *indent*,
*width*, *depth*, *compact*, *sort_dicts* and *underscore_numbers* are
passed to the :class:`PrettyPrinter` constructor as formatting parameters
- and their meanings are as described in its documentation below.
+ and their meanings are as described in the documentation above.
.. function:: isreadable(object)
@@ -119,51 +150,39 @@ Functions
PrettyPrinter Objects
---------------------
-This module defines one class:
-
-.. First the implementation class:
-
-
.. index:: single: ...; placeholder
.. class:: PrettyPrinter(indent=1, width=80, depth=None, stream=None, *, \
compact=False, sort_dicts=True, underscore_numbers=False)
- Construct a :class:`PrettyPrinter` instance. This constructor understands
- several keyword parameters.
-
- *stream* (default :data:`!sys.stdout`) is a :term:`file-like object` to
- which the output will be written by calling its :meth:`!write` method.
- If both *stream* and :data:`!sys.stdout` are ``None``, then
- :meth:`~PrettyPrinter.pprint` silently returns.
+ Construct a :class:`PrettyPrinter` instance.
- Other values configure the manner in which nesting of complex data
- structures is displayed.
+ Arguments have the same meaning as for :func:`~pprint.pp`.
+ Note that they are in a different order, and that *sort_dicts* defaults to ``True``.
- *indent* (default 1) specifies the amount of indentation added for
- each nesting level.
-
- *depth* controls the number of nesting levels which may be printed; if
- the data structure being printed is too deep, the next contained level
- is replaced by ``...``. By default, there is no constraint on the
- depth of the objects being formatted.
-
- *width* (default 80) specifies the desired maximum number of characters per
- line in the output. If a structure cannot be formatted within the width
- constraint, a best effort will be made.
-
- *compact* impacts the way that long sequences (lists, tuples, sets, etc)
- are formatted. If *compact* is false (the default) then each item of a
- sequence will be formatted on a separate line. If *compact* is true, as
- many items as will fit within the *width* will be formatted on each output
- line.
-
- If *sort_dicts* is true (the default), dictionaries will be formatted with
- their keys sorted, otherwise they will display in insertion order.
+ >>> import pprint
+ >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
+ >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff[:])
+ >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(indent=4)
+ >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
+ [ ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni'],
+ 'spam',
+ 'eggs',
+ 'lumberjack',
+ 'knights',
+ 'ni']
+ >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(width=41, compact=True)
+ >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
+ [['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack',
+ 'knights', 'ni'],
+ 'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights',
+ 'ni']
+ >>> tup = ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead',
+ ... ('parrot', ('fresh fruit',))))))))
+ >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(depth=6)
+ >>> pp.pprint(tup)
+ ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead', (...)))))))
- If *underscore_numbers* is true, integers will be formatted with the
- ``_`` character for a thousands separator, otherwise underscores are not
- displayed (the default).
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
Added the *compact* parameter.
@@ -177,29 +196,6 @@ This module defines one class:
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
No longer attempts to write to :data:`!sys.stdout` if it is ``None``.
- >>> import pprint
- >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
- >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff[:])
- >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(indent=4)
- >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
- [ ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni'],
- 'spam',
- 'eggs',
- 'lumberjack',
- 'knights',
- 'ni']
- >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(width=41, compact=True)
- >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
- [['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack',
- 'knights', 'ni'],
- 'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights',
- 'ni']
- >>> tup = ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead',
- ... ('parrot', ('fresh fruit',))))))))
- >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(depth=6)
- >>> pp.pprint(tup)
- ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead', (...)))))))
-
:class:`PrettyPrinter` instances have the following methods:
@@ -269,7 +265,7 @@ let's fetch information about a project from `PyPI <https://pypi.org>`_::
>>> import json
>>> import pprint
>>> from urllib.request import urlopen
- >>> with urlopen('https://pypi.org/pypi/sampleproject/json') as resp:
+ >>> with urlopen('https://pypi.org/pypi/sampleproject/1.2.0/json') as resp:
... project_info = json.load(resp)['info']
In its basic form, :func:`~pprint.pp` shows the whole object::
diff --git a/Doc/library/profile.rst b/Doc/library/profile.rst
index 3ca802e024bc27f..89433af5d879da5 100644
--- a/Doc/library/profile.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/profile.rst
@@ -123,23 +123,32 @@ them in various ways.
.. _profile-cli:
+.. program:: cProfile
+
The files :mod:`cProfile` and :mod:`profile` can also be invoked as a script to
profile another script. For example::
python -m cProfile [-o output_file] [-s sort_order] (-m module | myscript.py)
-``-o`` writes the profile results to a file instead of to stdout
+.. option:: -o <output_file>
+
+ Writes the profile results to a file instead of to stdout.
+
+.. option:: -s <sort_order>
+
+ Specifies one of the :func:`~pstats.Stats.sort_stats` sort values
+ to sort the output by.
+ This only applies when :option:`-o <cProfile -o>` is not supplied.
-``-s`` specifies one of the :func:`~pstats.Stats.sort_stats` sort values to sort
-the output by. This only applies when ``-o`` is not supplied.
+.. option:: -m <module>
-``-m`` specifies that a module is being profiled instead of a script.
+ Specifies that a module is being profiled instead of a script.
-.. versionadded:: 3.7
- Added the ``-m`` option to :mod:`cProfile`.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.7
+ Added the ``-m`` option to :mod:`cProfile`.
-.. versionadded:: 3.8
- Added the ``-m`` option to :mod:`profile`.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+ Added the ``-m`` option to :mod:`profile`.
The :mod:`pstats` module's :class:`~pstats.Stats` class has a variety of methods
for manipulating and printing the data saved into a profile results file::
@@ -234,7 +243,7 @@ functions:
.. function:: runctx(command, globals, locals, filename=None, sort=-1)
This function is similar to :func:`run`, with added arguments to supply the
- globals and locals dictionaries for the *command* string. This routine
+ globals and locals mappings for the *command* string. This routine
executes::
exec(command, globals, locals)
@@ -490,7 +499,7 @@ Analysis of the profiler data is done using the :class:`~pstats.Stats` class.
significant entries. Initially, the list is taken to be the complete set
of profiled functions. Each restriction is either an integer (to select a
count of lines), or a decimal fraction between 0.0 and 1.0 inclusive (to
- select a percentage of lines), or a string that will interpreted as a
+ select a percentage of lines), or a string that will be interpreted as a
regular expression (to pattern match the standard name that is printed).
If several restrictions are provided, then they are applied sequentially.
For example::
@@ -682,7 +691,7 @@ you are using :class:`profile.Profile` or :class:`cProfile.Profile`,
that you choose (see :ref:`profile-calibration`). For most machines, a timer
that returns a lone integer value will provide the best results in terms of
low overhead during profiling. (:func:`os.times` is *pretty* bad, as it
- returns a tuple of floating point values). If you want to substitute a
+ returns a tuple of floating-point values). If you want to substitute a
better timer in the cleanest fashion, derive a class and hardwire a
replacement dispatch method that best handles your timer call, along with the
appropriate calibration constant.
@@ -699,7 +708,7 @@ you are using :class:`profile.Profile` or :class:`cProfile.Profile`,
As the :class:`cProfile.Profile` class cannot be calibrated, custom timer
functions should be used with care and should be as fast as possible. For
the best results with a custom timer, it might be necessary to hard-code it
- in the C source of the internal :mod:`_lsprof` module.
+ in the C source of the internal :mod:`!_lsprof` module.
Python 3.3 adds several new functions in :mod:`time` that can be used to make
precise measurements of process or wall-clock time. For example, see
diff --git a/Doc/library/pty.rst b/Doc/library/pty.rst
index bd2f5ed45cb8b48..70404174999bed6 100644
--- a/Doc/library/pty.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/pty.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`pty` --- Pseudo-terminal utilities
-========================================
+:mod:`!pty` --- Pseudo-terminal utilities
+=========================================
.. module:: pty
- :platform: Unix
:synopsis: Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Unix.
.. moduleauthor:: Steen Lumholt
diff --git a/Doc/library/pwd.rst b/Doc/library/pwd.rst
index a6c6d79b60b20a9..7691fed2c7cb835 100644
--- a/Doc/library/pwd.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/pwd.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`pwd` --- The password database
-====================================
+:mod:`!pwd` --- The password database
+=====================================
.. module:: pwd
- :platform: Unix
:synopsis: The password database (getpwnam() and friends).
--------------
diff --git a/Doc/library/py_compile.rst b/Doc/library/py_compile.rst
index a35fa0ba3f7bded..75aa739d1003b8b 100644
--- a/Doc/library/py_compile.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/py_compile.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`py_compile` --- Compile Python source files
-=================================================
+:mod:`!py_compile` --- Compile Python source files
+==================================================
.. module:: py_compile
:synopsis: Generate byte-code files from Python source files.
diff --git a/Doc/library/pyclbr.rst b/Doc/library/pyclbr.rst
index 1e9876849b02f35..5efb11d89dd143d 100644
--- a/Doc/library/pyclbr.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/pyclbr.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`pyclbr` --- Python module browser support
-===============================================
+:mod:`!pyclbr` --- Python module browser support
+================================================
.. module:: pyclbr
:synopsis: Supports information extraction for a Python module browser.
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ Class Objects
.. attribute:: parent
- For top-level classes, None. For nested classes, the parent.
+ For top-level classes, ``None``. For nested classes, the parent.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
diff --git a/Doc/library/pydoc.rst b/Doc/library/pydoc.rst
index df969b2fc7c04c9..a59793c25159df9 100644
--- a/Doc/library/pydoc.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/pydoc.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`pydoc` --- Documentation generator and online help system
-===============================================================
+:mod:`!pydoc` --- Documentation generator and online help system
+================================================================
.. module:: pydoc
:synopsis: Documentation generator and online help system.
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ modules. The documentation can be presented as pages of text on the console,
served to a web browser, or saved to HTML files.
For modules, classes, functions and methods, the displayed documentation is
-derived from the docstring (i.e. the :attr:`!__doc__` attribute) of the object,
+derived from the docstring (i.e. the :attr:`~definition.__doc__` attribute) of the object,
and recursively of its documentable members. If there is no docstring,
:mod:`!pydoc` tries to obtain a description from the block of comment lines just
above the definition of the class, function or method in the source file, or at
@@ -52,8 +52,9 @@ produced for that file.
only execute code when a file is invoked as a script and not just imported.
When printing output to the console, :program:`pydoc` attempts to paginate the
-output for easier reading. If the :envvar:`PAGER` environment variable is set,
-:program:`pydoc` will use its value as a pagination program.
+output for easier reading. If either the :envvar:`MANPAGER` or the
+:envvar:`PAGER` environment variable is set, :program:`pydoc` will use its
+value as a pagination program. When both are set, :envvar:`MANPAGER` is used.
Specifying a ``-w`` flag before the argument will cause HTML documentation
to be written out to a file in the current directory, instead of displaying text
@@ -70,6 +71,11 @@ will start a HTTP server on port 1234, allowing you to browse the
documentation at ``http://localhost:1234/`` in your preferred web browser.
Specifying ``0`` as the port number will select an arbitrary unused port.
+.. warning::
+
+ The :mod:`!pydoc` HTTP server is intended for local use during
+ development and is not suitable for production use.
+
:program:`python -m pydoc -n <hostname>` will start the server listening at the given
hostname. By default the hostname is 'localhost' but if you want the server to
be reached from other machines, you may want to change the host name that the
diff --git a/Doc/library/pyexpat.rst b/Doc/library/pyexpat.rst
index c4b4e6319277af9..a548fd7cc0cefe2 100644
--- a/Doc/library/pyexpat.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/pyexpat.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`xml.parsers.expat` --- Fast XML parsing using Expat
-=========================================================
+:mod:`!xml.parsers.expat` --- Fast XML parsing using Expat
+==========================================================
.. module:: xml.parsers.expat
:synopsis: An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser.
@@ -16,11 +16,10 @@
references to these attributes should be marked using the :member: role.
-.. warning::
+.. note::
- The :mod:`pyexpat` module is not secure against maliciously
- constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data see
- :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities`.
+ If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see
+ :ref:`xml-security`.
.. index:: single: Expat
@@ -38,7 +37,7 @@ the XML document.
This module uses the :mod:`pyexpat` module to provide access to the Expat
parser. Direct use of the :mod:`pyexpat` module is deprecated.
-This module provides one exception and one type object:
+This module provides the following exception, type object and data items:
.. exception:: ExpatError
@@ -56,6 +55,29 @@ This module provides one exception and one type object:
The type of the return values from the :func:`ParserCreate` function.
+
+.. data:: EXPAT_VERSION
+
+ The version string of the Expat library loaded by the interpreter,
+ like ``'expat_2.8.4'``.
+
+
+.. data:: version_info
+
+ The version of the Expat library loaded by the interpreter,
+ as a tuple of three integers: major, minor and micro version.
+
+
+.. data:: features
+
+ The list of the features with which the loaded Expat library
+ was compiled, as ``(name, value)`` pairs.
+ The value is only meaningful for features which have one,
+ like ``'XML_CONTEXT_BYTES'`` or the default protection limits
+ ``'XML_BLAP_ACT_THRES'`` and ``'XML_AT_MAX_AMP'``;
+ for other features, like ``'XML_DTD'`` and ``'XML_NS'``,
+ the value is ``0`` and only the presence of the name is significant.
+
The :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` module contains two functions:
@@ -64,7 +86,7 @@ The :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` module contains two functions:
Returns an explanatory string for a given error number *errno*.
-.. function:: ParserCreate(encoding=None, namespace_separator=None)
+.. function:: ParserCreate(encoding=None, namespace_separator=None, intern=None)
Creates and returns a new :class:`xmlparser` object. *encoding*, if specified,
must be a string naming the encoding used by the XML data. Expat doesn't
@@ -73,6 +95,13 @@ The :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` module contains two functions:
*encoding* [1]_ is given it will override the implicit or explicit encoding of the
document.
+ .. _xmlparser-non-root:
+
+ Parsers created through :func:`!ParserCreate` are called "root" parsers,
+ in the sense that they do not have any parent parser attached. Non-root
+ parsers are created by :meth:`parser.ExternalEntityParserCreate
+ <xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate>`.
+
Expat can optionally do XML namespace processing for you, enabled by providing a
value for *namespace_separator*. The value must be a one-character string; a
:exc:`ValueError` will be raised if the string has an illegal length (``None``
@@ -104,6 +133,11 @@ The :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` module contains two functions:
http://www.python.org/ns/ elem1
elem2
+ *intern*, if given, must be a dictionary.
+ It is used to intern the names of elements and attributes,
+ and is available as the :attr:`~xmlparser.intern` attribute.
+ By default a new empty dictionary is created for every parser.
+
Due to limitations in the ``Expat`` library used by :mod:`pyexpat`,
the :class:`xmlparser` instance returned can only be used to parse a single
XML document. Call ``ParserCreate`` for each document to provide unique
@@ -126,18 +160,24 @@ XMLParser Objects
.. method:: xmlparser.Parse(data[, isfinal])
- Parses the contents of the string *data*, calling the appropriate handler
- functions to process the parsed data. *isfinal* must be true on the final call
- to this method; it allows the parsing of a single file in fragments,
+ Parses the contents of *data*,
+ calling the appropriate handler functions to process the parsed data.
+ *data* can be a :term:`bytes-like object` or a string.
+ If it is a string, the encoding declaration in the XML data is ignored,
+ and the data is parsed as already decoded text.
+ *isfinal* must be true on the final call to this method;
+ it allows the parsing of a single file in fragments,
not the submission of multiple files.
- *data* can be the empty string at any time.
+ *data* can be empty at any time.
.. method:: xmlparser.ParseFile(file)
- Parse XML data reading from the object *file*. *file* only needs to provide
- the ``read(nbytes)`` method, returning the empty string when there's no more
- data.
+ Parse XML data reading from the object *file*.
+ *file* only needs to provide the ``read(nbytes)`` method,
+ which returns bytes, and an empty bytes object when there's no more data.
+ Text files are not supported;
+ use :meth:`Parse` for data which is already decoded.
.. method:: xmlparser.SetBase(base)
@@ -157,9 +197,15 @@ XMLParser Objects
.. method:: xmlparser.GetInputContext()
- Returns the input data that generated the current event as a string. The data is
- in the encoding of the entity which contains the text. When called while an
- event handler is not active, the return value is ``None``.
+ Returns the input data which generated the current event
+ as a :class:`bytes` object.
+ The data is in the encoding of the entity which contains the text.
+ It extends to the end of the currently buffered input,
+ therefore it can contain also the data of the following events,
+ and if the event was generated by a large amount of text,
+ not all of it may be available.
+ When called while an event handler is not active,
+ the return value is ``None``.
.. method:: xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate(context[, encoding])
@@ -210,7 +256,7 @@ XMLParser Objects
by default until a sufficient amount of input is reached.
Due to this delay, registered handlers may — depending of the sizing of
input chunks pushed to Expat — no longer be called right after pushing new
- input to the parser. Where immediate feedback and taking over responsiblity
+ input to the parser. Where immediate feedback and taking over responsibility
of protecting against denial of service from large tokens are both wanted,
calling ``SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False)`` disables reparse deferral
for the current Expat parser instance, temporarily or altogether.
@@ -232,6 +278,111 @@ XMLParser Objects
.. versionadded:: 3.13
+:class:`!xmlparser` objects have the following methods to tune protections
+against some common XML vulnerabilities.
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionActivationThreshold(threshold, /)
+
+ Sets the number of output bytes needed to activate protection against
+ `billion laughs`_ attacks.
+
+ The number of output bytes includes amplification from entity expansion
+ and reading DTD files.
+
+ Parser objects usually have a protection activation threshold of 8 MiB,
+ but the actual default value depends on the underlying Expat library.
+
+ An :exc:`ExpatError` is raised if this method is called on a
+ |xml-non-root-parser| parser.
+ The corresponding :attr:`~ExpatError.lineno` and :attr:`~ExpatError.offset`
+ should not be used as they may have no special meaning.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ Activation thresholds below 4 MiB are known to break support for DITA 1.3
+ payload and are hence not recommended.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13.14
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionMaximumAmplification(max_factor, /)
+
+ Sets the maximum tolerated amplification factor for protection against
+ `billion laughs`_ attacks.
+
+ The amplification factor is calculated as ``(direct + indirect) / direct``
+ while parsing, where ``direct`` is the number of bytes read from
+ the primary document in parsing and ``indirect`` is the number of
+ bytes added by expanding entities and reading of external DTD files.
+
+ The *max_factor* value must be a non-NaN :class:`float` value greater than
+ or equal to 1.0. Peak amplifications of factor 15,000 for the entire payload
+ and of factor 30,000 in the middle of parsing have been observed with small
+ benign files in practice. In particular, the activation threshold should be
+ carefully chosen to avoid false positives.
+
+ Parser objects usually have a maximum amplification factor of 100,
+ but the actual default value depends on the underlying Expat library.
+
+ An :exc:`ExpatError` is raised if this method is called on a
+ |xml-non-root-parser| parser or if *max_factor* is outside the valid range.
+ The corresponding :attr:`~ExpatError.lineno` and :attr:`~ExpatError.offset`
+ should not be used as they may have no special meaning.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ The maximum amplification factor is only considered if the threshold
+ that can be adjusted by :meth:`.SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionActivationThreshold`
+ is exceeded.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13.14
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.SetAllocTrackerActivationThreshold(threshold, /)
+
+ Sets the number of allocated bytes of dynamic memory needed to activate
+ protection against disproportionate use of RAM.
+
+ Parser objects usually have an allocation activation threshold of 64 MiB,
+ but the actual default value depends on the underlying Expat library.
+
+ An :exc:`ExpatError` is raised if this method is called on a
+ |xml-non-root-parser| parser.
+ The corresponding :attr:`~ExpatError.lineno` and :attr:`~ExpatError.offset`
+ should not be used as they may have no special meaning.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13.10
+
+.. method:: xmlparser.SetAllocTrackerMaximumAmplification(max_factor, /)
+
+ Sets the maximum amplification factor between direct input and bytes
+ of dynamic memory allocated.
+
+ The amplification factor is calculated as ``allocated / direct``
+ while parsing, where ``direct`` is the number of bytes read from
+ the primary document in parsing and ``allocated`` is the number
+ of bytes of dynamic memory allocated in the parser hierarchy.
+
+ The *max_factor* value must be a non-NaN :class:`float` value greater than
+ or equal to 1.0. Amplification factors greater than 100.0 can be observed
+ near the start of parsing even with benign files in practice. In particular,
+ the activation threshold should be carefully chosen to avoid false positives.
+
+ Parser objects usually have a maximum amplification factor of 100,
+ but the actual default value depends on the underlying Expat library.
+
+ An :exc:`ExpatError` is raised if this method is called on a
+ |xml-non-root-parser| parser or if *max_factor* is outside the valid range.
+ The corresponding :attr:`~ExpatError.lineno` and :attr:`~ExpatError.offset`
+ should not be used as they may have no special meaning.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ The maximum amplification factor is only considered if the threshold
+ that can be adjusted by :meth:`.SetAllocTrackerActivationThreshold`
+ is exceeded.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13.10
+
+
:class:`xmlparser` objects have the following attributes:
@@ -281,6 +432,22 @@ XMLParser Objects
default, this attribute is false; it may be changed at any time.
+.. attribute:: xmlparser.intern
+
+ The dictionary used to intern the names of elements and attributes.
+ It is either the dictionary passed as the *intern* argument
+ of :func:`ParserCreate`, or a new dictionary created for this parser.
+
+
+.. attribute:: xmlparser.namespace_prefixes
+
+ If set to a true value, and namespace processing is enabled,
+ the namespace prefix is reported as the third part of the expanded name,
+ separated by the namespace separator.
+ Names which have no prefix are not affected.
+ By default, this attribute is false; it may be changed at any time.
+
+
The following attributes contain values relating to the most recent error
encountered by an :class:`xmlparser` object, and will only have correct values
once a call to :meth:`Parse` or :meth:`ParseFile` has raised an
@@ -344,8 +511,7 @@ otherwise stated.
encoding of the document text, and an optional "standalone" declaration.
*version* and *encoding* will be strings, and *standalone* will be ``1`` if the
document is declared standalone, ``0`` if it is declared not to be standalone,
- or ``-1`` if the standalone clause was omitted. This is only available with
- Expat version 1.95.0 or newer.
+ or ``-1`` if the standalone clause was omitted.
.. method:: xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler(doctypeName, systemId, publicId, has_internal_subset)
@@ -354,14 +520,12 @@ otherwise stated.
...``). The *doctypeName* is provided exactly as presented. The *systemId* and
*publicId* parameters give the system and public identifiers if specified, or
``None`` if omitted. *has_internal_subset* will be true if the document
- contains and internal document declaration subset. This requires Expat version
- 1.2 or newer.
+ contains an internal document declaration subset.
.. method:: xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler()
- Called when Expat is done parsing the document type declaration. This requires
- Expat version 1.2 or newer.
+ Called when Expat is done parsing the document type declaration.
.. method:: xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler(name, model)
@@ -376,12 +540,16 @@ otherwise stated.
declaration declares three attributes, this handler is called three times, once
for each attribute. *elname* is the name of the element to which the
declaration applies and *attname* is the name of the attribute declared. The
- attribute type is a string passed as *type*; the possible values are
- ``'CDATA'``, ``'ID'``, ``'IDREF'``, ... *default* gives the default value for
+ The attribute type is a string passed as *type*:
+ ``'CDATA'``, ``'ID'``, ``'IDREF'``, ``'IDREFS'``, ``'ENTITY'``,
+ ``'ENTITIES'``, ``'NMTOKEN'`` or ``'NMTOKENS'``,
+ an enumeration like ``'(x|y)'``,
+ or a notation list like ``'NOTATION(n1|n2)'``.
+ *default* gives the default value for
the attribute used when the attribute is not specified by the document instance,
or ``None`` if there is no default value (``#IMPLIED`` values). If the
attribute is required to be given in the document instance, *required* will be
- true. This requires Expat version 1.95.0 or newer.
+ true.
.. method:: xmlparser.StartElementHandler(name, attributes)
@@ -417,10 +585,10 @@ otherwise stated.
.. method:: xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler(entityName, base, systemId, publicId, notationName)
- Called for unparsed (NDATA) entity declarations. This is only present for
- version 1.2 of the Expat library; for more recent versions, use
- :attr:`EntityDeclHandler` instead. (The underlying function in the Expat
- library has been declared obsolete.)
+ Called for unparsed (NDATA) entity declarations.
+ If this handler is not set, such declarations are reported by
+ :attr:`EntityDeclHandler`, which is preferred for new code.
+ (The underlying function in the Expat library has been declared obsolete.)
.. method:: xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler(entityName, is_parameter_entity, value, base, systemId, publicId, notationName)
@@ -431,8 +599,7 @@ otherwise stated.
``None`` for parsed entities, and the name of the notation for unparsed
entities. *is_parameter_entity* will be true if the entity is a parameter entity
or false for general entities (most applications only need to be concerned with
- general entities). This is only available starting with version 1.95.0 of the
- Expat library.
+ general entities).
.. method:: xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler(notationName, base, systemId, publicId)
@@ -486,7 +653,7 @@ otherwise stated.
.. method:: xmlparser.DefaultHandlerExpand(data)
- This is the same as the :func:`DefaultHandler`, but doesn't inhibit expansion
+ This is the same as the :attr:`DefaultHandler`, but doesn't inhibit expansion
of internal entities. The entity reference will not be passed to the default
handler.
@@ -503,6 +670,15 @@ otherwise stated.
.. method:: xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler(context, base, systemId, publicId)
+ .. warning::
+
+ Implementing a handler that accesses local files and/or the network
+ may create a vulnerability to
+ `external entity attacks <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_external_entity_attack>`_
+ if :class:`xmlparser` is used with user-provided XML content.
+ Please reflect on your `threat model <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threat_model>`_
+ before implementing this handler.
+
Called for references to external entities. *base* is the current base, as set
by a previous call to :meth:`SetBase`. The public and system identifiers,
*systemId* and *publicId*, are strings if given; if the public identifier is not
@@ -521,6 +697,16 @@ otherwise stated.
:attr:`DefaultHandler` callback, if provided.
+.. method:: xmlparser.SkippedEntityHandler(entityName, is_parameter_entity)
+
+ Called for entity references which are not expanded,
+ because the parser did not read the declaration of the entity.
+ This happens when the external DTD subset or an external parameter entity
+ is not parsed.
+ *is_parameter_entity* is true for a parameter entity
+ and false for a general entity.
+
+
.. _expaterror-objects:
ExpatError Exceptions
@@ -626,35 +812,35 @@ The constants in the model type group are:
.. data:: XML_CTYPE_ANY
- :noindex:
The element named by the model name was declared to have a content model of
``ANY``.
.. data:: XML_CTYPE_CHOICE
- :noindex:
The named element allows a choice from a number of options; this is used for
content models such as ``(A | B | C)``.
.. data:: XML_CTYPE_EMPTY
- :noindex:
Elements which are declared to be ``EMPTY`` have this model type.
.. data:: XML_CTYPE_MIXED
- :noindex:
+
+ The named element allows character data, optionally interspersed with
+ the named children; this is used for content models such as
+ ``(#PCDATA)`` and ``(#PCDATA | A | B)*``.
.. data:: XML_CTYPE_NAME
- :noindex:
+
+ The model names a single element, as for ``A``.
.. data:: XML_CTYPE_SEQ
- :noindex:
Models which represent a series of models which follow one after the other are
indicated with this model type. This is used for models such as ``(A, B, C)``.
@@ -663,25 +849,21 @@ The constants in the quantifier group are:
.. data:: XML_CQUANT_NONE
- :noindex:
No modifier is given, so it can appear exactly once, as for ``A``.
.. data:: XML_CQUANT_OPT
- :noindex:
The model is optional: it can appear once or not at all, as for ``A?``.
.. data:: XML_CQUANT_PLUS
- :noindex:
The model must occur one or more times (like ``A+``).
.. data:: XML_CQUANT_REP
- :noindex:
The model must occur zero or more times, as for ``A*``.
@@ -765,7 +947,7 @@ The ``errors`` module has the following attributes:
.. data:: XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS
The document contains no elements (XML requires all documents to contain exactly
- one top-level element)..
+ one top-level element).
.. data:: XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY
@@ -868,7 +1050,7 @@ The ``errors`` module has the following attributes:
.. data:: XML_ERROR_XML_DECL
- The document contained no document element at all.
+ There was an error parsing the XML declaration.
.. data:: XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL
@@ -948,3 +1130,6 @@ The ``errors`` module has the following attributes:
not. See https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl
and https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml.
+
+.. _billion laughs: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs_attack
+.. |xml-non-root-parser| replace:: :ref:`non-root <xmlparser-non-root>`
diff --git a/Doc/library/queue.rst b/Doc/library/queue.rst
index fce23313c7de286..c126f31c9453e66 100644
--- a/Doc/library/queue.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/queue.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`queue` --- A synchronized queue class
-===========================================
+:mod:`!queue` --- A synchronized queue class
+============================================
.. module:: queue
:synopsis: A synchronized queue class.
@@ -76,6 +76,8 @@ The :mod:`queue` module defines the following classes and exceptions:
Constructor for an unbounded :abbr:`FIFO (first-in, first-out)` queue.
Simple queues lack advanced functionality such as task tracking.
+ Simple queues are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the type of their items.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.7
@@ -187,9 +189,6 @@ fully processed by daemon consumer threads.
processed (meaning that a :meth:`task_done` call was received for every item
that had been :meth:`put` into the queue).
- ``shutdown(immediate=True)`` calls :meth:`task_done` for each remaining item
- in the queue.
-
Raises a :exc:`ValueError` if called more times than there were items placed in
the queue.
@@ -204,6 +203,9 @@ fully processed by daemon consumer threads.
count of unfinished tasks drops to zero, :meth:`join` unblocks.
+Waiting for task completion
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
Example of how to wait for enqueued tasks to be completed::
import threading
@@ -233,22 +235,39 @@ Example of how to wait for enqueued tasks to be completed::
Terminating queues
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-:class:`Queue` objects can be made to prevent further interaction by shutting
-them down.
+When no longer needed, :class:`Queue` objects can be wound down
+until empty or terminated immediately with a hard shutdown.
.. method:: Queue.shutdown(immediate=False)
- Shut down the queue, making :meth:`~Queue.get` and :meth:`~Queue.put` raise
- :exc:`ShutDown`.
+ Put a :class:`Queue` instance into a shutdown mode.
+
+ The queue can no longer grow.
+ Future calls to :meth:`~Queue.put` raise :exc:`ShutDown`.
+ Currently blocked callers of :meth:`~Queue.put` will be unblocked
+ and will raise :exc:`ShutDown` in the formerly blocked thread.
+
+ If *immediate* is false (the default), the queue can be wound
+ down normally with :meth:`~Queue.get` calls to extract tasks
+ that have already been loaded.
+
+ And if :meth:`~Queue.task_done` is called for each remaining task, a
+ pending :meth:`~Queue.join` will be unblocked normally.
+
+ Once the queue is empty, future calls to :meth:`~Queue.get` will
+ raise :exc:`ShutDown`.
- By default, :meth:`~Queue.get` on a shut down queue will only raise once the
- queue is empty. Set *immediate* to true to make :meth:`~Queue.get` raise
- immediately instead.
+ If *immediate* is true, the queue is terminated immediately.
+ The queue is drained to be completely empty and the count
+ of unfinished tasks is reduced by the number of tasks drained.
+ If unfinished tasks is zero, callers of :meth:`~Queue.join`
+ are unblocked. Also, blocked callers of :meth:`~Queue.get`
+ are unblocked and will raise :exc:`ShutDown` because the
+ queue is empty.
- All blocked callers of :meth:`~Queue.put` and :meth:`~Queue.get` will be
- unblocked. If *immediate* is true, a task will be marked as done for each
- remaining item in the queue, which may unblock callers of
- :meth:`~Queue.join`.
+ Use caution when using :meth:`~Queue.join` with *immediate* set
+ to true. This unblocks the join even when no work has been done
+ on the tasks, violating the usual invariant for joining a queue.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
diff --git a/Doc/library/quopri.rst b/Doc/library/quopri.rst
index 86717c00c3c1366..977cb08d836afe3 100644
--- a/Doc/library/quopri.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/quopri.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`quopri` --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
-==============================================================
+:mod:`!quopri` --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
+===============================================================
.. module:: quopri
:synopsis: Encode and decode files using the MIME quoted-printable encoding.
diff --git a/Doc/library/random.rst b/Doc/library/random.rst
index 22a799c706b7e2c..fdc14cd04e2230f 100644
--- a/Doc/library/random.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/random.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`random` --- Generate pseudo-random numbers
-================================================
+:mod:`!random` --- Generate pseudo-random numbers
+=================================================
.. module:: random
:synopsis: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions.
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ Bookkeeping functions
instead of the system time (see the :func:`os.urandom` function for details
on availability).
- If *a* is an int, it is used directly.
+ If *a* is an int, its absolute value is used directly.
With version 2 (the default), a :class:`str`, :class:`bytes`, or :class:`bytearray`
object gets converted to an :class:`int` and all of its bits are used.
@@ -200,8 +200,8 @@ Functions for sequences
For a given seed, the :func:`choices` function with equal weighting
typically produces a different sequence than repeated calls to
- :func:`choice`. The algorithm used by :func:`choices` uses floating
- point arithmetic for internal consistency and speed. The algorithm used
+ :func:`choice`. The algorithm used by :func:`choices` uses floating-point
+ arithmetic for internal consistency and speed. The algorithm used
by :func:`choice` defaults to integer arithmetic with repeated selections
to avoid small biases from round-off error.
@@ -298,12 +298,12 @@ be found in any statistics text.
.. function:: random()
- Return the next random floating point number in the range ``0.0 <= X < 1.0``
+ Return the next random floating-point number in the range ``0.0 <= X < 1.0``
.. function:: uniform(a, b)
- Return a random floating point number *N* such that ``a <= N <= b`` for
+ Return a random floating-point number *N* such that ``a <= N <= b`` for
``a <= b`` and ``b <= N <= a`` for ``b < a``.
The end-point value ``b`` may or may not be included in the range
@@ -313,7 +313,7 @@ be found in any statistics text.
.. function:: triangular(low, high, mode)
- Return a random floating point number *N* such that ``low <= N <= high`` and
+ Return a random floating-point number *N* such that ``low <= N <= high`` and
with the specified *mode* between those bounds. The *low* and *high* bounds
default to zero and one. The *mode* argument defaults to the midpoint
between the bounds, giving a symmetric distribution.
@@ -447,6 +447,11 @@ Alternative Generator
Override this method in subclasses to customise the
:meth:`~random.getrandbits` behaviour of :class:`!Random` instances.
+ .. method:: Random.randbytes(n)
+
+ Override this method in subclasses to customise the
+ :meth:`~random.randbytes` behaviour of :class:`!Random` instances.
+
.. class:: SystemRandom([seed])
@@ -628,11 +633,12 @@ These recipes show how to efficiently make random selections
from the combinatoric iterators in the :mod:`itertools` module:
.. testcode::
+
import random
- def random_product(*args, repeat=1):
- "Random selection from itertools.product(*args, **kwds)"
- pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in args] * repeat
+ def random_product(*iterables, repeat=1):
+ "Random selection from itertools.product(*iterables, repeat=repeat)"
+ pools = tuple(map(tuple, iterables)) * repeat
return tuple(map(random.choice, pools))
def random_permutation(iterable, r=None):
@@ -656,6 +662,91 @@ from the combinatoric iterators in the :mod:`itertools` module:
indices = sorted(random.choices(range(n), k=r))
return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
+ def random_derangement(iterable):
+ "Choose a permutation where no element stays in its original position."
+ seq = tuple(iterable)
+ if len(seq) < 2:
+ if not seq:
+ return ()
+ raise IndexError('No derangments to choose from')
+ perm = list(range(len(seq)))
+ start = tuple(perm)
+ while True:
+ random.shuffle(perm)
+ if all(p != q for p, q in zip(start, perm)):
+ return tuple([seq[i] for i in perm])
+
+.. doctest::
+ :hide:
+
+ >>> import random
+
+
+ >>> random.seed(8675309)
+ >>> random_product('ABCDEFG', repeat=5)
+ ('D', 'B', 'E', 'F', 'E')
+
+
+ >>> random.seed(8675309)
+ >>> random_permutation('ABCDEFG')
+ ('D', 'B', 'E', 'C', 'G', 'A', 'F')
+ >>> random_permutation('ABCDEFG', 5)
+ ('A', 'G', 'D', 'C', 'B')
+
+
+ >>> random.seed(8675309)
+ >>> random_combination('ABCDEFG', 7)
+ ('A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'F', 'G')
+ >>> random_combination('ABCDEFG', 6)
+ ('A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'F', 'G')
+ >>> random_combination('ABCDEFG', 5)
+ ('A', 'B', 'C', 'E', 'F')
+ >>> random_combination('ABCDEFG', 4)
+ ('B', 'C', 'D', 'G')
+ >>> random_combination('ABCDEFG', 3)
+ ('B', 'E', 'G')
+ >>> random_combination('ABCDEFG', 2)
+ ('E', 'G')
+ >>> random_combination('ABCDEFG', 1)
+ ('C',)
+ >>> random_combination('ABCDEFG', 0)
+ ()
+
+
+ >>> random.seed(8675309)
+ >>> random_combination_with_replacement('ABCDEFG', 7)
+ ('B', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'E', 'E', 'G')
+ >>> random_combination_with_replacement('ABCDEFG', 3)
+ ('A', 'B', 'E')
+ >>> random_combination_with_replacement('ABCDEFG', 2)
+ ('A', 'G')
+ >>> random_combination_with_replacement('ABCDEFG', 1)
+ ('E',)
+ >>> random_combination_with_replacement('ABCDEFG', 0)
+ ()
+
+
+ >>> random.seed(8675309)
+ >>> random_derangement('')
+ ()
+ >>> random_derangement('A')
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ ...
+ IndexError: No derangments to choose from
+ >>> random_derangement('AB')
+ ('B', 'A')
+ >>> random_derangement('ABC')
+ ('C', 'A', 'B')
+ >>> random_derangement('ABCD')
+ ('B', 'A', 'D', 'C')
+ >>> random_derangement('ABCDE')
+ ('B', 'C', 'A', 'E', 'D')
+ >>> # Identical inputs treated as distinct
+ >>> identical = 20
+ >>> random_derangement((10, identical, 30, identical))
+ (20, 30, 10, 20)
+
+
The default :func:`.random` returns multiples of 2⁻⁵³ in the range
*0.0 ≤ x < 1.0*. All such numbers are evenly spaced and are exactly
representable as Python floats. However, many other representable
@@ -741,7 +832,7 @@ The following options are accepted:
.. option:: -f <N>
--float <N>
- Print a random floating point number between 1 and N inclusive,
+ Print a random floating-point number between 0 and N inclusive,
using :meth:`uniform`.
If no options are given, the output depends on the input:
diff --git a/Doc/library/re.rst b/Doc/library/re.rst
index fe7da8560768190..a855a6b8ff2effa 100644
--- a/Doc/library/re.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/re.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`re` --- Regular expression operations
-===========================================
+:mod:`!re` --- Regular expression operations
+============================================
.. module:: re
:synopsis: Regular expression operations.
@@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ The special characters are:
``.``
(Dot.) In the default mode, this matches any character except a newline. If
the :const:`DOTALL` flag has been specified, this matches any character
- including a newline.
+ including a newline. ``(?s:.)`` matches any character regardless of flags.
.. index:: single: ^ (caret); in regular expressions
@@ -250,14 +250,23 @@ The special characters are:
``[a\-z]``) or if it's placed as the first or last character
(e.g. ``[-a]`` or ``[a-]``), it will match a literal ``'-'``.
- * Special characters lose their special meaning inside sets. For example,
+ * Special characters except backslash lose their special meaning inside sets.
+ For example,
``[(+*)]`` will match any of the literal characters ``'('``, ``'+'``,
``'*'``, or ``')'``.
.. index:: single: \ (backslash); in regular expressions
- * Character classes such as ``\w`` or ``\S`` (defined below) are also accepted
- inside a set, although the characters they match depend on the flags_ used.
+ * Backslash either escapes characters which have special meaning in a set
+ such as ``'-'``, ``']'``, ``'^'`` and ``'\\'`` itself or signals
+ a special sequence which represents a single character such as
+ ``\xa0`` or ``\n`` or a character class such as ``\w`` or ``\S``
+ (defined below).
+ Note that ``\b`` represents a single "backspace" character,
+ not a word boundary as outside a set, and numeric escapes
+ such as ``\1`` are always octal escapes, not group references.
+ Special sequences which do not match a single character such as ``\A``
+ and ``\Z`` are not allowed.
.. index:: single: ^ (caret); in regular expressions
@@ -503,8 +512,9 @@ The special characters are:
*name* exists, and with ``no-pattern`` if it doesn't. ``no-pattern`` is
optional and can be omitted. For example,
``(<)?(\w+@\w+(?:\.\w+)+)(?(1)>|$)`` is a poor email matching pattern, which
- will match with ``'<user@host.com>'`` as well as ``'user@host.com'``, but
- not with ``'<user@host.com'`` nor ``'user@host.com>'``.
+ matches ``'<user@host.com>'`` as well as ``'user@host.com'``, but does not
+ match ``'<user@host.com'`` nor ``'user@host.com>'`` in their entirety
+ (:func:`re.search` finds only ``'user@host.com'`` in the former).
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
Group *id* can only contain ASCII digits.
@@ -572,6 +582,12 @@ character ``'$'``.
Word boundaries are determined by the current locale
if the :py:const:`~re.LOCALE` flag is used.
+ .. note::
+
+ Note that ``\B`` does not match an empty string, which differs from
+ RE implementations in other programming languages such as Perl.
+ This behavior is kept for compatibility reasons.
+
.. index:: single: \d; in regular expressions
``\d``
@@ -600,10 +616,9 @@ character ``'$'``.
``\s``
For Unicode (str) patterns:
- Matches Unicode whitespace characters (which includes
- ``[ \t\n\r\f\v]``, and also many other characters, for example the
- non-breaking spaces mandated by typography rules in many
- languages).
+ Matches Unicode whitespace characters (as defined by :py:meth:`str.isspace`).
+ This includes ``[ \t\n\r\f\v]``, and also many other characters, for example the
+ non-breaking spaces mandated by typography rules in many languages.
Matches ``[ \t\n\r\f\v]`` if the :py:const:`~re.ASCII` flag is used.
@@ -911,6 +926,10 @@ Functions
``None`` if no position in the string matches the pattern; note that this is
different from finding a zero-length match at some point in the string.
+ The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a *flags* value.
+ Values can be any of the `flags`_ variables, combined using bitwise OR
+ (the ``|`` operator).
+
.. function:: match(pattern, string, flags=0)
@@ -925,6 +944,10 @@ Functions
If you want to locate a match anywhere in *string*, use :func:`search`
instead (see also :ref:`search-vs-match`).
+ The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a *flags* value.
+ Values can be any of the `flags`_ variables, combined using bitwise OR
+ (the ``|`` operator).
+
.. function:: fullmatch(pattern, string, flags=0)
@@ -932,6 +955,10 @@ Functions
corresponding :class:`~re.Match`. Return ``None`` if the string does not match
the pattern; note that this is different from a zero-length match.
+ The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a *flags* value.
+ Values can be any of the `flags`_ variables, combined using bitwise OR
+ (the ``|`` operator).
+
.. versionadded:: 3.4
@@ -962,8 +989,8 @@ Functions
That way, separator components are always found at the same relative
indices within the result list.
- Empty matches for the pattern split the string only when not adjacent
- to a previous empty match.
+ Adjacent empty matches are not possible, but an empty match can occur
+ immediately after a non-empty match.
.. code:: pycon
@@ -974,6 +1001,10 @@ Functions
>>> re.split(r'(\W*)', '...words...')
['', '...', '', '', 'w', '', 'o', '', 'r', '', 'd', '', 's', '...', '', '', '']
+ The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a *flags* value.
+ Values can be any of the `flags`_ variables, combined using bitwise OR
+ (the ``|`` operator).
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.1
Added the optional flags argument.
@@ -1004,6 +1035,10 @@ Functions
>>> re.findall(r'(\w+)=(\d+)', 'set width=20 and height=10')
[('width', '20'), ('height', '10')]
+ The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a *flags* value.
+ Values can be any of the `flags`_ variables, combined using bitwise OR
+ (the ``|`` operator).
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Non-empty matches can now start just after a previous empty match.
@@ -1015,6 +1050,10 @@ Functions
is scanned left-to-right, and matches are returned in the order found. Empty
matches are included in the result.
+ The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a *flags* value.
+ Values can be any of the `flags`_ variables, combined using bitwise OR
+ (the ``|`` operator).
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Non-empty matches can now start just after a previous empty match.
@@ -1054,9 +1093,12 @@ Functions
The optional argument *count* is the maximum number of pattern occurrences to be
replaced; *count* must be a non-negative integer. If omitted or zero, all
- occurrences will be replaced. Empty matches for the pattern are replaced only
- when not adjacent to a previous empty match, so ``sub('x*', '-', 'abxd')`` returns
- ``'-a-b--d-'``.
+ occurrences will be replaced.
+
+ Adjacent empty matches are not possible, but an empty match can occur
+ immediately after a non-empty match.
+ As a result, ``sub('x*', '-', 'abxd')`` returns ``'-a-b--d-'``
+ instead of ``'-a-b-d-'``.
.. index:: single: \g; in regular expressions
@@ -1070,6 +1112,10 @@ Functions
character ``'0'``. The backreference ``\g<0>`` substitutes in the entire
substring matched by the RE.
+ The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a *flags* value.
+ Values can be any of the `flags`_ variables, combined using bitwise OR
+ (the ``|`` operator).
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.1
Added the optional flags argument.
@@ -1083,8 +1129,7 @@ Functions
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Unknown escapes in *repl* consisting of ``'\'`` and an ASCII letter
now are errors.
- Empty matches for the pattern are replaced when adjacent to a previous
- non-empty match.
+ An empty match can occur immediately after a non-empty match.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
Group *id* can only contain ASCII digits.
@@ -1102,6 +1147,10 @@ Functions
Perform the same operation as :func:`sub`, but return a tuple ``(new_string,
number_of_subs_made)``.
+ The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a *flags* value.
+ Values can be any of the `flags`_ variables, combined using bitwise OR
+ (the ``|`` operator).
+
.. function:: escape(pattern)
@@ -1190,6 +1239,9 @@ Regular Expression Objects
Compiled regular expression object returned by :func:`re.compile`.
+ Patterns are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the type of string they handle
+ (:class:`str` or :class:`bytes`).
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
:py:class:`re.Pattern` supports ``[]`` to indicate a Unicode (str) or bytes pattern.
See :ref:`types-genericalias`.
@@ -1333,6 +1385,9 @@ when there is no match, you can test whether there was a match with a simple
Match object returned by successful ``match``\ es and ``search``\ es.
+ Matches are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the type of string which was
+ matched (:class:`str` or :class:`bytes`).
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
:py:class:`re.Match` supports ``[]`` to indicate a Unicode (str) or bytes match.
See :ref:`types-genericalias`.
@@ -1356,10 +1411,10 @@ when there is no match, you can test whether there was a match with a simple
result is a single string; if there are multiple arguments, the result is a
tuple with one item per argument. Without arguments, *group1* defaults to zero
(the whole match is returned). If a *groupN* argument is zero, the corresponding
- return value is the entire matching string; if it is in the inclusive range
- [1..99], it is the string matching the corresponding parenthesized group. If a
- group number is negative or larger than the number of groups defined in the
- pattern, an :exc:`IndexError` exception is raised. If a group is contained in a
+ return value is the entire matching string; if it is a positive integer, it is
+ the string matching the corresponding parenthesized group. If a group number is
+ negative or larger than the number of groups defined in the pattern, an
+ :exc:`IndexError` exception is raised. If a group is contained in a
part of the pattern that did not match, the corresponding result is ``None``.
If a group is contained in a part of the pattern that matched multiple times,
the last match is returned. ::
@@ -1832,7 +1887,7 @@ successive matches::
class Token(NamedTuple):
type: str
- value: str
+ value: int | float | str
line: int
column: int
diff --git a/Doc/library/readline.rst b/Doc/library/readline.rst
index 8f8718ec51c41b0..1ece65d03abdc3c 100644
--- a/Doc/library/readline.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/readline.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`readline` --- GNU readline interface
-==========================================
+:mod:`!readline` --- GNU readline interface
+===========================================
.. module:: readline
- :platform: Unix
:synopsis: GNU readline support for Python.
.. sectionauthor:: Skip Montanaro <skip.montanaro@gmail.com>
@@ -24,7 +23,9 @@ in the GNU Readline manual for information about the format and
allowable constructs of that file, and the capabilities of the
Readline library in general.
-.. include:: ../includes/wasm-ios-notavail.rst
+.. include:: ../includes/wasm-mobile-notavail.rst
+
+.. availability:: Unix.
.. note::
@@ -45,6 +46,10 @@ Readline library in general.
python:bind -v
python:bind ^I rl_complete
+ Also note that different libraries may use different history file formats.
+ When switching the underlying library, existing history files may become
+ unusable.
+
.. data:: backend
The name of the underlying Readline library being used, either
@@ -61,13 +66,13 @@ The following functions relate to the init file and user configuration:
.. function:: parse_and_bind(string)
Execute the init line provided in the *string* argument. This calls
- :c:func:`rl_parse_and_bind` in the underlying library.
+ :c:func:`!rl_parse_and_bind` in the underlying library.
.. function:: read_init_file([filename])
Execute a readline initialization file. The default filename is the last filename
- used. This calls :c:func:`rl_read_init_file` in the underlying library.
+ used. This calls :c:func:`!rl_read_init_file` in the underlying library.
Line buffer
@@ -78,21 +83,21 @@ The following functions operate on the line buffer:
.. function:: get_line_buffer()
- Return the current contents of the line buffer (:c:data:`rl_line_buffer`
+ Return the current contents of the line buffer (:c:data:`!rl_line_buffer`
in the underlying library).
.. function:: insert_text(string)
Insert text into the line buffer at the cursor position. This calls
- :c:func:`rl_insert_text` in the underlying library, but ignores
+ :c:func:`!rl_insert_text` in the underlying library, but ignores
the return value.
.. function:: redisplay()
Change what's displayed on the screen to reflect the current contents of the
- line buffer. This calls :c:func:`rl_redisplay` in the underlying library.
+ line buffer. This calls :c:func:`!rl_redisplay` in the underlying library.
History file
@@ -105,21 +110,21 @@ The following functions operate on a history file:
Load a readline history file, and append it to the history list.
The default filename is :file:`~/.history`. This calls
- :c:func:`read_history` in the underlying library.
+ :c:func:`!read_history` in the underlying library.
.. function:: write_history_file([filename])
Save the history list to a readline history file, overwriting any
existing file. The default filename is :file:`~/.history`. This calls
- :c:func:`write_history` in the underlying library.
+ :c:func:`!write_history` in the underlying library.
.. function:: append_history_file(nelements[, filename])
Append the last *nelements* items of history to a file. The default filename is
:file:`~/.history`. The file must already exist. This calls
- :c:func:`append_history` in the underlying library. This function
+ :c:func:`!append_history` in the underlying library. This function
only exists if Python was compiled for a version of the library
that supports it.
@@ -131,7 +136,7 @@ The following functions operate on a history file:
Set or return the desired number of lines to save in the history file.
The :func:`write_history_file` function uses this value to truncate
- the history file, by calling :c:func:`history_truncate_file` in
+ the history file, by calling :c:func:`!history_truncate_file` in
the underlying library. Negative values imply
unlimited history file size.
@@ -144,7 +149,7 @@ The following functions operate on a global history list:
.. function:: clear_history()
- Clear the current history. This calls :c:func:`clear_history` in the
+ Clear the current history. This calls :c:func:`!clear_history` in the
underlying library. The Python function only exists if Python was
compiled for a version of the library that supports it.
@@ -159,32 +164,32 @@ The following functions operate on a global history list:
.. function:: get_history_item(index)
Return the current contents of history item at *index*. The item index
- is one-based. This calls :c:func:`history_get` in the underlying library.
+ is one-based. This calls :c:func:`!history_get` in the underlying library.
.. function:: remove_history_item(pos)
Remove history item specified by its position from the history.
- The position is zero-based. This calls :c:func:`remove_history` in
+ The position is zero-based. This calls :c:func:`!remove_history` in
the underlying library.
.. function:: replace_history_item(pos, line)
Replace history item specified by its position with *line*.
- The position is zero-based. This calls :c:func:`replace_history_entry`
+ The position is zero-based. This calls :c:func:`!replace_history_entry`
in the underlying library.
.. function:: add_history(line)
Append *line* to the history buffer, as if it was the last line typed.
- This calls :c:func:`add_history` in the underlying library.
+ This calls :c:func:`!add_history` in the underlying library.
.. function:: set_auto_history(enabled)
- Enable or disable automatic calls to :c:func:`add_history` when reading
+ Enable or disable automatic calls to :c:func:`!add_history` when reading
input via readline. The *enabled* argument should be a Boolean value
that when true, enables auto history, and that when false, disables
auto history.
@@ -202,7 +207,7 @@ Startup hooks
.. function:: set_startup_hook([function])
- Set or remove the function invoked by the :c:data:`rl_startup_hook`
+ Set or remove the function invoked by the :c:data:`!rl_startup_hook`
callback of the underlying library. If *function* is specified, it will
be used as the new hook function; if omitted or ``None``, any function
already installed is removed. The hook is called with no
@@ -211,7 +216,7 @@ Startup hooks
.. function:: set_pre_input_hook([function])
- Set or remove the function invoked by the :c:data:`rl_pre_input_hook`
+ Set or remove the function invoked by the :c:data:`!rl_pre_input_hook`
callback of the underlying library. If *function* is specified, it will
be used as the new hook function; if omitted or ``None``, any
function already installed is removed. The hook is called
@@ -243,9 +248,9 @@ with a custom completer, a different set of word delimiters should be set.
starting with *text*.
The installed completer function is invoked by the *entry_func* callback
- passed to :c:func:`rl_completion_matches` in the underlying library.
+ passed to :c:func:`!rl_completion_matches` in the underlying library.
The *text* string comes from the first parameter to the
- :c:data:`rl_attempted_completion_function` callback of the
+ :c:data:`!rl_attempted_completion_function` callback of the
underlying library.
@@ -257,7 +262,7 @@ with a custom completer, a different set of word delimiters should be set.
.. function:: get_completion_type()
Get the type of completion being attempted. This returns the
- :c:data:`rl_completion_type` variable in the underlying library as
+ :c:data:`!rl_completion_type` variable in the underlying library as
an integer.
@@ -266,7 +271,7 @@ with a custom completer, a different set of word delimiters should be set.
Get the beginning or ending index of the completion scope.
These indexes are the *start* and *end* arguments passed to the
- :c:data:`rl_attempted_completion_function` callback of the
+ :c:data:`!rl_attempted_completion_function` callback of the
underlying library. The values may be different in the same
input editing scenario based on the underlying C readline implementation.
Ex: libedit is known to behave differently than libreadline.
@@ -277,7 +282,7 @@ with a custom completer, a different set of word delimiters should be set.
Set or get the word delimiters for completion. These determine the
start of the word to be considered for completion (the completion scope).
- These functions access the :c:data:`rl_completer_word_break_characters`
+ These functions access the :c:data:`!rl_completer_word_break_characters`
variable in the underlying library.
@@ -287,7 +292,7 @@ with a custom completer, a different set of word delimiters should be set.
specified, it will be used as the new completion display function;
if omitted or ``None``, any completion display function already
installed is removed. This sets or clears the
- :c:data:`rl_completion_display_matches_hook` callback in the
+ :c:data:`!rl_completion_display_matches_hook` callback in the
underlying library. The completion display function is called as
``function(substitution, [matches], longest_match_length)`` once
each time matches need to be displayed.
@@ -368,3 +373,9 @@ support history save/restore. ::
def save_history(self, histfile):
readline.set_history_length(1000)
readline.write_history_file(histfile)
+
+.. note::
+
+ The new :term:`REPL` introduced in version 3.13 doesn't support readline.
+ However, readline can still be used by setting the :envvar:`PYTHON_BASIC_REPL`
+ environment variable.
diff --git a/Doc/library/removed.rst b/Doc/library/removed.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..4d75842eca1a03f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/removed.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+:tocdepth: 1
+
+.. _removed:
+
+***************
+Removed Modules
+***************
+
+The modules described in this chapter have been removed from the Python
+standard library. They are documented here to help people find replacements.
+
+
+.. toctree::
+ :maxdepth: 1
+
+ aifc.rst
+ asynchat.rst
+ asyncore.rst
+ audioop.rst
+ cgi.rst
+ cgitb.rst
+ chunk.rst
+ crypt.rst
+ distutils.rst
+ imghdr.rst
+ imp.rst
+ mailcap.rst
+ msilib.rst
+ nis.rst
+ nntplib.rst
+ ossaudiodev.rst
+ pipes.rst
+ smtpd.rst
+ sndhdr.rst
+ spwd.rst
+ sunau.rst
+ telnetlib.rst
+ uu.rst
+ xdrlib.rst
diff --git a/Doc/library/reprlib.rst b/Doc/library/reprlib.rst
index 678a11c6f454908..28c7855dfeeef3b 100644
--- a/Doc/library/reprlib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/reprlib.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`reprlib` --- Alternate :func:`repr` implementation
-========================================================
+:mod:`!reprlib` --- Alternate :func:`repr` implementation
+=========================================================
.. module:: reprlib
:synopsis: Alternate repr() implementation with size limits.
diff --git a/Doc/library/resource.rst b/Doc/library/resource.rst
index 4fea8d5cb718c1b..357686da00ca4e1 100644
--- a/Doc/library/resource.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/resource.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`resource` --- Resource usage information
-==============================================
+:mod:`!resource` --- Resource usage information
+===============================================
.. module:: resource
- :platform: Unix
:synopsis: An interface to provide resource usage information on the current process.
.. moduleauthor:: Jeremy Hylton <jeremy@alum.mit.edu>
@@ -63,12 +62,12 @@ this module for those platforms.
Sets new limits of consumption of *resource*. The *limits* argument must be a
tuple ``(soft, hard)`` of two integers describing the new limits. A value of
- :data:`~resource.RLIM_INFINITY` can be used to request a limit that is
+ :const:`~resource.RLIM_INFINITY` can be used to request a limit that is
unlimited.
Raises :exc:`ValueError` if an invalid resource is specified, if the new soft
limit exceeds the hard limit, or if a process tries to raise its hard limit.
- Specifying a limit of :data:`~resource.RLIM_INFINITY` when the hard or
+ Specifying a limit of :const:`~resource.RLIM_INFINITY` when the hard or
system limit for that resource is not unlimited will result in a
:exc:`ValueError`. A process with the effective UID of super-user can
request any valid limit value, including unlimited, but :exc:`ValueError`
@@ -78,7 +77,7 @@ this module for those platforms.
``setrlimit`` may also raise :exc:`error` if the underlying system call
fails.
- VxWorks only supports setting :data:`RLIMIT_NOFILE`.
+ VxWorks only supports setting :const:`RLIMIT_NOFILE`.
.. audit-event:: resource.setrlimit resource,limits resource.setrlimit
@@ -127,7 +126,7 @@ platform.
.. data:: RLIMIT_CPU
The maximum amount of processor time (in seconds) that a process can use. If
- this limit is exceeded, a :const:`SIGXCPU` signal is sent to the process. (See
+ this limit is exceeded, a :const:`~signal.SIGXCPU` signal is sent to the process. (See
the :mod:`signal` module documentation for information about how to catch this
signal and do something useful, e.g. flush open files to disk.)
@@ -176,8 +175,9 @@ platform.
.. data:: RLIMIT_VMEM
The largest area of mapped memory which the process may occupy.
+ Usually an alias of :const:`RLIMIT_AS`.
- .. availability:: FreeBSD >= 11.
+ .. availability:: Solaris, FreeBSD, NetBSD.
.. data:: RLIMIT_AS
@@ -230,16 +230,18 @@ platform.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
.. data:: RLIMIT_SBSIZE
The maximum size (in bytes) of socket buffer usage for this user.
This limits the amount of network memory, and hence the amount of mbufs,
that this user may hold at any time.
- .. availability:: FreeBSD.
+ .. availability:: FreeBSD, NetBSD.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
.. data:: RLIMIT_SWAP
The maximum size (in bytes) of the swap space that may be reserved or
@@ -249,18 +251,20 @@ platform.
`tuning(7) <https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=tuning&sektion=7>`__
for a complete description of this sysctl.
- .. availability:: FreeBSD.
+ .. availability:: FreeBSD >= 8.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
.. data:: RLIMIT_NPTS
The maximum number of pseudo-terminals created by this user id.
- .. availability:: FreeBSD.
+ .. availability:: FreeBSD >= 8.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
+
.. data:: RLIMIT_KQUEUES
The maximum number of kqueues this user id is allowed to create.
@@ -269,6 +273,7 @@ platform.
.. versionadded:: 3.10
+
Resource Usage
--------------
@@ -297,54 +302,54 @@ These functions are used to retrieve resource usage information:
print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF))
The fields of the return value each describe how a particular system resource
- has been used, e.g. amount of time spent running is user mode or number of times
+ has been used, e.g. amount of time spent running in user mode or number of times
the process was swapped out of main memory. Some values are dependent on the
- clock tick internal, e.g. the amount of memory the process is using.
+ clock tick interval, e.g. the amount of memory the process is using.
For backward compatibility, the return value is also accessible as a tuple of 16
elements.
- The fields :attr:`ru_utime` and :attr:`ru_stime` of the return value are
- floating point values representing the amount of time spent executing in user
+ The fields :attr:`!ru_utime` and :attr:`!ru_stime` of the return value are
+ floating-point values representing the amount of time spent executing in user
mode and the amount of time spent executing in system mode, respectively. The
remaining values are integers. Consult the :manpage:`getrusage(2)` man page for
detailed information about these values. A brief summary is presented here:
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | Index | Field | Resource |
- +========+=====================+=======================================+
- | ``0`` | :attr:`ru_utime` | time in user mode (float seconds) |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``1`` | :attr:`ru_stime` | time in system mode (float seconds) |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``2`` | :attr:`ru_maxrss` | maximum resident set size |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``3`` | :attr:`ru_ixrss` | shared memory size |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``4`` | :attr:`ru_idrss` | unshared memory size |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``5`` | :attr:`ru_isrss` | unshared stack size |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``6`` | :attr:`ru_minflt` | page faults not requiring I/O |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``7`` | :attr:`ru_majflt` | page faults requiring I/O |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``8`` | :attr:`ru_nswap` | number of swap outs |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``9`` | :attr:`ru_inblock` | block input operations |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``10`` | :attr:`ru_oublock` | block output operations |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``11`` | :attr:`ru_msgsnd` | messages sent |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``12`` | :attr:`ru_msgrcv` | messages received |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``13`` | :attr:`ru_nsignals` | signals received |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``14`` | :attr:`ru_nvcsw` | voluntary context switches |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
- | ``15`` | :attr:`ru_nivcsw` | involuntary context switches |
- +--------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | Index | Field | Resource |
+ +========+======================+=======================================+
+ | ``0`` | :attr:`!ru_utime` | time in user mode (float seconds) |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``1`` | :attr:`!ru_stime` | time in system mode (float seconds) |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``2`` | :attr:`!ru_maxrss` | maximum resident set size |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``3`` | :attr:`!ru_ixrss` | shared memory size |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``4`` | :attr:`!ru_idrss` | unshared memory size |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``5`` | :attr:`!ru_isrss` | unshared stack size |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``6`` | :attr:`!ru_minflt` | page faults not requiring I/O |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``7`` | :attr:`!ru_majflt` | page faults requiring I/O |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``8`` | :attr:`!ru_nswap` | number of swap outs |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``9`` | :attr:`!ru_inblock` | block input operations |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``10`` | :attr:`!ru_oublock` | block output operations |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``11`` | :attr:`!ru_msgsnd` | messages sent |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``12`` | :attr:`!ru_msgrcv` | messages received |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``13`` | :attr:`!ru_nsignals` | signals received |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``14`` | :attr:`!ru_nvcsw` | voluntary context switches |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
+ | ``15`` | :attr:`!ru_nivcsw` | involuntary context switches |
+ +--------+----------------------+---------------------------------------+
This function will raise a :exc:`ValueError` if an invalid *who* parameter is
specified. It may also raise :exc:`error` exception in unusual circumstances.
diff --git a/Doc/library/rlcompleter.rst b/Doc/library/rlcompleter.rst
index 8287699c5f013ec..91779feb5250139 100644
--- a/Doc/library/rlcompleter.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/rlcompleter.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`rlcompleter` --- Completion function for GNU readline
-===========================================================
+:mod:`!rlcompleter` --- Completion function for GNU readline
+============================================================
.. module:: rlcompleter
:synopsis: Python identifier completion, suitable for the GNU readline library.
diff --git a/Doc/library/runpy.rst b/Doc/library/runpy.rst
index f2cb595f495f6be..b07ec6e93f80aba 100644
--- a/Doc/library/runpy.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/runpy.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`runpy` --- Locating and executing Python modules
-======================================================
+:mod:`!runpy` --- Locating and executing Python modules
+=======================================================
.. module:: runpy
:synopsis: Locate and run Python modules without importing them first.
diff --git a/Doc/library/sched.rst b/Doc/library/sched.rst
index 4c980dd97f9394f..44858c2c98782a5 100644
--- a/Doc/library/sched.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/sched.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`sched` --- Event scheduler
-================================
+:mod:`!sched` --- Event scheduler
+=================================
.. module:: sched
:synopsis: General purpose event scheduler.
@@ -119,9 +119,11 @@ Scheduler Objects
function passed to the constructor) for the next event, then execute it and so
on until there are no more scheduled events.
- If *blocking* is false executes the scheduled events due to expire soonest
- (if any) and then return the deadline of the next scheduled call in the
- scheduler (if any).
+ If *blocking* is false, immediately executes all events in the queue which have
+ a time value less than or equal to the current *timefunc* value (if any) and
+ returns the difference between the current *timefunc* value and the time value
+ of the next scheduled event in the scheduler's event queue. If the queue is
+ empty, returns ``None``.
Either *action* or *delayfunc* can raise an exception. In either case, the
scheduler will maintain a consistent state and propagate the exception. If an
diff --git a/Doc/library/secrets.rst b/Doc/library/secrets.rst
index 8f1a68d1d8816c2..8c77bccfb86ff38 100644
--- a/Doc/library/secrets.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/secrets.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`secrets` --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets
-======================================================================
+:mod:`!secrets` --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets
+=======================================================================
.. module:: secrets
:synopsis: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.
@@ -42,17 +42,17 @@ randomness that your operating system provides.
sources provided by the operating system. See
:class:`random.SystemRandom` for additional details.
-.. function:: choice(sequence)
+.. function:: choice(seq)
Return a randomly chosen element from a non-empty sequence.
-.. function:: randbelow(n)
+.. function:: randbelow(exclusive_upper_bound)
- Return a random int in the range [0, *n*).
+ Return a random int in the range [0, *exclusive_upper_bound*).
.. function:: randbits(k)
- Return an int with *k* random bits.
+ Return a non-negative int with *k* random bits.
Generating tokens
@@ -62,39 +62,44 @@ The :mod:`secrets` module provides functions for generating secure
tokens, suitable for applications such as password resets,
hard-to-guess URLs, and similar.
-.. function:: token_bytes([nbytes=None])
+.. function:: token_bytes(nbytes=None)
Return a random byte string containing *nbytes* number of bytes.
- If *nbytes* is ``None`` or not supplied, a reasonable default is
- used.
+
+ If *nbytes* is not specified or ``None``, :const:`DEFAULT_ENTROPY`
+ is used instead.
.. doctest::
- >>> token_bytes(16) #doctest:+SKIP
+ >>> token_bytes(16) # doctest: +SKIP
b'\xebr\x17D*t\xae\xd4\xe3S\xb6\xe2\xebP1\x8b'
-.. function:: token_hex([nbytes=None])
+.. function:: token_hex(nbytes=None)
Return a random text string, in hexadecimal. The string has *nbytes*
- random bytes, each byte converted to two hex digits. If *nbytes* is
- ``None`` or not supplied, a reasonable default is used.
+ random bytes, each byte converted to two hex digits.
+
+ If *nbytes* is not specified or ``None``, :const:`DEFAULT_ENTROPY`
+ is used instead.
.. doctest::
- >>> token_hex(16) #doctest:+SKIP
+ >>> token_hex(16) # doctest: +SKIP
'f9bf78b9a18ce6d46a0cd2b0b86df9da'
-.. function:: token_urlsafe([nbytes=None])
+.. function:: token_urlsafe(nbytes=None)
Return a random URL-safe text string, containing *nbytes* random
bytes. The text is Base64 encoded, so on average each byte results
- in approximately 1.3 characters. If *nbytes* is ``None`` or not
- supplied, a reasonable default is used.
+ in approximately 1.3 characters.
+
+ If *nbytes* is not specified or ``None``, :const:`DEFAULT_ENTROPY`
+ is used instead.
.. doctest::
- >>> token_urlsafe(16) #doctest:+SKIP
+ >>> token_urlsafe(16) # doctest: +SKIP
'Drmhze6EPcv0fN_81Bj-nA'
@@ -115,11 +120,13 @@ argument to the various ``token_*`` functions. That argument is taken
as the number of bytes of randomness to use.
Otherwise, if no argument is provided, or if the argument is ``None``,
-the ``token_*`` functions will use a reasonable default instead.
+the ``token_*`` functions use :const:`DEFAULT_ENTROPY` instead.
-.. note::
+.. data:: DEFAULT_ENTROPY
+
+ Default number of bytes of randomness used by the ``token_*`` functions.
- That default is subject to change at any time, including during
+ The exact value is subject to change at any time, including during
maintenance releases.
@@ -132,7 +139,7 @@ Other functions
:term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`
*a* and *b* are equal, otherwise ``False``,
using a "constant-time compare" to reduce the risk of
- `timing attacks <https://codahale.com/a-lesson-in-timing-attacks/>`_.
+ `timing attacks <https://web.archive.org/web/20250815071532/https://codahale.com/a-lesson-in-timing-attacks/>`__.
See :func:`hmac.compare_digest` for additional details.
diff --git a/Doc/library/security_warnings.rst b/Doc/library/security_warnings.rst
index a573c98f73eb0a0..70c359cc1c0fc34 100644
--- a/Doc/library/security_warnings.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/security_warnings.rst
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ The following modules have specific security considerations:
<subprocess-security>`
* :mod:`tempfile`: :ref:`mktemp is deprecated due to vulnerability to race
conditions <tempfile-mktemp-deprecated>`
-* :mod:`xml`: :ref:`XML vulnerabilities <xml-vulnerabilities>`
+* :mod:`xml`: :ref:`XML security <xml-security>`
* :mod:`zipfile`: :ref:`maliciously prepared .zip files can cause disk volume
exhaustion <zipfile-resources-limitations>`
diff --git a/Doc/library/select.rst b/Doc/library/select.rst
index a0058046d0ce4cc..26fa014c49519cd 100644
--- a/Doc/library/select.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/select.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`select` --- Waiting for I/O completion
-============================================
+:mod:`!select` --- Waiting for I/O completion
+=============================================
.. module:: select
:synopsis: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams.
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ The module defines the following:
.. function:: devpoll()
- (Only supported on Solaris and derivatives.) Returns a ``/dev/poll``
+ Returns a ``/dev/poll``
polling object; see section :ref:`devpoll-objects` below for the
methods supported by devpoll objects.
@@ -54,9 +54,11 @@ The module defines the following:
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.
+ .. availability:: Solaris.
+
.. function:: epoll(sizehint=-1, flags=0)
- (Only supported on Linux 2.5.44 and newer.) Return an edge polling object,
+ Return an edge polling object,
which can be used as Edge or Level Triggered interface for I/O
events.
@@ -89,18 +91,22 @@ The module defines the following:
The *flags* parameter. ``select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC`` is used by default now.
Use :func:`os.set_inheritable` to make the file descriptor inheritable.
+ .. availability:: Linux >= 2.5.44.
+
.. function:: poll()
- (Not supported by all operating systems.) Returns a polling object, which
+ Returns a polling object, which
supports registering and unregistering file descriptors, and then polling them
for I/O events; see section :ref:`poll-objects` below for the methods supported
by polling objects.
+ .. availability:: Unix.
+
.. function:: kqueue()
- (Only supported on BSD.) Returns a kernel queue object; see section
+ Returns a kernel queue object; see section
:ref:`kqueue-objects` below for the methods supported by kqueue objects.
The new file descriptor is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
@@ -108,14 +114,18 @@ The module defines the following:
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.
+ .. availability:: BSD, macOS.
+
.. function:: kevent(ident, filter=KQ_FILTER_READ, flags=KQ_EV_ADD, fflags=0, data=0, udata=0)
- (Only supported on BSD.) Returns a kernel event object; see section
+ Returns a kernel event object; see section
:ref:`kevent-objects` below for the methods supported by kevent objects.
+ .. availability:: BSD, macOS.
+
-.. function:: select(rlist, wlist, xlist[, timeout])
+.. function:: select(rlist, wlist, xlist, timeout=None)
This is a straightforward interface to the Unix :c:func:`!select` system call.
The first three arguments are iterables of 'waitable objects': either
@@ -129,8 +139,9 @@ The module defines the following:
Empty iterables are allowed, but acceptance of three empty iterables is
platform-dependent. (It is known to work on Unix but not on Windows.) The
- optional *timeout* argument specifies a time-out as a floating point number
- in seconds. When the *timeout* argument is omitted the function blocks until
+ optional *timeout* argument specifies a time-out as a floating-point number
+ in seconds.
+ When the *timeout* argument is omitted or ``None``, the function blocks until
at least one file descriptor is ready. A time-out value of zero specifies a
poll and never blocks.
@@ -165,12 +176,12 @@ The module defines the following:
:exc:`InterruptedError`.
-.. attribute:: PIPE_BUF
+.. data:: PIPE_BUF
The minimum number of bytes which can be written without blocking to a pipe
when the pipe has been reported as ready for writing by :func:`~select.select`,
:func:`!poll` or another interface in this module. This doesn't apply
- to other kind of file-like objects such as sockets.
+ to other kinds of file-like objects such as sockets.
This value is guaranteed by POSIX to be at least 512.
@@ -181,7 +192,7 @@ The module defines the following:
.. _devpoll-objects:
-``/dev/poll`` Polling Objects
+``/dev/poll`` polling objects
-----------------------------
Solaris and derivatives have ``/dev/poll``. While :c:func:`!select` is
@@ -222,7 +233,7 @@ object.
implement :meth:`!fileno`, so they can also be used as the argument.
*eventmask* is an optional bitmask describing the type of events you want to
- check for. The constants are the same that with :c:func:`!poll`
+ check for. The constants are the same as with :c:func:`!poll`
object. The default value is a combination of the constants :const:`POLLIN`,
:const:`POLLPRI`, and :const:`POLLOUT`.
@@ -237,7 +248,7 @@ object.
.. method:: devpoll.modify(fd[, eventmask])
This method does an :meth:`unregister` followed by a
- :meth:`register`. It is (a bit) more efficient that doing the same
+ :meth:`register`. It is (a bit) more efficient than doing the same
explicitly.
@@ -273,50 +284,50 @@ object.
.. _epoll-objects:
-Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects
+Edge and level trigger polling (epoll) objects
----------------------------------------------
https://linux.die.net/man/4/epoll
- *eventmask*
-
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
- | Constant | Meaning |
- +=========================+===============================================+
- | :const:`EPOLLIN` | Available for read |
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`EPOLLOUT` | Available for write |
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`EPOLLPRI` | Urgent data for read |
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`EPOLLERR` | Error condition happened on the assoc. fd |
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`EPOLLHUP` | Hang up happened on the assoc. fd |
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`EPOLLET` | Set Edge Trigger behavior, the default is |
- | | Level Trigger behavior |
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`EPOLLONESHOT` | Set one-shot behavior. After one event is |
- | | pulled out, the fd is internally disabled |
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`EPOLLEXCLUSIVE` | Wake only one epoll object when the |
- | | associated fd has an event. The default (if |
- | | this flag is not set) is to wake all epoll |
- | | objects polling on a fd. |
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`EPOLLRDHUP` | Stream socket peer closed connection or shut |
- | | down writing half of connection. |
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`EPOLLRDNORM` | Equivalent to :const:`EPOLLIN` |
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`EPOLLRDBAND` | Priority data band can be read. |
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`EPOLLWRNORM` | Equivalent to :const:`EPOLLOUT` |
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`EPOLLWRBAND` | Priority data may be written. |
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`EPOLLMSG` | Ignored. |
- +-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+ The *eventmask* is a bit mask using the following constants:
+
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+ | Constant | Meaning |
+ +=========================+================================================+
+ | :const:`EPOLLIN` | Available for read. |
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`EPOLLOUT` | Available for write. |
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`EPOLLPRI` | Urgent data for read. |
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`EPOLLERR` | Error condition happened on the associated fd. |
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`EPOLLHUP` | Hang up happened on the associated fd. |
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`EPOLLET` | Set Edge Trigger behavior, the default is |
+ | | Level Trigger behavior. |
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`EPOLLONESHOT` | Set one-shot behavior. After one event is |
+ | | pulled out, the fd is internally disabled. |
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`EPOLLEXCLUSIVE` | Wake only one epoll object when the |
+ | | associated fd has an event. The default (if |
+ | | this flag is not set) is to wake all epoll |
+ | | objects polling on an fd. |
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`EPOLLRDHUP` | Stream socket peer closed connection or shut |
+ | | down writing half of connection. |
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`EPOLLRDNORM` | Equivalent to :const:`EPOLLIN` |
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`EPOLLRDBAND` | Priority data band can be read. |
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`EPOLLWRNORM` | Equivalent to :const:`EPOLLOUT`. |
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`EPOLLWRBAND` | Priority data may be written. |
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`EPOLLMSG` | Ignored. |
+ +-------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
.. versionadded:: 3.6
:const:`EPOLLEXCLUSIVE` was added. It's only supported by Linux Kernel 4.5
@@ -344,12 +355,12 @@ Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects
.. method:: epoll.register(fd[, eventmask])
- Register a fd descriptor with the epoll object.
+ Register a file descriptor *fd* with the epoll object.
.. method:: epoll.modify(fd, eventmask)
- Modify a registered file descriptor.
+ Modify a registered file descriptor *fd*.
.. method:: epoll.unregister(fd)
@@ -373,7 +384,7 @@ Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects
.. _poll-objects:
-Polling Objects
+Polling objects
---------------
The :c:func:`!poll` system call, supported on most Unix systems, provides better
@@ -398,24 +409,24 @@ linearly scanned again. :c:func:`!select` is *O*\ (*highest file descriptor*), w
:const:`POLLPRI`, and :const:`POLLOUT`, described in the table below. If not
specified, the default value used will check for all 3 types of events.
- +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
- | Constant | Meaning |
- +===================+==========================================+
- | :const:`POLLIN` | There is data to read |
- +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`POLLPRI` | There is urgent data to read |
- +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`POLLOUT` | Ready for output: writing will not block |
- +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`POLLERR` | Error condition of some sort |
- +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`POLLHUP` | Hung up |
- +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`POLLRDHUP`| Stream socket peer closed connection, or |
- | | shut down writing half of connection |
- +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`POLLNVAL` | Invalid request: descriptor not open |
- +-------------------+------------------------------------------+
+ +-------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+ | Constant | Meaning |
+ +===================+===========================================+
+ | :const:`POLLIN` | There is data to read. |
+ +-------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`POLLPRI` | There is urgent data to read. |
+ +-------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`POLLOUT` | Ready for output: writing will not block. |
+ +-------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`POLLERR` | Error condition of some sort. |
+ +-------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`POLLHUP` | Hung up. |
+ +-------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`POLLRDHUP`| Stream socket peer closed connection, or |
+ | | shut down writing half of connection. |
+ +-------------------+-------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`POLLNVAL` | Invalid request: descriptor not open. |
+ +-------------------+-------------------------------------------+
Registering a file descriptor that's already registered is not an error, and has
the same effect as registering the descriptor exactly once.
@@ -461,7 +472,7 @@ linearly scanned again. :c:func:`!select` is *O*\ (*highest file descriptor*), w
.. _kqueue-objects:
-Kqueue Objects
+Kqueue objects
--------------
.. method:: kqueue.close()
@@ -502,7 +513,7 @@ Kqueue Objects
.. _kevent-objects:
-Kevent Objects
+Kevent objects
--------------
https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&sektion=2
@@ -522,66 +533,66 @@ https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&sektion=2
| Constant | Meaning |
+===========================+=============================================+
| :const:`KQ_FILTER_READ` | Takes a descriptor and returns whenever |
- | | there is data available to read |
+ | | there is data available to read. |
+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| :const:`KQ_FILTER_WRITE` | Takes a descriptor and returns whenever |
- | | there is data available to write |
+ | | there is data available to write. |
+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_FILTER_AIO` | AIO requests |
+ | :const:`KQ_FILTER_AIO` | AIO requests. |
+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| :const:`KQ_FILTER_VNODE` | Returns when one or more of the requested |
- | | events watched in *fflag* occurs |
+ | | events watched in *fflag* occurs. |
+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_FILTER_PROC` | Watch for events on a process id |
+ | :const:`KQ_FILTER_PROC` | Watch for events on a process ID. |
+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| :const:`KQ_FILTER_NETDEV` | Watch for events on a network device |
- | | [not available on macOS] |
+ | | (not available on macOS). |
+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| :const:`KQ_FILTER_SIGNAL` | Returns whenever the watched signal is |
- | | delivered to the process |
+ | | delivered to the process. |
+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_FILTER_TIMER` | Establishes an arbitrary timer |
+ | :const:`KQ_FILTER_TIMER` | Establishes an arbitrary timer. |
+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
.. attribute:: kevent.flags
Filter action.
- +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | Constant | Meaning |
- +===========================+=============================================+
- | :const:`KQ_EV_ADD` | Adds or modifies an event |
- +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_EV_DELETE` | Removes an event from the queue |
- +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_EV_ENABLE` | Permitscontrol() to returns the event |
- +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_EV_DISABLE` | Disablesevent |
- +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_EV_ONESHOT` | Removes event after first occurrence |
- +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_EV_CLEAR` | Reset the state after an event is retrieved |
- +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_EV_SYSFLAGS` | internal event |
- +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_EV_FLAG1` | internal event |
- +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_EV_EOF` | Filter specific EOF condition |
- +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_EV_ERROR` | See return values |
- +---------------------------+---------------------------------------------+
+ +---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+ | Constant | Meaning |
+ +===========================+==============================================+
+ | :const:`KQ_EV_ADD` | Adds or modifies an event. |
+ +---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`KQ_EV_DELETE` | Removes an event from the queue. |
+ +---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`KQ_EV_ENABLE` | Permits control() to return the event. |
+ +---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`KQ_EV_DISABLE` | Disables event. |
+ +---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`KQ_EV_ONESHOT` | Removes event after first occurrence. |
+ +---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`KQ_EV_CLEAR` | Reset the state after an event is retrieved. |
+ +---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`KQ_EV_SYSFLAGS` | Internal event. |
+ +---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`KQ_EV_FLAG1` | Internal event. |
+ +---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`KQ_EV_EOF` | Filter-specific EOF condition. |
+ +---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
+ | :const:`KQ_EV_ERROR` | See return values. |
+ +---------------------------+----------------------------------------------+
.. attribute:: kevent.fflags
- Filter specific flags.
+ Filter-specific flags.
:const:`KQ_FILTER_READ` and :const:`KQ_FILTER_WRITE` filter flags:
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
| Constant | Meaning |
+============================+============================================+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LOWAT` | low water mark of a socket buffer |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LOWAT` | Low water mark of a socket buffer. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
:const:`KQ_FILTER_VNODE` filter flags:
@@ -589,19 +600,19 @@ https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&sektion=2
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
| Constant | Meaning |
+============================+============================================+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_DELETE` | *unlink()* was called |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_DELETE` | *unlink()* was called. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_WRITE` | a write occurred |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_WRITE` | A write occurred. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_EXTEND` | the file was extended |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_EXTEND` | The file was extended. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_ATTRIB` | an attribute was changed |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_ATTRIB` | An attribute was changed. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LINK` | the link count has changed |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LINK` | The link count has changed. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_RENAME` | the file was renamed |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_RENAME` | The file was renamed. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_REVOKE` | access to the file was revoked |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_REVOKE` | Access to the file was revoked. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
:const:`KQ_FILTER_PROC` filter flags:
@@ -609,22 +620,22 @@ https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&sektion=2
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
| Constant | Meaning |
+============================+============================================+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_EXIT` | the process has exited |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_EXIT` | The process has exited. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_FORK` | the process has called *fork()* |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_FORK` | The process has called *fork()*. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_EXEC` | the process has executed a new process |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_EXEC` | The process has executed a new process. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_PCTRLMASK` | internal filter flag |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_PCTRLMASK` | Internal filter flag. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_PDATAMASK` | internal filter flag |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_PDATAMASK` | Internal filter flag. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_TRACK` | follow a process across *fork()* |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_TRACK` | Follow a process across *fork()*. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_CHILD` | returned on the child process for |
- | | *NOTE_TRACK* |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_CHILD` | Returned on the child process for |
+ | | *NOTE_TRACK*. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_TRACKERR` | unable to attach to a child |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_TRACKERR` | Unable to attach to a child. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
:const:`KQ_FILTER_NETDEV` filter flags (not available on macOS):
@@ -632,19 +643,19 @@ https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&sektion=2
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
| Constant | Meaning |
+============================+============================================+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LINKUP` | link is up |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LINKUP` | Link is up. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LINKDOWN` | link is down |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LINKDOWN` | Link is down. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
- | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LINKINV` | link state is invalid |
+ | :const:`KQ_NOTE_LINKINV` | Link state is invalid. |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
.. attribute:: kevent.data
- Filter specific data.
+ Filter-specific data.
.. attribute:: kevent.udata
- User defined value.
+ User-defined value.
diff --git a/Doc/library/selectors.rst b/Doc/library/selectors.rst
index 76cbf91412f7633..2d523a9d2ea440b 100644
--- a/Doc/library/selectors.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/selectors.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`selectors` --- High-level I/O multiplexing
-================================================
+:mod:`!selectors` --- High-level I/O multiplexing
+=================================================
.. module:: selectors
:synopsis: High-level I/O multiplexing.
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ Classes hierarchy::
In the following, *events* is a bitwise mask indicating which I/O events should
-be waited for on a given file object. It can be a combination of the modules
+be waited for on a given file object. It can be a combination of the module's
constants below:
+-----------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
@@ -103,7 +103,8 @@ constants below:
:class:`BaseSelector` and its concrete implementations support the
:term:`context manager` protocol.
- .. abstractmethod:: register(fileobj, events, data=None)
+ .. method:: register(fileobj, events, data=None)
+ :abstractmethod:
Register a file object for selection, monitoring it for I/O events.
@@ -116,7 +117,8 @@ constants below:
:exc:`ValueError` in case of invalid event mask or file descriptor, or
:exc:`KeyError` if the file object is already registered.
- .. abstractmethod:: unregister(fileobj)
+ .. method:: unregister(fileobj)
+ :abstractmethod:
Unregister a file object from selection, removing it from monitoring. A
file object shall be unregistered prior to being closed.
@@ -140,7 +142,8 @@ constants below:
:exc:`ValueError` in case of invalid event mask or file descriptor, or
:exc:`KeyError` if the file object is not registered.
- .. abstractmethod:: select(timeout=None)
+ .. method:: select(timeout=None)
+ :abstractmethod:
Wait until some registered file objects become ready, or the timeout
expires.
@@ -183,7 +186,8 @@ constants below:
This returns the :class:`SelectorKey` instance associated to this file
object, or raises :exc:`KeyError` if the file object is not registered.
- .. abstractmethod:: get_map()
+ .. method:: get_map()
+ :abstractmethod:
Return a mapping of file objects to selector keys.
diff --git a/Doc/library/shelve.rst b/Doc/library/shelve.rst
index 1fa614f6584170a..274eae4ceff59b2 100644
--- a/Doc/library/shelve.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/shelve.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`shelve` --- Python object persistence
-===========================================
+:mod:`!shelve` --- Python object persistence
+============================================
.. module:: shelve
:synopsis: Python object persistence.
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ lots of shared sub-objects. The keys are ordinary strings.
to load a shelf from an untrusted source. Like with pickle, loading a shelf
can execute arbitrary code.
-Shelf objects support most of methods and operations supported by dictionaries
+Shelf objects support most of the methods and operations supported by dictionaries
(except copying, constructors and operators ``|`` and ``|=``). This eases the
transition from dictionary based scripts to those requiring persistent storage.
diff --git a/Doc/library/shlex.rst b/Doc/library/shlex.rst
index 716420f5e74ffa0..81ccaa62b4c987d 100644
--- a/Doc/library/shlex.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/shlex.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`shlex` --- Simple lexical analysis
-========================================
+:mod:`!shlex` --- Simple lexical analysis
+=========================================
.. module:: shlex
:synopsis: Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages.
@@ -343,7 +343,7 @@ variables which either control lexical analysis or can be used for debugging:
Parsing Rules
-------------
-When operating in non-POSIX mode, :class:`~shlex.shlex` will try to obey to the
+When operating in non-POSIX mode, :class:`~shlex.shlex` will try to obey the
following rules.
* Quote characters are not recognized within words (``Do"Not"Separate`` is
@@ -366,7 +366,7 @@ following rules.
* It's not possible to parse empty strings, even if quoted.
-When operating in POSIX mode, :class:`~shlex.shlex` will try to obey to the
+When operating in POSIX mode, :class:`~shlex.shlex` will try to obey the
following parsing rules.
* Quotes are stripped out, and do not separate words (``"Do"Not"Separate"`` is
@@ -382,7 +382,7 @@ following parsing rules.
* Enclosing characters in quotes which are part of
:attr:`~shlex.escapedquotes` (e.g. ``'"'``) preserves the literal value
of all characters within the quotes, with the exception of the characters
- mentioned in :attr:`~shlex.escape`. The escape characters retain its
+ mentioned in :attr:`~shlex.escape`. The escape characters retain their
special meaning only when followed by the quote in use, or the escape
character itself. Otherwise the escape character will be considered a
normal character.
diff --git a/Doc/library/shutil.rst b/Doc/library/shutil.rst
index 331acfce3afee37..704820e3e1bbcad 100644
--- a/Doc/library/shutil.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/shutil.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`shutil` --- High-level file operations
-============================================
+:mod:`!shutil` --- High-level file operations
+=============================================
.. module:: shutil
:synopsis: High-level file operations, including copying.
@@ -83,6 +83,13 @@ Directory and files operations
copy the file more efficiently. See
:ref:`shutil-platform-dependent-efficient-copy-operations` section.
+.. exception:: SpecialFileError
+
+ This exception is raised when :func:`copyfile` or :func:`copytree` attempt
+ to copy a named pipe.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 2.7
+
.. exception:: SameFileError
This exception is raised if source and destination in :func:`copyfile`
@@ -327,6 +334,10 @@ Directory and files operations
The deprecated *onerror* is similar to *onexc*, except that the third
parameter it receives is the tuple returned from :func:`sys.exc_info`.
+ .. seealso::
+ :ref:`shutil-rmtree-example` for an example of handling the removal
+ of a directory tree that contains read-only files.
+
.. audit-event:: shutil.rmtree path,dir_fd shutil.rmtree
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
@@ -338,7 +349,7 @@ Directory and files operations
before removing the junction.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
- The *dir_fd* parameter.
+ Added the *dir_fd* parameter.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
Added the *onexc* parameter, deprecated *onerror*.
@@ -370,10 +381,14 @@ Directory and files operations
If *dst* already exists but is not a directory, it may be overwritten
depending on :func:`os.rename` semantics.
- If the destination is on the current filesystem, then :func:`os.rename` is
- used. Otherwise, *src* is copied to the destination using *copy_function*
- and then removed. In case of symlinks, a new symlink pointing to the target
- of *src* will be created as the destination and *src* will be removed.
+ :func:`os.rename` is preferably used internally when *src* and the destination are on
+ the same filesystem. In case :func:`os.rename` fails due to :exc:`OSError`
+ (e.g. the user has write permission to the destination file but not to its parent
+ directory), this method falls back to using *copy_function*, in which case
+ *src* is copied to the destination using *copy_function* and then removed.
+
+ In case of symlinks, a new symlink pointing to the target of *src* will be
+ created in or as the destination, and *src* will be removed.
If *copy_function* is given, it must be a callable that takes two arguments,
*src* and the destination, and will be used to copy *src* to the destination
@@ -449,9 +464,14 @@ Directory and files operations
*mode* is a permission mask passed to :func:`os.access`, by default
determining if the file exists and is executable.
- *path* is a "``PATH`` string" specifying the lookup directory list. When no
- *path* is specified, the results of :func:`os.environ` are used, returning
- either the "PATH" value or a fallback of :data:`os.defpath`.
+ *path* is a "``PATH`` string" specifying the directories to look in,
+ delimited by :data:`os.pathsep`. When no *path* is specified, the
+ :envvar:`PATH` environment variable is read from :data:`os.environ`,
+ falling back to :data:`os.defpath` if it is not set.
+
+ If *cmd* contains a directory component, :func:`!which` only checks the
+ specified path directly and does not search the directories listed in
+ *path* or in the system's :envvar:`PATH` environment variable.
On Windows, the current directory is prepended to the *path* if *mode* does
not include ``os.X_OK``. When the *mode* does include ``os.X_OK``, the
@@ -460,9 +480,9 @@ Directory and files operations
consulting the current working directory for executables: set the environment
variable ``NoDefaultCurrentDirectoryInExePath``.
- Also on Windows, the ``PATHEXT`` variable is used to resolve commands
- that may not already include an extension. For example, if you call
- ``shutil.which("python")``, :func:`which` will search ``PATHEXT``
+ Also on Windows, the :envvar:`PATHEXT` environment variable is used to
+ resolve commands that may not already include an extension. For example,
+ if you call ``shutil.which("python")``, :func:`which` will search ``PATHEXT``
to know that it should look for ``python.exe`` within the *path*
directories. For example, on Windows::
@@ -472,7 +492,7 @@ Directory and files operations
This is also applied when *cmd* is a path that contains a directory
component::
- >> shutil.which("C:\\Python33\\python")
+ >>> shutil.which("C:\\Python33\\python")
'C:\\Python33\\python.EXE'
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -490,12 +510,6 @@ Directory and files operations
or ends with an extension that is in ``PATHEXT``; and filenames that
have no extension can now be found.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.12.1
- On Windows, if *mode* includes ``os.X_OK``, executables with an
- extension in ``PATHEXT`` will be preferred over executables without a
- matching extension.
- This brings behavior closer to that of Python 3.11.
-
.. exception:: Error
This exception collects exceptions that are raised during a multi-file
@@ -524,7 +538,7 @@ instead of 64 KiB) and a :func:`memoryview`-based variant of
:func:`shutil.copyfileobj` is used.
If the fast-copy operation fails and no data was written in the destination
-file then shutil will silently fallback on using less efficient
+file then shutil will silently fall back to less efficient
:func:`copyfileobj` function internally.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
@@ -663,7 +677,7 @@ provided. They rely on the :mod:`zipfile` and :mod:`tarfile` modules.
Register an archiver for the format *name*.
- *function* is the callable that will be used to unpack archives. The callable
+ *function* is the callable that will be used to create archives. The callable
will receive the *base_name* of the file to create, followed by the
*base_dir* (which defaults to :data:`os.curdir`) to start archiving from.
Further arguments are passed as keyword arguments: *owner*, *group*,
@@ -718,8 +732,8 @@ provided. They rely on the :mod:`zipfile` and :mod:`tarfile` modules.
Never extract archives from untrusted sources without prior inspection.
It is possible that files are created outside of the path specified in
- the *extract_dir* argument, e.g. members that have absolute filenames
- starting with "/" or filenames with two dots "..".
+ the *extract_dir* argument, for example, members that have absolute filenames
+ or filenames with ".." components.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Accepts a :term:`path-like object` for *filename* and *extract_dir*.
@@ -832,7 +846,7 @@ In the final archive, :file:`please_add.txt` should be included, but
... root_dir='tmp/root',
... base_dir='structure/content',
... )
- '/Users/tarek/my_archive.tar'
+ '/Users/tarek/myarchive.tar'
Listing the files in the resulting archive gives us:
diff --git a/Doc/library/signal.rst b/Doc/library/signal.rst
index 05ef45c123b02e8..60e63f773a402d0 100644
--- a/Doc/library/signal.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/signal.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`signal` --- Set handlers for asynchronous events
-======================================================
+:mod:`!signal` --- Set handlers for asynchronous events
+=======================================================
.. module:: signal
:synopsis: Set handlers for asynchronous events.
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ Execution of Python signal handlers
A Python signal handler does not get executed inside the low-level (C) signal
handler. Instead, the low-level signal handler sets a flag which tells the
:term:`virtual machine` to execute the corresponding Python signal handler
-at a later point(for example at the next :term:`bytecode` instruction).
+at a later point (for example, at the next :term:`bytecode` instruction).
This has consequences:
* It makes little sense to catch synchronous errors like :const:`SIGFPE` or
@@ -68,6 +68,11 @@ the synchronization primitives from the :mod:`threading` module instead.
Besides, only the main thread of the main interpreter is allowed to set a new signal handler.
+.. warning::
+
+ Synchronization primitives such as :class:`threading.Lock` should not be used
+ within signal handlers. Doing so can lead to unexpected deadlocks.
+
Module contents
---------------
@@ -92,13 +97,13 @@ The signal module defines three enums:
.. class:: Handlers
- :class:`enum.IntEnum` collection the constants :const:`SIG_DFL` and :const:`SIG_IGN`.
+ :class:`enum.IntEnum` collection of the constants :const:`SIG_DFL` and :const:`SIG_IGN`.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. class:: Sigmasks
- :class:`enum.IntEnum` collection the constants :const:`SIG_BLOCK`, :const:`SIG_UNBLOCK` and :const:`SIG_SETMASK`.
+ :class:`enum.IntEnum` collection of the constants :const:`SIG_BLOCK`, :const:`SIG_UNBLOCK` and :const:`SIG_SETMASK`.
.. availability:: Unix.
@@ -205,14 +210,32 @@ The variables defined in the :mod:`signal` module are:
.. availability:: Unix.
+.. data:: SIGPROF
+
+ Profiling timer expired.
+
+ .. availability:: Unix.
+
+.. data:: SIGQUIT
+
+ Terminal quit signal.
+
+ .. availability:: Unix.
+
.. data:: SIGSEGV
Segmentation fault: invalid memory reference.
+.. data:: SIGSTOP
+
+ Stop executing (cannot be caught or ignored).
+
+ .. availability:: Unix.
+
.. data:: SIGSTKFLT
- Stack fault on coprocessor. The Linux kernel does not raise this signal: it
- can only be raised in user space.
+ Stack fault on coprocessor. The Linux kernel does not raise this signal: it
+ can only be raised in user space.
.. availability:: Linux.
@@ -237,18 +260,30 @@ The variables defined in the :mod:`signal` module are:
.. availability:: Unix.
+.. data:: SIGVTALRM
+
+ Virtual timer expired.
+
+ .. availability:: Unix.
+
.. data:: SIGWINCH
Window resize signal.
.. availability:: Unix.
+.. data:: SIGXCPU
+
+ CPU time limit exceeded.
+
+ .. availability:: Unix.
+
.. data:: SIG*
All the signal numbers are defined symbolically. For example, the hangup signal
is defined as :const:`signal.SIGHUP`; the variable names are identical to the
names used in C programs, as found in ``<signal.h>``. The Unix man page for
- ':c:func:`signal`' lists the existing signals (on some systems this is
+ '``signal``' lists the existing signals (on some systems this is
:manpage:`signal(2)`, on others the list is in :manpage:`signal(7)`). Note that
not all systems define the same set of signal names; only those names defined by
the system are defined by this module.
@@ -411,7 +446,7 @@ The :mod:`signal` module defines the following functions:
See the :manpage:`pidfd_send_signal(2)` man page for more information.
- .. availability:: Linux >= 5.1
+ .. availability:: Linux >= 5.1, Android >= :func:`build-time <sys.getandroidapilevel>` API level 31
.. versionadded:: 3.9
@@ -425,7 +460,7 @@ The :mod:`signal` module defines the following functions:
signal to a particular Python thread would be to force a running system call
to fail with :exc:`InterruptedError`.
- Use :func:`threading.get_ident()` or the :attr:`~threading.Thread.ident`
+ Use :func:`threading.get_ident` or the :attr:`~threading.Thread.ident`
attribute of :class:`threading.Thread` objects to get a suitable value
for *thread_id*.
@@ -510,10 +545,12 @@ The :mod:`signal` module defines the following functions:
.. function:: set_wakeup_fd(fd, *, warn_on_full_buffer=True)
- Set the wakeup file descriptor to *fd*. When a signal is received, the
- signal number is written as a single byte into the fd. This can be used by
- a library to wakeup a poll or select call, allowing the signal to be fully
- processed.
+ Set the wakeup file descriptor to *fd*. When a signal your program has
+ registered a signal handler for is received, the signal number is written as
+ a single byte into the fd. If you haven't registered a signal handler for
+ the signals you care about, then nothing will be written to the wakeup fd.
+ This can be used by a library to wakeup a poll or select call, allowing the
+ signal to be fully processed.
The old wakeup fd is returned (or -1 if file descriptor wakeup was not
enabled). If *fd* is -1, file descriptor wakeup is disabled.
@@ -637,9 +674,8 @@ The :mod:`signal` module defines the following functions:
*sigset*.
The return value is an object representing the data contained in the
- :c:type:`siginfo_t` structure, namely: :attr:`si_signo`, :attr:`si_code`,
- :attr:`si_errno`, :attr:`si_pid`, :attr:`si_uid`, :attr:`si_status`,
- :attr:`si_band`.
+ ``siginfo_t`` structure, namely: ``si_signo``, ``si_code``,
+ ``si_errno``, ``si_pid``, ``si_uid``, ``si_status``, ``si_band``.
.. availability:: Unix.
diff --git a/Doc/library/site.rst b/Doc/library/site.rst
index e52bbd32d4d493c..ef1961a16cfd400 100644
--- a/Doc/library/site.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/site.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`site` --- Site-specific configuration hook
-================================================
+:mod:`!site` --- Site-specific configuration hook
+=================================================
.. module:: site
:synopsis: Module responsible for site-specific configuration.
@@ -15,8 +15,9 @@ import can be suppressed using the interpreter's :option:`-S` option.
.. index:: triple: module; search; path
-Importing this module will append site-specific paths to the module search path
-and add a few builtins, unless :option:`-S` was used. In that case, this module
+Importing this module normally appends site-specific paths to the module search path
+and adds :ref:`callables <site-consts>`, including :func:`help` to the built-in
+namespace. However, Python startup option :option:`-S` blocks this and this module
can be safely imported with no automatic modifications to the module search path
or additions to the builtins. To explicitly trigger the usual site-specific
additions, call the :func:`main` function.
@@ -32,7 +33,10 @@ It starts by constructing up to four directories from a head and a tail part.
For the head part, it uses ``sys.prefix`` and ``sys.exec_prefix``; empty heads
are skipped. For the tail part, it uses the empty string and then
:file:`lib/site-packages` (on Windows) or
-:file:`lib/python{X.Y}/site-packages` (on Unix and macOS). For each
+:file:`lib/python{X.Y[t]}/site-packages` (on Unix and macOS). (The
+optional suffix "t" indicates the :term:`free threading` build, and is
+appended if ``"t"`` is present in the :data:`sys.abiflags` constant.)
+For each
of the distinct head-tail combinations, it sees if it refers to an existing
directory, and if so, adds it to ``sys.path`` and also inspects the newly
added path for configuration files.
@@ -40,6 +44,11 @@ added path for configuration files.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
Support for the "site-python" directory has been removed.
+.. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ On Unix, :term:`Free threading <free threading>` Python installations are
+ identified by the "t" suffix in the version-specific directory name, such as
+ :file:`lib/python3.13t/`.
+
If a file named "pyvenv.cfg" exists one directory above sys.executable,
sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix are set to that directory and
it is also checked for site-packages (sys.base_prefix and
@@ -123,7 +132,7 @@ After these path manipulations, an attempt is made to import a module named
It is typically created by a system administrator in the site-packages
directory. If this import fails with an :exc:`ImportError` or its subclass
exception, and the exception's :attr:`~ImportError.name`
-attribute equals to ``'sitecustomize'``,
+attribute equals ``'sitecustomize'``,
it is silently ignored. If Python is started without output streams available, as
with :file:`pythonw.exe` on Windows (which is used by default to start IDLE),
attempted output from :mod:`sitecustomize` is ignored. Any other exception
@@ -140,7 +149,7 @@ which can perform arbitrary user-specific customizations, if
user site-packages directory (see below), which is part of ``sys.path`` unless
disabled by :option:`-s`. If this import fails with an :exc:`ImportError` or
its subclass exception, and the exception's :attr:`~ImportError.name`
-attribute equals to ``'usercustomize'``, it is silently ignored.
+attribute equals ``'usercustomize'``, it is silently ignored.
Note that for some non-Unix systems, ``sys.prefix`` and ``sys.exec_prefix`` are
empty, and the path manipulations are skipped; however the import of
@@ -156,7 +165,7 @@ Readline configuration
On systems that support :mod:`readline`, this module will also import and
configure the :mod:`rlcompleter` module, if Python is started in
:ref:`interactive mode <tut-interactive>` and without the :option:`-S` option.
-The default behavior is enable tab-completion and to use
+The default behavior is to enable tab completion and to use
:file:`~/.python_history` as the history save file. To disable it, delete (or
override) the :data:`sys.__interactivehook__` attribute in your
:mod:`sitecustomize` or :mod:`usercustomize` module or your
@@ -188,11 +197,12 @@ Module contents
Path to the user site-packages for the running Python. Can be ``None`` if
:func:`getusersitepackages` hasn't been called yet. Default value is
- :file:`~/.local/lib/python{X.Y}/site-packages` for UNIX and non-framework
+ :file:`~/.local/lib/python{X.Y}[t]/site-packages` for UNIX and non-framework
macOS builds, :file:`~/Library/Python/{X.Y}/lib/python/site-packages` for macOS
framework builds, and :file:`{%APPDATA%}\\Python\\Python{XY}\\site-packages`
- on Windows. This directory is a site directory, which means that
- :file:`.pth` files in it will be processed.
+ on Windows. The optional "t" indicates the free-threaded build. This
+ directory is a site directory, which means that :file:`.pth` files in it
+ will be processed.
.. data:: USER_BASE
@@ -223,12 +233,20 @@ Module contents
used in :mod:`sitecustomize` or :mod:`usercustomize` (see above).
-.. function:: getsitepackages()
+.. function:: getsitepackages(prefixes=None)
Return a list containing all global site-packages directories.
+ For each directory given in *prefixes* (or :data:`PREFIXES` if *prefixes*
+ is ``None``), this function will compute its site-packages subdirectory
+ depending on the system environment, and will return a list of full paths,
+ which are not checked for existence.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.2
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+ Added the optional *prefixes* parameter.
+
.. function:: getuserbase()
@@ -252,7 +270,7 @@ Module contents
.. _site-commandline:
-Command Line Interface
+Command-line interface
----------------------
.. program:: site
diff --git a/Doc/library/smtpd.rst b/Doc/library/smtpd.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..c704f4a241b4692
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/smtpd.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+:mod:`!smtpd` --- SMTP Server
+=============================
+
+.. module:: smtpd
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.12.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.6 3.12
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.12 <whatsnew312-removed>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.6. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+A possible replacement is the third-party :pypi:`aiosmtpd` library. This
+library is not maintained or supported by the Python core team.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!smtpd` module was
+`Python 3.11 <https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/smtpd.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/smtplib.rst b/Doc/library/smtplib.rst
index aaec2aa1ef1dbe4..10525c90aa9072a 100644
--- a/Doc/library/smtplib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/smtplib.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`smtplib` --- SMTP protocol client
-=======================================
+:mod:`!smtplib` --- SMTP protocol client
+========================================
.. module:: smtplib
:synopsis: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets).
@@ -80,8 +80,8 @@ Protocol) and :rfc:`1869` (SMTP Service Extensions).
An :class:`SMTP_SSL` instance behaves exactly the same as instances of
:class:`SMTP`. :class:`SMTP_SSL` should be used for situations where SSL is
- required from the beginning of the connection and using :meth:`starttls` is
- not appropriate. If *host* is not specified, the local host is used. If
+ required from the beginning of the connection and using :meth:`~SMTP.starttls`
+ is not appropriate. If *host* is not specified, the local host is used. If
*port* is zero, the standard SMTP-over-SSL port (465) is used. The optional
arguments *local_hostname*, *timeout* and *source_address* have the same
meaning as they do in the :class:`SMTP` class. *context*, also optional,
@@ -112,7 +112,7 @@ Protocol) and :rfc:`1869` (SMTP Service Extensions).
The LMTP protocol, which is very similar to ESMTP, is heavily based on the
standard SMTP client. It's common to use Unix sockets for LMTP, so our
- :meth:`connect` method must support that as well as a regular host:port
+ :meth:`~SMTP.connect` method must support that as well as a regular host:port
server. The optional arguments *local_hostname* and *source_address* have the
same meaning as they do in the :class:`SMTP` class. To specify a Unix
socket, you must use an absolute path for *host*, starting with a '/'.
@@ -147,9 +147,15 @@ A nice selection of exceptions is defined as well:
.. exception:: SMTPResponseException
Base class for all exceptions that include an SMTP error code. These exceptions
- are generated in some instances when the SMTP server returns an error code. The
- error code is stored in the :attr:`smtp_code` attribute of the error, and the
- :attr:`smtp_error` attribute is set to the error message.
+ are generated in some instances when the SMTP server returns an error code.
+
+ .. attribute:: smtp_code
+
+ The error code.
+
+ .. attribute:: smtp_error
+
+ The error message.
.. exception:: SMTPSenderRefused
@@ -161,9 +167,13 @@ A nice selection of exceptions is defined as well:
.. exception:: SMTPRecipientsRefused
- All recipient addresses refused. The errors for each recipient are accessible
- through the attribute :attr:`recipients`, which is a dictionary of exactly the
- same sort as :meth:`SMTP.sendmail` returns.
+ All recipient addresses refused.
+
+ .. attribute:: recipients
+
+ A dictionary of exactly the same sort as returned
+ by :meth:`SMTP.sendmail` containing the errors for
+ each recipient.
.. exception:: SMTPDataError
@@ -213,7 +223,6 @@ SMTP Objects
An :class:`SMTP` instance has the following methods:
-
.. method:: SMTP.set_debuglevel(level)
Set the debug output level. A value of 1 or ``True`` for *level* results in
@@ -417,7 +426,7 @@ An :class:`SMTP` instance has the following methods:
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
The method now supports hostname check with
- :attr:`SSLContext.check_hostname` and *Server Name Indicator* (see
+ :attr:`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname` and *Server Name Indicator* (see
:const:`~ssl.HAS_SNI`).
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
@@ -431,11 +440,13 @@ An :class:`SMTP` instance has the following methods:
Send mail. The required arguments are an :rfc:`822` from-address string, a list
of :rfc:`822` to-address strings (a bare string will be treated as a list with 1
address), and a message string. The caller may pass a list of ESMTP options
- (such as ``8bitmime``) to be used in ``MAIL FROM`` commands as *mail_options*.
+ (such as ``"8bitmime"``) to be used in ``MAIL FROM`` commands as *mail_options*.
ESMTP options (such as ``DSN`` commands) that should be used with all ``RCPT``
- commands can be passed as *rcpt_options*. (If you need to use different ESMTP
+ commands can be passed as *rcpt_options*. Each option should be passed as a string
+ containing the full text of the option, including any potential key
+ (for instance, ``"NOTIFY=SUCCESS,FAILURE"``). (If you need to use different ESMTP
options to different recipients you have to use the low-level methods such as
- :meth:`mail`, :meth:`rcpt` and :meth:`data` to send the message.)
+ :meth:`!mail`, :meth:`!rcpt` and :meth:`!data` to send the message.)
.. note::
@@ -467,10 +478,7 @@ An :class:`SMTP` instance has the following methods:
This method may raise the following exceptions:
:exc:`SMTPRecipientsRefused`
- All recipients were refused. Nobody got the mail. The :attr:`recipients`
- attribute of the exception object is a dictionary with information about the
- refused recipients (like the one returned when at least one recipient was
- accepted).
+ All recipients were refused. Nobody got the mail.
:exc:`SMTPHeloError`
The server didn't reply properly to the ``HELO`` greeting.
@@ -524,7 +532,7 @@ An :class:`SMTP` instance has the following methods:
:mailheader:`Bcc` or :mailheader:`Resent-Bcc` headers that may appear
in *msg*. If any of the addresses in *from_addr* and *to_addrs* contain
non-ASCII characters and the server does not advertise ``SMTPUTF8`` support,
- an :exc:`SMTPNotSupported` error is raised. Otherwise the ``Message`` is
+ an :exc:`SMTPNotSupportedError` is raised. Otherwise the ``Message`` is
serialized with a clone of its :mod:`~email.policy` with the
:attr:`~email.policy.EmailPolicy.utf8` attribute set to ``True``, and
``SMTPUTF8`` and ``BODY=8BITMIME`` are added to *mail_options*.
@@ -546,6 +554,30 @@ Low-level methods corresponding to the standard SMTP/ESMTP commands ``HELP``,
Normally these do not need to be called directly, so they are not documented
here. For details, consult the module code.
+Additionally, an SMTP instance has the following attributes:
+
+
+.. attribute:: SMTP.helo_resp
+
+ The response to the ``HELO`` command, see :meth:`helo`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: SMTP.ehlo_resp
+
+ The response to the ``EHLO`` command, see :meth:`ehlo`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: SMTP.does_esmtp
+
+ A boolean value indicating whether the server supports ESMTP, see
+ :meth:`ehlo`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: SMTP.esmtp_features
+
+ A dictionary of the names of SMTP service extensions supported by the server,
+ see :meth:`ehlo`.
+
.. _smtp-example:
@@ -556,34 +588,33 @@ This example prompts the user for addresses needed in the message envelope ('To'
and 'From' addresses), and the message to be delivered. Note that the headers
to be included with the message must be included in the message as entered; this
example doesn't do any processing of the :rfc:`822` headers. In particular, the
-'To' and 'From' addresses must be included in the message headers explicitly. ::
+'To' and 'From' addresses must be included in the message headers explicitly::
import smtplib
- def prompt(prompt):
- return input(prompt).strip()
+ def prompt(title):
+ return input(title).strip()
- fromaddr = prompt("From: ")
- toaddrs = prompt("To: ").split()
+ from_addr = prompt("From: ")
+ to_addrs = prompt("To: ").split()
print("Enter message, end with ^D (Unix) or ^Z (Windows):")
# Add the From: and To: headers at the start!
- msg = ("From: %s\r\nTo: %s\r\n\r\n"
- % (fromaddr, ", ".join(toaddrs)))
+ lines = [f"From: {from_addr}", f"To: {', '.join(to_addrs)}", ""]
while True:
try:
line = input()
except EOFError:
break
- if not line:
- break
- msg = msg + line
+ else:
+ lines.append(line)
+ msg = "\r\n".join(lines)
print("Message length is", len(msg))
- server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
+ server = smtplib.SMTP("localhost")
server.set_debuglevel(1)
- server.sendmail(fromaddr, toaddrs, msg)
+ server.sendmail(from_addr, to_addrs, msg)
server.quit()
.. note::
diff --git a/Doc/library/sndhdr.rst b/Doc/library/sndhdr.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..6b71db4f6338a8f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/sndhdr.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+:mod:`!sndhdr` --- Determine type of sound file
+===============================================
+
+.. module:: sndhdr
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+Possible replacements are third-party modules from PyPI:
+:pypi:`filetype`, :pypi:`puremagic`, or :pypi:`python-magic`.
+These are not supported or maintained by the Python core team.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!sndhdr` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/sndhdr.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/socket.rst b/Doc/library/socket.rst
index 76af783c6292f9e..471727b49dafa67 100644
--- a/Doc/library/socket.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/socket.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`socket` --- Low-level networking interface
-================================================
+:mod:`!socket` --- Low-level networking interface
+=================================================
.. module:: socket
:synopsis: Low-level networking interface.
@@ -39,6 +39,8 @@ is implicit on send operations.
A TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
+.. _socket-addresses:
+
Socket families
---------------
@@ -118,10 +120,10 @@ created. Socket addresses are represented as follows:
``'can0'``. The network interface name ``''`` can be used to receive packets
from all network interfaces of this family.
- - :const:`CAN_ISOTP` protocol require a tuple ``(interface, rx_addr, tx_addr)``
+ - :const:`CAN_ISOTP` protocol requires a tuple ``(interface, rx_addr, tx_addr)``
where both additional parameters are unsigned long integer that represent a
CAN identifier (standard or extended).
- - :const:`CAN_J1939` protocol require a tuple ``(interface, name, pgn, addr)``
+ - :const:`CAN_J1939` protocol requires a tuple ``(interface, name, pgn, addr)``
where additional parameters are 64-bit unsigned integer representing the
ECU name, a 32-bit unsigned integer representing the Parameter Group Number
(PGN), and an 8-bit integer representing the address.
@@ -143,18 +145,23 @@ created. Socket addresses are represented as follows:
- :const:`BTPROTO_RFCOMM` accepts ``(bdaddr, channel)`` where ``bdaddr``
is the Bluetooth address as a string and ``channel`` is an integer.
- - :const:`BTPROTO_HCI` accepts ``(device_id,)`` where ``device_id`` is
- either an integer or a string with the Bluetooth address of the
- interface. (This depends on your OS; NetBSD and DragonFlyBSD expect
- a Bluetooth address while everything else expects an integer.)
+ - :const:`BTPROTO_HCI` accepts a format that depends on your OS.
+
+ - On Linux it accepts a tuple ``(device_id,)`` where ``device_id``
+ is an integer specifying the number of the Bluetooth device.
+ - On FreeBSD, NetBSD and DragonFly BSD it accepts ``bdaddr``
+ where ``bdaddr`` is the Bluetooth address as a string.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
NetBSD and DragonFlyBSD support added.
- - :const:`BTPROTO_SCO` accepts ``bdaddr`` where ``bdaddr`` is a
- :class:`bytes` object containing the Bluetooth address in a
- string format. (ex. ``b'12:23:34:45:56:67'``) This protocol is not
- supported under FreeBSD.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.3
+ FreeBSD support added.
+
+ - :const:`BTPROTO_SCO` accepts ``bdaddr`` where ``bdaddr`` is
+ the Bluetooth address as a string or a :class:`bytes` object.
+ (ex. ``'12:23:34:45:56:67'`` or ``b'12:23:34:45:56:67'``)
+ This protocol is not supported under FreeBSD.
- :const:`AF_ALG` is a Linux-only socket based interface to Kernel
cryptography. An algorithm socket is configured with a tuple of two to four
@@ -337,10 +344,10 @@ Exceptions
Constants
^^^^^^^^^
- The AF_* and SOCK_* constants are now :class:`AddressFamily` and
- :class:`SocketKind` :class:`.IntEnum` collections.
+The AF_* and SOCK_* constants are now :class:`AddressFamily` and
+:class:`SocketKind` :class:`.IntEnum` collections.
- .. versionadded:: 3.4
+.. versionadded:: 3.4
.. data:: AF_UNIX
AF_INET
@@ -465,6 +472,9 @@ Constants
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
NetBSD support was added.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.4
+ Restored missing ``CAN_RAW_ERR_FILTER`` on Linux.
+
.. data:: CAN_BCM
CAN_BCM_*
@@ -630,10 +640,9 @@ Constants
HCI_TIME_STAMP
HCI_DATA_DIR
- For use with :const:`BTPROTO_HCI`. :const:`HCI_FILTER` is not
- available for NetBSD or DragonFlyBSD. :const:`HCI_TIME_STAMP` and
- :const:`HCI_DATA_DIR` are not available for FreeBSD, NetBSD, or
- DragonFlyBSD.
+ For use with :const:`BTPROTO_HCI`. :const:`!HCI_FILTER` is only
+ available on Linux and FreeBSD. :const:`!HCI_TIME_STAMP` and
+ :const:`!HCI_DATA_DIR` are only available on Linux.
.. data:: AF_QIPCRTR
@@ -662,9 +671,9 @@ Constants
Constant to optimize CPU locality, to be used in conjunction with
:data:`SO_REUSEPORT`.
- .. versionadded:: 3.11
+ .. versionadded:: 3.11
- .. availability:: Linux >= 3.9
+ .. availability:: Linux >= 3.9
.. data:: AF_HYPERV
HV_PROTOCOL_RAW
@@ -700,6 +709,13 @@ Constants
.. versionadded:: 3.12
+.. data:: SHUT_RD
+ SHUT_WR
+ SHUT_RDWR
+
+ These constants are used by the :meth:`~socket.socket.shutdown` method of socket objects.
+
+ .. availability:: not WASI.
Functions
^^^^^^^^^
@@ -710,71 +726,14 @@ Creating sockets
The following functions all create :ref:`socket objects <socket-objects>`.
-.. class:: socket(family=AF_INET, type=SOCK_STREAM, proto=0, fileno=None)
-
- Create a new socket using the given address family, socket type and protocol
- number. The address family should be :const:`AF_INET` (the default),
- :const:`AF_INET6`, :const:`AF_UNIX`, :const:`AF_CAN`, :const:`AF_PACKET`,
- or :const:`AF_RDS`. The socket type should be :const:`SOCK_STREAM` (the
- default), :const:`SOCK_DGRAM`, :const:`SOCK_RAW` or perhaps one of the other
- ``SOCK_`` constants. The protocol number is usually zero and may be omitted
- or in the case where the address family is :const:`AF_CAN` the protocol
- should be one of :const:`CAN_RAW`, :const:`CAN_BCM`, :const:`CAN_ISOTP` or
- :const:`CAN_J1939`.
-
- If *fileno* is specified, the values for *family*, *type*, and *proto* are
- auto-detected from the specified file descriptor. Auto-detection can be
- overruled by calling the function with explicit *family*, *type*, or *proto*
- arguments. This only affects how Python represents e.g. the return value
- of :meth:`socket.getpeername` but not the actual OS resource. Unlike
- :func:`socket.fromfd`, *fileno* will return the same socket and not a
- duplicate. This may help close a detached socket using
- :meth:`socket.close()`.
-
- The newly created socket is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
-
- .. audit-event:: socket.__new__ self,family,type,protocol socket.socket
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.3
- The AF_CAN family was added.
- The AF_RDS family was added.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.4
- The CAN_BCM protocol was added.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.4
- The returned socket is now non-inheritable.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.7
- The CAN_ISOTP protocol was added.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.7
- When :const:`SOCK_NONBLOCK` or :const:`SOCK_CLOEXEC`
- bit flags are applied to *type* they are cleared, and
- :attr:`socket.type` will not reflect them. They are still passed
- to the underlying system ``socket()`` call. Therefore,
-
- ::
-
- sock = socket.socket(
- socket.AF_INET,
- socket.SOCK_STREAM | socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK)
-
- will still create a non-blocking socket on OSes that support
- ``SOCK_NONBLOCK``, but ``sock.type`` will be set to
- ``socket.SOCK_STREAM``.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.9
- The CAN_J1939 protocol was added.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.10
- The IPPROTO_MPTCP protocol was added.
+The :class:`socket <socket.socket>` class constructor creates a new socket
+directly; see :ref:`socket-objects` for its parameters and full description.
.. function:: socketpair([family[, type[, proto]]])
Build a pair of connected socket objects using the given address family, socket
type, and protocol number. Address family, socket type, and protocol number are
- as for the :func:`~socket.socket` function above. The default family is :const:`AF_UNIX`
+ as for the :func:`~socket.socket` function. The default family is :const:`AF_UNIX`
if defined on the platform; otherwise, the default is :const:`AF_INET`.
The newly created sockets are :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
@@ -831,10 +790,10 @@ The following functions all create :ref:`socket objects <socket-objects>`.
, a default reasonable value is chosen.
*reuse_port* dictates whether to set the :data:`SO_REUSEPORT` socket option.
- If *dualstack_ipv6* is true and the platform supports it the socket will
- be able to accept both IPv4 and IPv6 connections, else it will raise
- :exc:`ValueError`. Most POSIX platforms and Windows are supposed to support
- this functionality.
+ If *dualstack_ipv6* is true, *family* is :data:`AF_INET6` and the platform
+ supports it the socket will be able to accept both IPv4 and IPv6 connections,
+ else it will raise :exc:`ValueError`. Most POSIX platforms and Windows are
+ supposed to support this functionality.
When this functionality is enabled the address returned by
:meth:`socket.getpeername` when an IPv4 connection occurs will be an IPv6
address represented as an IPv4-mapped IPv6 address.
@@ -870,8 +829,8 @@ The following functions all create :ref:`socket objects <socket-objects>`.
Duplicate the file descriptor *fd* (an integer as returned by a file object's
:meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method) and build a socket object from the result. Address
- family, socket type and protocol number are as for the :func:`~socket.socket` function
- above. The file descriptor should refer to a socket, but this is not checked ---
+ family, socket type and protocol number are as for the :func:`~socket.socket` function.
+ The file descriptor should refer to a socket, but this is not checked ---
subsequent operations on the object may fail if the file descriptor is invalid.
This function is rarely needed, but can be used to get or set socket options on
a socket passed to a program as standard input or output (such as a server
@@ -893,12 +852,6 @@ The following functions all create :ref:`socket objects <socket-objects>`.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
-.. data:: SocketType
-
- This is a Python type object that represents the socket object type. It is the
- same as ``type(socket(...))``.
-
-
Other functions
'''''''''''''''
@@ -908,12 +861,14 @@ The :mod:`socket` module also offers various network-related services:
.. function:: close(fd)
Close a socket file descriptor. This is like :func:`os.close`, but for
- sockets. On some platforms (most noticeable Windows) :func:`os.close`
+ sockets. On some platforms (most notably Windows) :func:`os.close`
does not work for socket file descriptors.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
-.. function:: getaddrinfo(host, port, family=0, type=0, proto=0, flags=0)
+.. function:: getaddrinfo(host, port, family=AF_UNSPEC, type=0, proto=0, flags=0)
+
+ This function wraps the C function ``getaddrinfo`` of the underlying system.
Translate the *host*/*port* argument into a sequence of 5-tuples that contain
all the necessary arguments for creating a socket connected to that service.
@@ -923,8 +878,10 @@ The :mod:`socket` module also offers various network-related services:
and *port*, you can pass ``NULL`` to the underlying C API.
The *family*, *type* and *proto* arguments can be optionally specified
- in order to narrow the list of addresses returned. Passing zero as a
- value for each of these arguments selects the full range of results.
+ in order to provide options and limit the list of addresses returned.
+ Pass their default values (:data:`AF_UNSPEC`, 0, and 0, respectively)
+ to not limit the results. See the note below for details.
+
The *flags* argument can be one or several of the ``AI_*`` constants,
and will influence how results are computed and returned.
For example, :const:`AI_NUMERICHOST` will disable domain name resolution
@@ -944,6 +901,29 @@ The :mod:`socket` module also offers various network-related services:
:const:`AF_INET6`), and is meant to be passed to the :meth:`socket.connect`
method.
+ .. note::
+
+ If you intend to use results from :func:`!getaddrinfo` to create a socket
+ (rather than, for example, retrieve *canonname*),
+ consider limiting the results by *type* (e.g. :data:`SOCK_STREAM` or
+ :data:`SOCK_DGRAM`) and/or *proto* (e.g. :data:`IPPROTO_TCP` or
+ :data:`IPPROTO_UDP`) that your application can handle.
+
+ The behavior with default values of *family*, *type*, *proto*
+ and *flags* is system-specific.
+
+ Many systems (for example, most Linux configurations) will return a sorted
+ list of all matching addresses.
+ These addresses should generally be tried in order until a connection succeeds
+ (possibly tried in parallel, for example, using a `Happy Eyeballs`_ algorithm).
+ In these cases, limiting the *type* and/or *proto* can help eliminate
+ unsuccessful or unusable connection attempts.
+
+ Some systems will, however, only return a single address.
+ (For example, this was reported on Solaris and AIX configurations.)
+ On these systems, limiting the *type* and/or *proto* helps ensure that
+ this address is usable.
+
.. audit-event:: socket.getaddrinfo host,port,family,type,protocol socket.getaddrinfo
The following example fetches address information for a hypothetical TCP
@@ -963,6 +943,8 @@ The :mod:`socket` module also offers various network-related services:
for IPv6 multicast addresses, string representing an address will not
contain ``%scope_id`` part.
+.. _Happy Eyeballs: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Eyeballs
+
.. function:: getfqdn([name])
Return a fully qualified domain name for *name*. If *name* is omitted or empty,
@@ -1265,7 +1247,7 @@ The :mod:`socket` module also offers various network-related services:
.. audit-event:: socket.sethostname name socket.sethostname
- .. availability:: Unix.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not Android.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
@@ -1337,7 +1319,7 @@ The :mod:`socket` module also offers various network-related services:
The *fds* parameter is a sequence of file descriptors.
Consult :meth:`~socket.sendmsg` for the documentation of these parameters.
- .. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
Unix platforms supporting :meth:`~socket.sendmsg`
and :const:`SCM_RIGHTS` mechanism.
@@ -1351,9 +1333,9 @@ The :mod:`socket` module also offers various network-related services:
Return ``(msg, list(fds), flags, addr)``.
Consult :meth:`~socket.recvmsg` for the documentation of these parameters.
- .. availability:: Unix, Windows, not WASI.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
- Unix platforms supporting :meth:`~socket.sendmsg`
+ Unix platforms supporting :meth:`~socket.recvmsg`
and :const:`SCM_RIGHTS` mechanism.
.. versionadded:: 3.9
@@ -1368,644 +1350,706 @@ The :mod:`socket` module also offers various network-related services:
Socket Objects
--------------
-Socket objects have the following methods. Except for
-:meth:`~socket.makefile`, these correspond to Unix system calls applicable
-to sockets.
+.. class:: socket(family=AF_INET, type=SOCK_STREAM, proto=0, fileno=None)
-.. versionchanged:: 3.2
- Support for the :term:`context manager` protocol was added. Exiting the
- context manager is equivalent to calling :meth:`~socket.close`.
+ Create a new socket using the given address family, socket type and protocol
+ number. The address family should be :const:`AF_INET` (the default),
+ :const:`AF_INET6`, :const:`AF_UNIX`, :const:`AF_CAN`, :const:`AF_PACKET`,
+ or :const:`AF_RDS`. The socket type should be :const:`SOCK_STREAM` (the
+ default), :const:`SOCK_DGRAM`, :const:`SOCK_RAW` or perhaps one of the other
+ ``SOCK_`` constants. The protocol number is usually zero and may be omitted
+ or in the case where the address family is :const:`AF_CAN` the protocol
+ should be one of :const:`CAN_RAW`, :const:`CAN_BCM`, :const:`CAN_ISOTP` or
+ :const:`CAN_J1939`.
+ If *fileno* is specified, the values for *family*, *type*, and *proto* are
+ auto-detected from the specified file descriptor. Auto-detection can be
+ overruled by calling the function with explicit *family*, *type*, or *proto*
+ arguments. This only affects how Python represents e.g. the return value
+ of :meth:`socket.getpeername` but not the actual OS resource. Unlike
+ :func:`socket.fromfd`, *fileno* will return the same socket and not a
+ duplicate. This may help close a detached socket using
+ :meth:`~socket.socket.close`.
-.. method:: socket.accept()
+ The newly created socket is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
- Accept a connection. The socket must be bound to an address and listening for
- connections. The return value is a pair ``(conn, address)`` where *conn* is a
- *new* socket object usable to send and receive data on the connection, and
- *address* is the address bound to the socket on the other end of the connection.
+ .. audit-event:: socket.__new__ self,family,type,protocol socket.socket
- The newly created socket is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+ The AF_CAN family was added.
+ The AF_RDS family was added.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
- The socket is now non-inheritable.
+ The CAN_BCM protocol was added.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.5
- If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
- an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
- an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+ The returned socket is now non-inheritable.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+ The CAN_ISOTP protocol was added.
-.. method:: socket.bind(address)
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+ When :const:`SOCK_NONBLOCK` or :const:`SOCK_CLOEXEC`
+ bit flags are applied to *type* they are cleared, and
+ :attr:`socket.type` will not reflect them. They are still passed
+ to the underlying system ``socket()`` call. Therefore,
- Bind the socket to *address*. The socket must not already be bound. (The format
- of *address* depends on the address family --- see above.)
+ ::
- .. audit-event:: socket.bind self,address socket.socket.bind
+ sock = socket.socket(
+ socket.AF_INET,
+ socket.SOCK_STREAM | socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK)
- .. availability:: not WASI.
+ will still create a non-blocking socket on OSes that support
+ ``SOCK_NONBLOCK``, but ``sock.type`` will be set to
+ ``socket.SOCK_STREAM``.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.9
+ The CAN_J1939 protocol was added.
-.. method:: socket.close()
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ The IPPROTO_MPTCP protocol was added.
- Mark the socket closed. The underlying system resource (e.g. a file
- descriptor) is also closed when all file objects from :meth:`makefile()`
- are closed. Once that happens, all future operations on the socket
- object will fail. The remote end will receive no more data (after
- queued data is flushed).
+ Socket objects have the following methods. Except for
+ :meth:`~socket.makefile`, these correspond to Unix system calls applicable
+ to sockets.
- Sockets are automatically closed when they are garbage-collected, but
- it is recommended to :meth:`close` them explicitly, or to use a
- :keyword:`with` statement around them.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.2
+ Support for the :term:`context manager` protocol was added. Exiting the
+ context manager is equivalent to calling :meth:`~socket.socket.close`.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.6
- :exc:`OSError` is now raised if an error occurs when the underlying
- :c:func:`close` call is made.
- .. note::
+ .. method:: accept()
- :meth:`close()` releases the resource associated with a connection but
- does not necessarily close the connection immediately. If you want
- to close the connection in a timely fashion, call :meth:`shutdown()`
- before :meth:`close()`.
+ Accept a connection. The socket must be bound to an address and listening for
+ connections. The return value is a pair ``(conn, address)`` where *conn* is a
+ *new* socket object usable to send and receive data on the connection, and
+ *address* is the address bound to the socket on the other end of the connection.
+ The newly created socket is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
-.. method:: socket.connect(address)
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+ The socket is now non-inheritable.
- Connect to a remote socket at *address*. (The format of *address* depends on the
- address family --- see above.)
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+ an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+ an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
- If the connection is interrupted by a signal, the method waits until the
- connection completes, or raise a :exc:`TimeoutError` on timeout, if the
- signal handler doesn't raise an exception and the socket is blocking or has
- a timeout. For non-blocking sockets, the method raises an
- :exc:`InterruptedError` exception if the connection is interrupted by a
- signal (or the exception raised by the signal handler).
- .. audit-event:: socket.connect self,address socket.socket.connect
+ .. method:: bind(address)
- .. versionchanged:: 3.5
- The method now waits until the connection completes instead of raising an
- :exc:`InterruptedError` exception if the connection is interrupted by a
- signal, the signal handler doesn't raise an exception and the socket is
- blocking or has a timeout (see the :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+ Bind the socket to *address*. The socket must not already be bound. The format
+ of *address* depends on the address family --- see :ref:`socket-addresses`.
- .. availability:: not WASI.
+ .. audit-event:: socket.bind self,address socket.socket.bind
+ .. availability:: not WASI.
-.. method:: socket.connect_ex(address)
- Like ``connect(address)``, but return an error indicator instead of raising an
- exception for errors returned by the C-level :c:func:`connect` call (other
- problems, such as "host not found," can still raise exceptions). The error
- indicator is ``0`` if the operation succeeded, otherwise the value of the
- :c:data:`errno` variable. This is useful to support, for example, asynchronous
- connects.
+ .. method:: close()
- .. audit-event:: socket.connect self,address socket.socket.connect_ex
+ Mark the socket closed. The underlying system resource (e.g. a file
+ descriptor) is also closed when all file objects from :meth:`makefile`
+ are closed. Once that happens, all future operations on the socket
+ object will fail. The remote end will receive no more data (after
+ queued data is flushed).
- .. availability:: not WASI.
+ Sockets are automatically closed when they are garbage-collected, but
+ it is recommended to :meth:`close` them explicitly, or to use a
+ :keyword:`with` statement around them.
-.. method:: socket.detach()
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+ :exc:`OSError` is now raised if an error occurs when the underlying
+ :c:func:`!close` call is made.
- Put the socket object into closed state without actually closing the
- underlying file descriptor. The file descriptor is returned, and can
- be reused for other purposes.
+ .. note::
- .. versionadded:: 3.2
+ :meth:`close` releases the resource associated with a connection but
+ does not necessarily close the connection immediately. If you want
+ to close the connection in a timely fashion, call :meth:`shutdown`
+ before :meth:`close`.
-.. method:: socket.dup()
+ .. method:: connect(address)
- Duplicate the socket.
+ Connect to a remote socket at *address*. The format of *address* depends on the
+ address family --- see :ref:`socket-addresses`.
- The newly created socket is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+ If the connection is interrupted by a signal, the method waits until the
+ connection completes, or raises a :exc:`TimeoutError` on timeout, if the
+ signal handler doesn't raise an exception and the socket is blocking or has
+ a timeout. For non-blocking sockets, the method raises an
+ :exc:`InterruptedError` exception if the connection is interrupted by a
+ signal (or the exception raised by the signal handler).
- .. versionchanged:: 3.4
- The socket is now non-inheritable.
+ .. audit-event:: socket.connect self,address socket.socket.connect
- .. availability:: not WASI.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ The method now waits until the connection completes instead of raising an
+ :exc:`InterruptedError` exception if the connection is interrupted by a
+ signal, the signal handler doesn't raise an exception and the socket is
+ blocking or has a timeout (see the :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+ .. availability:: not WASI.
-.. method:: socket.fileno()
- Return the socket's file descriptor (a small integer), or -1 on failure. This
- is useful with :func:`select.select`.
+ .. method:: connect_ex(address)
- Under Windows the small integer returned by this method cannot be used where a
- file descriptor can be used (such as :func:`os.fdopen`). Unix does not have
- this limitation.
+ Like ``connect(address)``, but return an error indicator instead of raising an
+ exception for errors returned by the C-level :c:func:`!connect` call (other
+ problems, such as "host not found," can still raise exceptions). The error
+ indicator is ``0`` if the operation succeeded, otherwise the value of the
+ :c:data:`errno` variable. This is useful to support, for example, asynchronous
+ connects.
-.. method:: socket.get_inheritable()
+ .. audit-event:: socket.connect self,address socket.socket.connect_ex
- Get the :ref:`inheritable flag <fd_inheritance>` of the socket's file
- descriptor or socket's handle: ``True`` if the socket can be inherited in
- child processes, ``False`` if it cannot.
+ .. availability:: not WASI.
- .. versionadded:: 3.4
+ .. method:: detach()
+ Put the socket object into closed state without actually closing the
+ underlying file descriptor. The file descriptor is returned, and can
+ be reused for other purposes.
-.. method:: socket.getpeername()
+ .. versionadded:: 3.2
- Return the remote address to which the socket is connected. This is useful to
- find out the port number of a remote IPv4/v6 socket, for instance. (The format
- of the address returned depends on the address family --- see above.) On some
- systems this function is not supported.
+ .. method:: dup()
-.. method:: socket.getsockname()
+ Duplicate the socket.
- Return the socket's own address. This is useful to find out the port number of
- an IPv4/v6 socket, for instance. (The format of the address returned depends on
- the address family --- see above.)
+ The newly created socket is :ref:`non-inheritable <fd_inheritance>`.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+ The socket is now non-inheritable.
-.. method:: socket.getsockopt(level, optname[, buflen])
+ .. availability:: not WASI.
- Return the value of the given socket option (see the Unix man page
- :manpage:`getsockopt(2)`). The needed symbolic constants (:ref:`SO_\* etc. <socket-unix-constants>`)
- are defined in this module. If *buflen* is absent, an integer option is assumed
- and its integer value is returned by the function. If *buflen* is present, it
- specifies the maximum length of the buffer used to receive the option in, and
- this buffer is returned as a bytes object. It is up to the caller to decode the
- contents of the buffer (see the optional built-in module :mod:`struct` for a way
- to decode C structures encoded as byte strings).
- .. availability:: not WASI.
+ .. method:: fileno()
+ Return the socket's file descriptor (a small integer), or -1 on failure. This
+ is useful with :func:`select.select`.
-.. method:: socket.getblocking()
+ Under Windows the small integer returned by this method cannot be used where a
+ file descriptor can be used (such as :func:`os.fdopen`). Unix does not have
+ this limitation.
- Return ``True`` if socket is in blocking mode, ``False`` if in
- non-blocking.
+ .. method:: get_inheritable()
- This is equivalent to checking ``socket.gettimeout() != 0``.
+ Get the :ref:`inheritable flag <fd_inheritance>` of the socket's file
+ descriptor or socket's handle: ``True`` if the socket can be inherited in
+ child processes, ``False`` if it cannot.
- .. versionadded:: 3.7
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
-.. method:: socket.gettimeout()
+ .. method:: getpeername()
- Return the timeout in seconds (float) associated with socket operations,
- or ``None`` if no timeout is set. This reflects the last call to
- :meth:`setblocking` or :meth:`settimeout`.
+ Return the remote address to which the socket is connected. This is useful to
+ find out the port number of a remote IPv4/v6 socket, for instance. The format
+ of the address returned depends on the address family --- see :ref:`socket-addresses`.
+ On some systems this function is not supported.
-.. method:: socket.ioctl(control, option)
+ .. method:: getsockname()
- :platform: Windows
+ Return the socket's own address. This is useful to find out the port number of
+ an IPv4/v6 socket, for instance. The format of the address returned depends on
+ the address family --- see :ref:`socket-addresses`.
- The :meth:`ioctl` method is a limited interface to the WSAIoctl system
- interface. Please refer to the `Win32 documentation
- <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms741621%28VS.85%29.aspx>`_ for more
- information.
- On other platforms, the generic :func:`fcntl.fcntl` and :func:`fcntl.ioctl`
- functions may be used; they accept a socket object as their first argument.
+ .. method:: getsockopt(level, optname[, buflen])
- Currently only the following control codes are supported:
- ``SIO_RCVALL``, ``SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS``, and ``SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH``.
+ Return the value of the given socket option (see the Unix man page
+ :manpage:`getsockopt(2)`). The needed symbolic constants (:ref:`SO_\* etc. <socket-unix-constants>`)
+ are defined in this module. If *buflen* is absent, an integer option is assumed
+ and its integer value is returned by the function. If *buflen* is present, it
+ specifies the maximum length of the buffer used to receive the option in, and
+ this buffer is returned as a bytes object. It is up to the caller to decode the
+ contents of the buffer (see the optional built-in module :mod:`struct` for a way
+ to decode C structures encoded as byte strings).
- .. versionchanged:: 3.6
- ``SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH`` was added.
+ .. availability:: not WASI.
-.. method:: socket.listen([backlog])
- Enable a server to accept connections. If *backlog* is specified, it must
- be at least 0 (if it is lower, it is set to 0); it specifies the number of
- unaccepted connections that the system will allow before refusing new
- connections. If not specified, a default reasonable value is chosen.
+ .. method:: getblocking()
- .. availability:: not WASI.
+ Return ``True`` if socket is in blocking mode, ``False`` if in
+ non-blocking.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.5
- The *backlog* parameter is now optional.
+ This is equivalent to checking ``socket.gettimeout() != 0``.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.7
-.. method:: socket.makefile(mode='r', buffering=None, *, encoding=None, \
- errors=None, newline=None)
- .. index:: single: I/O control; buffering
+ .. method:: gettimeout()
- Return a :term:`file object` associated with the socket. The exact returned
- type depends on the arguments given to :meth:`makefile`. These arguments are
- interpreted the same way as by the built-in :func:`open` function, except
- the only supported *mode* values are ``'r'`` (default), ``'w'`` and ``'b'``.
+ Return the timeout in seconds (float) associated with socket operations,
+ or ``None`` if no timeout is set. This reflects the last call to
+ :meth:`setblocking` or :meth:`settimeout`.
- The socket must be in blocking mode; it can have a timeout, but the file
- object's internal buffer may end up in an inconsistent state if a timeout
- occurs.
- Closing the file object returned by :meth:`makefile` won't close the
- original socket unless all other file objects have been closed and
- :meth:`socket.close` has been called on the socket object.
+ .. method:: ioctl(control, option)
- .. note::
+ The :meth:`ioctl` method is a limited interface to the WSAIoctl system
+ interface. Please refer to the `Win32 documentation
+ <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms741621%28VS.85%29.aspx>`_ for more
+ information.
- On Windows, the file-like object created by :meth:`makefile` cannot be
- used where a file object with a file descriptor is expected, such as the
- stream arguments of :meth:`subprocess.Popen`.
+ On other platforms, the generic :func:`fcntl.fcntl` and :func:`fcntl.ioctl`
+ functions may be used; they accept a socket object as their first argument.
+ Currently only the following control codes are supported:
+ ``SIO_RCVALL``, ``SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS``, and ``SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH``.
-.. method:: socket.recv(bufsize[, flags])
+ .. availability:: Windows
- Receive data from the socket. The return value is a bytes object representing the
- data received. The maximum amount of data to be received at once is specified
- by *bufsize*. A returned empty bytes object indicates that the client has disconnected.
- See the Unix manual page :manpage:`recv(2)` for the meaning of the optional argument
- *flags*; it defaults to zero.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+ ``SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH`` was added.
- .. note::
- For best match with hardware and network realities, the value of *bufsize*
- should be a relatively small power of 2, for example, 4096.
+ .. method:: listen([backlog])
- .. versionchanged:: 3.5
- If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
- an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
- an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+ Enable a server to accept connections. If *backlog* is specified, it must
+ be at least 0 (if it is lower, it is set to 0); it specifies the number of
+ unaccepted connections that the system will allow before refusing new
+ connections. If not specified, a default reasonable value is chosen.
+ .. availability:: not WASI.
-.. method:: socket.recvfrom(bufsize[, flags])
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ The *backlog* parameter is now optional.
- Receive data from the socket. The return value is a pair ``(bytes, address)``
- where *bytes* is a bytes object representing the data received and *address* is the
- address of the socket sending the data. See the Unix manual page
- :manpage:`recv(2)` for the meaning of the optional argument *flags*; it defaults
- to zero. (The format of *address* depends on the address family --- see above.)
- .. versionchanged:: 3.5
- If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
- an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
- an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+ .. method:: makefile(mode='r', buffering=None, *, encoding=None, \
+ errors=None, newline=None)
- .. versionchanged:: 3.7
- For multicast IPv6 address, first item of *address* does not contain
- ``%scope_id`` part anymore. In order to get full IPv6 address use
- :func:`getnameinfo`.
-
-.. method:: socket.recvmsg(bufsize[, ancbufsize[, flags]])
-
- Receive normal data (up to *bufsize* bytes) and ancillary data from
- the socket. The *ancbufsize* argument sets the size in bytes of
- the internal buffer used to receive the ancillary data; it defaults
- to 0, meaning that no ancillary data will be received. Appropriate
- buffer sizes for ancillary data can be calculated using
- :func:`CMSG_SPACE` or :func:`CMSG_LEN`, and items which do not fit
- into the buffer might be truncated or discarded. The *flags*
- argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
- :meth:`recv`.
-
- The return value is a 4-tuple: ``(data, ancdata, msg_flags,
- address)``. The *data* item is a :class:`bytes` object holding the
- non-ancillary data received. The *ancdata* item is a list of zero
- or more tuples ``(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)`` representing
- the ancillary data (control messages) received: *cmsg_level* and
- *cmsg_type* are integers specifying the protocol level and
- protocol-specific type respectively, and *cmsg_data* is a
- :class:`bytes` object holding the associated data. The *msg_flags*
- item is the bitwise OR of various flags indicating conditions on
- the received message; see your system documentation for details.
- If the receiving socket is unconnected, *address* is the address of
- the sending socket, if available; otherwise, its value is
- unspecified.
-
- On some systems, :meth:`sendmsg` and :meth:`recvmsg` can be used to
- pass file descriptors between processes over an :const:`AF_UNIX`
- socket. When this facility is used (it is often restricted to
- :const:`SOCK_STREAM` sockets), :meth:`recvmsg` will return, in its
- ancillary data, items of the form ``(socket.SOL_SOCKET,
- socket.SCM_RIGHTS, fds)``, where *fds* is a :class:`bytes` object
- representing the new file descriptors as a binary array of the
- native C :c:expr:`int` type. If :meth:`recvmsg` raises an
- exception after the system call returns, it will first attempt to
- close any file descriptors received via this mechanism.
-
- Some systems do not indicate the truncated length of ancillary data
- items which have been only partially received. If an item appears
- to extend beyond the end of the buffer, :meth:`recvmsg` will issue
- a :exc:`RuntimeWarning`, and will return the part of it which is
- inside the buffer provided it has not been truncated before the
- start of its associated data.
-
- On systems which support the :const:`SCM_RIGHTS` mechanism, the
- following function will receive up to *maxfds* file descriptors,
- returning the message data and a list containing the descriptors
- (while ignoring unexpected conditions such as unrelated control
- messages being received). See also :meth:`sendmsg`. ::
-
- import socket, array
-
- def recv_fds(sock, msglen, maxfds):
- fds = array.array("i") # Array of ints
- msg, ancdata, flags, addr = sock.recvmsg(msglen, socket.CMSG_LEN(maxfds * fds.itemsize))
- for cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data in ancdata:
- if cmsg_level == socket.SOL_SOCKET and cmsg_type == socket.SCM_RIGHTS:
- # Append data, ignoring any truncated integers at the end.
- fds.frombytes(cmsg_data[:len(cmsg_data) - (len(cmsg_data) % fds.itemsize)])
- return msg, list(fds)
-
- .. availability:: Unix.
+ .. index:: single: I/O control; buffering
- Most Unix platforms.
+ Return a :term:`file object` associated with the socket. The exact returned
+ type depends on the arguments given to :meth:`makefile`. These arguments are
+ interpreted the same way as by the built-in :func:`open` function, except
+ the only supported *mode* values are ``'r'`` (default), ``'w'``, ``'b'``, or
+ a combination of those.
- .. versionadded:: 3.3
+ The socket must be in blocking mode; it can have a timeout, but the file
+ object's internal buffer may end up in an inconsistent state if a timeout
+ occurs.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.5
- If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
- an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
- an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
-
-
-.. method:: socket.recvmsg_into(buffers[, ancbufsize[, flags]])
-
- Receive normal data and ancillary data from the socket, behaving as
- :meth:`recvmsg` would, but scatter the non-ancillary data into a
- series of buffers instead of returning a new bytes object. The
- *buffers* argument must be an iterable of objects that export
- writable buffers (e.g. :class:`bytearray` objects); these will be
- filled with successive chunks of the non-ancillary data until it
- has all been written or there are no more buffers. The operating
- system may set a limit (:func:`~os.sysconf` value ``SC_IOV_MAX``)
- on the number of buffers that can be used. The *ancbufsize* and
- *flags* arguments have the same meaning as for :meth:`recvmsg`.
-
- The return value is a 4-tuple: ``(nbytes, ancdata, msg_flags,
- address)``, where *nbytes* is the total number of bytes of
- non-ancillary data written into the buffers, and *ancdata*,
- *msg_flags* and *address* are the same as for :meth:`recvmsg`.
-
- Example::
-
- >>> import socket
- >>> s1, s2 = socket.socketpair()
- >>> b1 = bytearray(b'----')
- >>> b2 = bytearray(b'0123456789')
- >>> b3 = bytearray(b'--------------')
- >>> s1.send(b'Mary had a little lamb')
- 22
- >>> s2.recvmsg_into([b1, memoryview(b2)[2:9], b3])
- (22, [], 0, None)
- >>> [b1, b2, b3]
- [bytearray(b'Mary'), bytearray(b'01 had a 9'), bytearray(b'little lamb---')]
-
- .. availability:: Unix.
+ Closing the file object returned by :meth:`makefile` won't close the
+ original socket unless all other file objects have been closed and
+ :meth:`~socket.socket.close` has been called on the socket object.
- Most Unix platforms.
+ .. note::
- .. versionadded:: 3.3
+ On Windows, the file-like object created by :meth:`makefile` cannot be
+ used where a file object with a file descriptor is expected, such as the
+ stream arguments of :meth:`subprocess.Popen`.
-.. method:: socket.recvfrom_into(buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])
+ .. method:: recv(bufsize[, flags])
- Receive data from the socket, writing it into *buffer* instead of creating a
- new bytestring. The return value is a pair ``(nbytes, address)`` where *nbytes* is
- the number of bytes received and *address* is the address of the socket sending
- the data. See the Unix manual page :manpage:`recv(2)` for the meaning of the
- optional argument *flags*; it defaults to zero. (The format of *address*
- depends on the address family --- see above.)
+ Receive data from the socket. The return value is a bytes object representing the
+ data received. The maximum amount of data to be received at once is specified
+ by *bufsize*. A returned empty bytes object indicates that the client has disconnected.
+ See the Unix manual page :manpage:`recv(2)` for the meaning of the optional argument
+ *flags*; it defaults to zero.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+ an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+ an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
-.. method:: socket.recv_into(buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])
- Receive up to *nbytes* bytes from the socket, storing the data into a buffer
- rather than creating a new bytestring. If *nbytes* is not specified (or 0),
- receive up to the size available in the given buffer. Returns the number of
- bytes received. See the Unix manual page :manpage:`recv(2)` for the meaning
- of the optional argument *flags*; it defaults to zero.
+ .. method:: recvfrom(bufsize[, flags])
+ Receive data from the socket. The return value is a pair ``(bytes, address)``
+ where *bytes* is a bytes object representing the data received and *address* is the
+ address of the socket sending the data. See the Unix manual page
+ :manpage:`recv(2)` for the meaning of the optional argument *flags*; it defaults
+ to zero. The format of *address* depends on the address family --- see
+ :ref:`socket-addresses`.
-.. method:: socket.send(bytes[, flags])
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+ an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+ an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
- Send data to the socket. The socket must be connected to a remote socket. The
- optional *flags* argument has the same meaning as for :meth:`recv` above.
- Returns the number of bytes sent. Applications are responsible for checking that
- all data has been sent; if only some of the data was transmitted, the
- application needs to attempt delivery of the remaining data. For further
- information on this topic, consult the :ref:`socket-howto`.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+ For multicast IPv6 address, first item of *address* does not contain
+ ``%scope_id`` part anymore. In order to get full IPv6 address use
+ :func:`getnameinfo`.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.5
- If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
- an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
- an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+ .. method:: recvmsg(bufsize[, ancbufsize[, flags]])
+
+ Receive normal data (up to *bufsize* bytes) and ancillary data from
+ the socket. The *ancbufsize* argument sets the size in bytes of
+ the internal buffer used to receive the ancillary data; it defaults
+ to 0, meaning that no ancillary data will be received. Appropriate
+ buffer sizes for ancillary data can be calculated using
+ :func:`CMSG_SPACE` or :func:`CMSG_LEN`, and items which do not fit
+ into the buffer might be truncated or discarded. The *flags*
+ argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
+ :meth:`recv`.
+
+ The return value is a 4-tuple: ``(data, ancdata, msg_flags,
+ address)``. The *data* item is a :class:`bytes` object holding the
+ non-ancillary data received. The *ancdata* item is a list of zero
+ or more tuples ``(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)`` representing
+ the ancillary data (control messages) received: *cmsg_level* and
+ *cmsg_type* are integers specifying the protocol level and
+ protocol-specific type respectively, and *cmsg_data* is a
+ :class:`bytes` object holding the associated data. The *msg_flags*
+ item is the bitwise OR of various flags indicating conditions on
+ the received message; see your system documentation for details.
+ If the receiving socket is unconnected, *address* is the address of
+ the sending socket, if available; otherwise, its value is
+ unspecified.
+
+ On some systems, :meth:`sendmsg` and :meth:`recvmsg` can be used to
+ pass file descriptors between processes over an :const:`AF_UNIX`
+ socket. When this facility is used (it is often restricted to
+ :const:`SOCK_STREAM` sockets), :meth:`recvmsg` will return, in its
+ ancillary data, items of the form ``(socket.SOL_SOCKET,
+ socket.SCM_RIGHTS, fds)``, where *fds* is a :class:`bytes` object
+ representing the new file descriptors as a binary array of the
+ native C :c:expr:`int` type. If :meth:`recvmsg` raises an
+ exception after the system call returns, it will first attempt to
+ close any file descriptors received via this mechanism.
+
+ Some systems do not indicate the truncated length of ancillary data
+ items which have been only partially received. If an item appears
+ to extend beyond the end of the buffer, :meth:`recvmsg` will issue
+ a :exc:`RuntimeWarning`, and will return the part of it which is
+ inside the buffer provided it has not been truncated before the
+ start of its associated data.
+
+ On systems which support the :const:`!SCM_RIGHTS` mechanism, the
+ following function will receive up to *maxfds* file descriptors,
+ returning the message data and a list containing the descriptors
+ (while ignoring unexpected conditions such as unrelated control
+ messages being received). See also :meth:`sendmsg`. ::
+
+ import socket, array
+
+ def recv_fds(sock, msglen, maxfds):
+ fds = array.array("i") # Array of ints
+ msg, ancdata, flags, addr = sock.recvmsg(msglen, socket.CMSG_LEN(maxfds * fds.itemsize))
+ for cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data in ancdata:
+ if cmsg_level == socket.SOL_SOCKET and cmsg_type == socket.SCM_RIGHTS:
+ # Append data, ignoring any truncated integers at the end.
+ fds.frombytes(cmsg_data[:len(cmsg_data) - (len(cmsg_data) % fds.itemsize)])
+ return msg, list(fds)
+
+ .. availability:: Unix.
+
+ Most Unix platforms.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+ an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+ an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+
+
+ .. method:: recvmsg_into(buffers[, ancbufsize[, flags]])
+
+ Receive normal data and ancillary data from the socket, behaving as
+ :meth:`recvmsg` would, but scatter the non-ancillary data into a
+ series of buffers instead of returning a new bytes object. The
+ *buffers* argument must be an iterable of objects that export
+ writable buffers (e.g. :class:`bytearray` objects); these will be
+ filled with successive chunks of the non-ancillary data until it
+ has all been written or there are no more buffers. The operating
+ system may set a limit (:func:`~os.sysconf` value ``SC_IOV_MAX``)
+ on the number of buffers that can be used. The *ancbufsize* and
+ *flags* arguments have the same meaning as for :meth:`recvmsg`.
+
+ The return value is a 4-tuple: ``(nbytes, ancdata, msg_flags,
+ address)``, where *nbytes* is the total number of bytes of
+ non-ancillary data written into the buffers, and *ancdata*,
+ *msg_flags* and *address* are the same as for :meth:`recvmsg`.
+
+ Example::
+
+ >>> import socket
+ >>> s1, s2 = socket.socketpair()
+ >>> b1 = bytearray(b'----')
+ >>> b2 = bytearray(b'0123456789')
+ >>> b3 = bytearray(b'--------------')
+ >>> s1.send(b'Mary had a little lamb')
+ 22
+ >>> s2.recvmsg_into([b1, memoryview(b2)[2:9], b3])
+ (22, [], 0, None)
+ >>> [b1, b2, b3]
+ [bytearray(b'Mary'), bytearray(b'01 had a 9'), bytearray(b'little lamb---')]
+
+ .. availability:: Unix.
+
+ Most Unix platforms.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+ .. method:: recvfrom_into(buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])
+
+ Receive data from the socket, writing it into *buffer* instead of creating a
+ new bytestring. The return value is a pair ``(nbytes, address)`` where *nbytes* is
+ the number of bytes received and *address* is the address of the socket sending
+ the data. See the Unix manual page :manpage:`recv(2)` for the meaning of the
+ optional argument *flags*; it defaults to zero. The format of *address*
+ depends on the address family --- see :ref:`socket-addresses`.
+
+
+ .. method:: recv_into(buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])
+
+ Receive up to *nbytes* bytes from the socket, storing the data into a buffer
+ rather than creating a new bytestring. If *nbytes* is not specified (or 0),
+ receive up to the size available in the given buffer. Returns the number of
+ bytes received. See the Unix manual page :manpage:`recv(2)` for the meaning
+ of the optional argument *flags*; it defaults to zero.
-.. method:: socket.sendall(bytes[, flags])
+ .. method:: send(bytes[, flags])
- Send data to the socket. The socket must be connected to a remote socket. The
- optional *flags* argument has the same meaning as for :meth:`recv` above.
- Unlike :meth:`send`, this method continues to send data from *bytes* until
- either all data has been sent or an error occurs. ``None`` is returned on
- success. On error, an exception is raised, and there is no way to determine how
- much data, if any, was successfully sent.
+ Send data to the socket. The socket must be connected to a remote socket. The
+ optional *flags* argument has the same meaning as for :meth:`recv`.
+ Returns the number of bytes sent. Applications are responsible for checking that
+ all data has been sent; if only some of the data was transmitted, the
+ application needs to attempt delivery of the remaining data. For further
+ information on this topic, consult the :ref:`socket-howto`.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.5
- The socket timeout is no longer reset each time data is sent successfully.
- The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to send all data.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+ an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+ an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
- .. versionchanged:: 3.5
- If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
- an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
- an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+ .. method:: sendall(bytes[, flags])
-.. method:: socket.sendto(bytes, address)
- socket.sendto(bytes, flags, address)
+ Send data to the socket. The socket must be connected to a remote socket. The
+ optional *flags* argument has the same meaning as for :meth:`recv`.
+ Unlike :meth:`send`, this method continues to send data from *bytes* until
+ either all data has been sent or an error occurs. ``None`` is returned on
+ success. On error, an exception is raised, and there is no way to determine how
+ much data, if any, was successfully sent.
- Send data to the socket. The socket should not be connected to a remote socket,
- since the destination socket is specified by *address*. The optional *flags*
- argument has the same meaning as for :meth:`recv` above. Return the number of
- bytes sent. (The format of *address* depends on the address family --- see
- above.)
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ The socket timeout is no longer reset each time data is sent successfully.
+ The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to send all data.
- .. audit-event:: socket.sendto self,address socket.socket.sendto
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+ an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+ an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
- .. versionchanged:: 3.5
- If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
- an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
- an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
-
-
-.. method:: socket.sendmsg(buffers[, ancdata[, flags[, address]]])
-
- Send normal and ancillary data to the socket, gathering the
- non-ancillary data from a series of buffers and concatenating it
- into a single message. The *buffers* argument specifies the
- non-ancillary data as an iterable of
- :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`
- (e.g. :class:`bytes` objects); the operating system may set a limit
- (:func:`~os.sysconf` value ``SC_IOV_MAX``) on the number of buffers
- that can be used. The *ancdata* argument specifies the ancillary
- data (control messages) as an iterable of zero or more tuples
- ``(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)``, where *cmsg_level* and
- *cmsg_type* are integers specifying the protocol level and
- protocol-specific type respectively, and *cmsg_data* is a
- bytes-like object holding the associated data. Note that
- some systems (in particular, systems without :func:`CMSG_SPACE`)
- might support sending only one control message per call. The
- *flags* argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
- :meth:`send`. If *address* is supplied and not ``None``, it sets a
- destination address for the message. The return value is the
- number of bytes of non-ancillary data sent.
-
- The following function sends the list of file descriptors *fds*
- over an :const:`AF_UNIX` socket, on systems which support the
- :const:`SCM_RIGHTS` mechanism. See also :meth:`recvmsg`. ::
-
- import socket, array
-
- def send_fds(sock, msg, fds):
- return sock.sendmsg([msg], [(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, array.array("i", fds))])
- .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
+ .. method:: sendto(bytes, address)
+ sendto(bytes, flags, address)
- Most Unix platforms.
+ Send data to the socket. The socket should not be connected to a remote socket,
+ since the destination socket is specified by *address*. The optional *flags*
+ argument has the same meaning as for :meth:`recv`. Return the number of
+ bytes sent. The format of *address* depends on the address family --- see
+ :ref:`socket-addresses`.
- .. audit-event:: socket.sendmsg self,address socket.socket.sendmsg
+ .. audit-event:: socket.sendto self,address socket.socket.sendto
- .. versionadded:: 3.3
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+ an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+ an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
- .. versionchanged:: 3.5
- If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
- an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
- an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
-.. method:: socket.sendmsg_afalg([msg], *, op[, iv[, assoclen[, flags]]])
+ .. method:: sendmsg(buffers[, ancdata[, flags[, address]]])
- Specialized version of :meth:`~socket.sendmsg` for :const:`AF_ALG` socket.
- Set mode, IV, AEAD associated data length and flags for :const:`AF_ALG` socket.
+ Send normal and ancillary data to the socket, gathering the
+ non-ancillary data from a series of buffers and concatenating it
+ into a single message. The *buffers* argument specifies the
+ non-ancillary data as an iterable of
+ :term:`bytes-like objects <bytes-like object>`
+ (e.g. :class:`bytes` objects); the operating system may set a limit
+ (:func:`~os.sysconf` value ``SC_IOV_MAX``) on the number of buffers
+ that can be used. The *ancdata* argument specifies the ancillary
+ data (control messages) as an iterable of zero or more tuples
+ ``(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)``, where *cmsg_level* and
+ *cmsg_type* are integers specifying the protocol level and
+ protocol-specific type respectively, and *cmsg_data* is a
+ bytes-like object holding the associated data. Note that
+ some systems (in particular, systems without :func:`CMSG_SPACE`)
+ might support sending only one control message per call. The
+ *flags* argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
+ :meth:`send`. If *address* is supplied and not ``None``, it sets a
+ destination address for the message. The return value is the
+ number of bytes of non-ancillary data sent.
- .. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.38.
+ The following function sends the list of file descriptors *fds*
+ over an :const:`AF_UNIX` socket, on systems which support the
+ :const:`!SCM_RIGHTS` mechanism. See also :meth:`recvmsg`. ::
- .. versionadded:: 3.6
+ import socket, array
-.. method:: socket.sendfile(file, offset=0, count=None)
+ def send_fds(sock, msg, fds):
+ return sock.sendmsg([msg], [(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, array.array("i", fds))])
- Send a file until EOF is reached by using high-performance
- :mod:`os.sendfile` and return the total number of bytes which were sent.
- *file* must be a regular file object opened in binary mode. If
- :mod:`os.sendfile` is not available (e.g. Windows) or *file* is not a
- regular file :meth:`send` will be used instead. *offset* tells from where to
- start reading the file. If specified, *count* is the total number of bytes
- to transmit as opposed to sending the file until EOF is reached. File
- position is updated on return or also in case of error in which case
- :meth:`file.tell() <io.IOBase.tell>` can be used to figure out the number of
- bytes which were sent. The socket must be of :const:`SOCK_STREAM` type.
- Non-blocking sockets are not supported.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not WASI.
- .. versionadded:: 3.5
+ Most Unix platforms.
-.. method:: socket.set_inheritable(inheritable)
+ .. audit-event:: socket.sendmsg self,address socket.socket.sendmsg
- Set the :ref:`inheritable flag <fd_inheritance>` of the socket's file
- descriptor or socket's handle.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
- .. versionadded:: 3.4
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise
+ an exception, the method now retries the system call instead of raising
+ an :exc:`InterruptedError` exception (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+ .. method:: sendmsg_afalg([msg], *, op[, iv[, assoclen[, flags]]])
-.. method:: socket.setblocking(flag)
+ Specialized version of :meth:`~socket.sendmsg` for :const:`AF_ALG` socket.
+ Set mode, IV, AEAD associated data length and flags for :const:`AF_ALG` socket.
- Set blocking or non-blocking mode of the socket: if *flag* is false, the
- socket is set to non-blocking, else to blocking mode.
+ .. availability:: Linux >= 2.6.38.
- This method is a shorthand for certain :meth:`~socket.settimeout` calls:
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
- * ``sock.setblocking(True)`` is equivalent to ``sock.settimeout(None)``
+ .. method:: sendfile(file, offset=0, count=None)
- * ``sock.setblocking(False)`` is equivalent to ``sock.settimeout(0.0)``
+ Send a file until EOF is reached by using high-performance
+ :mod:`os.sendfile` and return the total number of bytes which were sent.
+ *file* must be a regular file object opened in binary mode. If
+ :mod:`os.sendfile` is not available (e.g. Windows) or *file* is not a
+ regular file :meth:`send` will be used instead. *offset* tells from where to
+ start reading the file. If specified, *count* is the total number of bytes
+ to transmit as opposed to sending the file until EOF is reached. File
+ position is updated on return or also in case of error in which case
+ :meth:`file.tell() <io.IOBase.tell>` can be used to figure out the number of
+ bytes which were sent. The socket must be of :const:`SOCK_STREAM` type.
+ Non-blocking sockets are not supported.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.7
- The method no longer applies :const:`SOCK_NONBLOCK` flag on
- :attr:`socket.type`.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.5
+ .. method:: set_inheritable(inheritable)
-.. method:: socket.settimeout(value)
+ Set the :ref:`inheritable flag <fd_inheritance>` of the socket's file
+ descriptor or socket's handle.
- Set a timeout on blocking socket operations. The *value* argument can be a
- nonnegative floating point number expressing seconds, or ``None``.
- If a non-zero value is given, subsequent socket operations will raise a
- :exc:`timeout` exception if the timeout period *value* has elapsed before
- the operation has completed. If zero is given, the socket is put in
- non-blocking mode. If ``None`` is given, the socket is put in blocking mode.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
- For further information, please consult the :ref:`notes on socket timeouts <socket-timeouts>`.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.7
- The method no longer toggles :const:`SOCK_NONBLOCK` flag on
- :attr:`socket.type`.
+ .. method:: setblocking(flag)
+ Set blocking or non-blocking mode of the socket: if *flag* is false, the
+ socket is set to non-blocking, else to blocking mode.
-.. method:: socket.setsockopt(level, optname, value: int)
-.. method:: socket.setsockopt(level, optname, value: buffer)
- :noindex:
-.. method:: socket.setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int)
- :noindex:
+ This method is a shorthand for certain :meth:`~socket.settimeout` calls:
- .. index:: pair: module; struct
+ * ``sock.setblocking(True)`` is equivalent to ``sock.settimeout(None)``
- Set the value of the given socket option (see the Unix manual page
- :manpage:`setsockopt(2)`). The needed symbolic constants are defined in this
- module (:ref:`!SO_\* etc. <socket-unix-constants>`). The value can be an integer,
- ``None`` or a :term:`bytes-like object` representing a buffer. In the later
- case it is up to the caller to ensure that the bytestring contains the
- proper bits (see the optional built-in module :mod:`struct` for a way to
- encode C structures as bytestrings). When *value* is set to ``None``,
- *optlen* argument is required. It's equivalent to call :c:func:`setsockopt` C
- function with ``optval=NULL`` and ``optlen=optlen``.
+ * ``sock.setblocking(False)`` is equivalent to ``sock.settimeout(0.0)``
- .. versionchanged:: 3.5
- Writable :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+ The method no longer applies :const:`SOCK_NONBLOCK` flag on
+ :attr:`socket.type`.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.6
- setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int) form added.
- .. availability:: not WASI.
+ .. method:: settimeout(value)
+ Set a timeout on blocking socket operations. The *value* argument can be a
+ nonnegative real number expressing seconds, or ``None``.
+ If a non-zero value is given, subsequent socket operations will raise a
+ :exc:`timeout` exception if the timeout period *value* has elapsed before
+ the operation has completed. If zero is given, the socket is put in
+ non-blocking mode. If ``None`` is given, the socket is put in blocking mode.
-.. method:: socket.shutdown(how)
+ For further information, please consult the :ref:`notes on socket timeouts <socket-timeouts>`.
- Shut down one or both halves of the connection. If *how* is :const:`SHUT_RD`,
- further receives are disallowed. If *how* is :const:`SHUT_WR`, further sends
- are disallowed. If *how* is :const:`SHUT_RDWR`, further sends and receives are
- disallowed.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+ The method no longer toggles :const:`SOCK_NONBLOCK` flag on
+ :attr:`socket.type`.
- .. availability:: not WASI.
+ .. method:: setsockopt(level, optname, value: int | Buffer)
+ setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int)
-.. method:: socket.share(process_id)
+ .. index:: pair: module; struct
- Duplicate a socket and prepare it for sharing with a target process. The
- target process must be provided with *process_id*. The resulting bytes object
- can then be passed to the target process using some form of interprocess
- communication and the socket can be recreated there using :func:`fromshare`.
- Once this method has been called, it is safe to close the socket since
- the operating system has already duplicated it for the target process.
+ Set the value of the given socket option (see the Unix manual page
+ :manpage:`setsockopt(2)`). The needed symbolic constants are defined in this
+ module (:ref:`!SO_\* etc. <socket-unix-constants>`). The value can be an integer,
+ ``None`` or a :term:`bytes-like object` representing a buffer. In the latter
+ case it is up to the caller to ensure that the bytestring contains the
+ proper bits (see the optional built-in module :mod:`struct` for a way to
+ encode C structures as bytestrings). When *value* is set to ``None``,
+ *optlen* argument is required. It's equivalent to calling :c:func:`!setsockopt` C
+ function with ``optval=NULL`` and ``optlen=optlen``.
- .. availability:: Windows.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ Writable :term:`bytes-like object` is now accepted.
- .. versionadded:: 3.3
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+ setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int) form added.
+
+ .. availability:: not WASI.
+
+
+ .. method:: shutdown(how)
+
+ Shut down one or both halves of the connection. If *how* is :const:`SHUT_RD`,
+ further receives are disallowed. If *how* is :const:`SHUT_WR`, further sends
+ are disallowed. If *how* is :const:`SHUT_RDWR`, further sends and receives are
+ disallowed.
+
+ .. availability:: not WASI.
+
+
+ .. method:: share(process_id)
+
+ Duplicate a socket and prepare it for sharing with a target process. The
+ target process must be provided with *process_id*. The resulting bytes object
+ can then be passed to the target process using some form of interprocess
+ communication and the socket can be recreated there using :func:`fromshare`.
+ Once this method has been called, it is safe to close the socket since
+ the operating system has already duplicated it for the target process.
+
+ .. availability:: Windows.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+
+ Note that there are no methods :meth:`!read` or :meth:`!write`; use
+ :meth:`~socket.recv` and :meth:`~socket.send` without *flags* argument instead.
+ Socket objects also have these (read-only) attributes that correspond to the
+ values given to the :class:`~socket.socket` constructor.
-Note that there are no methods :meth:`read` or :meth:`write`; use
-:meth:`~socket.recv` and :meth:`~socket.send` without *flags* argument instead.
-Socket objects also have these (read-only) attributes that correspond to the
-values given to the :class:`~socket.socket` constructor.
+ .. attribute:: family
+ The socket family.
-.. attribute:: socket.family
- The socket family.
+ .. attribute:: type
+ The socket type.
-.. attribute:: socket.type
- The socket type.
+ .. attribute:: proto
+ The socket protocol.
-.. attribute:: socket.proto
- The socket protocol.
+.. class:: SocketType
+ The base class of the :class:`~socket.socket` type, re-exported from
+ :mod:`!_socket`. An instance check such as
+ ``isinstance(socket(...), SocketType)`` is true, but ``SocketType`` is not
+ the same as ``type(socket(...))``, which is :class:`~socket.socket` itself.
.. _socket-timeouts:
@@ -2034,7 +2078,7 @@ can be changed by calling :func:`setdefaulttimeout`.
in non-blocking mode. Also, the blocking and timeout modes are shared between
file descriptors and socket objects that refer to the same network endpoint.
This implementation detail can have visible consequences if e.g. you decide
- to use the :meth:`~socket.fileno()` of a socket.
+ to use the :meth:`~socket.fileno` of a socket.
Timeouts and the ``connect`` method
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
diff --git a/Doc/library/socketserver.rst b/Doc/library/socketserver.rst
index 864b1dadb785623..17a1837d24b4f32 100644
--- a/Doc/library/socketserver.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/socketserver.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`socketserver` --- A framework for network servers
-=======================================================
+:mod:`!socketserver` --- A framework for network servers
+========================================================
.. module:: socketserver
:synopsis: A framework for network servers.
@@ -260,8 +260,11 @@ Server Objects
.. attribute:: address_family
- The family of protocols to which the server's socket belongs.
- Common examples are :const:`socket.AF_INET` and :const:`socket.AF_UNIX`.
+ The family of protocols to which the server's socket belongs. Common
+ examples are :const:`socket.AF_INET`, :const:`socket.AF_INET6`, and
+ :const:`socket.AF_UNIX`. Subclass the TCP or UDP server classes in this
+ module with class attribute ``address_family = AF_INET6`` set if you
+ want IPv6 server classes.
.. attribute:: RequestHandlerClass
@@ -493,11 +496,17 @@ This is the server side::
def handle(self):
# self.request is the TCP socket connected to the client
- self.data = self.request.recv(1024).strip()
- print("Received from {}:".format(self.client_address[0]))
- print(self.data)
+ pieces = [b'']
+ total = 0
+ while b'\n' not in pieces[-1] and total < 10_000:
+ pieces.append(self.request.recv(2000))
+ total += len(pieces[-1])
+ self.data = b''.join(pieces)
+ print(f"Received from {self.client_address[0]}:")
+ print(self.data.decode("utf-8"))
# just send back the same data, but upper-cased
self.request.sendall(self.data.upper())
+ # after we return, the socket will be closed.
if __name__ == "__main__":
HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
@@ -514,20 +523,24 @@ objects that simplify communication by providing the standard file interface)::
class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):
def handle(self):
- # self.rfile is a file-like object created by the handler;
- # we can now use e.g. readline() instead of raw recv() calls
- self.data = self.rfile.readline().strip()
- print("{} wrote:".format(self.client_address[0]))
- print(self.data)
+ # self.rfile is a file-like object created by the handler.
+ # We can now use e.g. readline() instead of raw recv() calls.
+ # We limit ourselves to 10000 bytes to avoid abuse by the sender.
+ self.data = self.rfile.readline(10000).rstrip()
+ print(f"{self.client_address[0]} wrote:")
+ print(self.data.decode("utf-8"))
# Likewise, self.wfile is a file-like object used to write back
# to the client
self.wfile.write(self.data.upper())
The difference is that the ``readline()`` call in the second handler will call
``recv()`` multiple times until it encounters a newline character, while the
-single ``recv()`` call in the first handler will just return what has been
-received so far from the client's ``sendall()`` call (typically all of it, but
-this is not guaranteed by the TCP protocol).
+first handler had to use a ``recv()`` loop to accumulate data until a
+newline itself. If it had just used a single ``recv()`` without the loop it
+would just have returned what has been received so far from the client.
+TCP is stream based: data arrives in the order it was sent, but there is no
+correlation between client ``send()`` or ``sendall()`` calls and the number
+of ``recv()`` calls on the server required to receive it.
This is the client side::
@@ -542,13 +555,14 @@ This is the client side::
with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
# Connect to server and send data
sock.connect((HOST, PORT))
- sock.sendall(bytes(data + "\n", "utf-8"))
+ sock.sendall(bytes(data, "utf-8"))
+ sock.sendall(b"\n")
# Receive data from the server and shut down
received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")
- print("Sent: {}".format(data))
- print("Received: {}".format(received))
+ print("Sent: ", data)
+ print("Received:", received)
The output of the example should look something like this:
@@ -593,7 +607,7 @@ This is the server side::
def handle(self):
data = self.request[0].strip()
socket = self.request[1]
- print("{} wrote:".format(self.client_address[0]))
+ print(f"{self.client_address[0]} wrote:")
print(data)
socket.sendto(data.upper(), self.client_address)
@@ -618,8 +632,8 @@ This is the client side::
sock.sendto(bytes(data + "\n", "utf-8"), (HOST, PORT))
received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")
- print("Sent: {}".format(data))
- print("Received: {}".format(received))
+ print("Sent: ", data)
+ print("Received:", received)
The output of the example should look exactly like for the TCP server example.
diff --git a/Doc/library/spwd.rst b/Doc/library/spwd.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..c16854bb380e521
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/spwd.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+:mod:`!spwd` --- The shadow password database
+=============================================
+
+.. module:: spwd
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+A possible replacement is the third-party library :pypi:`python-pam`.
+This library is not supported or maintained by the Python core team.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!spwd` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/spwd.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/sqlite3.rst b/Doc/library/sqlite3.rst
index e6961821b639b96..96817ff03cba06e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/sqlite3.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/sqlite3.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`sqlite3` --- DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases
-============================================================
+:mod:`!sqlite3` --- DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases
+=============================================================
.. module:: sqlite3
:synopsis: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x.
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ This document includes four main sections:
PEP written by Marc-André Lemburg.
-.. We use the following practises for SQL code:
+.. We use the following practices for SQL code:
- UPPERCASE for keywords
- snake_case for schema
- single quotes for string literals
@@ -127,7 +127,7 @@ and call :meth:`res.fetchone() <Cursor.fetchone>` to fetch the resulting row:
We can see that the table has been created,
as the query returns a :class:`tuple` containing the table's name.
If we query ``sqlite_master`` for a non-existent table ``spam``,
-:meth:`!res.fetchone()` will return ``None``:
+:meth:`!res.fetchone` will return ``None``:
.. doctest::
@@ -289,10 +289,7 @@ Module functions
Set it to any combination (using ``|``, bitwise or) of
:const:`PARSE_DECLTYPES` and :const:`PARSE_COLNAMES`
to enable this.
- Column names takes precedence over declared types if both flags are set.
- Types cannot be detected for generated fields (for example ``max(data)``),
- even when the *detect_types* parameter is set; :class:`str` will be
- returned instead.
+ Column names take precedence over declared types if both flags are set.
By default (``0``), type detection is disabled.
:param isolation_level:
@@ -436,21 +433,6 @@ Module constants
old style (pre-Python 3.12) transaction control behaviour.
See :ref:`sqlite3-transaction-control-isolation-level` for more information.
-.. data:: PARSE_COLNAMES
-
- Pass this flag value to the *detect_types* parameter of
- :func:`connect` to look up a converter function by
- using the type name, parsed from the query column name,
- as the converter dictionary key.
- The type name must be wrapped in square brackets (``[]``).
-
- .. code-block:: sql
-
- SELECT p as "p [point]" FROM test; ! will look up converter "point"
-
- This flag may be combined with :const:`PARSE_DECLTYPES` using the ``|``
- (bitwise or) operator.
-
.. data:: PARSE_DECLTYPES
Pass this flag value to the *detect_types* parameter of
@@ -472,6 +454,27 @@ Module constants
This flag may be combined with :const:`PARSE_COLNAMES` using the ``|``
(bitwise or) operator.
+ .. note::
+
+ Generated fields (for example ``MAX(p)``) are returned as :class:`str`.
+ Use :const:`!PARSE_COLNAMES` to enforce types for such queries.
+
+.. data:: PARSE_COLNAMES
+
+ Pass this flag value to the *detect_types* parameter of
+ :func:`connect` to look up a converter function by
+ using the type name, parsed from the query column name,
+ as the converter dictionary key.
+ The query column name must be wrapped in double quotes (``"``)
+ and the type name must be wrapped in square brackets (``[]``).
+
+ .. code-block:: sql
+
+ SELECT MAX(p) as "p [point]" FROM test; ! will look up converter "point"
+
+ This flag may be combined with :const:`PARSE_DECLTYPES` using the ``|``
+ (bitwise or) operator.
+
.. data:: SQLITE_OK
SQLITE_DENY
SQLITE_IGNORE
@@ -525,21 +528,20 @@ Module constants
The mappings from SQLite threading modes to DB-API 2.0 threadsafety levels
are as follows:
- +------------------+-----------------+----------------------+-------------------------------+
- | SQLite threading | `threadsafety`_ | `SQLITE_THREADSAFE`_ | DB-API 2.0 meaning |
- | mode | | | |
- +==================+=================+======================+===============================+
- | single-thread | 0 | 0 | Threads may not share the |
- | | | | module |
- +------------------+-----------------+----------------------+-------------------------------+
- | multi-thread | 1 | 2 | Threads may share the module, |
- | | | | but not connections |
- +------------------+-----------------+----------------------+-------------------------------+
- | serialized | 3 | 1 | Threads may share the module, |
- | | | | connections and cursors |
- +------------------+-----------------+----------------------+-------------------------------+
-
- .. _threadsafety: https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/#threadsafety
+ +------------------+----------------------+----------------------+-------------------------------+
+ | SQLite threading | :pep:`threadsafety | `SQLITE_THREADSAFE`_ | DB-API 2.0 meaning |
+ | mode | <0249#threadsafety>` | | |
+ +==================+======================+======================+===============================+
+ | single-thread | 0 | 0 | Threads may not share the |
+ | | | | module |
+ +------------------+----------------------+----------------------+-------------------------------+
+ | multi-thread | 1 | 2 | Threads may share the module, |
+ | | | | but not connections |
+ +------------------+----------------------+----------------------+-------------------------------+
+ | serialized | 3 | 1 | Threads may share the module, |
+ | | | | connections and cursors |
+ +------------------+----------------------+----------------------+-------------------------------+
+
.. _SQLITE_THREADSAFE: https://sqlite.org/compile.html#threadsafe
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
@@ -630,7 +632,7 @@ Connection objects
supplied, this must be a :term:`callable` returning
an instance of :class:`Cursor` or its subclasses.
- .. method:: blobopen(table, column, row, /, *, readonly=False, name="main")
+ .. method:: blobopen(table, column, rowid, /, *, readonly=False, name="main")
Open a :class:`Blob` handle to an existing
:abbr:`BLOB (Binary Large OBject)`.
@@ -641,8 +643,8 @@ Connection objects
:param str column:
The name of the column where the blob is located.
- :param str row:
- The name of the row where the blob is located.
+ :param int rowid:
+ The row id where the blob is located.
:param bool readonly:
Set to ``True`` if the blob should be opened without write
@@ -1434,6 +1436,9 @@ Connection objects
See :ref:`sqlite3-howto-row-factory` for more details.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.14
+ Deleting the ``row_factory`` attribute is no longer allowed.
+
.. attribute:: text_factory
A :term:`callable` that accepts a :class:`bytes` parameter
@@ -1443,6 +1448,9 @@ Connection objects
See :ref:`sqlite3-howto-encoding` for more details.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.14
+ Deleting the ``text_factory`` attribute is no longer allowed.
+
.. attribute:: total_changes
Return the total number of database rows that have been modified, inserted, or
@@ -1628,6 +1636,9 @@ Cursor objects
If the *size* parameter is used, then it is best for it to retain the same
value from one :meth:`fetchmany` call to the next.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.8
+ Negative *size* values are rejected by raising :exc:`ValueError`.
+
.. method:: fetchall()
Return all (remaining) rows of a query result as a :class:`list`.
@@ -1655,6 +1666,9 @@ Cursor objects
Read/write attribute that controls the number of rows returned by :meth:`fetchmany`.
The default value is 1 which means a single row would be fetched per call.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.8
+ Negative values are rejected by raising :exc:`ValueError`.
+
.. attribute:: connection
Read-only attribute that provides the SQLite database :class:`Connection`
@@ -1720,6 +1734,9 @@ Cursor objects
See :ref:`sqlite3-howto-row-factory` for more details.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.14
+ Deleting the ``row_factory`` attribute is no longer allowed.
+
.. The sqlite3.Row example used to be a how-to. It has now been incorporated
into the Row reference. We keep the anchor here in order not to break
@@ -2296,7 +2313,7 @@ This section shows recipes for common adapters and converters.
.. testcode::
- import datetime
+ import datetime as dt
import sqlite3
def adapt_date_iso(val):
@@ -2305,27 +2322,27 @@ This section shows recipes for common adapters and converters.
def adapt_datetime_iso(val):
"""Adapt datetime.datetime to timezone-naive ISO 8601 date."""
- return val.isoformat()
+ return val.replace(tzinfo=None).isoformat()
def adapt_datetime_epoch(val):
"""Adapt datetime.datetime to Unix timestamp."""
return int(val.timestamp())
- sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.date, adapt_date_iso)
- sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.datetime, adapt_datetime_iso)
- sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.datetime, adapt_datetime_epoch)
+ sqlite3.register_adapter(dt.date, adapt_date_iso)
+ sqlite3.register_adapter(dt.datetime, adapt_datetime_iso)
+ sqlite3.register_adapter(dt.datetime, adapt_datetime_epoch)
def convert_date(val):
"""Convert ISO 8601 date to datetime.date object."""
- return datetime.date.fromisoformat(val.decode())
+ return dt.date.fromisoformat(val.decode())
def convert_datetime(val):
"""Convert ISO 8601 datetime to datetime.datetime object."""
- return datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(val.decode())
+ return dt.datetime.fromisoformat(val.decode())
def convert_timestamp(val):
"""Convert Unix epoch timestamp to datetime.datetime object."""
- return datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(int(val))
+ return dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(int(val))
sqlite3.register_converter("date", convert_date)
sqlite3.register_converter("datetime", convert_datetime)
@@ -2334,17 +2351,17 @@ This section shows recipes for common adapters and converters.
.. testcode::
:hide:
- dt = datetime.datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, 8, 123456)
+ when = dt.datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, 8, 123456)
- assert adapt_date_iso(dt.date()) == "2019-05-18"
- assert convert_date(b"2019-05-18") == dt.date()
+ assert adapt_date_iso(when.date()) == "2019-05-18"
+ assert convert_date(b"2019-05-18") == when.date()
- assert adapt_datetime_iso(dt) == "2019-05-18T15:17:08.123456"
- assert convert_datetime(b"2019-05-18T15:17:08.123456") == dt
+ assert adapt_datetime_iso(when) == "2019-05-18T15:17:08.123456"
+ assert convert_datetime(b"2019-05-18T15:17:08.123456") == when
# Using current time as fromtimestamp() returns local date/time.
# Dropping microseconds as adapt_datetime_epoch truncates fractional second part.
- now = datetime.datetime.now().replace(microsecond=0)
+ now = dt.datetime.now().replace(microsecond=0)
current_timestamp = int(now.timestamp())
assert adapt_datetime_epoch(now) == current_timestamp
@@ -2461,6 +2478,7 @@ Some useful URI tricks include:
>>> con.execute("CREATE TABLE readonly(data)")
Traceback (most recent call last):
OperationalError: attempt to write a readonly database
+ >>> con.close()
* Do not implicitly create a new database file if it does not already exist;
will raise :exc:`~sqlite3.OperationalError` if unable to create a new file:
diff --git a/Doc/library/ssl.rst b/Doc/library/ssl.rst
index a90436286ca8199..601b2b44320324d 100644
--- a/Doc/library/ssl.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/ssl.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`ssl` --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
-=================================================
+:mod:`!ssl` --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
+==================================================
.. module:: ssl
:synopsis: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
@@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ by SSL sockets created through the :meth:`SSLContext.wrap_socket` method.
Use of deprecated constants and functions result in deprecation warnings.
-Functions, Constants, and Exceptions
+Functions, constants, and exceptions
------------------------------------
@@ -125,7 +125,8 @@ Context creation
A convenience function helps create :class:`SSLContext` objects for common
purposes.
-.. function:: create_default_context(purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH, cafile=None, capath=None, cadata=None)
+.. function:: create_default_context(purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH, *,\
+ cafile=None, capath=None, cadata=None)
Return a new :class:`SSLContext` object with default settings for
the given *purpose*. The settings are chosen by the :mod:`ssl` module,
@@ -314,7 +315,7 @@ Exceptions
Random generation
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-.. function:: RAND_bytes(num)
+.. function:: RAND_bytes(num, /)
Return *num* cryptographically strong pseudo-random bytes. Raises an
:class:`SSLError` if the PRNG has not been seeded with enough data or if the
@@ -338,7 +339,7 @@ Random generation
:func:`ssl.RAND_egd` and :func:`ssl.RAND_add` to increase the randomness of
the pseudo-random number generator.
-.. function:: RAND_add(bytes, entropy)
+.. function:: RAND_add(bytes, entropy, /)
Mix the given *bytes* into the SSL pseudo-random number generator. The
parameter *entropy* (a float) is a lower bound on the entropy contained in
@@ -357,7 +358,7 @@ Certificate handling
.. function:: cert_time_to_seconds(cert_time)
- Return the time in seconds since the Epoch, given the ``cert_time``
+ Return the time in seconds since the epoch, given the ``cert_time``
string representing the "notBefore" or "notAfter" date from a
certificate in ``"%b %d %H:%M:%S %Y %Z"`` strptime format (C
locale).
@@ -367,12 +368,12 @@ Certificate handling
.. doctest:: newcontext
>>> import ssl
+ >>> import datetime as dt
>>> timestamp = ssl.cert_time_to_seconds("Jan 5 09:34:43 2018 GMT")
>>> timestamp # doctest: +SKIP
1515144883
- >>> from datetime import datetime
- >>> print(datetime.utcfromtimestamp(timestamp)) # doctest: +SKIP
- 2018-01-05 09:34:43
+ >>> print(dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, dt.UTC)) # doctest: +SKIP
+ 2018-01-05 09:34:43+00:00
"notBefore" or "notAfter" dates must use GMT (:rfc:`5280`).
@@ -406,12 +407,12 @@ Certificate handling
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
The *timeout* parameter was added.
-.. function:: DER_cert_to_PEM_cert(DER_cert_bytes)
+.. function:: DER_cert_to_PEM_cert(der_cert_bytes)
Given a certificate as a DER-encoded blob of bytes, returns a PEM-encoded
string version of the same certificate.
-.. function:: PEM_cert_to_DER_cert(PEM_cert_string)
+.. function:: PEM_cert_to_DER_cert(pem_cert_string)
Given a certificate as an ASCII PEM string, returns a DER-encoded sequence of
bytes for that same certificate.
@@ -781,7 +782,7 @@ Constants
.. data:: OP_SINGLE_DH_USE
- Prevents re-use of the same DH key for distinct SSL sessions. This
+ Prevents reuse of the same DH key for distinct SSL sessions. This
improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources.
This option only applies to server sockets.
@@ -789,7 +790,7 @@ Constants
.. data:: OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE
- Prevents re-use of the same ECDH key for distinct SSL sessions. This
+ Prevents reuse of the same ECDH key for distinct SSL sessions. This
improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources.
This option only applies to server sockets.
@@ -1042,32 +1043,32 @@ Constants
:attr:`TLSVersion.TLSv1_3` are deprecated.
-SSL Sockets
+SSL sockets
-----------
.. class:: SSLSocket(socket.socket)
SSL sockets provide the following methods of :ref:`socket-objects`:
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.accept()`
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.bind()`
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.close()`
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.connect()`
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.detach()`
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.fileno()`
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.getpeername()`, :meth:`~socket.socket.getsockname()`
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.getsockopt()`, :meth:`~socket.socket.setsockopt()`
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.gettimeout()`, :meth:`~socket.socket.settimeout()`,
- :meth:`~socket.socket.setblocking()`
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.listen()`
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.makefile()`
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.recv()`, :meth:`~socket.socket.recv_into()`
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.accept`
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.bind`
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.close`
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.connect`
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.detach`
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.fileno`
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.getpeername`, :meth:`~socket.socket.getsockname`
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.getsockopt`, :meth:`~socket.socket.setsockopt`
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.gettimeout`, :meth:`~socket.socket.settimeout`,
+ :meth:`~socket.socket.setblocking`
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.listen`
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.makefile`
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.recv`, :meth:`~socket.socket.recv_into`
(but passing a non-zero ``flags`` argument is not allowed)
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.send()`, :meth:`~socket.socket.sendall()` (with
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.send`, :meth:`~socket.socket.sendall` (with
the same limitation)
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.sendfile()` (but :mod:`os.sendfile` will be used
- for plain-text sockets only, else :meth:`~socket.socket.send()` will be used)
- - :meth:`~socket.socket.shutdown()`
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.sendfile` (but :mod:`os.sendfile` will be used
+ for plain-text sockets only, else :meth:`~socket.socket.send` will be used)
+ - :meth:`~socket.socket.shutdown`
However, since the SSL (and TLS) protocol has its own framing atop
of TCP, the SSL sockets abstraction can, in certain respects, diverge from
@@ -1090,7 +1091,7 @@ SSL Sockets
:meth:`SSLContext.wrap_socket` to wrap a socket.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
- :class:`SSLSocket` instances must to created with
+ :class:`SSLSocket` instances must be created with
:meth:`~SSLContext.wrap_socket`. In earlier versions, it was possible
to create instances directly. This was never documented or officially
supported.
@@ -1122,10 +1123,10 @@ SSL sockets also have the following additional methods and attributes:
.. deprecated:: 3.6
Use :meth:`~SSLSocket.recv` instead of :meth:`~SSLSocket.read`.
-.. method:: SSLSocket.write(buf)
+.. method:: SSLSocket.write(data)
- Write *buf* to the SSL socket and return the number of bytes written. The
- *buf* argument must be an object supporting the buffer interface.
+ Write *data* to the SSL socket and return the number of bytes written. The
+ *data* argument must be an object supporting the buffer interface.
Raise :exc:`SSLWantReadError` or :exc:`SSLWantWriteError` if the socket is
:ref:`non-blocking <ssl-nonblocking>` and the write would block.
@@ -1135,7 +1136,7 @@ SSL sockets also have the following additional methods and attributes:
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
The socket timeout is no longer reset each time bytes are received or sent.
- The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to write *buf*.
+ The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to write *data*.
.. deprecated:: 3.6
Use :meth:`~SSLSocket.send` instead of :meth:`~SSLSocket.write`.
@@ -1152,12 +1153,15 @@ SSL sockets also have the following additional methods and attributes:
:meth:`~socket.socket.recv` and :meth:`~socket.socket.send` instead of these
methods.
-.. method:: SSLSocket.do_handshake()
+.. method:: SSLSocket.do_handshake(block=False)
Perform the SSL setup handshake.
+ If *block* is true and the timeout obtained by :meth:`~socket.socket.gettimeout`
+ is zero, the socket is set in blocking mode until the handshake is performed.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
- The handshake method also performs :func:`match_hostname` when the
+ The handshake method also performs :func:`!match_hostname` when the
:attr:`~SSLContext.check_hostname` attribute of the socket's
:attr:`~SSLSocket.context` is true.
@@ -1167,7 +1171,7 @@ SSL sockets also have the following additional methods and attributes:
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Hostname or IP address is matched by OpenSSL during handshake. The
- function :func:`match_hostname` is no longer used. In case OpenSSL
+ function :func:`!match_hostname` is no longer used. In case OpenSSL
refuses a hostname or IP address, the handshake is aborted early and
a TLS alert message is sent to the peer.
@@ -1400,7 +1404,7 @@ SSL sockets also have the following additional methods and attributes:
.. versionadded:: 3.6
-SSL Contexts
+SSL contexts
------------
.. versionadded:: 3.2
@@ -1472,6 +1476,19 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.
:data:`PROTOCOL_TLS`, :data:`PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT`, and
:data:`PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER` use TLS 1.2 as minimum TLS version.
+ .. note::
+
+ :class:`SSLContext` only supports limited mutation once it has been used
+ by a connection. Adding new certificates to the internal trust store is
+ allowed, but changing ciphers, verification settings, or mTLS
+ certificates may result in surprising behavior.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ :class:`SSLContext` is designed to be shared and used by multiple
+ connections.
+ Thus, it is thread-safe as long as it is not reconfigured after being
+ used by a connection.
:class:`SSLContext` objects have the following methods and attributes:
@@ -1553,7 +1570,7 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.
The *capath* string, if present, is
the path to a directory containing several CA certificates in PEM format,
following an `OpenSSL specific layout
- <https://www.openssl.org/docs/manmaster/man3/SSL_CTX_load_verify_locations.html>`_.
+ <https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_load_verify_locations/>`_.
The *cadata* object, if present, is either an ASCII string of one or more
PEM-encoded certificates or a :term:`bytes-like object` of DER-encoded
@@ -1624,11 +1641,11 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.
provided as part of the operating system, though, it is likely to be
configured properly.
-.. method:: SSLContext.set_ciphers(ciphers)
+.. method:: SSLContext.set_ciphers(ciphers, /)
Set the available ciphers for sockets created with this context.
It should be a string in the `OpenSSL cipher list format
- <https://www.openssl.org/docs/manmaster/man1/ciphers.html>`_.
+ <https://docs.openssl.org/master/man1/ciphers/>`_.
If no cipher can be selected (because compile-time options or other
configuration forbids use of all the specified ciphers), an
:class:`SSLError` will be raised.
@@ -1640,7 +1657,7 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.
TLS 1.3 cipher suites cannot be disabled with
:meth:`~SSLContext.set_ciphers`.
-.. method:: SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(protocols)
+.. method:: SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(alpn_protocols)
Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the SSL/TLS
handshake. It should be a list of ASCII strings, like ``['http/1.1',
@@ -1654,7 +1671,7 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
-.. method:: SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(protocols)
+.. method:: SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(npn_protocols)
Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the SSL/TLS
handshake. It should be a list of strings, like ``['http/1.1', 'spdy/2']``,
@@ -1721,7 +1738,7 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
-.. attribute:: SSLContext.set_servername_callback(server_name_callback)
+.. method:: SSLContext.set_servername_callback(server_name_callback)
This is a legacy API retained for backwards compatibility. When possible,
you should use :attr:`sni_callback` instead. The given *server_name_callback*
@@ -1729,13 +1746,13 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.
IDN-encoded internationalized domain name, the *server_name_callback*
receives a decoded U-label (``"pythön.org"``).
- If there is an decoding error on the server name, the TLS connection will
+ If there is a decoding error on the server name, the TLS connection will
terminate with an :const:`ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR` fatal TLS
alert message to the client.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
-.. method:: SSLContext.load_dh_params(dhfile)
+.. method:: SSLContext.load_dh_params(dhfile, /)
Load the key generation parameters for Diffie-Hellman (DH) key exchange.
Using DH key exchange improves forward secrecy at the expense of
@@ -1748,7 +1765,7 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
-.. method:: SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve(curve_name)
+.. method:: SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve(curve_name, /)
Set the curve name for Elliptic Curve-based Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) key
exchange. ECDH is significantly faster than regular DH while arguably
@@ -1827,8 +1844,9 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.
.. attribute:: SSLContext.sslsocket_class
The return type of :meth:`SSLContext.wrap_socket`, defaults to
- :class:`SSLSocket`. The attribute can be overridden on instance of class
- in order to return a custom subclass of :class:`SSLSocket`.
+ :class:`SSLSocket`. The attribute can be assigned to on instances of
+ :class:`SSLContext` in order to return a custom subclass of
+ :class:`SSLSocket`.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
@@ -1861,7 +1879,7 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.
.. method:: SSLContext.session_stats()
Get statistics about the SSL sessions created or managed by this context.
- A dictionary is returned which maps the names of each `piece of information <https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.1/man3/SSL_CTX_sess_number.html>`_ to their
+ A dictionary is returned which maps the names of each `piece of information <https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man3/SSL_CTX_sess_number/>`_ to their
numeric values. For example, here is the total number of hits and misses
in the session cache since the context was created::
@@ -1918,14 +1936,14 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.
A :class:`TLSVersion` enum member representing the highest supported
TLS version. The value defaults to :attr:`TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED`.
- The attribute is read-only for protocols other than :attr:`PROTOCOL_TLS`,
- :attr:`PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT`, and :attr:`PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER`.
+ The attribute is read-only for protocols other than :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS`,
+ :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT`, and :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER`.
The attributes :attr:`~SSLContext.maximum_version`,
:attr:`~SSLContext.minimum_version` and
:attr:`SSLContext.options` all affect the supported SSL
and TLS versions of the context. The implementation does not prevent
- invalid combination. For example a context with
+ invalid combinations. For example a context with
:attr:`OP_NO_TLSv1_2` in :attr:`~SSLContext.options` and
:attr:`~SSLContext.maximum_version` set to :attr:`TLSVersion.TLSv1_2`
will not be able to establish a TLS 1.2 connection.
@@ -1942,7 +1960,7 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.
.. attribute:: SSLContext.num_tickets
Control the number of TLS 1.3 session tickets of a
- :attr:`PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER` context. The setting has no impact on TLS
+ :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER` context. The setting has no impact on TLS
1.0 to 1.2 connections.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
@@ -2004,7 +2022,7 @@ to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.
.. attribute:: SSLContext.security_level
An integer representing the `security level
- <https://www.openssl.org/docs/manmaster/man3/SSL_CTX_get_security_level.html>`_
+ <https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_get_security_level/>`_
for the context. This attribute is read-only.
.. versionadded:: 3.10
@@ -2495,14 +2513,14 @@ thus several things you need to be aware of:
.. seealso::
The :mod:`asyncio` module supports :ref:`non-blocking SSL sockets
- <ssl-nonblocking>` and provides a
- higher level API. It polls for events using the :mod:`selectors` module and
+ <ssl-nonblocking>` and provides a higher level :ref:`Streams API <asyncio-streams>`.
+ It polls for events using the :mod:`selectors` module and
handles :exc:`SSLWantWriteError`, :exc:`SSLWantReadError` and
:exc:`BlockingIOError` exceptions. It runs the SSL handshake asynchronously
as well.
-Memory BIO Support
+Memory BIO support
------------------
.. versionadded:: 3.5
@@ -2621,12 +2639,12 @@ purpose. It wraps an OpenSSL memory BIO (Basic IO) object:
A boolean indicating whether the memory BIO is current at the end-of-file
position.
- .. method:: MemoryBIO.read(n=-1)
+ .. method:: MemoryBIO.read(n=-1, /)
Read up to *n* bytes from the memory buffer. If *n* is not specified or
negative, all bytes are returned.
- .. method:: MemoryBIO.write(buf)
+ .. method:: MemoryBIO.write(buf, /)
Write the bytes from *buf* to the memory BIO. The *buf* argument must be an
object supporting the buffer protocol.
@@ -2697,7 +2715,7 @@ Verifying certificates
When calling the :class:`SSLContext` constructor directly,
:const:`CERT_NONE` is the default. Since it does not authenticate the other
-peer, it can be insecure, especially in client mode where most of time you
+peer, it can be insecure, especially in client mode where most of the time you
would like to ensure the authenticity of the server you're talking to.
Therefore, when in client mode, it is highly recommended to use
:const:`CERT_REQUIRED`. However, it is in itself not sufficient; you also
@@ -2709,7 +2727,7 @@ This common check is automatically performed when
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Hostname matchings is now performed by OpenSSL. Python no longer uses
- :func:`match_hostname`.
+ :func:`!match_hostname`.
In server mode, if you want to authenticate your clients using the SSL layer
(rather than using a higher-level authentication mechanism), you'll also have
@@ -2728,11 +2746,11 @@ disabled by default.
::
>>> client_context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
- >>> client_context.minimum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3
+ >>> client_context.minimum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2
>>> client_context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3
-The SSL context created above will only allow TLSv1.3 and later (if
+The SSL client context created above will only allow TLSv1.2 and TLSv1.3 (if
supported by your system) connections to a server. :const:`PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT`
implies certificate validation and hostname checks by default. You have to
load certificates into the context.
@@ -2746,7 +2764,7 @@ enabled when negotiating a SSL session is possible through the
:meth:`SSLContext.set_ciphers` method. Starting from Python 3.2.3, the
ssl module disables certain weak ciphers by default, but you may want
to further restrict the cipher choice. Be sure to read OpenSSL's documentation
-about the `cipher list format <https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.1/man1/ciphers.html#CIPHER-LIST-FORMAT>`_.
+about the `cipher list format <https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man1/ciphers/#cipher-list-format>`_.
If you want to check which ciphers are enabled by a given cipher list, use
:meth:`SSLContext.get_ciphers` or the ``openssl ciphers`` command on your
system.
@@ -2800,16 +2818,16 @@ of TLS/SSL. Some new TLS 1.3 features are not yet available.
Steve Kent
:rfc:`RFC 4086: Randomness Requirements for Security <4086>`
- Donald E., Jeffrey I. Schiller
+ Donald E. Eastlake, Jeffrey I. Schiller, Steve Crocker
:rfc:`RFC 5280: Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and Certificate Revocation List (CRL) Profile <5280>`
- D. Cooper
+ David Cooper et al.
:rfc:`RFC 5246: The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2 <5246>`
- T. Dierks et. al.
+ Tim Dierks and Eric Rescorla.
:rfc:`RFC 6066: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions <6066>`
- D. Eastlake
+ Donald E. Eastlake
`IANA TLS: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Parameters <https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml>`_
IANA
diff --git a/Doc/library/stat.rst b/Doc/library/stat.rst
index f7a3b7b16fe5c39..8434b2e8c75cf42 100644
--- a/Doc/library/stat.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/stat.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`stat` --- Interpreting :func:`~os.stat` results
-=====================================================
+:mod:`!stat` --- Interpreting :func:`~os.stat` results
+======================================================
.. module:: stat
:synopsis: Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(),
diff --git a/Doc/library/statistics.rst b/Doc/library/statistics.rst
index d5a316e45ee3e20..614f5b905a4a2eb 100644
--- a/Doc/library/statistics.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/statistics.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`statistics` --- Mathematical statistics functions
-=======================================================
+:mod:`!statistics` --- Mathematical statistics functions
+========================================================
.. module:: statistics
:synopsis: Mathematical statistics functions
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ or sample.
======================= ===============================================================
:func:`mean` Arithmetic mean ("average") of data.
-:func:`fmean` Fast, floating point arithmetic mean, with optional weighting.
+:func:`fmean` Fast, floating-point arithmetic mean, with optional weighting.
:func:`geometric_mean` Geometric mean of data.
:func:`harmonic_mean` Harmonic mean of data.
:func:`kde` Estimate the probability density distribution of the data.
@@ -220,7 +220,7 @@ However, for reading convenience, most of the examples show sorted sequences.
.. function:: harmonic_mean(data, weights=None)
Return the harmonic mean of *data*, a sequence or iterable of
- real-valued numbers. If *weights* is omitted or *None*, then
+ real-valued numbers. If *weights* is omitted or ``None``, then
equal weighting is assumed.
The harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the arithmetic :func:`mean` of the
@@ -485,6 +485,12 @@ However, for reading convenience, most of the examples show sorted sequences.
>>> mode(["red", "blue", "blue", "red", "green", "red", "red"])
'red'
+ Only hashable inputs are supported. To handle type :class:`set`,
+ consider casting to :class:`frozenset`. To handle type :class:`list`,
+ consider casting to :class:`tuple`. For mixed or nested inputs, consider
+ using this slower quadratic algorithm that only depends on equality tests:
+ ``max(data, key=data.count)``.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
Now handles multimodal datasets by returning the first mode encountered.
Formerly, it raised :exc:`StatisticsError` when more than one mode was
diff --git a/Doc/library/string.rst b/Doc/library/string.rst
index 1867678b2077fc1..153cbce7d832266 100644
--- a/Doc/library/string.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/string.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`string` --- Common string operations
-==========================================
+:mod:`!string` --- Common string operations
+===========================================
.. module:: string
:synopsis: Common string operations.
@@ -59,11 +59,18 @@ The constants defined in this module are:
String of ASCII characters which are considered punctuation characters
in the ``C`` locale: ``!"#$%&'()*+,-./:;<=>?@[\]^_`{|}~``.
+
.. data:: printable
- String of ASCII characters which are considered printable. This is a
- combination of :const:`digits`, :const:`ascii_letters`, :const:`punctuation`,
- and :const:`whitespace`.
+ String of ASCII characters which are considered printable by Python.
+ This is a combination of :const:`digits`, :const:`ascii_letters`,
+ :const:`punctuation`, and :const:`whitespace`.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ By design, :meth:`string.printable.isprintable() <str.isprintable>`
+ returns :const:`False`. In particular, ``string.printable`` is not
+ printable in the POSIX sense (see :manpage:`LC_CTYPE <locale(5)>`).
.. data:: whitespace
@@ -75,7 +82,7 @@ The constants defined in this module are:
.. _string-formatting:
-Custom String Formatting
+Custom string formatting
------------------------
The built-in string class provides the ability to do complex variable
@@ -183,7 +190,7 @@ implementation as the built-in :meth:`~str.format` method.
.. _formatstrings:
-Format String Syntax
+Format string syntax
--------------------
The :meth:`str.format` method and the :class:`Formatter` class share the same
@@ -292,7 +299,7 @@ See the :ref:`formatexamples` section for some examples.
.. _formatspec:
-Format Specification Mini-Language
+Format specification mini-language
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
"Format specifications" are used within replacement fields contained within a
@@ -312,14 +319,16 @@ non-empty format specification typically modifies the result.
The general form of a *standard format specifier* is:
.. productionlist:: format-spec
- format_spec: [[`fill`]`align`][`sign`]["z"]["#"]["0"][`width`][`grouping_option`]["." `precision`][`type`]
+ format_spec: [`options`][`width`][`grouping`]["." `precision`][`type`]
+ options: [[`fill`]`align`][`sign`]["z"]["#"]["0"]
fill: <any character>
align: "<" | ">" | "=" | "^"
sign: "+" | "-" | " "
width: `~python-grammar:digit`+
- grouping_option: "_" | ","
+ grouping: "," | "_"
precision: `~python-grammar:digit`+
- type: "b" | "c" | "d" | "e" | "E" | "f" | "F" | "g" | "G" | "n" | "o" | "s" | "x" | "X" | "%"
+ type: "b" | "c" | "d" | "e" | "E" | "f" | "F" | "g"
+ : | "G" | "n" | "o" | "s" | "x" | "X" | "%"
If a valid *align* value is specified, it can be preceded by a *fill*
character that can be any character and defaults to a space if omitted.
@@ -350,8 +359,9 @@ The meaning of the various alignment options is as follows:
| ``'='`` | Forces the padding to be placed after the sign (if any) |
| | but before the digits. This is used for printing fields |
| | in the form '+000000120'. This alignment option is only |
-| | valid for numeric types. It becomes the default for |
-| | numbers when '0' immediately precedes the field width. |
+| | valid for numeric types, excluding :class:`complex`. |
+| | It becomes the default for numbers when '0' immediately |
+| | precedes the field width. |
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
| ``'^'`` | Forces the field to be centered within the available |
| | space. |
@@ -372,13 +382,13 @@ following:
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
| Option | Meaning |
+=========+==========================================================+
-| ``'+'`` | indicates that a sign should be used for both |
+| ``'+'`` | Indicates that a sign should be used for both |
| | positive as well as negative numbers. |
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
-| ``'-'`` | indicates that a sign should be used only for negative |
+| ``'-'`` | Indicates that a sign should be used only for negative |
| | numbers (this is the default behavior). |
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
-| space | indicates that a leading space should be used on |
+| space | Indicates that a leading space should be used on |
| | positive numbers, and a minus sign on negative numbers. |
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
@@ -406,40 +416,57 @@ decimal-point character appears in the result of these conversions
only if a digit follows it. In addition, for ``'g'`` and ``'G'``
conversions, trailing zeros are not removed from the result.
-.. index:: single: , (comma); in string formatting
-
-The ``','`` option signals the use of a comma for a thousands separator.
-For a locale aware separator, use the ``'n'`` integer presentation type
-instead.
-
-.. versionchanged:: 3.1
- Added the ``','`` option (see also :pep:`378`).
-
-.. index:: single: _ (underscore); in string formatting
-
-The ``'_'`` option signals the use of an underscore for a thousands
-separator for floating point presentation types and for integer
-presentation type ``'d'``. For integer presentation types ``'b'``,
-``'o'``, ``'x'``, and ``'X'``, underscores will be inserted every 4
-digits. For other presentation types, specifying this option is an
-error.
-
-.. versionchanged:: 3.6
- Added the ``'_'`` option (see also :pep:`515`).
-
-*width* is a decimal integer defining the minimum total field width,
+The *width* is a decimal integer defining the minimum total field width,
including any prefixes, separators, and other formatting characters.
If not specified, then the field width will be determined by the content.
When no explicit alignment is given, preceding the *width* field by a zero
-(``'0'``) character enables
-sign-aware zero-padding for numeric types. This is equivalent to a *fill*
-character of ``'0'`` with an *alignment* type of ``'='``.
+(``'0'``) character enables sign-aware zero-padding for numeric types,
+excluding :class:`complex`. This is equivalent to a *fill* character of
+``'0'`` with an *alignment* type of ``'='``.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
Preceding the *width* field by ``'0'`` no longer affects the default
alignment for strings.
+
+The *grouping* option after the *width* field specifies
+a digit group separator for the integral part of a number.
+It can be one of the following:
+
+.. index::
+ single: , (comma); in string formatting
+ single: _ (underscore); in string formatting
+
++---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+| Option | Meaning |
++=========+==========================================================+
+| ``','`` | Inserts a comma every 3 digits for |
+| | integer presentation type ``'d'`` and |
+| | floating-point presentation types, excluding ``'n'``. |
+| | For other presentation types, |
+| | this option is not supported. |
++---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+| ``'_'`` | Inserts an underscore every 3 digits for |
+| | integer presentation type ``'d'`` and |
+| | floating-point presentation types, excluding ``'n'``. |
+| | For integer presentation types |
+| | ``'b'``, ``'o'``, ``'x'``, and ``'X'``, |
+| | underscores are inserted every 4 digits. |
+| | For other presentation types, |
+| | this option is not supported. |
++---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+For a locale-aware separator, use the ``'n'``
+:ref:`float presentation type <n-format-float>` or
+:ref:`integer presentation type <n-format-integer>` instead.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.1
+ Added the ``','`` option (see also :pep:`378`).
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.6
+ Added the ``'_'`` option (see also :pep:`515`).
+
The *precision* is a decimal integer indicating how many digits should be
displayed after the decimal point for presentation types
``'f'`` and ``'F'``, or before and after the decimal point for presentation
@@ -483,17 +510,22 @@ The available integer presentation types are:
| | In case ``'#'`` is specified, the prefix ``'0x'`` will |
| | be upper-cased to ``'0X'`` as well. |
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
- | ``'n'`` | Number. This is the same as ``'d'``, except that it uses |
+ | ``'n'`` | .. _n-format-integer: |
+ | | |
+ | | Number. This is the same as ``'d'``, except that it uses |
| | the current locale setting to insert the appropriate |
- | | number separator characters. |
+ | | digit group separators. Note that the default locale is |
+ | | not the system locale. Depending on your use case, you |
+ | | may wish to set :const:`~locale.LC_NUMERIC` with |
+ | | :func:`locale.setlocale` before using ``'n'``. |
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
| None | The same as ``'d'``. |
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
In addition to the above presentation types, integers can be formatted
-with the floating point presentation types listed below (except
+with the floating-point presentation types listed below (except
``'n'`` and ``None``). When doing so, :func:`float` is used to convert the
-integer to a floating point number before formatting.
+integer to a floating-point number before formatting.
The available presentation types for :class:`float` and
:class:`~decimal.Decimal` values are:
@@ -509,9 +541,11 @@ The available presentation types for :class:`float` and
| | significant digits. With no precision given, uses a |
| | precision of ``6`` digits after the decimal point for |
| | :class:`float`, and shows all coefficient digits |
- | | for :class:`~decimal.Decimal`. If no digits follow the |
- | | decimal point, the decimal point is also removed unless |
- | | the ``#`` option is used. |
+ | | for :class:`~decimal.Decimal`. If ``p=0``, the decimal |
+ | | point is omitted unless the ``#`` option is used. |
+ | | |
+ | | For :class:`float`, the exponent always contains at |
+ | | least two digits, and is zero if the value is zero. |
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
| ``'E'`` | Scientific notation. Same as ``'e'`` except it uses |
| | an upper case 'E' as the separator character. |
@@ -522,9 +556,8 @@ The available presentation types for :class:`float` and
| | precision given, uses a precision of ``6`` digits after |
| | the decimal point for :class:`float`, and uses a |
| | precision large enough to show all coefficient digits |
- | | for :class:`~decimal.Decimal`. If no digits follow the |
- | | decimal point, the decimal point is also removed unless |
- | | the ``#`` option is used. |
+ | | for :class:`~decimal.Decimal`. If ``p=0``, the decimal |
+ | | point is omitted unless the ``#`` option is used. |
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
| ``'F'`` | Fixed-point notation. Same as ``'f'``, but converts |
| | ``nan`` to ``NAN`` and ``inf`` to ``INF``. |
@@ -567,18 +600,26 @@ The available presentation types for :class:`float` and
| | ``'E'`` if the number gets too large. The |
| | representations of infinity and NaN are uppercased, too. |
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
- | ``'n'`` | Number. This is the same as ``'g'``, except that it uses |
+ | ``'n'`` | .. _n-format-float: |
+ | | |
+ | | Number. This is the same as ``'g'``, except that it uses |
| | the current locale setting to insert the appropriate |
- | | number separator characters. |
+ | | digit group separators for the integral part of a |
+ | | number. Note that the default locale is not the system |
+ | | locale. Depending on your use case, you may wish to set |
+ | | :const:`~locale.LC_NUMERIC` with |
+ | | :func:`locale.setlocale` before using ``'n'``. |
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
| ``'%'`` | Percentage. Multiplies the number by 100 and displays |
| | in fixed (``'f'``) format, followed by a percent sign. |
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
- | None | For :class:`float` this is the same as ``'g'``, except |
+ | None | For :class:`float` this is like the ``'g'`` type, except |
| | that when fixed-point notation is used to format the |
| | result, it always includes at least one digit past the |
- | | decimal point. The precision used is as large as needed |
- | | to represent the given value faithfully. |
+ | | decimal point, and switches to the scientific notation |
+ | | when ``exp >= p - 1``. When the precision is not |
+ | | specified, the latter will be as large as needed to |
+ | | represent the given value faithfully. |
| | |
| | For :class:`~decimal.Decimal`, this is the same as |
| | either ``'g'`` or ``'G'`` depending on the value of |
@@ -588,6 +629,20 @@ The available presentation types for :class:`float` and
| | as altered by the other format modifiers. |
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------+
+The result should be correctly rounded to a given precision ``p`` of digits
+after the decimal point. The rounding mode for :class:`float` matches that
+of the :func:`round` builtin. For :class:`~decimal.Decimal`, the rounding
+mode of the current :ref:`context <decimal-context>` will be used.
+
+The available presentation types for :class:`complex` are the same as those for
+:class:`float` (``'%'`` is not allowed). Both the real and imaginary components
+of a complex number are formatted as floating-point numbers, according to the
+specified presentation type. They are separated by the mandatory sign of the
+imaginary part, the latter being terminated by a ``j`` suffix. If the presentation
+type is missing, the result will match the output of :func:`str` (complex numbers with
+a non-zero real part are also surrounded by parentheses), possibly altered by
+other format modifiers.
+
.. _formatexamples:
@@ -680,10 +735,16 @@ Replacing ``%x`` and ``%o`` and converting the value to different bases::
>>> "int: {0:d}; hex: {0:#x}; oct: {0:#o}; bin: {0:#b}".format(42)
'int: 42; hex: 0x2a; oct: 0o52; bin: 0b101010'
-Using the comma as a thousands separator::
+Using the comma or the underscore as a digit group separator::
>>> '{:,}'.format(1234567890)
'1,234,567,890'
+ >>> '{:_}'.format(1234567890)
+ '1_234_567_890'
+ >>> '{:_b}'.format(1234567890)
+ '100_1001_1001_0110_0000_0010_1101_0010'
+ >>> '{:_x}'.format(1234567890)
+ '4996_02d2'
Expressing a percentage::
@@ -694,8 +755,8 @@ Expressing a percentage::
Using type-specific formatting::
- >>> import datetime
- >>> d = datetime.datetime(2010, 7, 4, 12, 15, 58)
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> d = dt.datetime(2010, 7, 4, 12, 15, 58)
>>> '{:%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S}'.format(d)
'2010-07-04 12:15:58'
@@ -799,7 +860,7 @@ these rules. The methods of :class:`Template` are:
.. method:: is_valid()
- Returns false if the template has invalid placeholders that will cause
+ Returns ``False`` if the template has invalid placeholders that will cause
:meth:`substitute` to raise :exc:`ValueError`.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
@@ -882,7 +943,8 @@ attributes:
Alternatively, you can provide the entire regular expression pattern by
overriding the class attribute *pattern*. If you do this, the value must be a
-regular expression object with four named capturing groups. The capturing
+regular expression pattern string, or a compiled regular expression
+object, with four named capturing groups. The capturing
groups correspond to the rules given above, along with the invalid placeholder
rule:
diff --git a/Doc/library/stringprep.rst b/Doc/library/stringprep.rst
index c6d78a356d97bcd..37d5adf0fa95411 100644
--- a/Doc/library/stringprep.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/stringprep.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`stringprep` --- Internet String Preparation
-=================================================
+:mod:`!stringprep` --- Internet String Preparation
+==================================================
.. module:: stringprep
:synopsis: String preparation, as per RFC 3453
diff --git a/Doc/library/struct.rst b/Doc/library/struct.rst
index 3e507c1c7e7c85c..3c0a7f07cff9d87 100644
--- a/Doc/library/struct.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/struct.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`struct` --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data
-=======================================================
+:mod:`!struct` --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data
+========================================================
.. testsetup:: *
@@ -68,6 +68,7 @@ The module defines the following exception and functions:
Pack the values *v1*, *v2*, ... according to the format string *format* and
write the packed bytes into the writable buffer *buffer* starting at
position *offset*. Note that *offset* is a required argument.
+ A negative *offset* counts from the end of *buffer*.
.. function:: unpack(format, buffer)
@@ -84,6 +85,7 @@ The module defines the following exception and functions:
string *format*. The result is a tuple even if it contains exactly one
item. The buffer's size in bytes, starting at position *offset*, must be at
least the size required by the format, as reflected by :func:`calcsize`.
+ A negative *offset* counts from the end of *buffer*.
.. function:: iter_unpack(format, buffer)
@@ -227,34 +229,34 @@ platform-dependent.
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
| ``c`` | :c:expr:`char` | bytes of length 1 | 1 | |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
-| ``b`` | :c:expr:`signed char` | integer | 1 | \(1), \(2) |
+| ``b`` | :c:expr:`signed char` | int | 1 | \(2) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
-| ``B`` | :c:expr:`unsigned char` | integer | 1 | \(2) |
+| ``B`` | :c:expr:`unsigned char` | int | 1 | \(2) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
| ``?`` | :c:expr:`_Bool` | bool | 1 | \(1) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
-| ``h`` | :c:expr:`short` | integer | 2 | \(2) |
+| ``h`` | :c:expr:`short` | int | 2 | \(2) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
-| ``H`` | :c:expr:`unsigned short` | integer | 2 | \(2) |
+| ``H`` | :c:expr:`unsigned short` | int | 2 | \(2) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
-| ``i`` | :c:expr:`int` | integer | 4 | \(2) |
+| ``i`` | :c:expr:`int` | int | 4 | \(2) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
-| ``I`` | :c:expr:`unsigned int` | integer | 4 | \(2) |
+| ``I`` | :c:expr:`unsigned int` | int | 4 | \(2) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
-| ``l`` | :c:expr:`long` | integer | 4 | \(2) |
+| ``l`` | :c:expr:`long` | int | 4 | \(2) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
-| ``L`` | :c:expr:`unsigned long` | integer | 4 | \(2) |
+| ``L`` | :c:expr:`unsigned long` | int | 4 | \(2) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
-| ``q`` | :c:expr:`long long` | integer | 8 | \(2) |
+| ``q`` | :c:expr:`long long` | int | 8 | \(2) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
-| ``Q`` | :c:expr:`unsigned long | integer | 8 | \(2) |
+| ``Q`` | :c:expr:`unsigned long | int | 8 | \(2) |
| | long` | | | |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
-| ``n`` | :c:type:`ssize_t` | integer | | \(3) |
+| ``n`` | :c:type:`ssize_t` | int | | \(2), \(3) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
-| ``N`` | :c:type:`size_t` | integer | | \(3) |
+| ``N`` | :c:type:`size_t` | int | | \(2), \(3) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
-| ``e`` | \(6) | float | 2 | \(4) |
+| ``e`` | :c:expr:`_Float16` | float | 2 | \(4), \(6) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
| ``f`` | :c:expr:`float` | float | 4 | \(4) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
@@ -264,7 +266,7 @@ platform-dependent.
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
| ``p`` | :c:expr:`char[]` | bytes | | \(8) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
-| ``P`` | :c:expr:`void \*` | integer | | \(5) |
+| ``P`` | :c:expr:`void \*` | int | | \(2), \(5) |
+--------+--------------------------+--------------------+----------------+------------+
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
@@ -279,9 +281,9 @@ Notes:
(1)
.. index:: single: ? (question mark); in struct format strings
- The ``'?'`` conversion code corresponds to the :c:expr:`_Bool` type defined by
- C99. If this type is not available, it is simulated using a :c:expr:`char`. In
- standard mode, it is always represented by one byte.
+ The ``'?'`` conversion code corresponds to the :c:expr:`_Bool` type
+ defined by C standards since C99. In standard mode, it is
+ represented by one byte.
(2)
When attempting to pack a non-integer using any of the integer conversion
@@ -315,7 +317,9 @@ Notes:
revision of the `IEEE 754 standard <ieee 754 standard_>`_. It has a sign
bit, a 5-bit exponent and 11-bit precision (with 10 bits explicitly stored),
and can represent numbers between approximately ``6.1e-05`` and ``6.5e+04``
- at full precision. This type is not widely supported by C compilers: on a
+ at full precision. This type is not widely supported by C compilers:
+ it's available as :c:expr:`_Float16` type, if the compiler supports the Annex H
+ of the C23 standard. On a
typical machine, an unsigned short can be used for storage, but not for math
operations. See the Wikipedia page on the `half-precision floating-point
format <half precision format_>`_ for more information.
@@ -327,27 +331,31 @@ Notes:
The ``'p'`` format character encodes a "Pascal string", meaning a short
variable-length string stored in a *fixed number of bytes*, given by the count.
The first byte stored is the length of the string, or 255, whichever is
- smaller. The bytes of the string follow. If the string passed in to
+ smaller. The bytes of the string follow. If the byte string passed in to
:func:`pack` is too long (longer than the count minus 1), only the leading
- ``count-1`` bytes of the string are stored. If the string is shorter than
+ ``count-1`` bytes of the string are stored. If the byte string is shorter than
``count-1``, it is padded with null bytes so that exactly count bytes in all
are used. Note that for :func:`unpack`, the ``'p'`` format character consumes
- ``count`` bytes, but that the string returned can never contain more than 255
+ ``count`` bytes, but that the :class:`!bytes` object returned can never contain more than 255
bytes.
+ When packing, arguments of types :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`
+ are accepted.
(9)
For the ``'s'`` format character, the count is interpreted as the length of the
- bytes, not a repeat count like for the other format characters; for example,
+ byte string, not a repeat count like for the other format characters; for example,
``'10s'`` means a single 10-byte string mapping to or from a single
Python byte string, while ``'10c'`` means 10
separate one byte character elements (e.g., ``cccccccccc``) mapping
to or from ten different Python byte objects. (See :ref:`struct-examples`
for a concrete demonstration of the difference.)
- If a count is not given, it defaults to 1. For packing, the string is
+ If a count is not given, it defaults to 1. For packing, the byte string is
truncated or padded with null bytes as appropriate to make it fit. For
- unpacking, the resulting bytes object always has exactly the specified number
- of bytes. As a special case, ``'0s'`` means a single, empty string (while
+ unpacking, the resulting :class:`!bytes` object always has exactly the specified number
+ of bytes. As a special case, ``'0s'`` means a single, empty byte string (while
``'0c'`` means 0 characters).
+ When packing, arguments of types :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`
+ are accepted.
A format character may be preceded by an integral repeat count. For example,
the format string ``'4h'`` means exactly the same as ``'hhhh'``.
diff --git a/Doc/library/subprocess.rst b/Doc/library/subprocess.rst
index bd35fda7d792251..0dbfcdbf7308ce5 100644
--- a/Doc/library/subprocess.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/subprocess.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`subprocess` --- Subprocess management
-===========================================
+:mod:`!subprocess` --- Subprocess management
+============================================
.. module:: subprocess
:synopsis: Subprocess management.
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ modules and functions can be found in the following sections.
:pep:`324` -- PEP proposing the subprocess module
-.. include:: ../includes/wasm-ios-notavail.rst
+.. include:: ../includes/wasm-mobile-notavail.rst
Using the :mod:`subprocess` Module
----------------------------------
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ underlying :class:`Popen` interface can be used directly.
If *capture_output* is true, stdout and stderr will be captured.
When used, the internal :class:`Popen` object is automatically created with
- *stdout* and *stdin* both set to :data:`~subprocess.PIPE`.
+ *stdout* and *stderr* both set to :data:`~subprocess.PIPE`.
The *stdout* and *stderr* arguments may not be supplied at the same time as *capture_output*.
If you wish to capture and combine both streams into one,
set *stdout* to :data:`~subprocess.PIPE`
@@ -608,7 +608,7 @@ functions.
If *group* is not ``None``, the setregid() system call will be made in the
child process prior to the execution of the subprocess. If the provided
- value is a string, it will be looked up via :func:`grp.getgrnam()` and
+ value is a string, it will be looked up via :func:`grp.getgrnam` and
the value in ``gr_gid`` will be used. If the value is an integer, it
will be passed verbatim. (POSIX only)
@@ -618,7 +618,7 @@ functions.
If *extra_groups* is not ``None``, the setgroups() system call will be
made in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.
Strings provided in *extra_groups* will be looked up via
- :func:`grp.getgrnam()` and the values in ``gr_gid`` will be used.
+ :func:`grp.getgrnam` and the values in ``gr_gid`` will be used.
Integer values will be passed verbatim. (POSIX only)
.. availability:: POSIX
@@ -626,10 +626,16 @@ functions.
If *user* is not ``None``, the setreuid() system call will be made in the
child process prior to the execution of the subprocess. If the provided
- value is a string, it will be looked up via :func:`pwd.getpwnam()` and
+ value is a string, it will be looked up via :func:`pwd.getpwnam` and
the value in ``pw_uid`` will be used. If the value is an integer, it will
be passed verbatim. (POSIX only)
+ .. note::
+
+ Specifying *user* will not drop existing supplementary group memberships!
+ The caller must also pass ``extra_groups=()`` to reduce the group membership
+ of the child process for security purposes.
+
.. availability:: POSIX
.. versionadded:: 3.9
@@ -649,7 +655,7 @@ functions.
If specified, *env* must provide any variables required for the program to
execute. On Windows, in order to run a `side-by-side assembly`_ the
- specified *env* **must** include a valid :envvar:`SystemRoot`.
+ specified *env* **must** include a valid ``%SystemRoot%``.
.. _side-by-side assembly: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-by-Side_Assembly
@@ -831,7 +837,9 @@ Instances of the :class:`Popen` class have the following methods:
If the process does not terminate after *timeout* seconds, a
:exc:`TimeoutExpired` exception will be raised. Catching this exception and
- retrying communication will not lose any output.
+ retrying communication will not lose any output. Supplying *input* to a
+ subsequent post-timeout :meth:`communicate` call is in undefined behavior
+ and may become an error in the future.
The child process is not killed if the timeout expires, so in order to
cleanup properly a well-behaved application should kill the child process and
@@ -844,6 +852,11 @@ Instances of the :class:`Popen` class have the following methods:
proc.kill()
outs, errs = proc.communicate()
+ After a call to :meth:`~Popen.communicate` raises :exc:`TimeoutExpired`, do
+ not call :meth:`~Popen.wait`. Use an additional :meth:`~Popen.communicate`
+ call to finish handling pipes and populate the :attr:`~Popen.returncode`
+ attribute.
+
.. note::
The data read is buffered in memory, so do not use this method if the data
@@ -945,6 +958,11 @@ Reassigning them to new values is unsupported:
A negative value ``-N`` indicates that the child was terminated by signal
``N`` (POSIX only).
+ When ``shell=True``, the return code reflects the exit status of the shell
+ itself (e.g. ``/bin/sh``), which may map signals to codes such as
+ ``128+N``. See the documentation of the shell (for example, the Bash
+ manual's Exit Status) for details.
+
Windows Popen Helpers
---------------------
@@ -1126,7 +1144,7 @@ The :mod:`subprocess` module exposes the following constants.
.. data:: NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS
A :class:`Popen` ``creationflags`` parameter to specify that a new process
- will have an normal priority. (default)
+ will have a normal priority. (default)
.. versionadded:: 3.7
@@ -1539,7 +1557,7 @@ handling consistency are valid for these functions.
Return ``(exitcode, output)`` of executing *cmd* in a shell.
- Execute the string *cmd* in a shell with :meth:`Popen.check_output` and
+ Execute the string *cmd* in a shell with :func:`check_output` and
return a 2-tuple ``(exitcode, output)``.
*encoding* and *errors* are used to decode output;
see the notes on :ref:`frequently-used-arguments` for more details.
@@ -1591,6 +1609,24 @@ handling consistency are valid for these functions.
Notes
-----
+.. _subprocess-timeout-behavior:
+
+Timeout Behavior
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+When using the ``timeout`` parameter in functions like :func:`run`,
+:meth:`Popen.wait`, or :meth:`Popen.communicate`,
+users should be aware of the following behaviors:
+
+1. **Process Creation Delay**: The initial process creation itself cannot be interrupted
+ on many platform APIs. This means that even when specifying a timeout, you are not
+ guaranteed to see a timeout exception until at least after however long process
+ creation takes.
+
+2. **Extremely Small Timeout Values**: Setting very small timeout values (such as a few
+ milliseconds) may result in almost immediate :exc:`TimeoutExpired` exceptions because
+ process creation and system scheduling inherently require time.
+
.. _converting-argument-sequence:
Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows
diff --git a/Doc/library/sunau.rst b/Doc/library/sunau.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..feb7768f8bdd68c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/sunau.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+:mod:`!sunau` --- Read and write Sun AU files
+=============================================
+
+.. module:: sunau
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!sunau` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/sunau.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/superseded.rst b/Doc/library/superseded.rst
index 17bfa66f0433022..d120c6acf621e3f 100644
--- a/Doc/library/superseded.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/superseded.rst
@@ -4,12 +4,23 @@
Superseded Modules
******************
-The modules described in this chapter are deprecated or :term:`soft deprecated` and only kept for
-backwards compatibility. They have been superseded by other modules.
+The modules described in this chapter have been superseded by other modules
+for most use cases, and are retained primarily to preserve backwards compatibility.
+Modules may appear in this chapter because they only cover a limited subset of
+a problem space, and a more generally applicable solution is available elsewhere
+in the standard library (for example, :mod:`getopt` covers the very specific
+task of "mimic the C :c:func:`!getopt` API in Python", rather than the broader
+command line option parsing and argument parsing capabilities offered by
+:mod:`optparse` and :mod:`argparse`).
+
+Alternatively, modules may appear in this chapter because they are deprecated
+outright, and awaiting removal in a future release, or they are
+:term:`soft deprecated` and their use is actively discouraged in new projects.
+With the removal of various obsolete modules through :pep:`594`, there are
+currently no modules in this latter category.
.. toctree::
:maxdepth: 1
getopt.rst
- optparse.rst
diff --git a/Doc/library/symtable.rst b/Doc/library/symtable.rst
index 47568387f9a7ce0..56c62d8e610c934 100644
--- a/Doc/library/symtable.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/symtable.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`symtable` --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables
-==========================================================
+:mod:`!symtable` --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables
+===========================================================
.. module:: symtable
:synopsis: Interface to the compiler's internal symbol tables.
@@ -31,21 +31,74 @@ Generating Symbol Tables
Examining Symbol Tables
-----------------------
+.. class:: SymbolTableType
+
+ An enumeration indicating the type of a :class:`SymbolTable` object.
+
+ .. attribute:: MODULE
+ :value: "module"
+
+ Used for the symbol table of a module.
+
+ .. attribute:: FUNCTION
+ :value: "function"
+
+ Used for the symbol table of a function.
+
+ .. attribute:: CLASS
+ :value: "class"
+
+ Used for the symbol table of a class.
+
+ The following members refer to different flavors of
+ :ref:`annotation scopes <annotation-scopes>`.
+
+ .. attribute:: ANNOTATION
+ :value: "annotation"
+
+ Used for annotations if ``from __future__ import annotations`` is active.
+
+ .. attribute:: TYPE_ALIAS
+ :value: "type alias"
+
+ Used for the symbol table of :keyword:`type` constructions.
+
+ .. attribute:: TYPE_PARAMETERS
+ :value: "type parameters"
+
+ Used for the symbol table of :ref:`generic functions <generic-functions>`
+ or :ref:`generic classes <generic-classes>`.
+
+ .. attribute:: TYPE_VARIABLE
+ :value: "type variable"
+
+ Used for the symbol table of the bound, the constraint tuple or the
+ default value of a single type variable in the formal sense, i.e.,
+ a TypeVar, a TypeVarTuple or a ParamSpec object (the latter two do
+ not support a bound or a constraint tuple).
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
.. class:: SymbolTable
A namespace table for a block. The constructor is not public.
.. method:: get_type()
- Return the type of the symbol table. Possible values are ``'class'``,
- ``'module'``, ``'function'``, ``'annotation'``, ``'TypeVar bound'``,
- ``'type alias'``, and ``'type parameter'``. The latter four refer to
- different flavors of :ref:`annotation scopes <annotation-scopes>`.
+ Return the type of the symbol table. Possible values are members
+ of the :class:`SymbolTableType` enumeration.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
Added ``'annotation'``, ``'TypeVar bound'``, ``'type alias'``,
and ``'type parameter'`` as possible return values.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Return values are members of the :class:`SymbolTableType` enumeration.
+
+ The exact values of the returned string may change in the future,
+ and thus, it is recommended to use :class:`SymbolTableType` members
+ instead of hard-coded strings.
+
.. method:: get_id()
Return the table's identifier.
@@ -114,11 +167,12 @@ Examining Symbol Tables
.. method:: get_nonlocals()
- Return a tuple containing names of nonlocals in this function.
+ Return a tuple containing names of explicitly declared nonlocals in this function.
.. method:: get_frees()
- Return a tuple containing names of free variables in this function.
+ Return a tuple containing names of :term:`free (closure) variables <closure variable>`
+ in this function.
.. class:: Class
@@ -127,8 +181,39 @@ Examining Symbol Tables
.. method:: get_methods()
- Return a tuple containing the names of methods declared in the class.
-
+ Return a tuple containing the names of method-like functions declared
+ in the class.
+
+ Here, the term 'method' designates *any* function defined in the class
+ body via :keyword:`def` or :keyword:`async def`.
+
+ Functions defined in a deeper scope (e.g., in an inner class) are not
+ picked up by :meth:`get_methods`.
+
+ For example:
+
+ >>> import symtable
+ >>> st = symtable.symtable('''
+ ... def outer(): pass
+ ...
+ ... class A:
+ ... def f():
+ ... def w(): pass
+ ...
+ ... def g(self): pass
+ ...
+ ... @classmethod
+ ... async def h(cls): pass
+ ...
+ ... global outer
+ ... def outer(self): pass
+ ... ''', 'test', 'exec')
+ >>> class_A = st.get_children()[1]
+ >>> class_A.get_methods()
+ ('f', 'g', 'h')
+
+ Although ``A().f()`` raises :exc:`TypeError` at runtime, ``A.f`` is still
+ considered as a method-like function.
.. class:: Symbol
diff --git a/Doc/library/sys.monitoring.rst b/Doc/library/sys.monitoring.rst
index 0e0095e108e9c06..ee031bfc4aa492a 100644
--- a/Doc/library/sys.monitoring.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/sys.monitoring.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`sys.monitoring` --- Execution event monitoring
-====================================================
+:mod:`!sys.monitoring` --- Execution event monitoring
+=====================================================
.. module:: sys.monitoring
:synopsis: Access and control event monitoring
@@ -10,10 +10,10 @@
.. note::
- :mod:`sys.monitoring` is a namespace within the :mod:`sys` module,
- not an independent module, so there is no need to
- ``import sys.monitoring``, simply ``import sys`` and then use
- ``sys.monitoring``.
+ :mod:`!sys.monitoring` is a namespace within the :mod:`sys` module,
+ not an independent module, and ``import sys.monitoring`` would fail
+ with a :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError`. Instead, simply ``import sys``
+ and then use ``sys.monitoring``.
This namespace provides access to the functions and constants necessary to
@@ -154,19 +154,21 @@ More events may be added in the future.
These events are attributes of the :mod:`!sys.monitoring.events` namespace.
Each event is represented as a power-of-2 integer constant.
-To define a set of events, simply bitwise or the individual events together.
+To define a set of events, simply bitwise OR the individual events together.
For example, to specify both :monitoring-event:`PY_RETURN` and :monitoring-event:`PY_START`
events, use the expression ``PY_RETURN | PY_START``.
.. monitoring-event:: NO_EVENTS
- An alias for ``0`` so users can do explict comparisions like::
+ An alias for ``0`` so users can do explicit comparisons like::
if get_events(DEBUGGER_ID) == NO_EVENTS:
...
Events are divided into three groups:
+.. _monitoring-event-local:
+
Local events
''''''''''''
@@ -196,14 +198,17 @@ by another event:
The :monitoring-event:`C_RETURN` and :monitoring-event:`C_RAISE` events
are controlled by the :monitoring-event:`CALL` event.
-:monitoring-event:`C_RETURN` and :monitoring-event:`C_RAISE` events will only be seen if the
-corresponding :monitoring-event:`CALL` event is being monitored.
+:monitoring-event:`C_RETURN` and :monitoring-event:`C_RAISE` events will only be
+seen if the corresponding :monitoring-event:`CALL` event is being monitored.
+
+
+.. _monitoring-event-global:
Other events
''''''''''''
Other events are not necessarily tied to a specific location in the
-program and cannot be individually disabled.
+program and cannot be individually disabled via :data:`DISABLE`.
The other events that can be monitored are:
@@ -258,16 +263,17 @@ Per code object events
Events can also be controlled on a per code object basis. The functions
defined below which accept a :class:`types.CodeType` should be prepared
to accept a look-alike object from functions which are not defined
-in Python (see :ref:`monitoring`).
+in Python (see :ref:`c-api-monitoring`).
.. function:: get_local_events(tool_id: int, code: CodeType, /) -> int
- Returns all the local events for *code*
+ Returns all the :ref:`local events <monitoring-event-local>` for *code*
.. function:: set_local_events(tool_id: int, code: CodeType, event_set: int, /) -> None
- Activates all the local events for *code* which are set in *event_set*.
- Raises a :exc:`ValueError` if *tool_id* is not in use.
+ Activates all the :ref:`local events <monitoring-event-local>` for *code*
+ which are set in *event_set*. Raises a :exc:`ValueError` if *tool_id* is not
+ in use.
Local events add to global events, but do not mask them.
In other words, all global events will trigger for a code object,
@@ -282,15 +288,21 @@ Disabling events
A special value that can be returned from a callback function to disable
events for the current code location.
-Local events can be disabled for a specific code location by returning
-:data:`sys.monitoring.DISABLE` from a callback function. This does not change
-which events are set, or any other code locations for the same event.
+:ref:`Local events <monitoring-event-local>` can be disabled for a specific code
+location by returning :data:`sys.monitoring.DISABLE` from a callback function.
+This does not change which events are set, or any other code locations for the
+same event.
Disabling events for specific locations is very important for high
performance monitoring. For example, a program can be run under a
debugger with no overhead if the debugger disables all monitoring
except for a few breakpoints.
+If :data:`DISABLE` is returned by a callback for a
+:ref:`global event <monitoring-event-global>`, :exc:`ValueError` will be raised
+by the interpreter in a non-specific location (that is, no traceback will be
+provided).
+
.. function:: restart_events() -> None
Enable all the events that were disabled by :data:`sys.monitoring.DISABLE`
@@ -312,14 +324,13 @@ To register a callable for events call
it is unregistered and returned.
Otherwise :func:`register_callback` returns ``None``.
+ .. audit-event:: sys.monitoring.register_callback func sys.monitoring.register_callback
Functions can be unregistered by calling
``sys.monitoring.register_callback(tool_id, event, None)``.
Callback functions can be registered and unregistered at any time.
-Registering or unregistering a callback function will generate a :func:`sys.audit` event.
-
Callback function arguments
'''''''''''''''''''''''''''
diff --git a/Doc/library/sys.rst b/Doc/library/sys.rst
index 19a396d2300011f..0b8c244482ac574 100644
--- a/Doc/library/sys.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/sys.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`sys` --- System-specific parameters and functions
-=======================================================
+:mod:`!sys` --- System-specific parameters and functions
+========================================================
.. module:: sys
:synopsis: Access system-specific parameters and functions.
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
This module provides access to some variables used or maintained by the
interpreter and to functions that interact strongly with the interpreter. It is
-always available.
+always available. Unless explicitly noted otherwise, all variables are read-only.
.. data:: abiflags
@@ -508,7 +508,7 @@ always available.
in the range 0--127, and produce undefined results otherwise. Some systems
have a convention for assigning specific meanings to specific exit codes, but
these are generally underdeveloped; Unix programs generally use 2 for command
- line syntax errors and 1 for all other kind of errors. If another type of
+ line syntax errors and 1 for all other kinds of errors. If another type of
object is passed, ``None`` is equivalent to passing zero, and any other
object is printed to :data:`stderr` and results in an exit code of 1. In
particular, ``sys.exit("some error message")`` is a quick way to exit a
@@ -735,11 +735,11 @@ always available.
regardless of their size. This function is mainly useful for tracking
and debugging memory leaks. Because of the interpreter's internal
caches, the result can vary from call to call; you may have to call
- :func:`_clear_internal_caches()` and :func:`gc.collect()` to get more
+ :func:`_clear_internal_caches` and :func:`gc.collect` to get more
predictable results.
If a Python build or implementation cannot reasonably compute this
- information, :func:`getallocatedblocks()` is allowed to return 0 instead.
+ information, :func:`getallocatedblocks` is allowed to return 0 instead.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
@@ -764,8 +764,8 @@ always available.
.. function:: getdefaultencoding()
- Return the name of the current default string encoding used by the Unicode
- implementation.
+ Return ``'utf-8'``. This is the name of the default string encoding, used
+ in methods like :meth:`str.encode`.
.. function:: getdlopenflags()
@@ -883,7 +883,7 @@ always available.
.. function:: getswitchinterval()
- Return the interpreter's "thread switch interval"; see
+ Return the interpreter's "thread switch interval" in seconds; see
:func:`setswitchinterval`.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
@@ -919,6 +919,37 @@ always available.
This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes only.
It is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python.
+ .. versionadded:: 3.12
+
+
+.. function:: getobjects(limit[, type])
+
+ This function only exists if CPython was built using the
+ specialized configure option :option:`--with-trace-refs`.
+ It is intended only for debugging garbage-collection issues.
+
+ Return a list of up to *limit* dynamically allocated Python objects.
+ If *type* is given, only objects of that exact type (not subtypes)
+ are included.
+
+ Objects from the list are not safe to use.
+ Specifically, the result will include objects from all interpreters that
+ share their object allocator state (that is, ones created with
+ :c:member:`PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc` set to 1
+ or using :c:func:`Py_NewInterpreter`, and the
+ :ref:`main interpreter <sub-interpreter-support>`).
+ Mixing objects from different interpreters may lead to crashes
+ or other unexpected behavior.
+
+ .. impl-detail::
+
+ This function should be used for specialized purposes only.
+ It is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.1
+
+ The result may include objects from other interpreters.
+
.. function:: getprofile()
@@ -1065,10 +1096,14 @@ always available.
The size of the seed key of the hash algorithm
+ .. attribute:: hash_info.cutoff
+
+ Cutoff for small string DJBX33A optimization in range ``[1, cutoff)``.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
- Added *algorithm*, *hash_bits* and *seed_bits*
+ Added *algorithm*, *hash_bits*, *seed_bits*, and *cutoff*.
.. data:: hexversion
@@ -1206,6 +1241,9 @@ always available.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
+ .. impl-detail::
+
+ It is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python.
.. function:: is_finalizing()
@@ -1274,7 +1312,8 @@ always available.
that implement Python's default import semantics. The
:meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec` method is called with at
least the absolute name of the module being imported. If the module to be
- imported is contained in a package, then the parent package's :attr:`__path__`
+ imported is contained in a package, then the parent package's
+ :attr:`~module.__path__`
attribute is passed in as a second argument. The method returns a
:term:`module spec`, or ``None`` if the module cannot be found.
@@ -1591,7 +1630,7 @@ always available.
:func:`settrace` for each thread being debugged or use :func:`threading.settrace`.
Trace functions should have three arguments: *frame*, *event*, and
- *arg*. *frame* is the current stack frame. *event* is a string: ``'call'``,
+ *arg*. *frame* is the :ref:`current stack frame <frame-objects>`. *event* is a string: ``'call'``,
``'line'``, ``'return'``, ``'exception'`` or ``'opcode'``. *arg* depends on
the event type.
@@ -1708,7 +1747,7 @@ always available.
contain a tuple of (filename, line number, function name) tuples
describing the traceback where the coroutine object was created,
with the most recent call first. When disabled, ``cr_origin`` will
- be None.
+ be ``None``.
To enable, pass a *depth* value greater than zero; this sets the
number of frames whose information will be captured. To disable,
@@ -1796,7 +1835,7 @@ always available.
returned by the :func:`open` function. Their parameters are chosen as
follows:
- * The encoding and error handling are is initialized from
+ * The encoding and error handling are initialized from
:c:member:`PyConfig.stdio_encoding` and :c:member:`PyConfig.stdio_errors`.
On Windows, UTF-8 is used for the console device. Non-character
diff --git a/Doc/library/sysconfig.rst b/Doc/library/sysconfig.rst
index 2faab212e46eff2..532facb45f83a0e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/sysconfig.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/sysconfig.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`sysconfig` --- Provide access to Python's configuration information
-=========================================================================
+:mod:`!sysconfig` --- Provide access to Python's configuration information
+==========================================================================
.. module:: sysconfig
:synopsis: Python's configuration information
@@ -305,7 +305,7 @@ Installation path functions
mix with those by the other.
End users should not use this function, but :func:`get_default_scheme` and
- :func:`get_preferred_scheme()` instead.
+ :func:`get_preferred_scheme` instead.
.. versionadded:: 3.10
@@ -376,27 +376,25 @@ Other functions
This is used mainly to distinguish platform-specific build directories and
platform-specific built distributions. Typically includes the OS name and
- version and the architecture (as supplied by 'os.uname()'), although the
+ version and the architecture (as supplied by :func:`os.uname`), although the
exact information included depends on the OS; e.g., on Linux, the kernel
version isn't particularly important.
Examples of returned values:
- - linux-i586
- - linux-alpha (?)
- - solaris-2.6-sun4u
- Windows will return one of:
+ Windows:
- - win-amd64 (64bit Windows on AMD64, aka x86_64, Intel64, and EM64T)
+ - win-amd64 (64-bit Windows on AMD64, aka x86_64, Intel64, and EM64T)
+ - win-arm64 (64-bit Windows on ARM64, aka AArch64)
- win32 (all others - specifically, sys.platform is returned)
- macOS can return:
+ POSIX based OS:
- - macosx-10.6-ppc
- - macosx-10.4-ppc64
- - macosx-10.3-i386
- - macosx-10.4-fat
+ - linux-x86_64
+ - macosx-15.5-arm64
+ - macosx-26.0-universal2 (macOS on Apple Silicon or Intel)
+ - android-24-arm64_v8a
For other non-POSIX platforms, currently just returns :data:`sys.platform`.
@@ -428,9 +426,10 @@ Other functions
Return the path of :file:`Makefile`.
.. _sysconfig-cli:
+.. _using-sysconfig-as-a-script:
-Using :mod:`sysconfig` as a script
-----------------------------------
+Command-line usage
+------------------
You can use :mod:`sysconfig` as a script with Python's *-m* option:
diff --git a/Doc/library/syslog.rst b/Doc/library/syslog.rst
index 30bf3f09a24d428..b6bf01240951ebd 100644
--- a/Doc/library/syslog.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/syslog.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`syslog` --- Unix syslog library routines
-==============================================
+:mod:`!syslog` --- Unix syslog library routines
+===============================================
.. module:: syslog
- :platform: Unix
:synopsis: An interface to the Unix syslog library routines.
--------------
diff --git a/Doc/library/tabnanny.rst b/Doc/library/tabnanny.rst
index dfe688a2f93e0cb..4f61b3dd761400f 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tabnanny.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tabnanny.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`tabnanny` --- Detection of ambiguous indentation
-======================================================
+:mod:`!tabnanny` --- Detection of ambiguous indentation
+=======================================================
.. module:: tabnanny
:synopsis: Tool for detecting white space related problems in Python
diff --git a/Doc/library/tarfile.rst b/Doc/library/tarfile.rst
index cf21dee83e6e7ab..d5c5328210cd7e4 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tarfile.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tarfile.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`tarfile` --- Read and write tar archive files
-===================================================
+:mod:`!tarfile` --- Read and write tar archive files
+====================================================
.. module:: tarfile
:synopsis: Read and write tar-format archive files.
@@ -56,8 +56,8 @@ Some facts and figures:
+------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| mode | action |
+==================+=============================================+
- | ``'r' or 'r:*'`` | Open for reading with transparent |
- | | compression (recommended). |
+ | ``'r'`` or | Open for reading with transparent |
+ | ``'r:*'`` | compression (recommended). |
+------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| ``'r:'`` | Open for reading exclusively without |
| | compression. |
@@ -85,10 +85,11 @@ Some facts and figures:
| | Raise a :exc:`FileExistsError` exception |
| | if it already exists. |
+------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | ``'a' or 'a:'`` | Open for appending with no compression. The |
- | | file is created if it does not exist. |
+ | ``'a'`` or | Open for appending with no compression. The |
+ | ``'a:'`` | file is created if it does not exist. |
+------------------+---------------------------------------------+
- | ``'w' or 'w:'`` | Open for uncompressed writing. |
+ | ``'w'`` or | Open for uncompressed writing. |
+ | ``'w:'`` | |
+------------------+---------------------------------------------+
| ``'w:gz'`` | Open for gzip compressed writing. |
+------------------+---------------------------------------------+
@@ -249,6 +250,15 @@ The :mod:`tarfile` module defines the following exceptions:
Raised to refuse extracting a symbolic link pointing outside the destination
directory.
+.. exception:: LinkFallbackError
+
+ Raised to refuse emulating a link (hard or symbolic) by extracting another
+ archive member, when that member would be rejected by the filter location.
+ The exception that was raised to reject the replacement member is available
+ as :attr:`!BaseException.__context__`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13.4
+
The following constants are available at the module level:
@@ -617,7 +627,7 @@ be finalized; only the internally used file object will be closed. See the
it is best practice to only do so in top-level applications or
:mod:`site configuration <site>`.
To set a global default this way, a filter function needs to be wrapped in
- :func:`staticmethod()` to prevent injection of a ``self`` argument.
+ :deco:`staticmethod` to prevent injection of a ``self`` argument.
.. method:: TarFile.add(name, arcname=None, recursive=True, *, filter=None)
@@ -1039,6 +1049,10 @@ reused in custom filters:
paths (in case the name is absolute
even after stripping slashes, e.g. ``C:/foo`` on Windows).
This raises :class:`~tarfile.AbsolutePathError`.
+ - Normalize filenames (:attr:`TarInfo.name`) that contain ``..`` components
+ using :func:`os.path.normpath`.
+ Note that this removes internal ``..`` components, which may change the
+ meaning of the name if it traverses symbolic links.
- :ref:`Refuse <tarfile-extraction-refuse>` to extract files whose absolute
path (after following symlinks) would end up outside the destination.
This raises :class:`~tarfile.OutsideDestinationError`.
@@ -1047,11 +1061,21 @@ reused in custom filters:
Return the modified ``TarInfo`` member.
+ .. versionchanged:: next
+
+ Filenames containing ``..`` components are now normalized.
+
.. function:: data_filter(member, path)
Implements the ``'data'`` filter.
In addition to what ``tar_filter`` does:
+ - Normalize link targets (:attr:`TarInfo.linkname`) using
+ :func:`os.path.normpath`.
+ Note that this removes internal ``..`` components, which may change the
+ meaning of the link if the path in :attr:`!TarInfo.linkname` traverses
+ symbolic links.
+
- :ref:`Refuse <tarfile-extraction-refuse>` to extract links (hard or soft)
that link to absolute paths, or ones that link outside the destination.
@@ -1080,6 +1104,10 @@ reused in custom filters:
Return the modified ``TarInfo`` member.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13.4
+
+ Link targets are now normalized.
+
.. _tarfile-extraction-refuse:
@@ -1106,6 +1134,7 @@ Here is an incomplete list of things to consider:
* Extract to a :func:`new temporary directory <tempfile.mkdtemp>`
to prevent e.g. exploiting pre-existing links, and to make it easier to
clean up after a failed extraction.
+* Disallow symbolic links if you do not need the functionality.
* When working with untrusted data, use external (e.g. OS-level) limits on
disk, memory and CPU usage.
* Check filenames against an allow-list of characters
@@ -1283,6 +1312,9 @@ Command-line options
Examples
--------
+Reading examples
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
How to extract an entire tar archive to the current working directory::
import tarfile
@@ -1305,6 +1337,23 @@ a generator function instead of a list::
tar.extractall(members=py_files(tar))
tar.close()
+How to read a gzip compressed tar archive and display some member information::
+
+ import tarfile
+ tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "r:gz")
+ for tarinfo in tar:
+ print(tarinfo.name, "is", tarinfo.size, "bytes in size and is ", end="")
+ if tarinfo.isreg():
+ print("a regular file.")
+ elif tarinfo.isdir():
+ print("a directory.")
+ else:
+ print("something else.")
+ tar.close()
+
+Writing examples
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
How to create an uncompressed tar archive from a list of filenames::
import tarfile
@@ -1320,19 +1369,15 @@ The same example using the :keyword:`with` statement::
for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
tar.add(name)
-How to read a gzip compressed tar archive and display some member information::
+How to create and write an archive to stdout using
+:data:`sys.stdout.buffer <sys.stdout>` in the *fileobj* parameter
+in :meth:`TarFile.add`::
- import tarfile
- tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "r:gz")
- for tarinfo in tar:
- print(tarinfo.name, "is", tarinfo.size, "bytes in size and is ", end="")
- if tarinfo.isreg():
- print("a regular file.")
- elif tarinfo.isdir():
- print("a directory.")
- else:
- print("something else.")
- tar.close()
+ import sys
+ import tarfile
+ with tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "w|gz", fileobj=sys.stdout.buffer) as tar:
+ for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
+ tar.add(name)
How to create an archive and reset the user information using the *filter*
parameter in :meth:`TarFile.add`::
diff --git a/Doc/library/telnetlib.rst b/Doc/library/telnetlib.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..6971ad33ff9751c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/telnetlib.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+:mod:`!telnetlib` --- Telnet client
+===================================
+
+.. module:: telnetlib
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+Possible replacements are third-party libraries from PyPI: :pypi:`telnetlib3`
+or :pypi:`Exscript`. These are not supported or maintained by the Python core
+team.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!telnetlib` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/telnetlib.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/tempfile.rst b/Doc/library/tempfile.rst
index 9add8500c7788cd..b8f7240bb61db1f 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tempfile.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tempfile.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`tempfile` --- Generate temporary files and directories
-============================================================
+:mod:`!tempfile` --- Generate temporary files and directories
+=============================================================
.. module:: tempfile
:synopsis: Generate temporary files and directories.
@@ -225,11 +225,13 @@ The module defines the following user-callable items:
properly implements the :const:`os.O_EXCL` flag for :func:`os.open`. The
file is readable and writable only by the creating user ID. If the
platform uses permission bits to indicate whether a file is executable,
- the file is executable by no one. The file descriptor is not inherited
- by child processes.
+ the file is executable by no one.
+
+ The file descriptor is :ref:`not inherited by child processes <fd_inheritance>`.
Unlike :func:`TemporaryFile`, the user of :func:`mkstemp` is responsible
- for deleting the temporary file when done with it.
+ for closing the file descriptor (for example, using :func:`os.close`) and
+ deleting the temporary file (for example, using :func:`os.remove`).
If *suffix* is not ``None``, the file name will end with that suffix,
otherwise there will be no suffix. :func:`mkstemp` does not put a dot
@@ -319,8 +321,11 @@ The module defines the following user-callable items:
#. A platform-specific location:
- * On Windows, the directories :file:`C:\\TEMP`, :file:`C:\\TMP`,
- :file:`\\TEMP`, and :file:`\\TMP`, in that order.
+ * On Windows, the directories
+ :file:`%USERPROFILE%\\AppData\\Local\\Temp`,
+ :file:`%SYSTEMROOT%\\Temp`, :file:`C:\\TEMP`,
+ :file:`C:\\TMP`, :file:`\\TEMP`, and
+ :file:`\\TMP`, in that order.
* On all other platforms, the directories :file:`/tmp`, :file:`/var/tmp`, and
:file:`/usr/tmp`, in that order.
diff --git a/Doc/library/termios.rst b/Doc/library/termios.rst
index 57705ddc4e64705..64245bf0d62301b 100644
--- a/Doc/library/termios.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/termios.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`termios` --- POSIX style tty control
-==========================================
+:mod:`!termios` --- POSIX style tty control
+===========================================
.. module:: termios
- :platform: Unix
:synopsis: POSIX style tty control.
.. index::
diff --git a/Doc/library/test.rst b/Doc/library/test.rst
index 92d675b48690ffd..c5f32101f5c08d8 100644
--- a/Doc/library/test.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/test.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`test` --- Regression tests package for Python
-===================================================
+:mod:`!test` --- Regression tests package for Python
+====================================================
.. module:: test
:synopsis: Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python.
@@ -263,7 +263,7 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following constants:
:meth:`~socket.socket.recv` and :meth:`~socket.socket.send` methods of
:class:`socket.socket`.
- Its default value is 5 seconds.
+ Its default value is 10 seconds.
See also :data:`INTERNET_TIMEOUT`.
@@ -324,7 +324,7 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following constants:
.. data:: Py_DEBUG
- True if Python was built with the :c:macro:`Py_DEBUG` macro
+ ``True`` if Python was built with the :c:macro:`Py_DEBUG` macro
defined, that is, if
Python was :ref:`built in debug mode <debug-build>`.
@@ -468,6 +468,12 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions:
tests.
+.. function:: get_resource_value(resource)
+
+ Return the value specified for *resource* (as :samp:`-u {resource}={value}`).
+ Return ``None`` if *resource* is disabled or no value is specified.
+
+
.. function:: python_is_optimized()
Return ``True`` if Python was not built with ``-O0`` or ``-Og``.
@@ -690,7 +696,7 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions:
.. decorator:: anticipate_failure(condition)
A decorator to conditionally mark tests with
- :func:`unittest.expectedFailure`. Any use of this decorator should
+ :deco:`unittest.expectedFailure`. Any use of this decorator should
have an associated comment identifying the relevant tracker issue.
@@ -919,6 +925,72 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions:
:mod:`tracemalloc` is enabled.
+.. currentmodule:: test.support.isolation
+
+.. decorator:: runInSubprocess(*, options=(), env=None, timeout=None)
+
+ Decorator that runs the decorated test in a fresh interpreter subprocess, in
+ isolation, so that it does not share global or interpreter state with the
+ rest of the test run. It can decorate a test method or a whole
+ :class:`~unittest.TestCase` subclass. Decorated methods must take no extra
+ arguments. A failure, error or skip in the subprocess is reported for the
+ corresponding test, and individual :meth:`subtests
+ <unittest.TestCase.subTest>` that fail or are skipped are reported
+ individually. A reported failure or error shows the original subprocess
+ traceback as the cause of the exception.
+
+ When a **method** is decorated, only that method runs in a subprocess; all
+ fixtures (:meth:`~unittest.TestCase.setUp` / :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.tearDown`,
+ :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.setUpClass` / :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.tearDownClass`
+ and ``setUpModule()`` / ``tearDownModule()``) run both in the parent process
+ (as usual) and in the subprocess around the method.
+
+ When a **class** is decorated, the whole class runs in a single subprocess,
+ and :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.setUpClass`,
+ :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.tearDownClass`, :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.setUp`
+ and :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.tearDown` run once each in the subprocess and
+ are skipped in the parent process. A failure or skip of
+ :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.setUpClass` in the subprocess is reported for the
+ whole class. ``setUpModule()`` cannot be controlled by a class decorator,
+ so it still runs in the parent process too; test it with
+ :data:`runningInSubprocess` if needed.
+
+ The subprocess inherits the enabled resources (``-u``), memory limit
+ (``-M``) and verbosity (``-v``) of the parent test run, so that
+ :func:`~test.support.requires_resource`, :func:`~test.support.requires`,
+ :func:`~test.support.bigmemtest` and the like behave consistently in both
+ processes.
+
+ *options* is a sequence of interpreter command line options
+ to run the subprocess with,
+ and *env* is a mapping of environment variables to set in it,
+ on top of the inherited environment.
+ A value of ``None`` in *env* unsets the variable.
+ Note that :option:`-E` and :option:`-I` make the subprocess ignore
+ the ``PYTHON*`` environment variables, including :envvar:`PYTHONPATH`.
+
+ *timeout* is the number of seconds to wait for the subprocess;
+ the test is reported as an error if it does not complete in time.
+ By default there is no timeout,
+ and a hung test is left to the timeout of the test runner.
+
+ The test is skipped on platforms without subprocess support.
+
+
+.. data:: runningInSubprocess
+
+ ``True`` while the code runs in the isolated subprocess spawned by
+ :func:`runInSubprocess`, and ``False`` otherwise (including in the parent
+ process and in a normal, non-isolated test run). Fixtures such as
+ :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.setUp`, :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.tearDown`,
+ :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.setUpClass`, :meth:`~unittest.TestCase.tearDownClass`,
+ ``setUpModule()`` and ``tearDownModule()`` can test it to choose which code
+ to run in the subprocess.
+
+
+.. currentmodule:: test.support
+
+
.. function:: check_free_after_iterating(test, iter, cls, args=())
Assert instances of *cls* are deallocated after iterating.
@@ -946,7 +1018,7 @@ The :mod:`test.support` module defines the following functions:
other modules, possibly a C backend (like ``csv`` and its ``_csv``).
The *extra* argument can be a set of names that wouldn't otherwise be automatically
- detected as "public", like objects without a proper ``__module__``
+ detected as "public", like objects without a proper :attr:`~definition.__module__`
attribute. If provided, it will be added to the automatically detected ones.
The *not_exported* argument can be a set of names that must not be treated
@@ -1701,7 +1773,7 @@ The :mod:`test.support.warnings_helper` module provides support for warnings tes
.. function:: check_warnings(*filters, quiet=True)
- A convenience wrapper for :func:`warnings.catch_warnings()` that makes it
+ A convenience wrapper for :func:`warnings.catch_warnings` that makes it
easier to test that a warning was correctly raised. It is approximately
equivalent to calling ``warnings.catch_warnings(record=True)`` with
:meth:`warnings.simplefilter` set to ``always`` and with the option to
diff --git a/Doc/library/textwrap.rst b/Doc/library/textwrap.rst
index 7445410f91808cb..a58b460fef409c6 100644
--- a/Doc/library/textwrap.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/textwrap.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`textwrap` --- Text wrapping and filling
-=============================================
+:mod:`!textwrap` --- Text wrapping and filling
+==============================================
.. module:: textwrap
:synopsis: Text wrapping and filling
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ hyphenated words; only then will long words be broken if necessary, unless
wrapper = TextWrapper()
wrapper.initial_indent = "* "
- You can re-use the same :class:`TextWrapper` object many times, and you can
+ You can reuse the same :class:`TextWrapper` object many times, and you can
change any of its options through direct assignment to instance attributes
between uses.
diff --git a/Doc/library/threading.rst b/Doc/library/threading.rst
index 4cf98a49e11442c..08d2d89f43d5272 100644
--- a/Doc/library/threading.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/threading.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`threading` --- Thread-based parallelism
-=============================================
+:mod:`!threading` --- Thread-based parallelism
+==============================================
.. module:: threading
:synopsis: Thread-based parallelism.
@@ -11,6 +11,52 @@
This module constructs higher-level threading interfaces on top of the lower
level :mod:`_thread` module.
+.. include:: ../includes/wasm-notavail.rst
+
+Introduction
+------------
+
+The :mod:`!threading` module provides a way to run multiple `threads
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_(computing)>`_ (smaller
+units of a process) concurrently within a single process. It allows for the
+creation and management of threads, making it possible to execute tasks in
+parallel, sharing memory space. Threads are particularly useful when tasks are
+I/O bound, such as file operations or making network requests,
+where much of the time is spent waiting for external resources.
+
+A typical use case for :mod:`!threading` includes managing a pool of worker
+threads that can process multiple tasks concurrently. Here's a basic example of
+creating and starting threads using :class:`~threading.Thread`::
+
+ import threading
+ import time
+
+ def crawl(link, delay=3):
+ print(f"crawl started for {link}")
+ time.sleep(delay) # Blocking I/O (simulating a network request)
+ print(f"crawl ended for {link}")
+
+ links = [
+ "https://python.org",
+ "https://docs.python.org",
+ "https://peps.python.org",
+ ]
+
+ # Start threads for each link
+ threads = []
+ for link in links:
+ # Using `args` to pass positional arguments and `kwargs` for keyword arguments
+ t = threading.Thread(target=crawl, args=(link,), kwargs={"delay": 2})
+ threads.append(t)
+
+ # Start each thread
+ for t in threads:
+ t.start()
+
+ # Wait for all threads to finish
+ for t in threads:
+ t.join()
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
This module used to be optional, it is now always available.
@@ -45,7 +91,25 @@ level :mod:`_thread` module.
However, threading is still an appropriate model if you want to run
multiple I/O-bound tasks simultaneously.
-.. include:: ../includes/wasm-notavail.rst
+GIL and performance considerations
+----------------------------------
+
+Unlike the :mod:`multiprocessing` module, which uses separate processes to
+bypass the :term:`global interpreter lock` (GIL), the threading module operates
+within a single process, meaning that all threads share the same memory space.
+However, the GIL limits the performance gains of threading when it comes to
+CPU-bound tasks, as only one thread can execute Python bytecode at a time.
+Despite this, threads remain a useful tool for achieving concurrency in many
+scenarios.
+
+As of Python 3.13, experimental :term:`free-threaded <free threading>` builds
+can disable the GIL, enabling true parallel execution of threads, but this
+feature is not available by default (see :pep:`703`).
+
+.. TODO: At some point this feature will become available by default.
+
+Reference
+---------
This module defines the following functions:
@@ -62,7 +126,7 @@ This module defines the following functions:
Return the current :class:`Thread` object, corresponding to the caller's thread
of control. If the caller's thread of control was not created through the
- :mod:`threading` module, a dummy thread object with limited functionality is
+ :mod:`!threading` module, a dummy thread object with limited functionality is
returned.
The function ``currentThread`` is a deprecated alias for this function.
@@ -157,13 +221,13 @@ This module defines the following functions:
.. index:: single: trace function
- Set a trace function for all threads started from the :mod:`threading` module.
+ Set a trace function for all threads started from the :mod:`!threading` module.
The *func* will be passed to :func:`sys.settrace` for each thread, before its
:meth:`~Thread.run` method is called.
.. function:: settrace_all_threads(func)
- Set a trace function for all threads started from the :mod:`threading` module
+ Set a trace function for all threads started from the :mod:`!threading` module
and all Python threads that are currently executing.
The *func* will be passed to :func:`sys.settrace` for each thread, before its
@@ -186,13 +250,13 @@ This module defines the following functions:
.. index:: single: profile function
- Set a profile function for all threads started from the :mod:`threading` module.
+ Set a profile function for all threads started from the :mod:`!threading` module.
The *func* will be passed to :func:`sys.setprofile` for each thread, before its
:meth:`~Thread.run` method is called.
.. function:: setprofile_all_threads(func)
- Set a profile function for all threads started from the :mod:`threading` module
+ Set a profile function for all threads started from the :mod:`!threading` module
and all Python threads that are currently executing.
The *func* will be passed to :func:`sys.setprofile` for each thread, before its
@@ -257,31 +321,140 @@ when implemented, are mapped to module-level functions.
All of the methods described below are executed atomically.
-Thread-Local Data
------------------
+Thread-local data
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Thread-local data is data whose values are thread specific. If you
+have data that you want to be local to a thread, create a
+:class:`local` object and use its attributes::
+
+ >>> mydata = local()
+ >>> mydata.number = 42
+ >>> mydata.number
+ 42
+
+You can also access the :class:`local`-object's dictionary::
+
+ >>> mydata.__dict__
+ {'number': 42}
+ >>> mydata.__dict__.setdefault('widgets', [])
+ []
+ >>> mydata.widgets
+ []
+
+If we access the data in a different thread::
+
+ >>> log = []
+ >>> def f():
+ ... items = sorted(mydata.__dict__.items())
+ ... log.append(items)
+ ... mydata.number = 11
+ ... log.append(mydata.number)
+
+ >>> import threading
+ >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=f)
+ >>> thread.start()
+ >>> thread.join()
+ >>> log
+ [[], 11]
+
+we get different data. Furthermore, changes made in the other thread
+don't affect data seen in this thread::
+
+ >>> mydata.number
+ 42
+
+Of course, values you get from a :class:`local` object, including their
+:attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute, are for whatever thread was current
+at the time the attribute was read. For that reason, you generally
+don't want to save these values across threads, as they apply only to
+the thread they came from.
+
+You can create custom :class:`local` objects by subclassing the
+:class:`local` class::
+
+ >>> class MyLocal(local):
+ ... number = 2
+ ... def __init__(self, /, **kw):
+ ... self.__dict__.update(kw)
+ ... def squared(self):
+ ... return self.number ** 2
+
+This can be useful to support default values, methods and
+initialization. Note that if you define an :py:meth:`~object.__init__`
+method, it will be called each time the :class:`local` object is used
+in a separate thread. This is necessary to initialize each thread's
+dictionary.
+
+Now if we create a :class:`local` object::
+
+ >>> mydata = MyLocal(color='red')
+
+we have a default number::
+
+ >>> mydata.number
+ 2
+
+an initial color::
+
+ >>> mydata.color
+ 'red'
+ >>> del mydata.color
-Thread-local data is data whose values are thread specific. To manage
-thread-local data, just create an instance of :class:`local` (or a
-subclass) and store attributes on it::
+And a method that operates on the data::
- mydata = threading.local()
- mydata.x = 1
+ >>> mydata.squared()
+ 4
-The instance's values will be different for separate threads.
+As before, we can access the data in a separate thread::
+
+ >>> log = []
+ >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=f)
+ >>> thread.start()
+ >>> thread.join()
+ >>> log
+ [[('color', 'red')], 11]
+
+without affecting this thread's data::
+
+ >>> mydata.number
+ 2
+ >>> mydata.color
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ ...
+ AttributeError: 'MyLocal' object has no attribute 'color'
+
+Note that subclasses can define :term:`__slots__`, but they are not
+thread local. They are shared across threads::
+
+ >>> class MyLocal(local):
+ ... __slots__ = 'number'
+
+ >>> mydata = MyLocal()
+ >>> mydata.number = 42
+ >>> mydata.color = 'red'
+
+So, the separate thread::
+
+ >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=f)
+ >>> thread.start()
+ >>> thread.join()
+
+affects what we see::
+
+ >>> mydata.number
+ 11
.. class:: local()
A class that represents thread-local data.
- For more details and extensive examples, see the documentation string of the
- :mod:`!_threading_local` module: :source:`Lib/_threading_local.py`.
-
.. _thread-objects:
-Thread Objects
---------------
+Thread objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
The :class:`Thread` class represents an activity that is run in a separate
thread of control. There are two ways to specify the activity: by passing a
@@ -339,7 +512,7 @@ since it is impossible to detect the termination of alien threads.
This constructor should always be called with keyword arguments. Arguments
are:
- *group* should be ``None``; reserved for future extension when a
+ *group* must be ``None`` as it is reserved for future extension when a
:class:`!ThreadGroup` class is implemented.
*target* is the callable object to be invoked by the :meth:`run` method.
@@ -412,7 +585,7 @@ since it is impossible to detect the termination of alien threads.
timeout occurs.
When the *timeout* argument is present and not ``None``, it should be a
- floating point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds
+ floating-point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds
(or fractions thereof). As :meth:`~Thread.join` always returns ``None``,
you must call :meth:`~Thread.is_alive` after :meth:`~Thread.join` to
decide whether a timeout happened -- if the thread is still alive, the
@@ -499,8 +672,8 @@ since it is impossible to detect the termination of alien threads.
.. _lock-objects:
-Lock Objects
-------------
+Lock objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^
A primitive lock is a synchronization primitive that is not owned by a
particular thread when locked. In Python, it is currently the lowest level
@@ -589,8 +762,8 @@ All methods are executed atomically.
.. _rlock-objects:
-RLock Objects
--------------
+RLock objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
A reentrant lock is a synchronization primitive that may be acquired multiple
times by the same thread. Internally, it uses the concepts of "owning thread"
@@ -598,14 +771,25 @@ and "recursion level" in addition to the locked/unlocked state used by primitive
locks. In the locked state, some thread owns the lock; in the unlocked state,
no thread owns it.
-To lock the lock, a thread calls its :meth:`~RLock.acquire` method; this
-returns once the thread owns the lock. To unlock the lock, a thread calls
-its :meth:`~Lock.release` method. :meth:`~Lock.acquire`/:meth:`~Lock.release`
-call pairs may be nested; only the final :meth:`~Lock.release` (the
-:meth:`~Lock.release` of the outermost pair) resets the lock to unlocked and
-allows another thread blocked in :meth:`~Lock.acquire` to proceed.
+Threads call a lock's :meth:`~RLock.acquire` method to lock it,
+and its :meth:`~Lock.release` method to unlock it.
+
+.. note::
+
+ Reentrant locks support the :ref:`context management protocol <with-locks>`,
+ so it is recommended to use :keyword:`with` instead of manually calling
+ :meth:`~RLock.acquire` and :meth:`~RLock.release`
+ to handle acquiring and releasing the lock for a block of code.
-Reentrant locks also support the :ref:`context management protocol <with-locks>`.
+RLock's :meth:`~RLock.acquire`/:meth:`~RLock.release` call pairs may be nested,
+unlike Lock's :meth:`~Lock.acquire`/:meth:`~Lock.release`. Only the final
+:meth:`~RLock.release` (the :meth:`~Lock.release` of the outermost pair) resets
+the lock to an unlocked state and allows another thread blocked in
+:meth:`~RLock.acquire` to proceed.
+
+:meth:`~RLock.acquire`/:meth:`~RLock.release` must be used in pairs: each acquire
+must have a release in the thread that has acquired the lock. Failing to
+call release as many times the lock has been acquired can lead to deadlock.
.. class:: RLock()
@@ -624,25 +808,41 @@ Reentrant locks also support the :ref:`context management protocol <with-locks>`
Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.
- When invoked without arguments: if this thread already owns the lock, increment
- the recursion level by one, and return immediately. Otherwise, if another
- thread owns the lock, block until the lock is unlocked. Once the lock is
- unlocked (not owned by any thread), then grab ownership, set the recursion level
- to one, and return. If more than one thread is blocked waiting until the lock
- is unlocked, only one at a time will be able to grab ownership of the lock.
- There is no return value in this case.
+ .. seealso::
- When invoked with the *blocking* argument set to ``True``, do the same thing as when
- called without arguments, and return ``True``.
+ :ref:`Using RLock as a context manager <with-locks>`
+ Recommended over manual :meth:`!acquire` and :meth:`release` calls
+ whenever practical.
- When invoked with the *blocking* argument set to ``False``, do not block. If a call
- without an argument would block, return ``False`` immediately; otherwise, do the
- same thing as when called without arguments, and return ``True``.
- When invoked with the floating-point *timeout* argument set to a positive
- value, block for at most the number of seconds specified by *timeout*
- and as long as the lock cannot be acquired. Return ``True`` if the lock has
- been acquired, ``False`` if the timeout has elapsed.
+ When invoked with the *blocking* argument set to ``True`` (the default):
+
+ * If no thread owns the lock, acquire the lock and return immediately.
+
+ * If another thread owns the lock, block until we are able to acquire
+ lock, or *timeout*, if set to a positive float value.
+
+ * If the same thread owns the lock, acquire the lock again, and
+ return immediately. This is the difference between :class:`Lock` and
+ :class:`!RLock`; :class:`Lock` handles this case the same as the previous,
+ blocking until the lock can be acquired.
+
+ When invoked with the *blocking* argument set to ``False``:
+
+ * If no thread owns the lock, acquire the lock and return immediately.
+
+ * If another thread owns the lock, return immediately.
+
+ * If the same thread owns the lock, acquire the lock again and return
+ immediately.
+
+ In all cases, if the thread was able to acquire the lock, return ``True``.
+ If the thread was unable to acquire the lock (i.e. if not blocking or
+ the timeout was reached) return ``False``.
+
+ If called multiple times, failing to call :meth:`~RLock.release` as many times
+ may lead to deadlock. Consider using :class:`!RLock` as a context manager rather than
+ calling acquire/release directly.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
The *timeout* parameter is new.
@@ -658,15 +858,15 @@ Reentrant locks also support the :ref:`context management protocol <with-locks>`
Only call this method when the calling thread owns the lock. A
:exc:`RuntimeError` is raised if this method is called when the lock is
- unlocked.
+ not acquired.
There is no return value.
.. _condition-objects:
-Condition Objects
------------------
+Condition objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
A condition variable is always associated with some kind of lock; this can be
passed in or one will be created by default. Passing one in is useful when
@@ -767,7 +967,7 @@ item to the buffer only needs to wake up one consumer thread.
occurs. Once awakened or timed out, it re-acquires the lock and returns.
When the *timeout* argument is present and not ``None``, it should be a
- floating point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds
+ floating-point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds
(or fractions thereof).
When the underlying lock is an :class:`RLock`, it is not released using
@@ -837,8 +1037,8 @@ item to the buffer only needs to wake up one consumer thread.
.. _semaphore-objects:
-Semaphore Objects
------------------
+Semaphore objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
This is one of the oldest synchronization primitives in the history of computer
science, invented by the early Dutch computer scientist Edsger W. Dijkstra (he
@@ -918,7 +1118,7 @@ Semaphores also support the :ref:`context management protocol <with-locks>`.
.. _semaphore-examples:
-:class:`Semaphore` Example
+:class:`Semaphore` example
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Semaphores are often used to guard resources with limited capacity, for example,
@@ -946,8 +1146,8 @@ causes the semaphore to be released more than it's acquired will go undetected.
.. _event-objects:
-Event Objects
--------------
+Event objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
This is one of the simplest mechanisms for communication between threads: one
thread signals an event and other threads wait for it.
@@ -991,10 +1191,10 @@ method. The :meth:`~Event.wait` method blocks until the flag is true.
has not expired. The return value represents the
reason that this blocking method returned; ``True`` if returning because
the internal flag is set to true, or ``False`` if a timeout is given and
- the the internal flag did not become true within the given wait time.
+ the internal flag did not become true within the given wait time.
When the timeout argument is present and not ``None``, it should be a
- floating point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds,
+ floating-point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds,
or fractions thereof.
.. versionchanged:: 3.1
@@ -1003,8 +1203,8 @@ method. The :meth:`~Event.wait` method blocks until the flag is true.
.. _timer-objects:
-Timer Objects
--------------
+Timer objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
This class represents an action that should be run only after a certain amount
of time has passed --- a timer. :class:`Timer` is a subclass of :class:`Thread`
@@ -1041,8 +1241,8 @@ For example::
only work if the timer is still in its waiting stage.
-Barrier Objects
----------------
+Barrier objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
.. versionadded:: 3.2
diff --git a/Doc/library/time.rst b/Doc/library/time.rst
index d79ca6e12081070..2493f2384405176 100644
--- a/Doc/library/time.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/time.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`time` --- Time access and conversions
-===========================================
+:mod:`!time` --- Time access and conversions
+============================================
.. module:: time
:synopsis: Time access and conversions.
@@ -52,9 +52,13 @@ An explanation of some terminology and conventions is in order.
single: Coordinated Universal Time
single: Greenwich Mean Time
-* UTC is Coordinated Universal Time (formerly known as Greenwich Mean Time, or
- GMT). The acronym UTC is not a mistake but a compromise between English and
- French.
+* UTC is `Coordinated Universal Time`_ and superseded `Greenwich Mean Time`_ or
+ GMT as the basis of international timekeeping. The acronym UTC is not a
+ mistake but conforms to an earlier, language-agnostic naming scheme for time
+ standards such as UT0, UT1, and UT2.
+
+.. _Coordinated Universal Time: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time
+.. _Greenwich Mean Time: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich_Mean_Time
.. index:: single: Daylight Saving Time
@@ -69,7 +73,7 @@ An explanation of some terminology and conventions is in order.
systems, the clock "ticks" only 50 or 100 times a second.
* On the other hand, the precision of :func:`.time` and :func:`sleep` is better
- than their Unix equivalents: times are expressed as floating point numbers,
+ than their Unix equivalents: times are expressed as floating-point numbers,
:func:`.time` returns the most accurate time available (using Unix
:c:func:`!gettimeofday` where available), and :func:`sleep` will accept a time
with a nonzero fraction (Unix :c:func:`!select` is used to implement this, where
@@ -118,23 +122,24 @@ An explanation of some terminology and conventions is in order.
Functions
---------
-.. function:: asctime([t])
+.. function:: asctime([time_tuple])
Convert a tuple or :class:`struct_time` representing a time as returned by
:func:`gmtime` or :func:`localtime` to a string of the following
form: ``'Sun Jun 20 23:21:05 1993'``. The day field is two characters long
and is space padded if the day is a single digit,
- e.g.: ``'Wed Jun 9 04:26:40 1993'``.
+ for example: ``'Wed Jun 9 04:26:40 1993'``.
- If *t* is not provided, the current time as returned by :func:`localtime`
- is used. Locale information is not used by :func:`asctime`.
+ If *time_tuple* is not provided,
+ the current time as returned by :func:`localtime` is used.
+ Locale information is not used by :func:`asctime`.
.. note::
Unlike the C function of the same name, :func:`asctime` does not add a
trailing newline.
-.. function:: pthread_getcpuclockid(thread_id)
+.. function:: pthread_getcpuclockid(thread_id, /)
Return the *clk_id* of the thread-specific CPU-time clock for the specified *thread_id*.
@@ -153,7 +158,7 @@ Functions
.. versionadded:: 3.7
-.. function:: clock_getres(clk_id)
+.. function:: clock_getres(clk_id, /)
Return the resolution (precision) of the specified clock *clk_id*. Refer to
:ref:`time-clock-id-constants` for a list of accepted values for *clk_id*.
@@ -163,7 +168,7 @@ Functions
.. versionadded:: 3.3
-.. function:: clock_gettime(clk_id) -> float
+.. function:: clock_gettime(clk_id, /) -> float
Return the time of the specified clock *clk_id*. Refer to
:ref:`time-clock-id-constants` for a list of accepted values for *clk_id*.
@@ -176,7 +181,7 @@ Functions
.. versionadded:: 3.3
-.. function:: clock_gettime_ns(clk_id) -> int
+.. function:: clock_gettime_ns(clk_id, /) -> int
Similar to :func:`clock_gettime` but return time as nanoseconds.
@@ -185,7 +190,7 @@ Functions
.. versionadded:: 3.7
-.. function:: clock_settime(clk_id, time: float)
+.. function:: clock_settime(clk_id, time: float, /)
Set the time of the specified clock *clk_id*. Currently,
:data:`CLOCK_REALTIME` is the only accepted value for *clk_id*.
@@ -193,34 +198,34 @@ Functions
Use :func:`clock_settime_ns` to avoid the precision loss caused by the
:class:`float` type.
- .. availability:: Unix.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
-.. function:: clock_settime_ns(clk_id, time: int)
+.. function:: clock_settime_ns(clk_id, time: int, /)
Similar to :func:`clock_settime` but set time with nanoseconds.
- .. availability:: Unix.
+ .. availability:: Unix, not Android, not iOS.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
-.. function:: ctime([secs])
+.. function:: ctime(seconds=None, /)
Convert a time expressed in seconds since the epoch_ to a string of a form:
``'Sun Jun 20 23:21:05 1993'`` representing local time. The day field
is two characters long and is space padded if the day is a single digit,
- e.g.: ``'Wed Jun 9 04:26:40 1993'``.
+ for example: ``'Wed Jun 9 04:26:40 1993'``.
- If *secs* is not provided or :const:`None`, the current time as
- returned by :func:`.time` is used. ``ctime(secs)`` is equivalent to
- ``asctime(localtime(secs))``. Locale information is not used by
+ If *seconds* is not provided or :const:`None`, the current time as
+ returned by :func:`.time` is used. ``ctime(seconds)`` is equivalent to
+ ``asctime(localtime(seconds))``. Locale information is not used by
:func:`ctime`.
-.. function:: get_clock_info(name)
+.. function:: get_clock_info(name, /)
Get information on the specified clock as a namespace object.
Supported clock names and the corresponding functions to read their value
@@ -234,8 +239,8 @@ Functions
The result has the following attributes:
- - *adjustable*: ``True`` if the clock can be changed automatically (e.g. by
- a NTP daemon) or manually by the system administrator, ``False`` otherwise
+ - *adjustable*: ``True`` if the clock can be set to jump forward or backward
+ in time, ``False`` otherwise. Does not refer to gradual NTP rate adjustments.
- *implementation*: The name of the underlying C function used to get
the clock value. Refer to :ref:`time-clock-id-constants` for possible values.
- *monotonic*: ``True`` if the clock cannot go backward,
@@ -245,21 +250,22 @@ Functions
.. versionadded:: 3.3
-.. function:: gmtime([secs])
+.. function:: gmtime(seconds=None, /)
Convert a time expressed in seconds since the epoch_ to a :class:`struct_time` in
- UTC in which the dst flag is always zero. If *secs* is not provided or
+ UTC in which the dst flag is always zero. If *seconds* is not provided or
:const:`None`, the current time as returned by :func:`.time` is used. Fractions
of a second are ignored. See above for a description of the
:class:`struct_time` object. See :func:`calendar.timegm` for the inverse of this
function.
-.. function:: localtime([secs])
+.. function:: localtime(seconds=None, /)
- Like :func:`gmtime` but converts to local time. If *secs* is not provided or
- :const:`None`, the current time as returned by :func:`.time` is used. The dst
- flag is set to ``1`` when DST applies to the given time.
+ Like :func:`gmtime` but converts to local time.
+ If *seconds* is not provided or :const:`None`,
+ the current time as returned by :func:`.time` is used.
+ The dst flag is set to ``1`` when DST applies to the given time.
:func:`localtime` may raise :exc:`OverflowError`, if the timestamp is
outside the range of values supported by the platform C :c:func:`localtime`
@@ -268,12 +274,12 @@ Functions
between 1970 and 2038.
-.. function:: mktime(t)
+.. function:: mktime(time_tuple, /)
This is the inverse function of :func:`localtime`. Its argument is the
:class:`struct_time` or full 9-tuple (since the dst flag is needed; use ``-1``
as the dst flag if it is unknown) which expresses the time in *local* time, not
- UTC. It returns a floating point number, for compatibility with :func:`.time`.
+ UTC. It returns a floating-point number, for compatibility with :func:`.time`.
If the input value cannot be represented as a valid time, either
:exc:`OverflowError` or :exc:`ValueError` will be raised (which depends on
whether the invalid value is caught by Python or the underlying C libraries).
@@ -302,10 +308,11 @@ Functions
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
- The function is now always available and always system-wide.
+ The function is now always available and the clock is now the same for
+ all processes.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
- On macOS, the function is now system-wide.
+ On macOS, the clock is now the same for all processes.
.. function:: monotonic_ns() -> int
@@ -321,13 +328,14 @@ Functions
Return the value (in fractional seconds) of a performance counter, i.e. a
clock with the highest available resolution to measure a short duration. It
- does include time elapsed during sleep and is system-wide. The reference
+ does include time elapsed during sleep. The clock is the same for all
+ processes. The reference
point of the returned value is undefined, so that only the difference between
the results of two calls is valid.
.. impl-detail::
- On CPython, use the same clock than :func:`time.monotonic()` and is a
+ On CPython, use the same clock as :func:`time.monotonic` and is a
monotonic clock, i.e. a clock that cannot go backwards.
Use :func:`perf_counter_ns` to avoid the precision loss caused by the
@@ -336,10 +344,10 @@ Functions
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
- On Windows, the function is now system-wide.
+ On Windows, the clock is now the same for all processes.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
- Use the same clock than :func:`time.monotonic()`.
+ Use the same clock as :func:`time.monotonic`.
.. function:: perf_counter_ns() -> int
@@ -373,10 +381,10 @@ Functions
.. versionadded:: 3.7
-.. function:: sleep(secs)
+.. function:: sleep(seconds, /)
Suspend execution of the calling thread for the given number of seconds.
- The argument may be a floating point number to indicate a more precise sleep
+ The argument may be a floating-point number to indicate a more precise sleep
time.
If the sleep is interrupted by a signal and no exception is raised by the
@@ -385,26 +393,39 @@ Functions
The suspension time may be longer than requested by an arbitrary amount,
because of the scheduling of other activity in the system.
- On Windows, if *secs* is zero, the thread relinquishes the remainder of its
- time slice to any other thread that is ready to run. If there are no other
- threads ready to run, the function returns immediately, and the thread
- continues execution. On Windows 8.1 and newer the implementation uses
+ .. rubric:: Windows implementation
+
+ On Windows, if *seconds* is zero,
+ the thread relinquishes the remainder of its time slice
+ to any other thread that is ready to run.
+ If there are no other threads ready to run,
+ the function returns immediately, and the thread continues execution.
+ On Windows 10 and newer the implementation uses
a `high-resolution timer
- <https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-hardware/drivers/kernel/high-resolution-timers>`_
- which provides resolution of 100 nanoseconds. If *secs* is zero, ``Sleep(0)`` is used.
+ <https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/api/synchapi/nf-synchapi-createwaitabletimerexw>`_
+ which provides resolution of 100 nanoseconds.
+ If *seconds* is zero, ``Sleep(0)`` is used.
- Unix implementation:
+ .. rubric:: Unix implementation
* Use ``clock_nanosleep()`` if available (resolution: 1 nanosecond);
* Or use ``nanosleep()`` if available (resolution: 1 nanosecond);
* Or use ``select()`` (resolution: 1 microsecond).
- .. audit-event:: time.sleep secs
+ .. note::
+
+ To emulate a "no-op", use :keyword:`pass` instead of ``time.sleep(0)``.
+
+ To voluntarily relinquish the CPU, specify a real-time :ref:`scheduling
+ policy <os-scheduling-policy>` and use :func:`os.sched_yield` instead.
+
+ .. audit-event:: time.sleep seconds
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
- The function now sleeps at least *secs* even if the sleep is interrupted
- by a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see
- :pep:`475` for the rationale).
+ The function now sleeps at least *seconds*
+ even if the sleep is interrupted by a signal,
+ except if the signal handler raises an exception
+ (see :pep:`475` for the rationale).
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
On Unix, the ``clock_nanosleep()`` and ``nanosleep()`` functions are now
@@ -416,13 +437,13 @@ Functions
.. index::
single: % (percent); datetime format
-.. function:: strftime(format[, t])
+.. function:: strftime(format[, time_tuple])
Convert a tuple or :class:`struct_time` representing a time as returned by
:func:`gmtime` or :func:`localtime` to a string as specified by the *format*
- argument. If *t* is not provided, the current time as returned by
+ argument. If *time_tuple* is not provided, the current time as returned by
:func:`localtime` is used. *format* must be a string. :exc:`ValueError` is
- raised if any field in *t* is outside of the allowed range.
+ raised if any field in *time_tuple* is outside of the allowed range.
0 is a legal argument for any position in the time tuple; if it is normally
illegal the value is forced to a correct one.
@@ -483,6 +504,9 @@ Functions
| | | |
| | | |
+-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+ | ``%u`` | Day of the week (Monday is 1; Sunday is 7) | |
+ | | as a decimal number [1, 7]. | |
+ +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ``%w`` | Weekday as a decimal number [0(Sunday),6]. | |
| | | |
+-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
@@ -515,6 +539,16 @@ Functions
| ``%Z`` | Time zone name (no characters if no time zone | |
| | exists). Deprecated. [1]_ | |
+-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+ | ``%G`` | ISO 8601 year (similar to ``%Y`` but follows | |
+ | | the rules for the ISO 8601 calendar year). | |
+ | | The year starts with the week that contains | |
+ | | the first Thursday of the calendar year. | |
+ +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
+ | ``%V`` | ISO 8601 week number (as a decimal number | |
+ | | [01,53]). The first week of the year is the | |
+ | | one that contains the first Thursday of the | |
+ | | year. Weeks start on Monday. | |
+ +-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
| ``%%`` | A literal ``'%'`` character. | |
+-----------+------------------------------------------------+-------+
@@ -542,7 +576,7 @@ Functions
calculations when the day of the week and the year are specified.
Here is an example, a format for dates compatible with that specified in the
- :rfc:`2822` Internet email standard. [1]_ ::
+ :rfc:`5322` Internet email standard. [1]_ ::
>>> from time import gmtime, strftime
>>> strftime("%a, %d %b %Y %H:%M:%S +0000", gmtime())
@@ -617,7 +651,7 @@ Functions
- range [1, 12]
* - 2
- - .. attribute:: tm_day
+ - .. attribute:: tm_mday
- range [1, 31]
* - 3
@@ -665,13 +699,13 @@ Functions
.. function:: time() -> float
- Return the time in seconds since the epoch_ as a floating point
+ Return the time in seconds since the epoch_ as a floating-point
number. The handling of `leap seconds`_ is platform dependent.
On Windows and most Unix systems, the leap seconds are not counted towards
the time in seconds since the epoch_. This is commonly referred to as `Unix
time <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_time>`_.
- Note that even though the time is always returned as a floating point
+ Note that even though the time is always returned as a floating-point
number, not all systems provide time with a better precision than 1 second.
While this function normally returns non-decreasing values, it can return a
lower value than a previous call if the system clock has been set back
@@ -686,13 +720,18 @@ Functions
Clock:
- * On Windows, call ``GetSystemTimeAsFileTime()``.
+ * On Windows, call ``GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime()``.
* Call ``clock_gettime(CLOCK_REALTIME)`` if available.
* Otherwise, call ``gettimeofday()``.
Use :func:`time_ns` to avoid the precision loss caused by the :class:`float`
type.
+.. versionchanged:: 3.13
+
+ On Windows, calls ``GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime()`` instead of
+ ``GetSystemTimeAsFileTime()``.
+
.. function:: time_ns() -> int
@@ -902,7 +941,7 @@ These constants are used as parameters for :func:`clock_getres` and
.. data:: CLOCK_TAI
- `International Atomic Time <https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/nist-time-frequently-asked-questions-faq#tai>`_
+ `International Atomic Time <https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/how-utcnist-related-coordinated-universal-time-utc-international>`_
The system must have a current leap second table in order for this to give
the correct answer. PTP or NTP software can maintain a leap second table.
@@ -956,8 +995,8 @@ The following constant is the only parameter that can be sent to
.. data:: CLOCK_REALTIME
- System-wide real-time clock. Setting this clock requires appropriate
- privileges.
+ Real-time clock. Setting this clock requires appropriate privileges.
+ The clock is the same for all processes.
.. availability:: Unix.
@@ -1019,4 +1058,5 @@ Timezone Constants
strict reading of the original 1982 :rfc:`822` standard calls for a two-digit
year (``%y`` rather than ``%Y``), but practice moved to 4-digit years long before the
year 2000. After that, :rfc:`822` became obsolete and the 4-digit year has
- been first recommended by :rfc:`1123` and then mandated by :rfc:`2822`.
+ been first recommended by :rfc:`1123` and then mandated by :rfc:`2822`,
+ with :rfc:`5322` continuing this requirement.
diff --git a/Doc/library/timeit.rst b/Doc/library/timeit.rst
index 616f8365b80f6c3..548a3ee05405069 100644
--- a/Doc/library/timeit.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/timeit.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`timeit` --- Measure execution time of small code snippets
-===============================================================
+:mod:`!timeit` --- Measure execution time of small code snippets
+================================================================
.. module:: timeit
:synopsis: Measure the execution time of small code snippets.
diff --git a/Doc/library/tk.rst b/Doc/library/tk.rst
index 0593f8b73ea5456..fa3c7e910ce21f0 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tk.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tk.rst
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
.. _tkinter:
*********************************
-Graphical User Interfaces with Tk
+Graphical user interfaces with Tk
*********************************
.. index::
@@ -39,6 +39,7 @@ alternative `GUI frameworks and tools <https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgrammi
tkinter.dnd.rst
tkinter.ttk.rst
idle.rst
+ turtle.rst
.. Other sections I have in mind are
Tkinter internals
diff --git a/Doc/library/tkinter.colorchooser.rst b/Doc/library/tkinter.colorchooser.rst
index 6e8479c1dea1e29..0b4cf70d2859ee0 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tkinter.colorchooser.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tkinter.colorchooser.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`tkinter.colorchooser` --- Color choosing dialog
-=====================================================
+:mod:`!tkinter.colorchooser` --- Color choosing dialog
+======================================================
.. module:: tkinter.colorchooser
- :platform: Tk
:synopsis: Color choosing dialog
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py`
@@ -16,14 +15,26 @@ the :class:`~tkinter.commondialog.Dialog` class.
.. class:: Chooser(master=None, **options)
+ The class implementing the modal color-choosing dialog.
+ Most applications use the :func:`askcolor` convenience function rather than
+ instantiating this class directly.
+
.. function:: askcolor(color=None, **options)
- Create a color choosing dialog. A call to this method will show the window,
- wait for the user to make a selection, and return the selected color (or
- ``None``) to the caller.
+ Show a modal color-choosing dialog and return the chosen color.
+ *color* is the color selected when the dialog opens.
+ The return value is a tuple ``((r, g, b), hexstr)``, where ``r``, ``g`` and
+ ``b`` are the red, green and blue components as integers in the range 0–255
+ and *hexstr* is the equivalent Tk color string, such as ``'#ff8000'``.
+ If the user cancels the dialog, ``(None, None)`` is returned.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ The RGB values in the returned color are now integers in the range 0–255
+ instead of floats.
.. seealso::
Module :mod:`tkinter.commondialog`
Tkinter standard dialog module
+
diff --git a/Doc/library/tkinter.dnd.rst b/Doc/library/tkinter.dnd.rst
index 02de0fd331958de..056a52baecb368a 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tkinter.dnd.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tkinter.dnd.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`tkinter.dnd` --- Drag and drop support
-============================================
+:mod:`!tkinter.dnd` --- Drag and drop support
+=============================================
.. module:: tkinter.dnd
- :platform: Tk
:synopsis: Tkinter drag-and-drop interface
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tkinter/dnd.py`
@@ -17,21 +16,22 @@ a single application, within the same window or between windows. To enable an
object to be dragged, you must create an event binding for it that starts the
drag-and-drop process. Typically, you bind a ButtonPress event to a callback
function that you write (see :ref:`Bindings-and-Events`). The function should
-call :func:`dnd_start`, where 'source' is the object to be dragged, and 'event'
+call :func:`dnd_start`, where *source* is the object to be dragged, and *event*
is the event that invoked the call (the argument to your callback function).
Selection of a target object occurs as follows:
-#. Top-down search of area under mouse for target widget
+#. Top-down search of the area under the mouse for a target widget:
- * Target widget should have a callable *dnd_accept* attribute
- * If *dnd_accept* is not present or returns None, search moves to parent widget
- * If no target widget is found, then the target object is None
+ * the target widget should have a callable *dnd_accept* attribute;
+ * if *dnd_accept* is not present or returns ``None``,
+ the search moves to the parent widget;
+ * if no target widget is found, the target object is ``None``.
-2. Call to *<old_target>.dnd_leave(source, event)*
-#. Call to *<new_target>.dnd_enter(source, event)*
-#. Call to *<target>.dnd_commit(source, event)* to notify of drop
-#. Call to *<source>.dnd_end(target, event)* to signal end of drag-and-drop
+#. Call to ``<old_target>.dnd_leave(source, event)``.
+#. Call to ``<new_target>.dnd_enter(source, event)``.
+#. Call to ``<target>.dnd_commit(source, event)`` to notify of the drop.
+#. Call to ``<source>.dnd_end(target, event)`` to signal the end of drag-and-drop.
.. class:: DndHandler(source, event)
@@ -49,7 +49,8 @@ Selection of a target object occurs as follows:
.. method:: on_motion(event)
- Inspect area below mouse for target objects while drag is performed.
+ Inspect area below mouse for target objects while a drag
+ is performed.
.. method:: on_release(event)
@@ -57,7 +58,9 @@ Selection of a target object occurs as follows:
.. function:: dnd_start(source, event)
- Factory function for drag-and-drop process.
+ Factory function for the drag-and-drop process.
+ Return the :class:`DndHandler` instance managing the drag, or ``None`` if a
+ drag could not be started.
.. seealso::
diff --git a/Doc/library/tkinter.font.rst b/Doc/library/tkinter.font.rst
index c7c2b7b566cf8f0..42ce6d43b6bb5a3 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tkinter.font.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tkinter.font.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`tkinter.font` --- Tkinter font wrapper
-============================================
+:mod:`!tkinter.font` --- Tkinter font wrapper
+=============================================
.. module:: tkinter.font
- :platform: Tk
:synopsis: Tkinter font-wrapping class
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tkinter/font.py`
@@ -27,6 +26,10 @@ The different font weights and slants are:
fonts as a single object, rather than specifying a font by its attributes
with each occurrence.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ Two fonts now compare equal (``==``) only when both are :class:`Font`
+ instances with the same name belonging to the same Tcl interpreter.
+
arguments:
| *font* - font specifier tuple (family, size, options)
@@ -35,7 +38,7 @@ The different font weights and slants are:
additional keyword options (ignored if *font* is specified):
- | *family* - font family i.e. Courier, Times
+ | *family* - font family, for example, Courier, Times
| *size* - font size
| If *size* is positive it is interpreted as size in points.
| If *size* is a negative number its absolute value is treated
@@ -47,29 +50,47 @@ The different font weights and slants are:
.. method:: actual(option=None, displayof=None)
- Return the attributes of the font.
+ Return the actual attributes of the font, which may differ from the
+ requested ones because of platform limitations.
+ With no *option*, return a dictionary of all the attributes; if *option*
+ is given, return the value of that single attribute.
+ The attributes are resolved on the display of the *displayof* widget,
+ or the main application window if it is not specified.
.. method:: cget(option)
Retrieve an attribute of the font.
.. method:: config(**options)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: configure(**options)
+
+ Modify one or more attributes of the font.
+ With no arguments, return a dictionary of the current attributes.
- Modify attributes of the font.
+ :meth:`config` is an alias of :meth:`!configure`.
.. method:: copy()
- Return new instance of the current font.
+ Return a distinct copy of the current font:
+ a new named font with the same attributes but a different name,
+ which can be reconfigured independently of the original.
+ If the current font wraps a font description,
+ the copy is instead a named font with its resolved attributes.
.. method:: measure(text, displayof=None)
Return amount of space the text would occupy on the specified display
- when formatted in the current font. If no display is specified then the
- main application window is assumed.
+ when formatted in the current font, as an integer number of pixels.
+ If no display is specified then the main application window is assumed.
.. method:: metrics(*options, **kw)
Return font-specific data.
+ With no options, return a dictionary mapping each metric name to its
+ integer value; if one option name is given, return that metric's value as
+ an integer.
Options include:
*ascent* - distance between baseline and highest point that a
@@ -85,15 +106,17 @@ The different font weights and slants are:
.. function:: families(root=None, displayof=None)
- Return the different font families.
+ Return a tuple of the names of the available font families.
.. function:: names(root=None)
- Return the names of defined fonts.
+ Return a tuple of the names of all the defined fonts.
.. function:: nametofont(name, root=None)
- Return a :class:`Font` representation of a tk named font.
+ Return a :class:`Font` representation of the existing named font *name*.
+ *root* is the widget whose Tcl interpreter owns the font; if omitted, the
+ default root window is used.
.. versionchanged:: 3.10
The *root* parameter was added.
diff --git a/Doc/library/tkinter.messagebox.rst b/Doc/library/tkinter.messagebox.rst
index 56090a0a0e424be..47fe680bac9107e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tkinter.messagebox.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tkinter.messagebox.rst
@@ -1,20 +1,20 @@
-:mod:`tkinter.messagebox` --- Tkinter message prompts
-=====================================================
+:mod:`!tkinter.messagebox` --- Tkinter message prompts
+======================================================
.. module:: tkinter.messagebox
- :platform: Tk
:synopsis: Various types of alert dialogs
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py`
--------------
-The :mod:`tkinter.messagebox` module provides a template base class as well as
-a variety of convenience methods for commonly used configurations. The message
-boxes are modal and will return a subset of (``True``, ``False``, ``None``,
-:data:`OK`, :data:`CANCEL`, :data:`YES`, :data:`NO`) based on
-the user's selection. Common message box styles and layouts include but are not
-limited to:
+The :mod:`!tkinter.messagebox` module provides a template base class as well as
+a variety of convenience methods for commonly used configurations.
+The message boxes are modal: each blocks until the user responds, then returns
+a value that depends on the function.
+The ``show*`` functions and :meth:`Message.show` return the symbolic name of
+the button the user pressed, as a string (such as :data:`OK` or :data:`YES`).
+Common message box styles and layouts include but are not limited to:
.. figure:: tk_msg.png
@@ -67,6 +67,10 @@ limited to:
Arranges for a :ref:`predefined set of buttons <messagebox-types>`
to be displayed.
+ .. note::
+
+ Tk 8.6 added the *command* option.
+
.. method:: show(**options)
Display a message window and wait for the user to select one of the buttons. Then return the symbolic name of the selected button.
@@ -107,7 +111,7 @@ limited to:
.. function:: askretrycancel(title=None, message=None, **options)
Ask if operation should be retried. Shows buttons :data:`RETRY` and :data:`CANCEL`.
- Return ``True`` if the answer is yes and ``False`` otherwise.
+ Return ``True`` if the answer is retry and ``False`` otherwise.
.. function:: askyesno(title=None, message=None, **options)
diff --git a/Doc/library/tkinter.rst b/Doc/library/tkinter.rst
index 7e5dee1b562df8b..338892c5a5e738f 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tkinter.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tkinter.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`tkinter` --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk
-=============================================
+:mod:`!tkinter` --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk
+==============================================
.. module:: tkinter
:synopsis: Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces
@@ -19,10 +19,15 @@ demonstrating a simple Tk interface, letting you know that :mod:`tkinter` is
properly installed on your system, and also showing what version of Tcl/Tk is
installed, so you can read the Tcl/Tk documentation specific to that version.
-Tkinter supports a range of Tcl/Tk versions, built either with or
-without thread support. The official Python binary release bundles Tcl/Tk 8.6
-threaded. See the source code for the :mod:`_tkinter` module
-for more information about supported versions.
+Tkinter supports a range of Tcl/Tk versions, built either with or without
+thread support.
+Tcl/Tk 8.5.12 is the minimum supported version; the official Python binary
+release bundles Tcl/Tk 8.6.
+See the source code for the :mod:`_tkinter` module for more information about
+supported versions.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.11
+ Support for Tcl/Tk versions older than 8.5.12 was removed.
Tkinter is not a thin wrapper, but adds a fair amount of its own logic to
make the experience more pythonic. This documentation will concentrate on these
@@ -32,7 +37,8 @@ details that are unchanged.
.. note::
Tcl/Tk 8.5 (2007) introduced a modern set of themed user interface components
- along with a new API to use them. Both old and new APIs are still available.
+ along with a new API to use them (see :mod:`tkinter.ttk`).
+ Both old and new APIs are still available.
Most documentation you will find online still uses the old API and
can be woefully outdated.
@@ -47,7 +53,7 @@ details that are unchanged.
Tcl/Tk Resources:
- * `Tk commands <https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm>`_
+ * `Tk commands <https://www.tcl-lang.org/man/tcl9.0/TkCmd/index.html>`_
Comprehensive reference to each of the underlying Tcl/Tk commands used by Tkinter.
* `Tcl/Tk Home Page <https://www.tcl.tk>`_
@@ -58,7 +64,7 @@ details that are unchanged.
* `Modern Tkinter for Busy Python Developers <https://tkdocs.com/book.html>`_
By Mark Roseman. (ISBN 978-1999149567)
- * `Python GUI programming with Tkinter <https://www.packtpub.com/product/python-gui-programming-with-tkinter/9781788835886>`_
+ * `Python GUI programming with Tkinter <https://www.packtpub.com/en-us/product/python-gui-programming-with-tkinter-9781788835886>`_
By Alan D. Moore. (ISBN 978-1788835886)
* `Programming Python <https://learning-python.com/about-pp4e.html>`_
@@ -103,16 +109,16 @@ Ttk
bindings are provided in a separate module, :mod:`tkinter.ttk`.
Internally, Tk and Ttk use facilities of the underlying operating system,
-i.e., Xlib on Unix/X11, Cocoa on macOS, GDI on Windows.
+that is, Xlib on Unix/X11, Cocoa on macOS, GDI on Windows.
-When your Python application uses a class in Tkinter, e.g., to create a widget,
-the :mod:`tkinter` module first assembles a Tcl/Tk command string. It passes that
+When your Python application uses a class in Tkinter, for example, to create a widget,
+the :mod:`!tkinter` module first assembles a Tcl/Tk command string. It passes that
Tcl command string to an internal :mod:`_tkinter` binary module, which then
calls the Tcl interpreter to evaluate it. The Tcl interpreter will then call into the
Tk and/or Ttk packages, which will in turn make calls to Xlib, Cocoa, or GDI.
-Tkinter Modules
+Tkinter modules
---------------
Support for Tkinter is spread across several modules. Most applications will need the
@@ -124,82 +130,6 @@ the modern themed widget set and API::
from tkinter import ttk
-.. class:: Tk(screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk', useTk=True, sync=False, use=None)
-
- Construct a toplevel Tk widget, which is usually the main window of an
- application, and initialize a Tcl interpreter for this widget. Each
- instance has its own associated Tcl interpreter.
-
- The :class:`Tk` class is typically instantiated using all default values.
- However, the following keyword arguments are currently recognized:
-
- *screenName*
- When given (as a string), sets the :envvar:`DISPLAY` environment
- variable. (X11 only)
- *baseName*
- Name of the profile file. By default, *baseName* is derived from the
- program name (``sys.argv[0]``).
- *className*
- Name of the widget class. Used as a profile file and also as the name
- with which Tcl is invoked (*argv0* in *interp*).
- *useTk*
- If ``True``, initialize the Tk subsystem. The :func:`tkinter.Tcl() <Tcl>`
- function sets this to ``False``.
- *sync*
- If ``True``, execute all X server commands synchronously, so that errors
- are reported immediately. Can be used for debugging. (X11 only)
- *use*
- Specifies the *id* of the window in which to embed the application,
- instead of it being created as an independent toplevel window. *id* must
- be specified in the same way as the value for the -use option for
- toplevel widgets (that is, it has a form like that returned by
- :meth:`winfo_id`).
-
- Note that on some platforms this will only work correctly if *id* refers
- to a Tk frame or toplevel that has its -container option enabled.
-
- :class:`Tk` reads and interprets profile files, named
- :file:`.{className}.tcl` and :file:`.{baseName}.tcl`, into the Tcl
- interpreter and calls :func:`exec` on the contents of
- :file:`.{className}.py` and :file:`.{baseName}.py`. The path for the
- profile files is the :envvar:`HOME` environment variable or, if that
- isn't defined, then :data:`os.curdir`.
-
- .. attribute:: tk
-
- The Tk application object created by instantiating :class:`Tk`. This
- provides access to the Tcl interpreter. Each widget that is attached
- the same instance of :class:`Tk` has the same value for its :attr:`tk`
- attribute.
-
- .. attribute:: master
-
- The widget object that contains this widget. For :class:`Tk`, the
- *master* is :const:`None` because it is the main window. The terms
- *master* and *parent* are similar and sometimes used interchangeably
- as argument names; however, calling :meth:`winfo_parent` returns a
- string of the widget name whereas :attr:`master` returns the object.
- *parent*/*child* reflects the tree-like relationship while
- *master*/*slave* reflects the container structure.
-
- .. attribute:: children
-
- The immediate descendants of this widget as a :class:`dict` with the
- child widget names as the keys and the child instance objects as the
- values.
-
-
-.. function:: Tcl(screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk', useTk=False)
-
- The :func:`Tcl` function is a factory function which creates an object much like
- that created by the :class:`Tk` class, except that it does not initialize the Tk
- subsystem. This is most often useful when driving the Tcl interpreter in an
- environment where one doesn't want to create extraneous toplevel windows, or
- where one cannot (such as Unix/Linux systems without an X server). An object
- created by the :func:`Tcl` object can have a Toplevel window created (and the Tk
- subsystem initialized) by calling its :meth:`loadtk` method.
-
-
The modules that provide Tk support include:
:mod:`tkinter`
@@ -246,7 +176,7 @@ Additional modules:
Python's Integrated Development and Learning Environment (IDLE). Based
on :mod:`tkinter`.
-:mod:`tkinter.constants`
+:mod:`!tkinter.constants`
Symbolic constants that can be used in place of strings when passing
various parameters to Tkinter calls. Automatically imported by the
main :mod:`tkinter` module.
@@ -258,8 +188,10 @@ Additional modules:
:mod:`turtle`
Turtle graphics in a Tk window.
+.. currentmodule:: tkinter
-Tkinter Life Preserver
+
+Tkinter life preserver
----------------------
This section is not designed to be an exhaustive tutorial on either Tk or
@@ -274,7 +206,7 @@ find more detailed documentation on them, including in the official Tcl/Tk
reference manual.
-A Hello World Program
+A Hello World program
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
We'll start by walking through a "Hello World" application in Tkinter. This
@@ -302,19 +234,20 @@ The following line creates a frame widget, which in this case will contain
a label and a button we'll create next. The frame is fit inside the root
window.
-The next line creates a label widget holding a static text string. The
-:meth:`grid` method is used to specify the relative layout (position) of the
-label within its containing frame widget, similar to how tables in HTML work.
+The next line creates a label widget holding a static text string.
+The :meth:`~Grid.grid` method is used to specify the relative layout (position)
+of the label within its containing frame widget, similar to how tables in HTML
+work.
-A button widget is then created, and placed to the right of the label. When
-pressed, it will call the :meth:`destroy` method of the root window.
+A button widget is then created, and placed to the right of the label.
+When pressed, it will call the :meth:`~Misc.destroy` method of the root window.
Finally, the :meth:`mainloop` method puts everything on the display, and
responds to user input until the program terminates.
-Important Tk Concepts
+Important Tk concepts
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Even this simple program illustrates the following key Tk concepts:
@@ -346,7 +279,7 @@ event loop
isn't running the event loop, your user interface won't update.
-Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk
+Understanding how Tkinter wraps Tcl/Tk
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
When your application uses Tkinter's classes and methods, internally Tkinter
@@ -392,7 +325,7 @@ by spaces. Without getting into too many details, notice the following:
* Operations which are implemented as separate *commands* in Tcl (like
``grid`` or ``destroy``) are represented as *methods* on Tkinter widget
objects. As you'll see shortly, at other times Tcl uses what appear to be
- method calls on widget objects, which more closely mirror what would is
+ method calls on widget objects, which more closely mirror what is
used in Tkinter.
@@ -414,9 +347,9 @@ interactive Python shell or with :func:`print`, can help you identify what
you need.
To find out what configuration options are available on any widget, call its
-:meth:`configure` method, which returns a dictionary containing a variety of
-information about each object, including its default and current values. Use
-:meth:`keys` to get just the names of each option.
+:meth:`~Misc.configure` method, which returns a dictionary containing a variety
+of information about each object, including its default and current values.
+Use :meth:`~Misc.keys` to get just the names of each option.
::
@@ -443,18 +376,20 @@ is helpful.
print(set(dir(btn)) - set(dir(frm)))
-Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual
+Navigating the Tcl/Tk reference manual
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-As noted, the official `Tk commands <https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm>`_
-reference manual (man pages) is often the most accurate description of what
-specific operations on widgets do. Even when you know the name of the option
-or method that you need, you may still have a few places to look.
+As noted, the official
+`Tk commands <https://www.tcl-lang.org/man/tcl9.0/TkCmd/index.html>`_ reference
+manual (man pages) is often the most accurate description of what specific
+operations on widgets do.
+Even when you know the name of the option or method that you need, you may
+still have a few places to look.
While all operations in Tkinter are implemented as method calls on widget
objects, you've seen that many Tcl/Tk operations appear as commands that
take a widget pathname as its first parameter, followed by optional
-parameters, e.g.
+parameters, for example
::
@@ -473,22 +408,23 @@ name of a method to call).
In the official Tcl/Tk reference documentation, you'll find most operations
-that look like method calls on the man page for a specific widget (e.g.,
-you'll find the :meth:`invoke` method on the
-`ttk::button <https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_button.htm>`_
+that look like method calls on the man page for a specific widget (for example,
+you'll find the :meth:`~tkinter.ttk.Button.invoke` method on the
+`ttk::button <https://www.tcl-lang.org/man/tcl9.0/TkCmd/ttk_button.html>`_
man page), while functions that take a widget as a parameter often have
-their own man page (e.g.,
-`grid <https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/grid.htm>`_).
+their own man page (for example,
+`grid <https://www.tcl-lang.org/man/tcl9.0/TkCmd/grid.html>`_).
You'll find many common options and methods in the
-`options <https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/options.htm>`_ or
-`ttk::widget <https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_widget.htm>`_ man
+`options <https://www.tcl-lang.org/man/tcl9.0/TkCmd/options.html>`_ or
+`ttk::widget <https://www.tcl-lang.org/man/tcl9.0/TkCmd/ttk_widget.html>`_ man
pages, while others are found in the man page for a specific widget class.
-You'll also find that many Tkinter methods have compound names, e.g.,
-:func:`winfo_x`, :func:`winfo_height`, :func:`winfo_viewable`. You'd find
-documentation for all of these in the
-`winfo <https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/winfo.htm>`_ man page.
+You'll also find that many Tkinter methods have compound names, for example,
+:meth:`~Misc.winfo_x`, :meth:`~Misc.winfo_height`,
+:meth:`~Misc.winfo_viewable`.
+You'd find documentation for all of these in the
+`winfo <https://www.tcl-lang.org/man/tcl9.0/TkCmd/winfo.html>`_ man page.
.. note::
Somewhat confusingly, there are also methods on all Tkinter widgets
@@ -517,14 +453,16 @@ from a thread other than the one that created the :class:`Tk` object, an event
is posted to the interpreter's event queue, and when executed, the result is
returned to the calling Python thread.
-Tcl/Tk applications are normally event-driven, meaning that after initialization,
-the interpreter runs an event loop (i.e. :func:`Tk.mainloop`) and responds to events.
-Because it is single-threaded, event handlers must respond quickly, otherwise they
-will block other events from being processed. To avoid this, any long-running
-computations should not run in an event handler, but are either broken into smaller
-pieces using timers, or run in another thread. This is different from many GUI
-toolkits where the GUI runs in a completely separate thread from all application
-code including event handlers.
+Tcl/Tk applications are normally event-driven, meaning that after
+initialization, the interpreter runs an event loop (that is,
+:meth:`Tk.mainloop <Misc.mainloop>`) and responds to events.
+Because it is single-threaded, event handlers must respond quickly, otherwise
+they will block other events from being processed.
+To avoid this, any long-running computations should not run in an event
+handler, but are either broken into smaller pieces using timers, or run in
+another thread.
+This is different from many GUI toolkits where the GUI runs in a completely
+separate thread from all application code including event handlers.
If the Tcl interpreter is not running the event loop and processing events, any
:mod:`tkinter` calls made from threads other than the one running the Tcl
@@ -532,8 +470,10 @@ interpreter will fail.
A number of special cases exist:
-* Tcl/Tk libraries can be built so they are not thread-aware. In this case,
- :mod:`tkinter` calls the library from the originating Python thread, even
+* Tcl/Tk libraries built without thread support are now rare: the bundled
+ Tcl/Tk 8.6 is built with thread support, so this case only arises with some
+ older non-threaded builds. When the library is not thread-aware,
+ :mod:`!tkinter` calls the library from the originating Python thread, even
if this is different than the thread that created the Tcl interpreter. A global
lock ensures only one call occurs at a time.
@@ -552,13 +492,13 @@ A number of special cases exist:
called from the thread that created the Tcl interpreter.
-Handy Reference
+Handy reference
---------------
.. _tkinter-setting-options:
-Setting Options
+Setting options
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Options control things like the color and border width of a widget. Options can
@@ -580,6 +520,17 @@ Use the config() method to update multiple attrs subsequent to object creation
fred.config(fg="red", bg="blue")
+.. note::
+
+ The ``fg`` and ``bg`` options used here,
+ and other options that control a widget's appearance,
+ belong to the classic :mod:`!tkinter` widgets.
+ The themed :mod:`tkinter.ttk` widgets recommended in the introduction
+ do not accept them;
+ style a themed widget through the :class:`ttk.Style <tkinter.ttk.Style>`
+ class instead.
+ The three ways of setting an option shown above apply to both widget sets.
+
For a complete explanation of a given option and its behavior, see the Tk man
pages for the widget in question.
@@ -594,17 +545,14 @@ document. Some options don't apply to some kinds of widgets. Whether a given
widget responds to a particular option depends on the class of the widget;
buttons have a ``command`` option, labels do not.
-The options supported by a given widget are listed in that widget's man page, or
-can be queried at runtime by calling the :meth:`config` method without
-arguments, or by calling the :meth:`keys` method on that widget. The return
-value of these calls is a dictionary whose key is the name of the option as a
-string (for example, ``'relief'``) and whose values are 5-tuples.
+The options supported by a given widget are listed in that widget's man page,
+or can be queried at runtime by calling the :meth:`~Misc.config` method without
+arguments, or by calling the :meth:`~Misc.keys` method on that widget.
+The return value of these calls is a dictionary whose key is the name of the
+option as a string (for example, ``'relief'``) and whose values are 5-tuples.
-Some options, like ``bg`` are synonyms for common options with long names
-(``bg`` is shorthand for "background"). Passing the ``config()`` method the name
-of a shorthand option will return a 2-tuple, not 5-tuple. The 2-tuple passed
-back will contain the name of the synonym and the "real" option (such as
-``('bg', 'background')``).
+Some options, like ``bg``, are synonyms for common options with long names
+(``bg`` is shorthand for "background").
+-------+---------------------------------+--------------+
| Index | Meaning | Example |
@@ -630,174 +578,206 @@ Of course, the dictionary printed will include all the options available and
their values. This is meant only as an example.
-The Packer
-^^^^^^^^^^
+.. _pack-the-packer:
+.. _tkinter-geometry-management:
+.. _the-packer:
+.. _packer-options:
-.. index:: single: packing (widgets)
+Geometry management
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-The packer is one of Tk's geometry-management mechanisms. Geometry managers
-are used to specify the relative positioning of widgets within their container -
-their mutual *master*. In contrast to the more cumbersome *placer* (which is
-used less commonly, and we do not cover here), the packer takes qualitative
-relationship specification - *above*, *to the left of*, *filling*, etc - and
-works everything out to determine the exact placement coordinates for you.
+.. index::
+ single: geometry management (widgets)
+ single: packing (widgets)
+
+Creating a widget does not display it.
+A widget appears only after it has been handed to a *geometry manager*,
+which works out its size and position inside its container
+and keeps the layout up to date as the container is resized or its content changes.
+Forgetting to call a geometry manager is a common early mistake:
+the widget is created, but nothing shows up.
+
+Tk provides three geometry managers.
+Each is inherited by every widget, so any widget can be managed by any of them
+(but see the warning below about the incompatibility of grid and pack).
+The choice depends on the kind of layout you want.
+
+:meth:`grid <Grid.grid_configure>`
+ Arranges widgets in a two-dimensional table of rows and columns.
+ It is the most flexible manager and the one to reach for by default:
+ layouts that would otherwise need several nested frames can often be
+ expressed as a single grid,
+ and rows and columns can be told how to absorb extra space.
-The size of any *master* widget is determined by the size of the "slave widgets"
-inside. The packer is used to control where slave widgets appear inside the
-master into which they are packed. You can pack widgets into frames, and frames
-into other frames, in order to achieve the kind of layout you desire.
-Additionally, the arrangement is dynamically adjusted to accommodate incremental
-changes to the configuration, once it is packed.
+ ::
-Note that widgets do not appear until they have had their geometry specified
-with a geometry manager. It's a common early mistake to leave out the geometry
-specification, and then be surprised when the widget is created but nothing
-appears. A widget will appear only after it has had, for example, the packer's
-:meth:`pack` method applied to it.
+ ttk.Label(frm, text="Name:").grid(column=0, row=0, sticky="w")
+ ttk.Entry(frm).grid(column=1, row=0)
+ ttk.Button(frm, text="OK").grid(column=1, row=1, sticky="e")
-The pack() method can be called with keyword-option/value pairs that control
-where the widget is to appear within its container, and how it is to behave when
-the main application window is resized. Here are some examples::
+:meth:`pack <Pack.pack_configure>`
+ Stacks widgets against one side of their container
+ -- ``"top"`` (the default), ``"bottom"``, ``"left"`` or ``"right"`` --
+ and can make them fill or expand into the space that is left.
+ It is convenient for simple arrangements,
+ such as a single row or column of widgets
+ or a content area framed by a toolbar and a status bar.
- fred.pack() # defaults to side = "top"
- fred.pack(side="left")
- fred.pack(expand=1)
+ ::
+ toolbar.pack(side="top", fill="x")
+ status.pack(side="bottom", fill="x")
+ body.pack(side="left", expand=True, fill="both")
-Packer Options
-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+:meth:`place <Place.place_configure>`
+ Positions each widget at an explicit spot,
+ given either as absolute screen distances or as a fraction of the container's size.
+ It offers the most control but the least automatic behavior, and is used the least;
+ it suits special cases such as overlapping widgets or precise custom layouts.
-For more extensive information on the packer and the options that it can take,
-see the man pages and page 183 of John Ousterhout's book.
+ ::
-anchor
- Anchor type. Denotes where the packer is to place each slave in its parcel.
+ background.place(x=0, y=0, relwidth=1.0, relheight=1.0)
+ badge.place(relx=1.0, rely=0.0, anchor="ne")
-expand
- Boolean, ``0`` or ``1``.
+Layouts are built up by nesting:
+grid or pack widgets, including frames, inside a frame or toplevel.
+Toplevels are managed by the OS window manager.
+Classic and themed :mod:`tkinter.ttk` widgets can be managed interchangeably.
-fill
- Legal values: ``'x'``, ``'y'``, ``'both'``, ``'none'``.
+.. warning::
-ipadx and ipady
- A distance - designating internal padding on each side of the slave widget.
+ Do not apply :meth:`!pack` and :meth:`!grid` to two widgets that share the same container.
+ The two managers negotiate sizes in incompatible ways,
+ and the application can hang as they repeatedly resize the container against each other.
+ To combine them, keep each manager's widgets in a separate frame.
-padx and pady
- A distance - designating external padding on each side of the slave widget.
+The full set of options accepted by each manager, with their values and defaults,
+is documented under :meth:`Grid.grid_configure`, :meth:`Pack.pack_configure`
+and :meth:`Place.place_configure`;
+see also the :manpage:`grid(3tk)`, :manpage:`pack(3tk)` and :manpage:`place(3tk)`
+man pages.
-side
- Legal values are: ``'left'``, ``'right'``, ``'top'``, ``'bottom'``.
+.. _coupling-widget-variables:
-Coupling Widget Variables
+Coupling widget variables
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-The current-value setting of some widgets (like text entry widgets) can be
-connected directly to application variables by using special options. These
-options are ``variable``, ``textvariable``, ``onvalue``, ``offvalue``, and
-``value``. This connection works both ways: if the variable changes for any
-reason, the widget it's connected to will be updated to reflect the new value.
-
-Unfortunately, in the current implementation of :mod:`tkinter` it is not
-possible to hand over an arbitrary Python variable to a widget through a
-``variable`` or ``textvariable`` option. The only kinds of variables for which
-this works are variables that are subclassed from a class called Variable,
-defined in :mod:`tkinter`.
-
-There are many useful subclasses of Variable already defined:
-:class:`StringVar`, :class:`IntVar`, :class:`DoubleVar`, and
-:class:`BooleanVar`. To read the current value of such a variable, call the
-:meth:`get` method on it, and to change its value you call the :meth:`!set`
-method. If you follow this protocol, the widget will always track the value of
-the variable, with no further intervention on your part.
+Some widgets can tie their current value directly to a program variable,
+so that the two stay in sync.
+Options such as ``variable``, ``textvariable``, ``value``, ``onvalue`` and
+``offvalue`` set up this connection:
+when the user changes the widget the variable is updated,
+and when the variable is set the widget redraws to match.
+
+A widget can be linked only to a :class:`Variable` object,
+not to an ordinary Python variable.
+This is not a limitation of :mod:`!tkinter`
+but a consequence of how the two languages differ:
+the link relies on Tcl being notified every time the value changes,
+and Python offers no way to react when a plain variable is reassigned.
+A :class:`Variable` sidesteps this by keeping its value inside the Tcl interpreter
+and exposing it through explicit :meth:`~Variable.get` and :meth:`~Variable.set` methods.
+
+Ready-made subclasses cover the common types:
+:class:`StringVar`, :class:`IntVar`, :class:`DoubleVar` and :class:`BooleanVar`.
+Pass one as a widget's ``textvariable`` (or ``variable``) option,
+then read and update it with :meth:`~Variable.get` and :meth:`~Variable.set`;
+the widget tracks it with no further work on your part.
+
+Keep a reference to the variable for as long as the widget uses it
+-- for example by storing it as an attribute.
+A :class:`Variable` that is garbage collected removes its underlying Tcl variable,
+breaking the connection to the widget (see :class:`Variable`).
For example::
import tkinter as tk
+ from tkinter import ttk
- class App(tk.Frame):
- def __init__(self, master):
- super().__init__(master)
- self.pack()
+ root = tk.Tk()
- self.entrythingy = tk.Entry()
- self.entrythingy.pack()
+ # Create the application variable and give it an initial value.
+ contents = tk.StringVar(value="this is a variable")
- # Create the application variable.
- self.contents = tk.StringVar()
- # Set it to some value.
- self.contents.set("this is a variable")
- # Tell the entry widget to watch this variable.
- self.entrythingy["textvariable"] = self.contents
+ # Tell the entry widget to track the variable.
+ entry = ttk.Entry(root, textvariable=contents)
+ entry.pack()
- # Define a callback for when the user hits return.
- # It prints the current value of the variable.
- self.entrythingy.bind('<Key-Return>',
- self.print_contents)
+ # Print the current value whenever the user presses Return.
+ def print_contents(event):
+ print("The current entry content is:", contents.get())
- def print_contents(self, event):
- print("Hi. The current entry content is:",
- self.contents.get())
+ entry.bind("<Return>", print_contents)
- root = tk.Tk()
- myapp = App(root)
- myapp.mainloop()
+ # Setting the variable from the program updates the entry through the
+ # same link.
+ def clear():
+ contents.set("")
-The Window Manager
+ ttk.Button(root, text="Clear", command=clear).pack()
+
+ root.mainloop()
+
+.. _tkinter-window-manager:
+
+The window manager
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
.. index:: single: window manager (widgets)
-In Tk, there is a utility command, ``wm``, for interacting with the window
-manager. Options to the ``wm`` command allow you to control things like titles,
-placement, icon bitmaps, and the like. In :mod:`tkinter`, these commands have
-been implemented as methods on the :class:`Wm` class. Toplevel widgets are
-subclassed from the :class:`Wm` class, and so can call the :class:`Wm` methods
-directly.
+The *window manager* is the part of the desktop responsible for the title bar,
+border and controls drawn around each top-level window,
+and for such things as its title, position, size and icon.
+Tk gives access to these through the :class:`Wm` mixin,
+which is inherited by the :class:`Tk` root window and by every :class:`Toplevel`.
+You therefore call the window-manager methods directly on a top-level window.
+Each has a short name and an equivalent ``wm_``-prefixed name,
+for example :meth:`~Wm.title` and :meth:`~Wm.wm_title`.
-To get at the toplevel window that contains a given widget, you can often just
-refer to the widget's master. Of course if the widget has been packed inside of
-a frame, the master won't represent a toplevel window. To get at the toplevel
-window that contains an arbitrary widget, you can call the :meth:`_root` method.
-This method begins with an underscore to denote the fact that this function is
-part of the implementation, and not an interface to Tk functionality.
+These methods act on the top-level window
+whether its content is built from the classic widgets or the themed :mod:`tkinter.ttk` widgets.
+To reach the top-level window containing an arbitrary widget,
+call its :meth:`~Misc.winfo_toplevel` method.
-Here are some examples of typical usage::
+For example::
import tkinter as tk
+ from tkinter import ttk
+
+ root = tk.Tk()
+ root.title("My Application")
+ root.geometry("640x480")
+ root.minsize(320, 240)
- class App(tk.Frame):
- def __init__(self, master=None):
- super().__init__(master)
- self.pack()
+ ttk.Label(root, text="Hello").pack(padx=20, pady=20)
- # create the application
- myapp = App()
+ root.mainloop()
- #
- # here are method calls to the window manager class
- #
- myapp.master.title("My Do-Nothing Application")
- myapp.master.maxsize(1000, 400)
+See :class:`Wm` for the full set of window-manager methods.
- # start the program
- myapp.mainloop()
+.. _Tk-option-data-types:
-Tk Option Data Types
+Tk option data types
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
.. index:: single: Tk Option Data Types
+Many widget options documented in the reference
+accept values of a small number of common types, described here.
+
anchor
Legal values are points of the compass: ``"n"``, ``"ne"``, ``"e"``, ``"se"``,
``"s"``, ``"sw"``, ``"w"``, ``"nw"``, and also ``"center"``.
bitmap
- There are eight built-in, named bitmaps: ``'error'``, ``'gray25'``,
- ``'gray50'``, ``'hourglass'``, ``'info'``, ``'questhead'``, ``'question'``,
- ``'warning'``. To specify an X bitmap filename, give the full path to the file,
- preceded with an ``@``, as in ``"@/usr/contrib/bitmap/gumby.bit"``.
+ There are ten built-in, named bitmaps: ``'error'``, ``'gray12'``,
+ ``'gray25'``, ``'gray50'``, ``'gray75'``, ``'hourglass'``, ``'info'``,
+ ``'questhead'``, ``'question'``, ``'warning'``. To specify an X bitmap
+ filename, give the full path to the file, preceded with an ``@``, as in
+ ``"@/usr/contrib/bitmap/gumby.bit"``.
boolean
You can pass integers 0 or 1 or the strings ``"yes"`` or ``"no"``.
@@ -813,13 +793,20 @@ color
Colors can be given as the names of X colors in the rgb.txt file, or as strings
representing RGB values in 4 bit: ``"#RGB"``, 8 bit: ``"#RRGGBB"``, 12 bit:
``"#RRRGGGBBB"``, or 16 bit: ``"#RRRRGGGGBBBB"`` ranges, where R,G,B here
- represent any legal hex digit. See page 160 of Ousterhout's book for details.
+ represent any legal hex digit. See the :manpage:`colors(3tk)` man page for
+ the list of named colors.
cursor
- The standard X cursor names from :file:`cursorfont.h` can be used, without the
- ``XC_`` prefix. For example to get a hand cursor (:const:`XC_hand2`), use the
- string ``"hand2"``. You can also specify a bitmap and mask file of your own.
- See page 179 of Ousterhout's book.
+ The name of the mouse cursor to display while the pointer is over the widget.
+ Tk provides a portable set of cursor names available on all platforms
+ (for example ``"arrow"``, ``"watch"``, ``"cross"``, or ``"hand2"``);
+ the standard X cursor names from :file:`cursorfont.h` may also be used,
+ without the ``XC_`` prefix (so ``XC_hand2`` becomes ``"hand2"``).
+ The full list of names, including the platform-specific ones,
+ is given in the :manpage:`cursors(3tk)` manual page.
+ You can also specify a bitmap and mask file of your own.
+ On Windows a cursor file (:file:`.cur` or :file:`.ani`) may be used directly,
+ giving its path preceded with an ``@``, as in ``"@C:/cursors/bart.ani"``.
distance
Screen distances can be specified in either pixels or absolute distances.
@@ -829,9 +816,11 @@ distance
as ``"3.5i"``.
font
- Tk uses a list font name format, such as ``{courier 10 bold}``. Font sizes with
- positive numbers are measured in points; sizes with negative numbers are
- measured in pixels.
+ Tk uses a font description such as ``{courier 10 bold}``; in
+ :mod:`!tkinter` this is most naturally passed as a tuple of
+ ``(family, size, *styles)`` (or as the equivalent string
+ ``"Courier 10 bold"``). Font sizes with positive numbers are measured in
+ points; sizes with negative numbers are measured in pixels.
geometry
This is a string of the form ``widthxheight``, where width and height are
@@ -839,8 +828,7 @@ geometry
For example: ``fred["geometry"] = "200x100"``.
justify
- Legal values are the strings: ``"left"``, ``"center"``, ``"right"``, and
- ``"fill"``.
+ Legal values are the strings: ``"left"``, ``"center"``, and ``"right"``.
region
This is a string with four space-delimited elements, each of which is a legal
@@ -849,7 +837,8 @@ region
relief
Determines what the border style of a widget will be. Legal values are:
- ``"raised"``, ``"sunken"``, ``"flat"``, ``"groove"``, and ``"ridge"``.
+ ``"raised"``, ``"sunken"``, ``"flat"``, ``"groove"``, ``"ridge"``, and
+ ``"solid"``.
scrollcommand
This is almost always the :meth:`!set` method of some scrollbar widget, but can
@@ -860,7 +849,7 @@ wrap
.. _Bindings-and-Events:
-Bindings and Events
+Bindings and events
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
.. index::
@@ -876,9 +865,11 @@ of the bind method is::
where:
sequence
- is a string that denotes the target kind of event. (See the
- :manpage:`bind(3tk)` man page, and page 201 of John Ousterhout's book,
- :title-reference:`Tcl and the Tk Toolkit (2nd edition)`, for details).
+ is a string that denotes the target kind of event. Physical events use the
+ ``<modifier-modifier-type-detail>`` form (for example ``"<Enter>"`` or
+ ``"<Control-Button-1>"``); application-defined virtual events use double angle
+ brackets, as in ``"<<Paste>>"``. (See the
+ :manpage:`bind(3tk)` man page for details.)
func
is a Python function, taking one argument, to be invoked when the event occurs.
@@ -922,9 +913,27 @@ they are denoted in Tk, which can be useful when referring to the Tk man pages.
+----+---------------------+----+---------------------+
| %y | y | %Y | y_root |
+----+---------------------+----+---------------------+
+| %# | serial | %b | num |
++----+---------------------+----+---------------------+
+| %d | detail | %D | delta |
++----+---------------------+----+---------------------+
+
+The ``add`` parameter above only affects the bindings you make yourself.
+Every widget also inherits *class bindings*
+that implement its standard behavior --
+for example a :class:`Text` widget binds :kbd:`Control-t`
+to transpose two characters.
+These are described in the bindings section of the widget's Tk man page
+(such as :manpage:`text(3tk)` or :manpage:`entry(3tk)`).
+
+Class bindings are processed separately from your own,
+so binding an event yourself does not replace the default; both run.
+To suppress an unwanted default binding,
+bind the event on the widget
+and return the string ``"break"`` from your callback.
-The index Parameter
+The index parameter
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
A number of widgets require "index" parameters to be passed. These are used to
@@ -932,9 +941,32 @@ point at a specific place in a Text widget, or to particular characters in an
Entry widget, or to particular menu items in a Menu widget.
Entry widget indexes (index, view index, etc.)
- Entry widgets have options that refer to character positions in the text being
- displayed. You can use these :mod:`tkinter` functions to access these special
- points in text widgets:
+ Entry widgets have methods and options that refer to character positions
+ in the text being displayed.
+ Anytime an index is needed, you may pass in:
+
+ * an integer which refers to the numeric position of a character,
+ counted from the beginning of the text, starting with 0;
+
+ * the string ``"anchor"``,
+ which refers to the anchor point of the selection,
+ set with the widget's selection methods;
+
+ * the string ``"end"``,
+ which refers to the position just after the last character;
+
+ * the string ``"insert"``,
+ which refers to the character just after the insertion cursor;
+
+ * the strings ``"sel.first"`` and ``"sel.last"``,
+ which refer to the first character in the selection
+ and the position just after the last
+ (it is an error to use these if there is no selection);
+
+ * a string consisting of ``@`` followed by an integer, as in ``"@6"``,
+ where the integer is interpreted as an x pixel coordinate
+ in the entry's coordinate system,
+ selecting the character spanning that point.
Text widget indexes
The index notation for Text widgets is very rich and is best described in the Tk
@@ -952,8 +984,9 @@ Menu indexes (menu.invoke(), menu.entryconfig(), etc.)
* the string ``"last"`` which refers to the last menu item;
- * An integer preceded by ``@``, as in ``@6``, where the integer is interpreted
- as a y pixel coordinate in the menu's coordinate system;
+ * a string consisting of ``@`` followed by an integer, as in ``"@6"``, where
+ the integer is interpreted as a y pixel coordinate in the menu's coordinate
+ system;
* the string ``"none"``, which indicates no menu entry at all, most often used
with menu.activate() to deactivate all entries, and finally,
@@ -983,13 +1016,13 @@ option (other options are available as well).
Added the :class:`!PhotoImage` method :meth:`!copy_replace` to copy a region
from one image to other image, possibly with pixel zooming and/or
subsampling.
- Add *from_coords* parameter to :class:`!PhotoImage` methods :meth:`!copy()`,
- :meth:`!zoom()` and :meth:`!subsample()`.
+ Add *from_coords* parameter to :class:`!PhotoImage` methods :meth:`!copy`,
+ :meth:`!zoom` and :meth:`!subsample`.
Add *zoom* and *subsample* parameters to :class:`!PhotoImage` method
- :meth:`!copy()`.
+ :meth:`!copy`.
The image object can then be used wherever an ``image`` option is supported by
-some widget (e.g. labels, buttons, menus). In these cases, Tk will not keep a
+some widget (for example, labels, buttons, menus). In these cases, Tk will not keep a
reference to the image. When the last Python reference to the image object is
deleted, the image data is deleted as well, and Tk will display an empty box
wherever the image was used.
@@ -999,51 +1032,5514 @@ wherever the image was used.
The `Pillow <https://python-pillow.org/>`_ package adds support for
formats such as BMP, JPEG, TIFF, and WebP, among others.
-.. _tkinter-file-handlers:
-File Handlers
--------------
+Reference
+---------
-Tk allows you to register and unregister a callback function which will be
-called from the Tk mainloop when I/O is possible on a file descriptor.
-Only one handler may be registered per file descriptor. Example code::
+.. currentmodule:: tkinter
- import tkinter
- widget = tkinter.Tk()
- mask = tkinter.READABLE | tkinter.WRITABLE
- widget.tk.createfilehandler(file, mask, callback)
- ...
- widget.tk.deletefilehandler(file)
+This section documents the classes, methods, functions and constants of the
+:mod:`!tkinter` module.
+Most of them wrap Tcl/Tk commands; consult the official Tcl/Tk manual pages for
+the full list of widget options and further details.
-This feature is not available on Windows.
+.. exception:: TclError
-Since you don't know how many bytes are available for reading, you may not
-want to use the :class:`~io.BufferedIOBase` or :class:`~io.TextIOBase`
-:meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.read` or :meth:`~io.IOBase.readline` methods,
-since these will insist on reading a predefined number of bytes.
-For sockets, the :meth:`~socket.socket.recv` or
-:meth:`~socket.socket.recvfrom` methods will work fine; for other files,
-use raw reads or ``os.read(file.fileno(), maxbytecount)``.
+ The exception raised when a call into the Tcl interpreter fails, for example
+ when a widget is given an unknown option or an invalid value.
+Base and mixin classes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-.. method:: Widget.tk.createfilehandler(file, mask, func)
+.. class:: Misc()
- Registers the file handler callback function *func*. The *file* argument
- may either be an object with a :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method (such as
- a file or socket object), or an integer file descriptor. The *mask*
- argument is an ORed combination of any of the three constants below.
- The callback is called as follows::
+ The :class:`!Misc` class is a mix-in inherited by :class:`Tk` and, through
+ :class:`BaseWidget`, by every widget.
+ It provides the large set of methods common to all Tk objects: querying
+ window information, managing event bindings and the event loop, controlling
+ the keyboard focus and pointer grabs, accessing the selection, clipboard and
+ option database, and assorted utility and introspection services.
+ Because they are inherited, these methods are available on every widget and
+ on the :class:`Tk` application object, and are documented here once rather
+ than repeated for each widget.
- callback(file, mask)
+ .. method:: cget(key)
+ Return the current value of the configuration option named *key* for this
+ widget, as a string.
+ The expression ``widget[key]`` is equivalent and may be used instead.
-.. method:: Widget.tk.deletefilehandler(file)
+ .. method:: config(cnf=None, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
- Unregisters a file handler.
+ .. method:: configure(cnf=None, **kw)
+ Query or modify the configuration options of the widget.
+ With no arguments, return a dictionary mapping every available option
+ name to a tuple describing it (its name, X resource name, X resource
+ class, default value and current value).
+ If a single option name is given as a string, return the tuple for just
+ that option.
+ If one or more keyword arguments are given, or a dictionary is passed as
+ *cnf*, set each named option to the corresponding value; the expression
+ ``widget[key] = value`` sets a single option in the same way.
-.. data:: READABLE
- WRITABLE
- EXCEPTION
+ :meth:`config` is an alias of :meth:`!configure`.
- Constants used in the *mask* arguments.
+ .. method:: keys()
+
+ Return a list of the names of all configuration options of this widget.
+
+ .. method:: getboolean(s)
+
+ Interpret the string *s* as a Tcl boolean and return the corresponding
+ :class:`bool`.
+ Tcl accepts values such as ``'1'``, ``'0'``, ``'yes'``, ``'no'``,
+ ``'true'`` and ``'false'``.
+ Raise :exc:`ValueError` if *s* is not a valid boolean.
+
+ .. method:: getdouble(s)
+
+ Interpret the string *s* as a Tcl floating-point number and return it as
+ a :class:`float`.
+ Raise :exc:`ValueError` if *s* is not a valid number.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.5
+
+
+ .. method:: getint(s)
+
+ Interpret the string *s* as a Tcl integer and return it as an
+ :class:`int`.
+ Raise :exc:`ValueError` if *s* is not a valid integer.
+
+ .. method:: getvar(name)
+
+ Return the value of the Tcl global variable named *name*.
+
+ .. method:: setvar(name, value)
+
+ Set the Tcl global variable named *name* to *value*.
+
+ The :meth:`!getvar` and :meth:`!setvar` methods give direct access to Tcl
+ variables.
+ In most code you will instead use a :class:`Variable` subclass such as
+ :class:`StringVar` or :class:`IntVar`, which wraps a Tcl variable and
+ converts its value to and from a Python type.
+
+ .. method:: register(func, subst=None, needcleanup=1)
+
+ Register the Python callable *func* as a Tcl command and return the name
+ of the new command as a string.
+ Whenever Tcl invokes that command, *func* is called; if *subst* is given,
+ it is applied to the command's arguments first.
+ This is the mechanism used internally to turn Python callbacks into the
+ command names passed to Tk options such as *command*.
+ Unless *needcleanup* is false, the command is deleted automatically when
+ the widget is destroyed.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ The arguments passed to *func* are no longer converted to strings.
+
+ .. method:: deletecommand(name)
+
+ Delete the Tcl command named *name*, such as one previously returned by
+ :meth:`register`.
+
+ .. method:: nametowidget(name)
+
+ Return the widget instance corresponding to the Tk pathname *name*.
+
+ .. method:: send(interp, cmd, *args)
+
+ Send the Tcl command *cmd*, with the given *args*, to the Tcl interpreter
+ registered under the name *interp*, and return its result.
+ This is not available on all platforms.
+
+ .. method:: destroy()
+
+ Destroy this widget and all of its descendant widgets, and delete the Tcl
+ commands associated with them.
+
+ .. method:: lift(aboveThis=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: tkraise(aboveThis=None)
+
+ Raise this widget in the stacking order so that it is drawn on top of its
+ siblings.
+ If *aboveThis* is given, the widget is moved to be just above it in the
+ stacking order instead.
+
+ :meth:`lift` is an alias of :meth:`!tkraise`.
+
+ .. method:: lower(belowThis=None)
+
+ Lower this widget in the stacking order so that it is drawn beneath its
+ siblings.
+ If *belowThis* is given, the widget is moved to be just below it in the
+ stacking order instead.
+
+ :meth:`tkraise`/:meth:`lift` and :meth:`lower` are overridden by the
+ :class:`Canvas` widget,
+ where they restack canvas items instead.
+
+ .. method:: image_names()
+
+ Return the names of all images that currently exist in the Tcl
+ interpreter.
+
+ This is overridden by the :class:`Text` widget,
+ where :meth:`!image_names` returns the names of its embedded images
+ instead.
+
+ .. method:: image_types()
+
+ Return the available image types, such as ``'photo'`` and ``'bitmap'``.
+
+ .. method:: anchor(anchor=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_anchor(anchor=None)
+
+ Set the anchor that controls where the grid is placed inside this
+ container when the container is larger than the grid and no row or column
+ has a non-zero weight.
+ *anchor* is one of the usual anchor strings, such as ``'nw'`` (the
+ default) or ``'center'``.
+ Called with no argument, this method has no effect.
+
+ :meth:`anchor` is an alias of :meth:`!grid_anchor`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+ .. method:: bbox(column=None, row=None, col2=None, row2=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_bbox(column=None, row=None, col2=None, row2=None)
+
+ Return the bounding box, in pixels, of a region of the grid laid out in
+ this container, as a 4-tuple ``(xoffset, yoffset, width, height)``.
+ With no arguments the bounding box of the whole grid is returned.
+ If *column* and *row* are given, the box spans from the cell at row and
+ column 0 to that cell; if *col2* and *row2* are also given, it spans from
+ the cell (*column*, *row*) to the cell (*col2*, *row2*).
+
+ :meth:`bbox` is an alias of :meth:`!grid_bbox`,
+ except on :class:`Canvas`, :class:`Listbox`, :class:`Spinbox`,
+ :class:`Text`, :class:`ttk.Entry <tkinter.ttk.Entry>` and
+ :class:`ttk.Treeview <tkinter.ttk.Treeview>`,
+ which provide their own :meth:`!bbox` method.
+
+ .. method:: columnconfigure(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_columnconfigure(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Query or set the properties of the column (or columns) *index* of the
+ grid managed by this container.
+ *index* may be a column number; when setting options it may also be a
+ list of column numbers, the string ``'all'`` to affect every column, or
+ a child widget whose occupied columns are affected.
+ The supported options are:
+
+ *minsize*
+ The column's minimum size, in pixels.
+
+ *weight*
+ An integer setting how much of any extra space is apportioned to the
+ column.
+ A weight of ``0`` keeps the column at its requested size, and a column
+ of weight two grows twice as fast as a column of weight one.
+
+ *uniform*
+ The name of a uniform group.
+ Columns sharing a non-empty group name are kept in sizes that are
+ strictly proportional to their weights.
+
+ *pad*
+ Extra space, in pixels, added to the largest widget in the column when
+ computing the column's size.
+
+ With a single option name, return that option's value; with no options,
+ return a dictionary of all of them.
+
+ :meth:`columnconfigure` is an alias of :meth:`!grid_columnconfigure`.
+
+ .. method:: rowconfigure(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_rowconfigure(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Query or set the properties of the row (or rows) *index* of the grid
+ managed by this container.
+ *index* is interpreted as for :meth:`grid_columnconfigure`, and the
+ supported options (*minsize*, *weight*, *uniform* and *pad*) are the
+ same, applied to a row instead of a column.
+
+ :meth:`rowconfigure` is an alias of :meth:`!grid_rowconfigure`.
+
+ .. method:: grid_location(x, y)
+
+ Return the ``(column, row)`` of the grid cell that contains the pixel at
+ position (*x*, *y*), given in pixels relative to this container.
+ For locations above or to the left of the grid, ``-1`` is returned for
+ the corresponding coordinate.
+
+ .. method:: grid_propagate()
+ grid_propagate(flag)
+
+ Enable or disable geometry propagation for this container when it manages
+ its children with the grid geometry manager.
+ When *flag* is true, the container resizes itself to fit the requested
+ sizes of its children; when it is false, its size is left under your
+ control.
+ Called with no argument, return the current setting as a boolean.
+
+ .. method:: size()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_size()
+
+ Return the size of the grid managed by this container as a
+ ``(columns, rows)`` tuple.
+
+ :meth:`size` is an alias of :meth:`!grid_size`,
+ except on the :class:`Listbox` widget,
+ which provides its own :meth:`!size` method.
+
+ .. method:: grid_slaves(row=None, column=None)
+
+ Return a list of the child widgets managed in this container's grid, most
+ recently managed first.
+ If *row* or *column* is given, only the children in that row or column
+ are returned.
+
+ .. method:: propagate()
+ propagate(flag)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: pack_propagate()
+ pack_propagate(flag)
+
+ Enable or disable geometry propagation for this container when it manages
+ its children with the pack geometry manager.
+ When *flag* is true, the container resizes itself to fit the requested
+ sizes of its children; when it is false, its size is left under your
+ control.
+ Called with no argument, return the current setting as a boolean.
+
+ :meth:`propagate` is an alias of :meth:`!pack_propagate`.
+
+ .. method:: slaves()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: pack_slaves()
+
+ Return a list of the child widgets managed by this container with the
+ pack geometry manager, in packing order.
+
+ :meth:`slaves` is an alias of :meth:`!pack_slaves`.
+
+ .. method:: place_slaves()
+
+ Return a list of the child widgets managed by this container with the
+ place geometry manager.
+
+ The methods with the ``bind`` and ``unbind`` prefixes associate event
+ patterns with callbacks and remove those associations.
+
+ .. method:: bind(sequence=None, func=None, add=None)
+
+ Bind the event pattern *sequence* on this widget to the callable *func*.
+
+ *sequence* is an event pattern, such as ``'<Button-1>'`` (a mouse click)
+ or ``'<KeyPress-a>'``, optionally a concatenation of several such
+ patterns that must occur shortly after one another.
+ When the event occurs, *func* is called with an :class:`Event` instance
+ describing it as its only argument; if *func* returns the string
+ ``'break'``, no further bindings for the event are invoked.
+
+ If *add* is true, *func* is added to any functions already bound to
+ *sequence*; otherwise it replaces them.
+ The binding applies only to this widget.
+
+ :meth:`!bind` returns a string identifier (a *funcid*) that can later be
+ passed to :meth:`unbind` to remove the binding without leaking the
+ associated Tcl command.
+
+ If *func* is omitted, return the binding currently associated with
+ *sequence*; if *sequence* is also omitted, return a list of all the
+ sequences for which bindings exist on this widget.
+
+ .. method:: bind_class(className, sequence=None, func=None, add=None)
+
+ Like :meth:`bind`, but bind *func* to the binding tag *className* rather
+ than to a single widget, so that the binding applies to every widget
+ having that tag.
+ *className* is usually the name of a widget class, such as ``'Button'``,
+ in which case the binding affects all widgets of that class.
+ The set of binding tags for a widget can be inspected and changed with
+ :meth:`bindtags`.
+
+ The remaining arguments and the return value are as for :meth:`bind`.
+
+ .. method:: bind_all(sequence=None, func=None, add=None)
+
+ Like :meth:`bind`, but bind *func* to the special binding tag ``'all'``,
+ so that the binding applies to every widget in the application.
+
+ The remaining arguments and the return value are as for :meth:`bind`.
+
+ .. method:: unbind(sequence, funcid=None)
+
+ Remove bindings for the event pattern *sequence* on this widget.
+
+ If *funcid* is given, only the function identified by it (a value
+ returned from a previous call to :meth:`bind`) is removed, and its
+ associated Tcl command is deleted.
+ Otherwise all bindings for *sequence* are destroyed, leaving it unbound.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ If *funcid* is given, only that callback is unbound; other callbacks
+ bound to *sequence* are kept.
+
+
+ .. method:: unbind_class(className, sequence)
+
+ Remove all bindings for the event pattern *sequence* from the binding tag
+ *className*.
+ See :meth:`bind_class`.
+
+ .. method:: unbind_all(sequence)
+
+ Remove all bindings for the event pattern *sequence* from the special
+ binding tag ``'all'``.
+ See :meth:`bind_all`.
+
+ .. method:: bindtags(tagList=None)
+
+ If *tagList* is omitted, return a tuple of the binding tags associated
+ with this widget.
+ When an event occurs in a widget, it is applied to each of the widget's
+ binding tags in order, and for each tag the most specific matching
+ binding is executed.
+ By default a widget has four binding tags: its own pathname, its widget
+ class, the pathname of its nearest toplevel ancestor, and ``'all'``, in
+ that order.
+
+ If *tagList* is given, it must be a sequence of strings; the widget's
+ binding tags are set to its elements, which determines the order in which
+ bindings are evaluated.
+
+ The methods with the ``event_`` prefix define virtual events and generate
+ events programmatically.
+
+ .. method:: event_add(virtual, *sequences)
+
+ Associate the virtual event *virtual*, whose name has the form
+ ``'<<Paste>>'``, with each of the physical event patterns given by
+ *sequences*, so that the virtual event triggers whenever any of them
+ occurs.
+ If *virtual* is already defined, the new sequences are added to its
+ existing ones.
+
+ .. method:: event_delete(virtual, *sequences)
+
+ Remove each of *sequences* from those associated with the virtual event
+ *virtual*.
+ Sequences that are not currently associated with *virtual* are ignored.
+ If no *sequences* are given, all physical event sequences are removed, so
+ that *virtual* no longer triggers.
+
+ .. method:: event_generate(sequence, **kw)
+
+ Generate the event *sequence* on this widget and arrange for it to be
+ processed just as if it had come from the window system.
+ *sequence* must be a single event pattern, such as ``'<Button-1>'`` or
+ ``'<<Paste>>'``, not a concatenation of several.
+ Keyword arguments specify additional fields of the event, for example *x*
+ and *y* for the pointer position, or *when* to control when the event is
+ processed; refer to the Tk ``event`` manual page for the full list.
+
+ .. method:: event_info(virtual=None)
+
+ If *virtual* is omitted, return a tuple of all the virtual events that
+ are currently defined.
+ If *virtual* is given, return a tuple of the physical event sequences
+ currently associated with it, or an empty tuple if it is not defined.
+
+ The methods with the ``after`` prefix schedule callbacks to run after a
+ delay or when the application is idle.
+
+ .. method:: after(ms, func=None, *args)
+
+ Schedule the callable *func* to be called after *ms* milliseconds, with
+ *args* passed to it as positional arguments.
+ Return an identifier that can be passed to :meth:`after_cancel` to cancel
+ the call.
+
+ If *func* is omitted, sleep for *ms* milliseconds instead, processing no
+ events during that time, and return ``None``.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ *func* can now be any callable object, not only a function.
+
+
+ .. method:: after_cancel(id)
+
+ Cancel a callback previously scheduled with :meth:`after` or
+ :meth:`after_idle`.
+ *id* must be an identifier returned by one of those methods; passing a
+ value that is not such an identifier raises :exc:`ValueError`.
+ If the callback has already run or been cancelled, this has no effect.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.7
+ Passing ``None`` (or any false value) as *id* now raises
+ :exc:`ValueError`.
+
+
+ .. method:: after_idle(func, *args)
+
+ Schedule the callable *func* to be called, with *args* passed to
+ it, when the Tk main loop next becomes idle, that is, when it has no
+ other events to process.
+ Return an identifier that can be passed to :meth:`after_cancel` to cancel
+ the call.
+
+
+ .. method:: after_info(id=None)
+
+ If *id* is omitted, return a tuple of the identifiers of all callbacks
+ currently scheduled with :meth:`after` and :meth:`after_idle` for this
+ interpreter.
+
+ If *id* is given, it must identify a callback that has not yet run or
+ been cancelled, and the return value is a tuple ``(script, type)``, where
+ *script* refers to the function to be called and *type* is either
+ ``'idle'`` or ``'timer'``.
+ A :exc:`TclError` is raised if *id* does not exist.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
+ .. method:: mainloop(n=0)
+
+ Enter the Tk event loop, which processes events until all windows are
+ destroyed.
+ This is normally called once, on the root window, to run the application.
+
+ .. method:: quit()
+
+ Quit the Tcl interpreter, causing :meth:`mainloop` to return.
+
+ .. method:: update()
+
+ Enter the event loop until all pending events, including idle callbacks,
+ have been processed.
+ This brings the display up to date and handles any events that are
+ already queued, then returns.
+
+ .. method:: update_idletasks()
+
+ Enter the event loop until all pending idle callbacks have been called.
+ This updates the display of windows, for example after geometry changes,
+ but does not process events caused by the user.
+
+ .. method:: waitvar(name)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: wait_variable(name)
+
+ Wait until the Tcl variable *name* is modified, continuing to process
+ events in the meantime so that the application stays responsive.
+ *name* is usually a :class:`Variable` instance, such as an
+ :class:`IntVar` or :class:`StringVar`.
+
+ :meth:`waitvar` is an alias of :meth:`!wait_variable`.
+
+ .. method:: wait_window(window=None)
+
+ Wait until *window* is destroyed, continuing to process events in the
+ meantime.
+ If *window* is omitted, this widget is used.
+ This is typically used to wait for the user to finish interacting with a
+ dialog box.
+
+ .. method:: wait_visibility(window=None)
+
+ Wait until the visibility state of *window* changes, for example when it
+ first appears on the screen, continuing to process events in the
+ meantime.
+ If *window* is omitted, this widget is used.
+ This is typically used to wait for a newly created window to become
+ visible before acting on it.
+
+ The methods with the ``focus_`` prefix manage the keyboard focus.
+
+ .. method:: focus_set()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: focus()
+
+ Direct the keyboard input focus for this widget's display to this widget.
+ If the application does not currently have the input focus on this
+ widget's display, the widget is remembered as the focus window for its
+ top level, and the focus will be redirected to it the next time the
+ window manager gives the focus to the top level.
+ :meth:`focus` is an alias of :meth:`!focus_set`,
+ except on the :class:`Canvas` and
+ :class:`ttk.Treeview <tkinter.ttk.Treeview>` widgets,
+ which provide their own :meth:`!focus` method.
+
+ .. method:: focus_force()
+
+ Direct the keyboard input focus to this widget even if the application
+ does not currently have the input focus for the widget's display.
+ This method should be used sparingly, if at all; normally an application
+ should wait for the window manager to give it the focus rather than
+ claiming it.
+
+ .. method:: focus_get()
+
+ Return the widget that currently has the keyboard focus in the
+ application, or ``None`` if no widget in the application has the focus.
+ Use :meth:`focus_displayof` to work correctly with several displays.
+
+ .. method:: focus_displayof()
+
+ Return the widget that currently has the keyboard focus on the display
+ where this widget is located, or ``None`` if no widget in the application
+ has the focus on that display.
+
+ .. method:: focus_lastfor()
+
+ Return the most recent widget to have had the keyboard focus among all
+ the widgets in the same top level as this widget; this is the widget that
+ will receive the focus the next time the window manager gives the focus
+ to the top level.
+ If no widget in that top level has ever had the focus, or if the most
+ recent focus widget has been deleted, the top level itself is returned.
+
+ .. method:: tk_focusFollowsMouse()
+
+ Reconfigure Tk to use an implicit focus model in which the focus is set
+ to a widget whenever the mouse pointer enters it.
+ This cannot easily be disabled once enabled.
+
+ .. method:: tk_focusNext()
+
+ Return the next widget after this one in the keyboard traversal order, or
+ ``None`` if there is none.
+ The traversal order goes first to the next child, then recursively to the
+ children of that child, and then to the next sibling higher in the
+ stacking order.
+ A widget is skipped if its ``takefocus`` option is set to ``0``.
+ This method is used in the default bindings for the :kbd:`Tab` key.
+
+ .. method:: tk_focusPrev()
+
+ Return the previous widget before this one in the keyboard traversal
+ order, or ``None`` if there is none.
+ See :meth:`tk_focusNext` for how the order is defined.
+ This method is used in the default bindings for the :kbd:`Shift-Tab` key.
+
+ The methods with the ``grab_`` prefix set and query the input grab, which
+ directs all input events to a single widget.
+
+ .. method:: grab_set()
+
+ Set a local grab on this widget.
+ A grab confines pointer events to this widget and its descendants: while
+ the pointer is outside the widget's subtree, button presses and releases
+ and pointer motion are reported to the grab widget, and windows outside
+ the subtree become insensitive until the grab is released.
+ A local grab affects only the grabbing application.
+ Any grab previously set by this application on the widget's display is
+ automatically released.
+ Setting a grab is the usual way to make a dialog modal: while the grab is
+ in effect the user cannot interact with the other windows of the
+ application.
+
+ .. method:: grab_set_global()
+
+ Set a global grab on this widget.
+ A global grab is like the local grab set by :meth:`grab_set`, but it
+ locks out all other applications on the screen, so that only this
+ widget's subtree is sensitive to pointer events, and it also grabs the
+ keyboard.
+ Use with caution: it is easy to render a display unusable with a global
+ grab, since other applications stop receiving events until it is
+ released.
+
+ .. method:: grab_release()
+
+ Release the grab on this widget if there is one; otherwise do nothing.
+
+ .. method:: grab_current()
+
+ Return the widget that currently holds the grab in this application for
+ this widget's display, or ``None`` if there is no such widget.
+
+ .. method:: grab_status()
+
+ Return ``None`` if no grab is currently set on this widget, ``"local"``
+ if a local grab is set, or ``"global"`` if a global grab is set.
+
+ The methods with the ``selection_`` prefix retrieve and manage the X
+ selection.
+
+ .. method:: selection_clear(**kw)
+
+ Clear the X selection, so that no window owns it anymore.
+ The selection to clear is given by the keyword argument *selection*, an
+ atom name such as ``'PRIMARY'`` or ``'CLIPBOARD'``; it defaults to
+ ``PRIMARY``.
+ The *displayof* keyword argument names a widget that determines the
+ display on which to operate, and defaults to this widget.
+
+ This is overridden by the :class:`Entry`, :class:`Listbox` and
+ :class:`Spinbox` widgets,
+ where :meth:`!selection_clear` clears the widget's own selection instead.
+
+ .. method:: selection_get(**kw)
+
+ Return the contents of the current X selection.
+ The keyword argument *selection* names the selection and defaults to
+ ``PRIMARY``.
+ The keyword argument *type* specifies the form in which the data is to be
+ returned (the desired conversion target), an atom name such as
+ ``'STRING'`` or ``'FILE_NAME'``; it defaults to ``STRING``, except on
+ X11, where ``UTF8_STRING`` is tried first and ``STRING`` is used as a
+ fallback.
+ The *displayof* keyword argument names a widget that determines the
+ display from which to retrieve the selection, and defaults to this
+ widget.
+
+ .. method:: selection_handle(command, **kw)
+
+ Register *command* as a handler to supply the X selection owned by this
+ widget when another application requests it.
+ When the selection is retrieved, *command* is called with two arguments,
+ the starting character offset and the maximum number of characters to
+ return, and must return at most that many characters of the selection
+ starting at that offset; for very long selections it is called repeatedly
+ with increasing offsets.
+ The keyword argument *selection* names the selection (default
+ ``PRIMARY``) and the keyword argument *type* gives the form of the
+ selection that the handler supplies (such as ``'STRING'`` or
+ ``'FILE_NAME'``, default ``STRING``).
+
+ .. method:: selection_own(**kw)
+
+ Make this widget the owner of the X selection on its display.
+ The previous owner, if any, is notified that it has lost the selection.
+ The keyword argument *selection* names the selection and defaults to
+ ``PRIMARY``.
+
+ .. method:: selection_own_get(**kw)
+
+ Return the widget in this application that owns the X selection on the
+ display containing this widget, or ``None`` if no widget in this
+ application owns the selection.
+ The keyword argument *selection* names the selection and defaults to
+ ``PRIMARY``.
+ The *displayof* keyword argument names a widget that determines the
+ display to query, and defaults to this widget.
+
+ The methods with the ``clipboard_`` prefix manage the clipboard.
+
+ .. method:: clipboard_append(string, **kw)
+
+ Append *string* to the Tk clipboard and claim ownership of the clipboard
+ on this widget's display.
+ Before appending, the clipboard should be emptied with
+ :meth:`clipboard_clear`; all appends should be completed before returning
+ to the event loop so that the clipboard is updated atomically.
+ The keyword argument *type* specifies the form of the data, an atom name
+ such as ``'STRING'`` or ``'FILE_NAME'`` (default ``STRING``), and the
+ keyword argument *format* specifies the representation used to transmit
+ it (default ``STRING``).
+ The *displayof* keyword argument names a widget that determines the
+ target display, and defaults to this widget.
+ The contents can be retrieved with :meth:`clipboard_get` or
+ :meth:`selection_get`.
+
+ .. method:: clipboard_clear(**kw)
+
+ Claim ownership of the clipboard on this widget's display and remove any
+ previous contents.
+ The *displayof* keyword argument names a widget that determines the
+ target display, and defaults to this widget.
+
+ .. method:: clipboard_get(**kw)
+
+ Retrieve data from the clipboard on this widget's display.
+ The keyword argument *type* specifies the form in which the data is to be
+ returned, an atom name such as ``'STRING'`` or ``'FILE_NAME'``; it
+ defaults to ``STRING``, except on X11, where ``UTF8_STRING`` is tried
+ first and ``STRING`` is used as a fallback.
+ The *displayof* keyword argument names a widget that determines the
+ display, and defaults to the root window of the application.
+ This is equivalent to ``selection_get(selection='CLIPBOARD')``.
+
+ The methods with the ``option_`` prefix query and modify the Tk option
+ database.
+
+ .. method:: option_add(pattern, value, priority=None)
+
+ Add an option to the Tk option database that associates *value* with
+ *pattern*.
+ *pattern* consists of names and/or classes separated by asterisks or
+ dots, in the usual X format.
+ *priority* is an integer between 0 and 100, or one of the symbolic names
+ ``'widgetDefault'`` (20), ``'startupFile'`` (40), ``'userDefault'`` (60),
+ or ``'interactive'`` (80); it defaults to ``interactive``.
+
+ .. method:: option_clear()
+
+ Clear the Tk option database.
+ Default options from the :envvar:`!RESOURCE_MANAGER` property or the
+ :file:`.Xdefaults` file are reloaded automatically the next time an
+ option is added to or removed from the database.
+
+ .. method:: option_get(name, className)
+
+ Return the value of the option matching this widget under *name* and
+ *className* from the Tk option database, or an empty string if there is
+ no matching entry.
+ When several entries match, the one with the highest priority is
+ returned, and among entries of equal priority the most recently added
+ one.
+
+ .. method:: option_readfile(fileName, priority=None)
+
+ Read the file named *fileName*, which should have the standard format for
+ an X resource database such as :file:`.Xdefaults`, and add all the
+ options it specifies to the Tk option database.
+ *priority* is interpreted as for :meth:`option_add` and defaults to
+ ``interactive``.
+
+ .. method:: bell(displayof=0)
+
+ Ring the bell on the display for this widget, using the display's current
+ bell-related settings, and reset the screen saver for the screen.
+ If *displayof* is given as a widget, the bell is rung on that widget's
+ display instead.
+
+ .. method:: tk_setPalette(background, /)
+ tk_setPalette(*args, **kw)
+
+ Set a new color scheme for all Tk widget elements.
+ Existing widgets are updated and the option database is changed so that
+ future widgets use the new colors.
+ A single color argument is taken as the normal background color, from
+ which a complete palette is computed.
+ Alternatively, the arguments may be given as keyword *name*/*value* pairs
+ naming individual options in the option database.
+ The recognized option names are ``activeBackground``,
+ ``activeForeground``, ``background``, ``disabledForeground``,
+ ``foreground``, ``highlightBackground``, ``highlightColor``,
+ ``insertBackground``, ``selectColor``, ``selectBackground``,
+ ``selectForeground``, and ``troughColor``; reasonable defaults are
+ computed for any that are not specified.
+
+ .. method:: tk_bisque()
+
+ Restore the application's colors to the light brown (bisque) color scheme
+ used in Tk 3.6 and earlier versions.
+ Provided for backward compatibility.
+
+ .. method:: tk_strictMotif(boolean=None)
+
+ Query or set whether Tk's look and feel should strictly adhere to Motif.
+ A true *boolean* value enables strict Motif compliance (for example, no
+ color change when the mouse passes over a slider).
+ Return the resulting setting.
+
+ The methods with the ``busy_`` prefix manage the busy state of a window,
+ which shows a busy cursor and ignores user input.
+
+ .. method:: busy(**kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: busy_hold(**kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: tk_busy(**kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: tk_busy_hold(**kw)
+
+ Make this widget appear busy.
+ A transparent window is placed in front of the widget, so that it and all
+ of its descendants in the widget hierarchy are blocked from pointer
+ events and display a busy cursor.
+ Normally :meth:`update` should be called immediately afterwards to ensure
+ that the hold operation is in effect before the application starts its
+ processing.
+
+ The only supported configuration option is *cursor*, the cursor to be
+ displayed while the widget is busy; it may have any of the values
+ accepted by :meth:`!configure`.
+
+ :meth:`busy_hold`, :meth:`busy` and :meth:`tk_busy` are aliases of
+ :meth:`!tk_busy_hold`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
+ .. method:: busy_configure(cnf=None, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: busy_config(cnf=None, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: tk_busy_config(cnf=None, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: tk_busy_configure(cnf=None, **kw)
+
+ Query or modify the configuration options of the busy window.
+ The widget must have been previously made busy by :meth:`tk_busy_hold`.
+ With no arguments, return a dictionary describing all of the available
+ options; if *cnf* is the name of an option, return a tuple describing
+ that one option.
+ Otherwise set the given options to the given values.
+ Options may have any of the values accepted by :meth:`tk_busy_hold`.
+
+ The option database is referenced through the widget name or class.
+ For example, if a :class:`Frame` widget named ``frame`` is to be made
+ busy, the busy cursor can be specified for it by either of the calls::
+
+ w.option_add('*frame.busyCursor', 'gumby')
+ w.option_add('*Frame.BusyCursor', 'gumby')
+
+ :meth:`busy_configure`, :meth:`busy_config` and :meth:`tk_busy_config`
+ are aliases of :meth:`!tk_busy_configure`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
+ .. method:: busy_cget(option)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: tk_busy_cget(option)
+
+ Return the current value of the busy configuration *option*.
+ The widget must have been previously made busy by :meth:`tk_busy_hold`,
+ and *option* may have any of the values accepted by that method.
+
+ :meth:`busy_cget` is an alias of :meth:`!tk_busy_cget`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
+ .. method:: busy_forget()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: tk_busy_forget()
+
+ Make this widget no longer busy, releasing the resources (including the
+ transparent window) allocated when it was made busy.
+ User events will again be received by the widget.
+ These resources are also released when the widget is destroyed.
+
+ :meth:`busy_forget` is an alias of :meth:`!tk_busy_forget`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
+ .. method:: busy_status()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: tk_busy_status()
+
+ Return ``True`` if the widget is currently busy, ``False`` otherwise.
+
+ :meth:`busy_status` is an alias of :meth:`!tk_busy_status`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
+ .. method:: busy_current(pattern=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: tk_busy_current(pattern=None)
+
+ Return a list of widgets that are currently busy.
+ If *pattern* is given, only busy widgets whose path names match the
+ pattern are returned.
+
+ :meth:`busy_current` is an alias of :meth:`!tk_busy_current`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+ The methods with the ``winfo_`` prefix retrieve information about windows
+ managed by Tk.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_atom(name, displayof=0)
+
+ Return the integer identifier for the atom whose name is *name*, creating
+ a new atom if none exists.
+ If *displayof* is given, the atom is looked up on the display of that
+ window; otherwise it is looked up on the display of the application's
+ main window.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_atomname(id, displayof=0)
+
+ Return the textual name for the atom whose integer identifier is *id*.
+ This is the inverse of :meth:`winfo_atom`.
+ If *displayof* is given, the identifier is looked up on the display of
+ that window; otherwise it is looked up on the display of the
+ application's main window.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_cells()
+
+ Return the number of cells in the colormap for the widget.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_children()
+
+ Return a list containing the widgets that are children of the widget, in
+ stacking order from lowest to highest.
+ Toplevel windows are returned as children of their logical parents.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_class()
+
+ Return the class name of the widget.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_colormapfull()
+
+ Return ``True`` if the colormap for the widget is known to be full,
+ ``False`` otherwise.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_containing(rootX, rootY, displayof=0)
+
+ Return the widget containing the point given by *rootX* and *rootY*, or
+ ``None`` if no window in this application contains the point.
+ The coordinates are in screen units in the coordinate system of the root
+ window.
+ If *displayof* is given, the coordinates refer to the screen containing
+ that window; otherwise they refer to the screen of the application's main
+ window.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_depth()
+
+ Return the depth of the widget, that is, the number of bits per pixel.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_exists()
+
+ Return true if the widget exists, false otherwise.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_fpixels(number)
+
+ Return a floating-point value giving the number of pixels in the widget
+ corresponding to the screen distance *number* (for example,
+ ``"2.0c"`` or ``"1i"``).
+ The result may be fractional; for a rounded integer value use
+ :meth:`winfo_pixels`.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_geometry()
+
+ Return the geometry of the widget, in the form ``widthxheight+x+y``.
+ All dimensions are in pixels.
+ An offset can be negative; see :meth:`~Wm.geometry`.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_height()
+
+ Return the height of the widget in pixels.
+ When a window is first created its height is 1 pixel; it is eventually
+ changed by a geometry manager.
+ See also :meth:`winfo_reqheight`.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_id()
+
+ Return a low-level platform-specific identifier for the widget.
+ On Unix this is the X window identifier, and on Windows it is the window
+ handle.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_interps(displayof=0)
+
+ Return a tuple of the names of all Tcl interpreters currently registered
+ for a particular display.
+ If *displayof* is given, the return value refers to the display of that
+ window; otherwise it refers to the display of the application's main
+ window.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_ismapped()
+
+ Return true if the widget is currently mapped, false otherwise.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_manager()
+
+ Return the name of the geometry manager currently responsible for the
+ widget, or an empty string if it is not managed by any geometry manager.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_name()
+
+ Return the widget's name within its parent, as opposed to its full path
+ name.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_parent()
+
+ Return the path name of the widget's parent, or an empty string if the
+ widget is the main window of the application.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_pathname(id, displayof=0)
+
+ Return the path name of the window whose identifier is *id*.
+ If *displayof* is given, the identifier is looked up on the display of
+ that window; otherwise it is looked up on the display of the
+ application's main window.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_pixels(number)
+
+ Return the number of pixels in the widget corresponding to the screen
+ distance *number* (for example, ``"2.0c"`` or ``"1i"``).
+ The result is rounded to the nearest integer; for a fractional result use
+ :meth:`winfo_fpixels`.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_pointerx()
+
+ Return the pointer's *x* coordinate, in pixels, relative to the screen's
+ root window (or virtual root, if one is in use).
+ Return ``-1`` if the pointer is not on the same screen as the widget.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_pointerxy()
+
+ Return the pointer's coordinates as an ``(x, y)`` tuple, in pixels,
+ relative to the screen's root window (or virtual root, if one is in use).
+ Both coordinates are ``-1`` if the pointer is not on the same screen as
+ the widget.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_pointery()
+
+ Return the pointer's *y* coordinate, in pixels, relative to the screen's
+ root window (or virtual root, if one is in use).
+ Return ``-1`` if the pointer is not on the same screen as the widget.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_reqheight()
+
+ Return the widget's requested height in pixels.
+ This is the value used by the widget's geometry manager to compute its
+ geometry.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_reqwidth()
+
+ Return the widget's requested width in pixels.
+ This is the value used by the widget's geometry manager to compute its
+ geometry.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_rgb(color)
+
+ Return an ``(r, g, b)`` tuple of the red, green, and blue intensities, in
+ the range 0 to 65535, that correspond to *color* in the widget.
+ *color* may be specified in any of the forms acceptable for a color
+ option.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_rootx()
+
+ Return the *x* coordinate, in the root window of the screen, of the
+ upper-left corner of the widget's border (or of the widget itself if it
+ has no border).
+
+ .. method:: winfo_rooty()
+
+ Return the *y* coordinate, in the root window of the screen, of the
+ upper-left corner of the widget's border (or of the widget itself if it
+ has no border).
+
+ .. method:: winfo_screen()
+
+ Return the name of the screen associated with the widget, in the form
+ ``displayName.screenIndex``.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_screencells()
+
+ Return the number of cells in the default colormap for the widget's
+ screen.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_screendepth()
+
+ Return the depth of the root window of the widget's screen, that is, the
+ number of bits per pixel.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_screenheight()
+
+ Return the height of the widget's screen in pixels.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_screenmmheight()
+
+ Return the height of the widget's screen in millimeters.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_screenmmwidth()
+
+ Return the width of the widget's screen in millimeters.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_screenvisual()
+
+ Return the default visual class for the widget's screen, one of
+ ``"directcolor"``, ``"grayscale"``, ``"pseudocolor"``, ``"staticcolor"``,
+ ``"staticgray"``, or ``"truecolor"``.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_screenwidth()
+
+ Return the width of the widget's screen in pixels.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_server()
+
+ Return a string containing information about the server for the widget's
+ display.
+ The exact format of this string may vary from platform to platform.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_toplevel()
+
+ Return the top-of-hierarchy window containing the widget.
+ In standard Tk this is always a :class:`Toplevel` widget.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_viewable()
+
+ Return true if the widget and all of its ancestors up through the
+ nearest toplevel window are mapped, false otherwise.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_visual()
+
+ Return the visual class for the widget, one of ``"directcolor"``,
+ ``"grayscale"``, ``"pseudocolor"``, ``"staticcolor"``, ``"staticgray"``,
+ or ``"truecolor"``.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_visualid()
+
+ Return the X identifier for the visual for the widget.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_visualsavailable(includeids=False)
+
+ Return a list describing the visuals available for the widget's screen.
+ Each item consists of a visual class (see :meth:`winfo_visual`) followed
+ by an integer depth.
+ If *includeids* is true, the X identifier for the visual is also
+ included.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_vrootheight()
+
+ Return the height of the virtual root window associated with the widget
+ if there is one; otherwise return the height of the widget's screen.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_vrootwidth()
+
+ Return the width of the virtual root window associated with the widget if
+ there is one; otherwise return the width of the widget's screen.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_vrootx()
+
+ Return the *x* offset of the virtual root window associated with the
+ widget, relative to the root window of its screen.
+ This is normally zero or negative, and is ``0`` if there is no virtual
+ root window.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_vrooty()
+
+ Return the *y* offset of the virtual root window associated with the
+ widget, relative to the root window of its screen.
+ This is normally zero or negative, and is ``0`` if there is no virtual
+ root window.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_width()
+
+ Return the width of the widget in pixels.
+ When a window is first created its width is 1 pixel; it is eventually
+ changed by a geometry manager.
+ See also :meth:`winfo_reqwidth`.
+
+ .. method:: winfo_x()
+
+ Return the *x* coordinate, in the widget's parent, of the upper-left
+ corner of the widget's border (or of the widget itself if it has no
+ border).
+
+ .. method:: winfo_y()
+
+ Return the *y* coordinate, in the widget's parent, of the upper-left
+ corner of the widget's border (or of the widget itself if it has no
+ border).
+
+ .. method:: info_patchlevel()
+
+ Return the Tcl/Tk patch level as a named tuple with the same five fields
+ as :data:`sys.version_info`: *major*, *minor*, *micro*, *releaselevel*
+ and *serial*.
+ *releaselevel* is ``'alpha'``, ``'beta'`` or ``'final'``.
+ Converting it to a string gives the version in the usual Tcl/Tk notation,
+ for example ``'9.0.3'`` for a final release or ``'9.1b2'`` for a
+ pre-release.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.11
+
+
+
+.. class:: Wm()
+
+ The :class:`!Wm` mixin provides access to the window manager, allowing an
+ application to control such things as the title, geometry and icon of a
+ top-level window, the way it is resized, and how it responds to window
+ manager protocols.
+ It is mixed into :class:`Tk` and :class:`Toplevel`, so its methods are
+ available on every top-level window.
+ Each method has two equivalent spellings: a short name and a
+ ``wm_``-prefixed name (for example, :meth:`title` and :meth:`wm_title`).
+ See also :ref:`tkinter-window-manager`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_aspect(minNumer=None, minDenom=None, maxNumer=None, maxDenom=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: aspect(minNumer=None, minDenom=None, maxNumer=None, maxDenom=None)
+
+ Constrain the aspect ratio (the ratio of width to height) of the window.
+ If all four arguments are given, the window manager keeps the ratio
+ between ``minNumer/minDenom`` and ``maxNumer/maxDenom``; passing empty
+ strings removes any existing restriction.
+ With no arguments, return a tuple of the four current values, or ``None``
+ if no aspect restriction is in effect.
+ :meth:`wm_aspect` is an alias of :meth:`!aspect`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_attributes(*args, return_python_dict=False, **kwargs)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: attributes(*args, return_python_dict=False, **kwargs)
+
+ Query or set platform-specific attributes of the window.
+ With no arguments, return the platform-specific flags and their values;
+ pass *return_python_dict* as true to get them as a dictionary.
+ A single option name such as ``'alpha'`` returns the value of that
+ option, and options are set using keyword arguments (``alpha=0.5``).
+
+ The available attributes differ by platform.
+ All platforms support:
+
+ *alpha*
+ The window's opacity, from ``0.0`` (fully transparent) to ``1.0``
+ (opaque).
+ Where transparency is unsupported the value stays at ``1.0``.
+
+ *appearance*
+ Whether the window is rendered in dark mode on Windows and macOS:
+ ``'auto'``, ``'light'`` or ``'dark'`` (this has no effect on X11).
+
+ *fullscreen*
+ Whether the window takes up the entire screen and has no borders.
+
+ *topmost*
+ Whether the window is displayed above all other windows.
+
+ Windows additionally supports:
+
+ *disabled*
+ Whether the window is in a disabled state.
+
+ *toolwindow*
+ Whether the window uses the tool window style.
+
+ *transparentcolor*
+ The color that is made fully transparent, or an empty string for none.
+
+ macOS additionally supports:
+
+ *class*
+ Whether the underlying Aqua window is an ``nswindow`` or an
+ ``nspanel``; this can only be set before the window is created.
+
+ *modified*
+ The modification state shown by the window's close button and proxy
+ icon.
+
+ *notify*
+ Whether the application's dock icon bounces to request attention.
+
+ *stylemask*
+ The style mask of the underlying Aqua window, given as a list of bit
+ names such as ``titled`` or ``resizable``.
+
+ *tabbingid*
+ The identifier of the tab group that the window belongs to.
+
+ *tabbingmode*
+ Whether the window may be opened as a tab: ``'auto'``, ``'preferred'``
+ or ``'disallowed'``.
+
+ *titlepath*
+ The path of the file represented by the window's proxy icon.
+
+ *transparent*
+ Whether the content area is transparent and the window shadow is
+ turned off.
+
+ X11 additionally supports:
+
+ *type*
+ The window type, or a list of types in order of preference, that the
+ window manager should use to interpret the window, such as
+ ``'dialog'`` or ``'splash'``.
+
+ *zoomed*
+ Whether the window is maximized.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ Tk 8.6 added the *type* attribute, and Tk 9.0 added the *appearance*,
+ *class*, *stylemask*, *tabbingid* and *tabbingmode* attributes.
+
+ On X11 changes are applied asynchronously, so a queried value may not yet
+ reflect the most recent request.
+ :meth:`wm_attributes` is an alias of :meth:`!attributes`.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ A single attribute may now be queried by name without the leading
+ ``-``, and attributes may be set using keyword arguments.
+ The *return_python_dict* parameter was added.
+
+ .. deprecated:: 3.13
+ Setting an attribute by passing the option name (with a leading
+ ``-``) and its value as two positional arguments, as in
+ ``w.attributes('-alpha', 0.5)``, is deprecated; use keyword arguments
+ instead.
+
+
+ .. method:: wm_client(name=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: client(name=None)
+
+ Store *name*, which should be the name of the host on which the
+ application is running, in the window's ``WM_CLIENT_MACHINE`` property
+ for use by the window or session manager.
+ An empty string deletes the property.
+ With no argument, return the last name set, or an empty string.
+ :meth:`wm_client` is an alias of :meth:`!client`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_colormapwindows(*wlist)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: colormapwindows(*wlist)
+
+ Manipulate the ``WM_COLORMAP_WINDOWS`` property, which tells the window
+ manager about windows that have private colormaps.
+ If *wlist* is given, overwrite the property with those windows (their
+ order is a priority order for installing colormaps).
+ With no arguments, return the list of windows currently named in the
+ property.
+ :meth:`wm_colormapwindows` is an alias of :meth:`!colormapwindows`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_command(value=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: command(value=None)
+
+ Store *value* in the window's ``WM_COMMAND`` property for use by the
+ window or session manager; it should be a list giving the words of the
+ command used to invoke the application.
+ An empty string deletes the property.
+ With no argument, return the last value set, or an empty string.
+ :meth:`wm_command` is an alias of :meth:`!command`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_deiconify()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: deiconify()
+
+ Display the window in normal (non-iconified) form by mapping it.
+ If the window has never been mapped, this ensures it appears de-iconified
+ when it is first mapped.
+ On Windows the window is also raised and given the focus.
+ :meth:`wm_deiconify` is an alias of :meth:`!deiconify`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_focusmodel(model=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: focusmodel(model=None)
+
+ Set or query the focus model for the window.
+ *model* is either ``'active'`` (the window claims the input focus for
+ itself or its descendants, even when the focus is in another application)
+ or ``'passive'`` (the window relies on the window manager to give it the
+ focus).
+ With no argument, return the current model.
+ The default is ``'passive'``, which is what the :meth:`!focus` command
+ assumes.
+ :meth:`wm_focusmodel` is an alias of :meth:`!focusmodel`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_forget(window)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: forget(window)
+
+ Unmap *window* from the screen so that it is no longer managed by the
+ window manager.
+ A :class:`Toplevel` is then treated like a :class:`Frame`, although its
+ ``-menu`` configuration is remembered and the menu reappears if the
+ widget is managed again.
+ :meth:`wm_forget` is an alias of :meth:`!forget`.
+
+ Not to be confused with :meth:`Pack.forget`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+ .. method:: wm_frame()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: frame()
+
+ Return the platform-specific window identifier for the outermost
+ decorative frame containing the window, if the window manager has
+ reparented it into such a frame; otherwise return the identifier of the
+ window itself.
+ :meth:`wm_frame` is an alias of :meth:`!frame`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_geometry(newGeometry=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: geometry(newGeometry=None)
+
+ Set or query the geometry of the window.
+ *newGeometry* has the form ``=widthxheight+x+y``, where any of ``=``,
+ ``widthxheight`` and the ``+x+y`` position may be omitted.
+ *width* and *height* are in pixels (or grid units for a gridded window);
+ a position preceded by ``+`` is measured from the left or top edge of the
+ screen and one preceded by ``-`` from the right or bottom edge.
+ An offset can be negative, as in ``'200x100+-9+-8'``, when the window
+ edge is positioned beyond the corresponding screen edge.
+ An empty string cancels any user-specified geometry, letting the window
+ revert to its natural size.
+ With no argument, return the current geometry as a string of the form
+ ``'200x200+10+10'``.
+ :meth:`wm_geometry` is an alias of :meth:`!geometry`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_grid(baseWidth=None, baseHeight=None, widthInc=None, heightInc=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid(baseWidth=None, baseHeight=None, widthInc=None, heightInc=None)
+
+ Manage the window as a gridded window and define the relationship between
+ grid units and pixels.
+ *baseWidth* and *baseHeight* are the numbers of grid units for the
+ window's internally requested size, and *widthInc* and *heightInc* are
+ the pixel sizes of a horizontal and vertical grid unit.
+ Empty strings turn off gridded management.
+ With no arguments, return a tuple of the four current values, or ``None``
+ if the window is not gridded.
+ :meth:`wm_grid` is an alias of :meth:`!grid`.
+
+ Not to be confused with the grid geometry manager :meth:`Grid.grid`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_group(pathName=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: group(pathName=None)
+
+ Set or query the leader of a group of related windows.
+ *pathName* gives the path name of the group leader; the window manager
+ may, for example, unmap all windows in the group when the leader is
+ iconified.
+ An empty string removes the window from any group.
+ With no argument, return the path name of the current group leader, or an
+ empty string.
+ :meth:`wm_group` is an alias of :meth:`!group`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_iconbitmap(bitmap=None, default=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: iconbitmap(bitmap=None, default=None)
+
+ Set or query the bitmap used by the window manager for the window's icon.
+ *bitmap* names a bitmap in one of the standard forms accepted by Tk; an
+ empty string cancels the current icon bitmap.
+ With no argument, return the name of the current icon bitmap, or an empty
+ string.
+ On Windows the *default* argument names an icon (for example an ``.ico``
+ file) applied to all top-level windows that have no icon of their own.
+ :meth:`wm_iconbitmap` is an alias of :meth:`!iconbitmap`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_iconify()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: iconify()
+
+ Iconify the window.
+ If the window has not yet been mapped for the first time, arrange for it
+ to appear in the iconified state when it is eventually mapped.
+ :meth:`wm_iconify` is an alias of :meth:`!iconify`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_iconmask(bitmap=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: iconmask(bitmap=None)
+
+ Set or query the bitmap used as a mask for the icon (see
+ :meth:`iconbitmap`).
+ Where the mask is zero no icon is displayed; where it is one, the
+ corresponding bits of the icon bitmap are shown.
+ An empty string cancels the current mask.
+ With no argument, return the name of the current icon mask, or an empty
+ string.
+ :meth:`wm_iconmask` is an alias of :meth:`!iconmask`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_iconname(newName=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: iconname(newName=None)
+
+ Set or query the name displayed by the window manager inside the window's
+ icon.
+ With no argument, return the current icon name, or an empty string if
+ none has been set (in which case the window manager normally displays the
+ window's title).
+ :meth:`wm_iconname` is an alias of :meth:`!iconname`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_iconphoto(default=False, *images)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: iconphoto(default=False, *images)
+
+ Set the titlebar icon for the window from one or more :class:`PhotoImage`
+ objects given in *images*.
+ Several images of different sizes (for example 16x16 and 32x32) may be
+ supplied so that the window manager can choose an appropriate one.
+ The image data is taken as a snapshot at the time of the call; later
+ changes to the images are not reflected.
+ If *default* is true, the icon is also applied to all top-level windows
+ created in the future.
+ On macOS only the first image is used.
+ :meth:`wm_iconphoto` is an alias of :meth:`!iconphoto`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+ .. method:: wm_iconposition(x=None, y=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: iconposition(x=None, y=None)
+
+ Set or query a hint to the window manager about where the window's icon
+ should be positioned.
+ Empty strings cancel an existing hint.
+ With no arguments, return a tuple of the two current values, or ``None``
+ if no hint is in effect.
+ :meth:`wm_iconposition` is an alias of :meth:`!iconposition`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_iconwindow(pathName=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: iconwindow(pathName=None)
+
+ Set or query the window used as the icon for the window.
+ When the window is iconified, *pathName* is mapped to serve as its icon
+ and unmapped again when it is de-iconified.
+ An empty string cancels the association.
+ With no argument, return the path name of the current icon window, or an
+ empty string.
+ Not all window managers support icon windows, and the concept is
+ meaningless on non-X11 platforms.
+ :meth:`wm_iconwindow` is an alias of :meth:`!iconwindow`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_manage(widget)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: manage(widget)
+
+ Make *widget* a stand-alone top-level window, decorated by the window
+ manager with a title bar and so on.
+ Only :class:`Frame`, :class:`LabelFrame` and :class:`Toplevel` widgets
+ may be used (the :mod:`tkinter.ttk` versions are **not** accepted);
+ passing any other widget type raises an error.
+ :meth:`wm_manage` is an alias of :meth:`!manage`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+ .. method:: wm_maxsize(width=None, height=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: maxsize(width=None, height=None)
+
+ Set or query the maximum permissible dimensions of the window, in pixels
+ (or grid units for a gridded window).
+ The window manager restricts the window to be no larger than *width* and
+ *height*.
+ With no arguments, return a tuple of the current maximum width and
+ height.
+ The maximum size defaults to the size of the screen.
+ :meth:`wm_maxsize` is an alias of :meth:`!maxsize`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_minsize(width=None, height=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: minsize(width=None, height=None)
+
+ Set or query the minimum permissible dimensions of the window, in pixels
+ (or grid units for a gridded window).
+ The window manager restricts the window to be no smaller than *width* and
+ *height*.
+ With no arguments, return a tuple of the current minimum width and
+ height.
+ The minimum size defaults to one pixel in each dimension.
+ :meth:`wm_minsize` is an alias of :meth:`!minsize`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_overrideredirect(boolean=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: overrideredirect(boolean=None)
+
+ Set or query the override-redirect flag for the window.
+ When this flag is set, the window is ignored by the window manager: it is
+ not reparented into a decorative frame and the user cannot manipulate it
+ through the usual window manager controls.
+ With no argument, return a boolean indicating whether the flag is set,
+ or ``None`` if it has not been set.
+ The flag is reliably honored only when the window is first mapped or
+ remapped from the withdrawn state.
+ :meth:`wm_overrideredirect` is an alias of :meth:`!overrideredirect`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_positionfrom(who=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: positionfrom(who=None)
+
+ Set or query the source of the window's current position.
+ *who* is either ``'program'`` or ``'user'`` and indicates whether the
+ position was requested by the program or by the user; an empty string
+ cancels the current source.
+ With no argument, return the current source, or an empty string if none
+ has been set.
+ Tk automatically sets the source to ``'user'`` when :meth:`geometry` is
+ called, unless it has been set explicitly to ``'program'``.
+ :meth:`wm_positionfrom` is an alias of :meth:`!positionfrom`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_protocol(name=None, func=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: protocol(name=None, func=None)
+
+ Register *func* as the handler for the window manager protocol *name*, an
+ atom such as ``'WM_DELETE_WINDOW'``, ``'WM_SAVE_YOURSELF'`` or
+ ``'WM_TAKE_FOCUS'``; *func* is then called whenever the window manager
+ sends a message of that protocol.
+ Tk installs a default ``WM_DELETE_WINDOW`` handler that destroys the
+ window, which this method can replace.
+ If *func* is an empty string, the handler is removed.
+ With only *name*, return the name of its registered handler command, or
+ an empty string if none is set (the default ``WM_DELETE_WINDOW`` handler
+ is not reported); with no arguments, return a tuple of the protocols that
+ currently have handlers.
+ :meth:`wm_protocol` is an alias of :meth:`!protocol`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_resizable(width=None, height=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: resizable(width=None, height=None)
+
+ Control whether the user may interactively resize the window.
+ *width* and *height* are boolean values that determine whether the
+ window's width and height may be changed.
+ With no arguments, return a tuple of two ``0``/``1`` values indicating
+ whether each dimension is currently resizable.
+ By default a window is resizable in both dimensions.
+ :meth:`wm_resizable` is an alias of :meth:`!resizable`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_sizefrom(who=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: sizefrom(who=None)
+
+ Set or query the source of the window's current size.
+ *who* is either ``'program'`` or ``'user'`` and indicates whether the
+ size was requested by the program or by the user; an empty string cancels
+ the current source.
+ With no argument, return the current source, or an empty string if none
+ has been set.
+ :meth:`wm_sizefrom` is an alias of :meth:`!sizefrom`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_state(newstate=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: state(newstate=None)
+
+ Set or query the state of the window.
+ With no argument, return the current state: one of ``'normal'``,
+ ``'iconic'``, ``'withdrawn'``, ``'icon'`` or, on Windows and macOS only,
+ ``'zoomed'``.
+ ``'iconic'`` refers to a window that has been iconified, while ``'icon'``
+ refers to a window serving as the icon for another window (see
+ :meth:`iconwindow`); the ``'icon'`` state cannot be set.
+ :meth:`wm_state` is an alias of :meth:`!state`.
+
+ Not to be confused with :meth:`ttk.Widget.state
+ <tkinter.ttk.Widget.state>`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_title(string=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: title(string=None)
+
+ Set or query the title for the window, which the window manager should
+ display in the window's title bar.
+ With no argument, return the current title.
+ The title defaults to the window's name.
+ :meth:`wm_title` is an alias of :meth:`!title`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_transient(master=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: transient(master=None)
+
+ Mark the window as a transient window (such as a pull-down menu or
+ dialog) working on behalf of *master*, the path name of another top-level
+ window.
+ An empty string clears the transient status.
+ With no argument, return the path name of the current master, or an empty
+ string.
+ A transient window mirrors state changes in its master and may be
+ decorated differently by the window manager; it is an error to make a
+ window a transient of itself.
+ :meth:`wm_transient` is an alias of :meth:`!transient`.
+
+ .. method:: wm_withdraw()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: withdraw()
+
+ Withdraw the window from the screen, unmapping it and causing the window
+ manager to forget about it.
+ If the window has never been mapped, it is instead mapped in the
+ withdrawn state.
+ It is sometimes necessary to withdraw a window and then re-map it (for
+ example with :meth:`deiconify`) to make some window managers notice
+ changes to window attributes.
+ :meth:`wm_withdraw` is an alias of :meth:`!withdraw`.
+
+
+.. class:: Pack()
+
+ Geometry manager that arranges widgets by packing them against the sides of
+ their container.
+ The :class:`!Pack` mix-in is inherited by all widgets (through
+ :class:`Widget`) and provides the methods for managing a widget with the
+ *pack* geometry manager.
+ See also :ref:`tkinter-geometry-management`.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ :class:`Pack`, :class:`Place` and :class:`Grid` all define the short
+ method names :meth:`!forget`, :meth:`!info`, :meth:`!slaves`,
+ :meth:`!content` and :meth:`!propagate`.
+ On a widget the bare names resolve to the *pack* manager's versions,
+ since :class:`Pack` and :class:`Misc` precede :class:`Place` and
+ :class:`Grid` in the method resolution order,
+ whatever manager actually manages the widget;
+ and :meth:`!configure`/:meth:`!config` configure the widget's options,
+ not its geometry.
+ Use the explicit ``pack_*``, ``grid_*`` and ``place_*`` methods
+ (and ``pack``, ``grid``, ``place`` for geometry configuration)
+ to act on a specific geometry manager.
+
+ .. method:: configure(cnf={}, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: config(cnf={}, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: pack_configure(cnf={}, **kw)
+ pack(cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Pack the widget inside its container, positioning it relative to the
+ siblings already packed there.
+ The supported options are:
+
+ *side*
+ Which side of the container to pack the widget against: ``'top'`` (the
+ default), ``'bottom'``, ``'left'`` or ``'right'``.
+
+ *fill*
+ Whether to stretch the widget to fill its parcel: ``'none'`` (the
+ default), ``'x'``, ``'y'`` or ``'both'``.
+
+ *expand*
+ Whether the widget should expand to consume any extra space in its
+ container (a boolean, default false).
+
+ *anchor*
+ Where to position the widget in its parcel when the parcel is larger
+ than the widget: an anchor such as ``'n'`` or ``'sw'`` (default
+ ``'center'``).
+
+ *ipadx*, *ipady*
+ Internal padding added on the left and right (*ipadx*) or top and
+ bottom (*ipady*) of the widget, as a screen distance (default ``0``).
+
+ *padx*, *pady*
+ External padding left on the left and right (*padx*) or top and bottom
+ (*pady*) of the widget, as a screen distance or a pair of two
+ distances for the two sides (default ``0``).
+
+ *after*
+ Pack the widget after the given widget in the packing order, using the
+ same container.
+
+ *before*
+ Pack the widget before the given widget in the packing order, using
+ the same container.
+
+ *in_*
+ The container in which to pack the widget; it defaults to the parent
+ widget.
+
+ :meth:`pack`, :meth:`configure` and :meth:`config` are aliases of
+ :meth:`!pack_configure`.
+
+ .. method:: forget()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: pack_forget()
+
+ Unmap the widget and remove it from the packing order, forgetting its
+ packing options.
+ It can be packed again later with :meth:`pack_configure`.
+ :meth:`forget` is an alias of :meth:`!pack_forget`,
+ except on :class:`PanedWindow`,
+ :class:`ttk.Notebook <tkinter.ttk.Notebook>` and
+ :class:`ttk.PanedWindow <tkinter.ttk.PanedWindow>`,
+ which provide their own :meth:`!forget` method.
+
+ Not to be confused with :meth:`Wm.forget`.
+
+ .. method:: info()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: pack_info()
+
+ Return a dictionary of the widget's current packing options.
+ :meth:`info` is an alias of :meth:`!pack_info`.
+
+ .. method:: propagate()
+ propagate(flag)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: pack_propagate()
+ pack_propagate(flag)
+
+ Same as :meth:`Misc.pack_propagate`, treating this widget as a container:
+ enable or disable geometry propagation.
+ :meth:`propagate` is an alias of :meth:`!pack_propagate`.
+
+ .. method:: slaves()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: pack_slaves()
+
+ Same as :meth:`Misc.pack_slaves`: return the list of widgets packed in
+ this widget.
+ :meth:`slaves` is an alias of :meth:`!pack_slaves`.
+
+
+.. class:: Place()
+
+ Geometry manager that places widgets at explicit positions and sizes within
+ their container.
+ The :class:`!Place` mix-in is inherited by all widgets (through
+ :class:`Widget`).
+ See also :ref:`tkinter-geometry-management`.
+
+ .. method:: configure(cnf={}, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: config(cnf={}, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: place_configure(cnf={}, **kw)
+ place(cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Place the widget inside its container at an absolute or relative
+ position.
+ The supported options are:
+
+ *x*, *y*
+ The absolute horizontal and vertical position of the widget's anchor
+ point, as a screen distance (default ``0``).
+
+ *relx*, *rely*
+ The horizontal and vertical position of the widget's anchor point as a
+ fraction of the container's width and height, where ``0.0`` is the
+ left or top edge and ``1.0`` is the right or bottom edge.
+ If both the absolute and the relative option are given, their values
+ are summed.
+
+ *anchor*
+ Which point of the widget is placed at the given position: an anchor
+ such as ``'n'`` or ``'se'`` (default ``'nw'``).
+
+ *width*, *height*
+ The absolute width and height of the widget, as a screen distance.
+ By default the widget's requested size is used.
+
+ *relwidth*, *relheight*
+ The width and height of the widget as a fraction of the container's
+ width and height.
+ If both the absolute and the relative option are given, their values
+ are summed.
+
+ *bordermode*
+ How the container's border affects placement: ``'inside'`` (the
+ default) measures the area inside the border, ``'outside'`` measures
+ the area including the border, and ``'ignore'`` uses the official X
+ area.
+
+ *in_*
+ The container relative to which the widget is placed; it must be the
+ widget's parent or a descendant of the parent, and defaults to the
+ parent.
+
+ :meth:`place`, :meth:`configure` and :meth:`config` are aliases of
+ :meth:`!place_configure`.
+
+ .. method:: forget()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: place_forget()
+
+ Unmap the widget and remove it from the placement, forgetting its place
+ options.
+
+ .. method:: info()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: place_info()
+
+ Return a dictionary of the widget's current place options.
+
+ .. method:: slaves()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: place_slaves()
+
+ Same as :meth:`Misc.place_slaves`: return the list of widgets placed in
+ this widget.
+
+
+.. class:: Grid()
+
+ Geometry manager that arranges widgets in a two-dimensional grid of rows and
+ columns within their container.
+ The :class:`!Grid` mix-in is inherited by all widgets (through
+ :class:`Widget`).
+ See also :ref:`tkinter-geometry-management`.
+
+ .. method:: configure(cnf={}, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: config(cnf={}, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_configure(cnf={}, **kw)
+ grid(cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Position the widget in a cell of its container's grid.
+
+ Not to be confused with :meth:`Wm.grid`.
+
+ The supported options are:
+
+ *row*, *column*
+ The row and column of the cell to place the widget in, counting from
+ ``0``.
+ *column* defaults to the column after the previous widget placed in
+ the same :meth:`!grid_configure` call (or ``0``), and *row* defaults
+ to the next empty row.
+
+ *rowspan*, *columnspan*
+ The number of rows and columns the widget should span (default ``1``).
+
+ *sticky*
+ How to position or stretch the widget when its cell is larger than the
+ widget: a string containing zero or more of the characters ``'n'``,
+ ``'s'``, ``'e'`` and ``'w'``, naming the cell sides the widget sticks
+ to.
+ Specifying both ``'n'`` and ``'s'`` (or ``'e'`` and ``'w'``) stretches
+ the widget to fill the height (or width) of the cell.
+ The default is ``''``, which centers the widget at its requested size.
+
+ *ipadx*, *ipady*
+ Internal padding added on the left and right (*ipadx*) or top and
+ bottom (*ipady*) of the widget, as a screen distance (default ``0``).
+
+ *padx*, *pady*
+ External padding left on the left and right (*padx*) or top and bottom
+ (*pady*) of the widget, as a screen distance or a pair of two
+ distances for the two sides (default ``0``).
+
+ *in_*
+ The container in whose grid to place the widget; it defaults to the
+ parent widget.
+
+ :meth:`grid`, :meth:`configure` and :meth:`config` are aliases of
+ :meth:`!grid_configure`.
+
+ .. method:: forget()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_forget()
+
+ Unmap the widget and remove it from the grid, forgetting its grid
+ options.
+
+ .. method:: grid_remove()
+
+ Unmap the widget and remove it from the grid, but remember its grid
+ options so that it is restored to the same cell if it is gridded again.
+
+ .. method:: info()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_info()
+
+ Return a dictionary of the widget's current grid options.
+
+ .. method:: bbox(column=None, row=None, col2=None, row2=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_bbox(column=None, row=None, col2=None, row2=None)
+
+ Same as :meth:`Misc.grid_bbox`.
+ :meth:`bbox` is an alias of :meth:`!grid_bbox`,
+ except on :class:`Canvas`, :class:`Listbox`, :class:`Spinbox`,
+ :class:`Text`, :class:`ttk.Entry <tkinter.ttk.Entry>` and
+ :class:`ttk.Treeview <tkinter.ttk.Treeview>`,
+ which provide their own :meth:`!bbox` method.
+
+ .. method:: columnconfigure(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_columnconfigure(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Same as :meth:`Misc.grid_columnconfigure`: query or set the options (such
+ as *weight*, *minsize*, *pad* and *uniform*) of a grid column.
+ :meth:`columnconfigure` is an alias of :meth:`!grid_columnconfigure`.
+
+ .. method:: rowconfigure(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_rowconfigure(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Same as :meth:`Misc.grid_rowconfigure`: query or set the options of a
+ grid row.
+ :meth:`rowconfigure` is an alias of :meth:`!grid_rowconfigure`.
+
+ .. method:: location(x, y)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_location(x, y)
+
+ Same as :meth:`Misc.grid_location`: return the ``(column, row)`` of the
+ cell that covers the pixel at *x*, *y*.
+ :meth:`location` is an alias of :meth:`!grid_location`.
+
+ .. method:: size()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_size()
+
+ Same as :meth:`Misc.grid_size`: return a ``(columns, rows)`` tuple giving
+ the size of the grid.
+ :meth:`size` is an alias of :meth:`!grid_size`,
+ except on the :class:`Listbox` widget,
+ which provides its own :meth:`!size` method.
+
+ .. method:: propagate()
+ propagate(flag)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_propagate()
+ grid_propagate(flag)
+
+ Same as :meth:`Misc.grid_propagate`.
+
+ .. method:: slaves(row=None, column=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: grid_slaves(row=None, column=None)
+
+ Same as :meth:`Misc.grid_slaves`: return the widgets managed in the grid,
+ optionally restricted to a *row* and/or *column*.
+
+
+.. class:: XView()
+
+ Mix-in providing the horizontal-scrolling interface shared by widgets such
+ as :class:`Entry`, :class:`Canvas`, :class:`Listbox`, :class:`Text` and
+ :class:`Spinbox`.
+ A widget's :meth:`xview` method is registered as the *command* of a
+ horizontal :class:`Scrollbar`.
+
+ .. method:: xview(*args)
+
+ Query or change the horizontal position of the view.
+ With no arguments, return a tuple ``(first, last)`` of two fractions
+ between 0 and 1 giving the portion of the document that is currently
+ visible.
+ Otherwise the arguments are passed to the Tk ``xview`` widget command and
+ are usually generated by a scrollbar; :meth:`xview_moveto` and
+ :meth:`xview_scroll` provide a more convenient interface.
+
+ .. method:: xview_moveto(fraction)
+
+ Adjust the view so that *fraction* of the total width of the document is
+ off-screen to the left.
+ *fraction* is a number between 0 and 1.
+
+ .. method:: xview_scroll(number, what)
+
+ Shift the view left or right by *number* units.
+ *what* is either ``'units'`` or ``'pages'``; a negative *number* scrolls
+ left and a positive one scrolls right.
+
+
+.. class:: YView()
+
+ Mix-in providing the vertical-scrolling interface shared by widgets such as
+ :class:`Canvas`, :class:`Listbox` and :class:`Text`.
+ A widget's :meth:`yview` method is registered as the *command* of a vertical
+ :class:`Scrollbar`.
+
+ .. method:: yview(*args)
+
+ Query or change the vertical position of the view.
+ With no arguments, return a tuple ``(first, last)`` of two fractions
+ between 0 and 1 giving the portion of the document that is currently
+ visible.
+ Otherwise the arguments are passed to the Tk ``yview`` widget command,
+ usually generated by a scrollbar; :meth:`yview_moveto` and
+ :meth:`yview_scroll` provide a more convenient interface.
+
+ .. method:: yview_moveto(fraction)
+
+ Adjust the view so that *fraction* of the total height of the document is
+ off-screen above the top.
+ *fraction* is a number between 0 and 1.
+
+ .. method:: yview_scroll(number, what)
+
+ Shift the view up or down by *number* units.
+ *what* is either ``'units'`` or ``'pages'``; a negative *number* scrolls
+ up and a positive one scrolls down.
+
+
+.. class:: BaseWidget(master, widgetName, cnf={}, kw={}, extra=())
+
+ Internal base class for all widgets.
+ It inherits from :class:`Misc` and adds the machinery that creates the
+ underlying Tk widget; application code normally uses :class:`Widget` or a
+ concrete widget class rather than instantiating :class:`!BaseWidget`
+ directly.
+
+ .. method:: destroy()
+
+ Destroy this widget and all of its children, removing the corresponding
+ Tk widgets and deleting the associated Tcl commands.
+
+
+.. class:: Widget(master, widgetName, cnf={}, kw={}, extra=())
+
+ Internal base class for the standard widgets.
+ It combines :class:`BaseWidget` with the geometry-manager mix-ins
+ :class:`Pack`, :class:`Place` and :class:`Grid`, so that every widget can be
+ managed by any of the three geometry managers.
+ The concrete widget classes (:class:`Button`, :class:`Label`, and so on)
+ derive from :class:`!Widget`.
+
+
+Toplevel widgets
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Tk(screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk', useTk=True, sync=False, use=None)
+
+ Construct a toplevel Tk widget, which is usually the main window of an
+ application, and initialize a Tcl interpreter for this widget. Each
+ instance has its own associated Tcl interpreter.
+ Inherits from :class:`Misc` and :class:`Wm`.
+
+ To create a Tcl interpreter without initializing the Tk subsystem, use the
+ :func:`Tcl` factory function instead.
+
+ The :class:`Tk` class is typically instantiated using all default values.
+ However, the following keyword arguments are currently recognized:
+
+ *screenName*
+ When given (as a string), sets the :envvar:`DISPLAY` environment
+ variable. (X11 only)
+ *baseName*
+ Name of the profile file. By default, *baseName* is derived from the
+ program name (``sys.argv[0]``).
+ *className*
+ Name of the widget class. Used as a profile file and also as the name
+ with which Tcl is invoked (*argv0* in *interp*).
+ *useTk*
+ If ``True``, initialize the Tk subsystem. The :func:`tkinter.Tcl() <Tcl>`
+ function sets this to ``False``.
+ *sync*
+ If ``True``, execute all X server commands synchronously, so that errors
+ are reported immediately. Can be used for debugging. (X11 only)
+ *use*
+ Specifies the *id* of the window in which to embed the application,
+ instead of it being created as an independent toplevel window. *id* must
+ be specified in the same way as the value for the -use option for
+ toplevel widgets (that is, it has a form like that returned by
+ :meth:`~Misc.winfo_id`).
+
+ Note that on some platforms this will only work correctly if *id* refers
+ to a Tk frame or toplevel that has its -container option enabled.
+
+ :class:`Tk` reads and interprets profile files, named
+ :file:`.{className}.tcl` and :file:`.{baseName}.tcl`, into the Tcl
+ interpreter and calls :func:`exec` on the contents of
+ :file:`.{className}.py` and :file:`.{baseName}.py`. The path for the
+ profile files is the :envvar:`HOME` environment variable or, if that
+ isn't defined, then :data:`os.curdir`.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ On Windows, creating a Tcl interpreter (by instantiating :class:`Tk` or
+ calling :func:`Tcl`) sets the :envvar:`HOME` environment variable for
+ the process, if it is not already set, to ``%HOMEDRIVE%%HOMEPATH%`` (or
+ :envvar:`USERPROFILE`, or ``c:\``). This is done by Tcl and can affect
+ other code that reads :envvar:`HOME`.
+
+ .. attribute:: tk
+
+ The Tk application object created by instantiating :class:`Tk`. This
+ provides access to the Tcl interpreter. Each widget that is attached
+ the same instance of :class:`Tk` has the same value for its :attr:`tk`
+ attribute.
+
+ .. attribute:: master
+
+ The widget object that contains this widget.
+ For :class:`Tk`, the :attr:`!master` is :const:`None` because it is the
+ main window.
+ The terms *master* and *parent* are similar and sometimes used
+ interchangeably as argument names; however, calling
+ :meth:`~Misc.winfo_parent` returns a string of the widget name whereas
+ :attr:`!master` returns the object.
+ *parent*/*child* reflects the tree-like relationship while *master* (or
+ *container*)/*content* reflects the container structure.
+
+ .. attribute:: children
+
+ The immediate descendants of this widget as a :class:`dict` with the
+ child widget names as the keys and the child instance objects as the
+ values.
+
+ .. method:: destroy()
+
+ Destroy this and all descendant widgets and, for the main window, end the
+ connection to the underlying Tcl interpreter.
+
+ .. method:: loadtk()
+
+ Finish loading and initializing the Tk subsystem.
+ This is needed only when the interpreter was created without Tk (for
+ example through :func:`Tcl`); it is called automatically when *useTk* is
+ true.
+
+ .. method:: readprofile(baseName, className)
+
+ Read and source the user's profile files :file:`.{className}.tcl` and
+ :file:`.{baseName}.tcl` into the Tcl interpreter, and execute the
+ corresponding :file:`.{className}.py` and :file:`.{baseName}.py` files.
+ This is called during initialization; see the description of the
+ constructor above.
+
+ .. method:: report_callback_exception(exc, val, tb)
+
+ Report a callback exception.
+ This is called when an exception propagates out of a Tkinter callback;
+ *exc*, *val* and *tb* are the exception type, value and traceback as
+ returned by :func:`sys.exc_info`.
+ The default implementation prints a traceback to :data:`sys.stderr`.
+ It can be overridden to customize error handling, for example to display
+ the traceback in a dialog.
+
+
+.. class:: Toplevel(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Toplevel` widget is a top-level window, similar to a
+ :class:`Frame` except that its X parent is the root window of a screen
+ rather than its logical parent.
+ Its primary purpose is to serve as a container for dialog boxes and other
+ collections of widgets; its only visible features are its background and an
+ optional 3-D border.
+ Notable options include *menu*, which installs a :class:`Menu` as the
+ window's menubar.
+ Inherits from :class:`BaseWidget` and :class:`Wm`, so a toplevel is managed
+ by the window manager.
+ Refer to the Tk ``toplevel`` manual page for the full list of options.
+
+
+Widget classes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Button(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Button` widget displays a textual string, bitmap or image and
+ invokes a command when the user presses it (by clicking mouse button 1 over
+ the button or, when the button has focus, by pressing the space key).
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`.
+ In addition to the standard widget options, a button accepts the options
+ documented in the Tk ``button`` manual page, such as *command* (the callback
+ invoked when the button is pressed), *textvariable*, *state* and *default*.
+
+ .. method:: invoke()
+
+ Invoke the command associated with the button, if there is one, and
+ return its result, or an empty string if no command is associated with
+ the button.
+ This is ignored if the button's state is ``disabled``.
+
+ .. method:: flash()
+
+ Flash the button by redisplaying it several times, alternating between
+ the active and normal colors.
+ At the end of the flash the button is left in the same normal or active
+ state as when the method was called.
+ This is ignored if the button's state is ``disabled``.
+
+
+.. class:: Canvas(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Canvas` widget implements structured graphics.
+ It displays any number of *items*, such as arcs, lines, ovals, polygons,
+ rectangles, text, bitmaps, images and embedded windows, which may be drawn,
+ moved, re-colored and bound to events.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`, :class:`XView` and :class:`YView`, so the
+ view can be scrolled horizontally and vertically with :meth:`~XView.xview`
+ and :meth:`~YView.yview`.
+ Refer to the Tk ``canvas`` manual page for the full list of widget and item
+ options.
+
+ Each item has a unique integer *id*, assigned when it is created, and zero
+ or more string *tags*.
+ A tag is an arbitrary string that does not have the form of an integer; the
+ same tag may be shared by many items, which makes tags convenient for
+ grouping items.
+ The special tag ``'all'`` matches every item in the canvas, and
+ ``'current'`` matches the topmost item under the mouse pointer.
+ Most methods take a *tagOrId* argument that may be an integer id naming a
+ single item, or a tag naming zero or more items; as described in the Tk
+ ``canvas`` manual page, a tag may also be a logical expression of tags
+ combined with the operators ``&&``, ``||``, ``^``, ``!`` and parentheses.
+ When a method that operates on a single item is given a *tagOrId* matching
+ several items, it normally uses the lowest matching item in the display
+ list.
+
+ The items are kept in a *display list* that determines drawing order: items
+ later in the list are drawn on top of earlier ones.
+ A newly created item is placed at the top of the list; the order can be
+ changed with :meth:`tag_raise` and :meth:`tag_lower`.
+
+ .. method:: create_arc(*args, **kw)
+ create_bitmap(*args, **kw)
+ create_image(*args, **kw)
+ create_line(*args, **kw)
+ create_oval(*args, **kw)
+ create_polygon(*args, **kw)
+ create_rectangle(*args, **kw)
+ create_text(*args, **kw)
+ create_window(*args, **kw)
+
+ Create a new item of the corresponding type and return its integer id.
+ Each method is called as ``create_TYPE(coord..., **options)``: the
+ leading positional arguments give the coordinates that define the item
+ (as separate numbers, as a single sequence of numbers, or as coordinate
+ pairs), and the keyword arguments set item-specific options.
+ Coordinates and screen distances may be given as numbers (interpreted as
+ pixels) or as strings with a unit suffix (``'m'``, ``'c'``, ``'i'`` or
+ ``'p'`` for millimetres, centimetres, inches or printer's points), but
+ are always stored and returned in pixels.
+
+ The item types are: ``arc`` (an arc-shaped region that is a section of an
+ oval, defined by two diagonally opposite corners ``x1, y1, x2, y2`` of
+ the enclosing rectangle); ``bitmap`` (a two-color bitmap positioned at a
+ point ``x, y``); ``image`` (a Tk image positioned at a point ``x, y``);
+ ``line`` (a line or curve through the points ``x1, y1, ..., xn, yn``);
+ ``oval`` (a circle or ellipse inscribed in the rectangle
+ ``x1, y1, x2, y2``); ``polygon`` (a closed polygon through the points
+ ``x1, y1, ..., xn, yn``); ``rectangle`` (a rectangle with corners
+ ``x1, y1, x2, y2``); ``text`` (a string of text positioned at a point
+ ``x, y``); and ``window`` (a child widget embedded in the canvas at a
+ point ``x, y``, specified with the *window* option).
+
+ Most item types accept a common set of *standard item options*, plus a
+ few options specific to each type.
+ Option names are passed as keyword arguments, without the leading
+ hyphen.
+
+ The standard item options are:
+
+ *fill*
+ The color used to fill the item's interior, or to draw a *line*
+ item or the characters of a *text* item.
+ An empty string (the default for all types except *line* and *text*)
+ leaves the item unfilled.
+
+ *outline*
+ The color used to draw the item's outline.
+ An empty string draws no outline.
+
+ *width*
+ The width of the outline, defaulting to ``1.0``.
+ Has no effect if *outline* is empty.
+
+ *dash*
+ A dash pattern for the outline, given either as a sequence of
+ segment lengths in pixels or as a string of the characters
+ ``'.'``, ``','``, ``'-'``, ``'_'`` and space.
+ An empty pattern (the default) draws a solid outline.
+
+ *dashoffset*
+ The starting offset in pixels into the *dash* pattern.
+ Ignored if there is no *dash* pattern.
+
+ *stipple*
+ A bitmap used as a stipple pattern when filling the item.
+ Only well supported on X11.
+
+ *outlinestipple*
+ A bitmap used as a stipple pattern when drawing the outline.
+ Has no effect if *outline* is empty.
+
+ *offset*, *outlineoffset*
+ The offset of the fill and outline stipple patterns, given as
+ ``'x,y'`` or as a side such as ``'n'``, ``'se'`` or ``'center'``.
+ Stipple offsets are only supported on X11.
+
+ *state*
+ Overrides the canvas state for this item; one of ``'normal'``,
+ ``'disabled'`` or ``'hidden'``.
+
+ *tags*
+ A single tag or a sequence of tags to associate with the item,
+ replacing any existing tags.
+
+ Many of these options have *active...* and *disabled...* variants
+ (such as *activefill*, *disabledfill*, *activewidth*, *disableddash*,
+ *activeoutline*, *disabledstipple*) that override the base option when
+ the item is the active item (under the mouse pointer) or is in the
+ disabled state.
+
+ The following item types support additional options.
+
+ For ``arc`` items:
+
+ *start*
+ The start of the arc's angular range, in degrees measured
+ counter-clockwise from the 3-o'clock position.
+
+ *extent*
+ The size of the angular range, in degrees counter-clockwise from
+ *start*.
+
+ *style*
+ How the arc is drawn: ``'pieslice'`` (the default), ``'chord'`` or
+ ``'arc'``.
+
+ For ``line`` items:
+
+ *arrow*
+ Where to draw arrowheads: ``'none'`` (the default), ``'first'``,
+ ``'last'`` or ``'both'``.
+
+ *arrowshape*
+ A sequence of three distances describing the shape of the
+ arrowheads.
+
+ *capstyle*
+ How line ends are drawn: ``'butt'`` (the default), ``'projecting'``
+ or ``'round'``.
+
+ *joinstyle*
+ How line vertices are drawn: ``'round'`` (the default), ``'bevel'``
+ or ``'miter'``.
+
+ *smooth*
+ The smoothing method: a false value (the default) for no smoothing,
+ or ``'true'``/``'bezier'`` or ``'raw'`` to draw the line as a curve.
+
+ *splinesteps*
+ The number of line segments approximating each spline when
+ *smooth* is enabled.
+
+ For ``polygon`` items:
+
+ *joinstyle*, *smooth*, *splinesteps*
+ As for ``line`` items, applied to the polygon's outline.
+
+ For ``text`` items:
+
+ *text*
+ The string to display; newline characters start new lines.
+
+ *font*
+ The font used for the text.
+
+ *justify*
+ How lines are justified: ``'left'`` (the default), ``'right'`` or
+ ``'center'``.
+
+ *anchor*
+ How the text is positioned relative to its point, defaulting to
+ ``'center'``.
+
+ *width*
+ The maximum line length; if non-zero, lines are wrapped at spaces.
+
+ *angle*
+ How many degrees to rotate the text counter-clockwise about its
+ positioning point, from ``0.0`` to ``360.0`` (default ``0.0``).
+
+ *underline*
+ The index of a character to underline, or ``-1`` for none.
+
+ For ``bitmap`` items:
+
+ *bitmap*
+ The bitmap to display.
+
+ *anchor*
+ How the bitmap is positioned relative to its point.
+
+ *background*, *foreground*
+ The colors used for the bitmap's ``0`` and ``1`` pixels; an empty
+ *background* makes the ``0`` pixels transparent.
+ Both have *active...* and *disabled...* variants, and *bitmap* has
+ *activebitmap* and *disabledbitmap* variants.
+
+ For ``image`` items:
+
+ *image*
+ The Tk image to display, previously created with the image
+ protocols.
+
+ *anchor*
+ How the image is positioned relative to its point.
+
+ Both options have *active...* and *disabled...* variants
+ (*activeimage*, *disabledimage*) used in the active and disabled
+ states.
+
+ For ``window`` items:
+
+ *window*
+ The widget to embed; it must be a child of the canvas or of one of
+ its ancestors, and may not be a top-level window.
+
+ *anchor*
+ How the window is positioned relative to its point.
+
+ *width*, *height*
+ The size to assign to the window; if zero (the default), the window
+ is given its requested size.
+
+ ``oval`` and ``rectangle`` items have no type-specific options; they
+ use only the standard item options.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ Tk 8.6 added the *angle* option and Tk 9.0 added the *underline*
+ option for ``text`` items.
+
+ .. method:: coords(tagOrId)
+ coords(tagOrId, coordList, /)
+ coords(tagOrId, /, *coordList)
+
+ Query or modify the coordinates of an item.
+ With only *tagOrId*, return a list of the floating-point coordinates of
+ the item given by *tagOrId* (the first matching item if it matches
+ several).
+ Given new coordinates, replace the coordinates of that item with them;
+ like the ``create_*`` methods, the coordinates may be given as separate
+ numbers, as a single sequence, or as coordinate pairs.
+ The returned coordinates are always in pixels, regardless of the units
+ used to specify them; for rectangles, ovals and arcs they are ordered
+ left, top, right, bottom.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ The arguments are now flattened: the coordinates may be given as
+ separate arguments, as a single sequence, or grouped in pairs, like
+ the ``create_*`` methods.
+
+
+ .. method:: move(tagOrId, xAmount, yAmount, /)
+
+ Move each of the items given by *tagOrId* in the canvas coordinate space
+ by adding *xAmount* to every x-coordinate and *yAmount* to every
+ y-coordinate of the item.
+
+ .. method:: moveto(tagOrId, x='', y='')
+
+ Move the items given by *tagOrId* so that the first coordinate pair (the
+ upper-left corner of the bounding box) of the lowest matching item is at
+ position (*x*, *y*).
+ *x* or *y* may be an empty string, in which case the corresponding
+ coordinate is unchanged.
+ All matching items keep their positions relative to each other.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+
+ .. method:: scale(tagOrId, xOrigin, yOrigin, xScale, yScale, /)
+
+ Rescale the coordinates of all items given by *tagOrId* in canvas
+ coordinate space.
+ Each x-coordinate is adjusted so that its distance from *xOrigin* changes
+ by a factor of *xScale*, and each y-coordinate so that its distance from
+ *yOrigin* changes by a factor of *yScale* (a factor of ``1.0`` leaves the
+ coordinate unchanged).
+
+ .. method:: delete(*tagOrIds)
+
+ Delete each of the items given by the *tagOrIds* arguments.
+
+ .. method:: dchars(tagOrId, first, /)
+ dchars(tagOrId, first, last, /)
+
+ Delete from each of the items given by *tagOrId* the characters (for text
+ items) or coordinates (for line and polygon items) in the range from
+ *first* to *last* inclusive; *last* defaults to *first*.
+ Items that do not support indexing ignore this operation.
+
+ .. method:: insert(tagOrId, beforeThis, string, /)
+
+ Insert *string* into each of the items given by *tagOrId* just before the
+ character or coordinate whose index is *beforeThis*.
+ For line and polygon items *string* must be a valid sequence of
+ coordinates.
+
+ .. method:: itemcget(tagOrId, option)
+
+ Return the current value of the configuration option *option* for the
+ item given by *tagOrId* (the lowest matching item if it matches several).
+ This is like :meth:`~Misc.cget` but applies to an individual item.
+
+ .. method:: itemconfig(tagOrId, cnf=None, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: itemconfigure(tagOrId, cnf=None, **kw)
+
+ Query or modify the configuration options of the items given by
+ *tagOrId*.
+ This mirrors :meth:`~Misc.configure`, except that it applies to
+ individual items rather than to the canvas as a whole.
+ With no options, it returns a dictionary describing the current options
+ of the first matching item; otherwise it sets the given options on every
+ matching item.
+ The legal options are those accepted by the corresponding ``create_*``
+ method.
+ :meth:`itemconfig` is an alias of :meth:`!itemconfigure`.
+
+ .. method:: type(tagOrId)
+
+ Return the type of the item given by *tagOrId* (the first matching item
+ if it matches several), such as ``'rectangle'`` or ``'text'``, or
+ ``None`` if *tagOrId* does not match any item.
+
+ .. method:: gettags(tagOrId, /)
+
+ Return a tuple of the tags associated with the item given by *tagOrId*
+ (the first matching item in display-list order if it matches several).
+ Return an empty tuple if no item matches or the item has no tags.
+
+ .. method:: dtag(tagOrId, /)
+ dtag(tagOrId, tagToDelete, /)
+
+ Remove the tag *tagToDelete* (which defaults to *tagOrId*) from each of
+ the items given by *tagOrId*.
+ Items that do not have that tag are unaffected.
+
+ .. method:: addtag(newtag, searchSpec, /, *args)
+
+ Add the tag *newtag* to each item selected by the search specification
+ *searchSpec* (and any further *args*).
+ *searchSpec* is one of ``'above'``, ``'all'``, ``'below'``,
+ ``'closest'``, ``'enclosed'``, ``'overlapping'`` or ``'withtag'``; the
+ ``addtag_*`` methods below are convenient wrappers that supply each of
+ these forms.
+
+ .. method:: addtag_above(newtag, tagOrId)
+
+ Add the tag *newtag* to the item just above (after) *tagOrId* in the
+ display list.
+
+ .. method:: addtag_all(newtag)
+
+ Add the tag *newtag* to all items in the canvas.
+
+ .. method:: addtag_below(newtag, tagOrId)
+
+ Add the tag *newtag* to the item just below (before) *tagOrId* in the
+ display list.
+
+ .. method:: addtag_closest(newtag, x, y, halo=None, start=None)
+
+ Add the tag *newtag* to the item closest to the point (*x*, *y*).
+ If *halo* is given, any item within that distance of the point is treated
+ as overlapping it.
+ If *start* is given (a tag or id), select the topmost closest item that
+ lies below *start* in the display list, which can be used to step through
+ all the closest items.
+
+ .. method:: addtag_enclosed(newtag, x1, y1, x2, y2)
+
+ Add the tag *newtag* to every item completely enclosed within the
+ rectangle (*x1*, *y1*, *x2*, *y2*), where *x1* <= *x2* and *y1* <= *y2*.
+
+ .. method:: addtag_overlapping(newtag, x1, y1, x2, y2)
+
+ Add the tag *newtag* to every item that overlaps or is enclosed within
+ the rectangle (*x1*, *y1*, *x2*, *y2*), where *x1* <= *x2* and *y1* <=
+ *y2*.
+
+ .. method:: addtag_withtag(newtag, tagOrId)
+
+ Add the tag *newtag* to every item given by *tagOrId*.
+
+ .. method:: find(searchSpec, /, *args)
+
+ Return a tuple of the ids of all items selected by the search
+ specification *searchSpec* (and any further *args*), in stacking order
+ with the lowest item first.
+ The search specification has any of the forms accepted by :meth:`addtag`.
+ The ``find_*`` methods below are more convenient wrappers around it.
+
+ .. method:: find_above(tagOrId)
+
+ Return a tuple containing the id of the item just above *tagOrId* in the
+ display list.
+
+ .. method:: find_all()
+
+ Return a tuple of the ids of all items in the canvas, in stacking order.
+
+ .. method:: find_below(tagOrId)
+
+ Return a tuple containing the id of the item just below *tagOrId* in the
+ display list.
+
+ .. method:: find_closest(x, y, halo=None, start=None)
+
+ Return a tuple containing the id of the item closest to the point (*x*,
+ *y*).
+ *halo* and *start* are interpreted as for :meth:`addtag_closest`.
+
+ .. method:: find_enclosed(x1, y1, x2, y2)
+
+ Return a tuple of the ids of all items completely enclosed within the
+ rectangle (*x1*, *y1*, *x2*, *y2*).
+
+ .. method:: find_overlapping(x1, y1, x2, y2)
+
+ Return a tuple of the ids of all items that overlap or are enclosed
+ within the rectangle (*x1*, *y1*, *x2*, *y2*).
+
+ .. method:: find_withtag(tagOrId)
+
+ Return a tuple of the ids of all items given by *tagOrId*.
+
+ .. method:: lift(tagOrId, aboveThis=None, /)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: tkraise(tagOrId, aboveThis=None, /)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: tag_raise(tagOrId, aboveThis=None, /)
+
+ Move all items given by *tagOrId* to a new position in the display list
+ just above the item given by *aboveThis*, or to the top of the display
+ list if *aboveThis* is omitted.
+ When several items are moved their relative order is preserved.
+ This has no effect on embedded window items, whose stacking order is
+ controlled by :meth:`Misc.tkraise` and :meth:`Misc.lower` instead.
+ :meth:`lift` and :meth:`tkraise` are aliases of :meth:`!tag_raise`.
+
+ .. method:: lower(tagOrId, belowThis=None, /)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: tag_lower(tagOrId, belowThis=None, /)
+
+ Move all items given by *tagOrId* to a new position in the display list
+ just below the item given by *belowThis*, or to the bottom of the display
+ list if *belowThis* is omitted.
+ When several items are moved their relative order is preserved.
+ This has no effect on embedded window items.
+ :meth:`lower` is an alias of :meth:`!tag_lower`.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ On a :class:`Canvas`, :meth:`tkraise`/:meth:`lift` and :meth:`lower`
+ restack canvas items,
+ shadowing the inherited :meth:`Misc.tkraise`/:meth:`Misc.lift` and
+ :meth:`Misc.lower` methods that restack the widget itself,
+ which are therefore not available.
+
+ .. method:: tag_bind(tagOrId, sequence=None, func=None, add=None)
+
+ Bind the callback *func* to the event *sequence* for all items given by
+ *tagOrId*, so that *func* is invoked whenever that event occurs for one
+ of the items.
+ This is like :meth:`Widget.bind <Misc.bind>` but operates on canvas items
+ rather than on whole widgets; only mouse, keyboard and virtual events may
+ be bound.
+ Mouse events are directed to the current item and keyboard events to the
+ focus item (see :meth:`focus`).
+ If *add* is true the new binding is added to any existing bindings for
+ the same sequence, rather than replacing them.
+ Return the identifier of the bound function, which can be passed to
+ :meth:`tag_unbind`.
+
+ .. method:: tag_unbind(tagOrId, sequence, funcid=None)
+
+ Remove for all items given by *tagOrId* the binding for the event
+ *sequence*.
+ If *funcid* is given, only that callback (as returned by
+ :meth:`tag_bind`) is unbound and deregistered.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ If *funcid* is given, only that callback is unbound.
+
+
+ .. method:: bbox(tagOrId, /, *tagOrIds)
+
+ Return a 4-tuple ``(x1, y1, x2, y2)`` giving an approximate bounding box,
+ in pixels, that encloses all the items given by *tagOrId* and any further
+ *tagOrIds*.
+ The result may overestimate the true bounding box by a few pixels.
+ Return ``None`` if no item matches or the matching items have nothing to
+ display.
+
+ This shadows the inherited :meth:`!Misc.bbox`;
+ use :meth:`~Misc.grid_bbox` for the grid bounding box.
+
+ .. method:: canvasx(screenx, gridspacing=None)
+
+ Given a window x-coordinate *screenx*, return the canvas x-coordinate
+ displayed at that location.
+ If *gridspacing* is given, the result is rounded to the nearest multiple
+ of *gridspacing* units.
+
+ .. method:: canvasy(screeny, gridspacing=None)
+
+ Given a window y-coordinate *screeny*, return the canvas y-coordinate
+ displayed at that location.
+ If *gridspacing* is given, the result is rounded to the nearest multiple
+ of *gridspacing* units.
+
+ .. method:: focus()
+ focus(tagOrId, /)
+
+ With *tagOrId*, set the keyboard focus for the canvas to the first item
+ given by *tagOrId* that supports the insertion cursor; the focus is left
+ unchanged if no such item exists.
+ If *tagOrId* is an empty string, reset the focus so that no item has it.
+ With no argument, return the id of the item that currently has the focus,
+ or an empty string if none does.
+ An item only displays the insertion cursor when both it is the focus item
+ and its canvas has the input focus.
+
+ This shadows the inherited :meth:`!Misc.focus`;
+ use :meth:`~Misc.focus_set` to focus the widget itself.
+
+ .. method:: icursor(tagOrId, index, /)
+
+ Set the insertion cursor of the items given by *tagOrId* to just before
+ the character given by *index*.
+ Items that do not support an insertion cursor are unaffected.
+ The cursor is only displayed when the item has the focus, but its
+ position may be set at any time.
+
+ .. method:: index(tagOrId, index, /)
+
+ Return as an integer the numerical index within *tagOrId* corresponding
+ to *index*, which is a textual description of a position (for text items
+ an index into the characters, for line and polygon items an index into
+ the coordinates).
+ If *tagOrId* matches several items, the first one that supports indexing
+ is used.
+
+ .. method:: select_adjust(tagOrId, index)
+
+ Adjust the end of the selection in *tagOrId* nearest to *index* so that
+ it is at *index*, and make the other end the anchor point for future
+ :meth:`select_to` calls.
+ If the selection is not currently in *tagOrId*, this behaves like
+ :meth:`select_to`.
+
+ .. method:: select_clear()
+
+ Clear the selection if it is in this canvas; otherwise do nothing.
+
+ .. method:: select_from(tagOrId, index)
+
+ Set the selection anchor point to just before the character given by
+ *index* in the item given by *tagOrId*.
+ This does not change the selection itself; it sets the fixed end for
+ future :meth:`select_to` calls.
+
+ .. method:: select_item()
+
+ Return the id of the item that holds the selection, or ``None`` if the
+ selection is not in this canvas.
+ Unlike :meth:`find` and the ``find_*`` methods, this returns the id as a
+ string rather than an integer.
+
+ .. method:: select_to(tagOrId, index)
+
+ Set the selection to the characters of *tagOrId* between the selection
+ anchor point and *index*, inclusive of *index*.
+ The anchor point is the one set by the most recent :meth:`select_adjust`
+ or :meth:`select_from` call.
+
+ .. method:: scan_mark(x, y)
+
+ Record *x*, *y* and the current view, for use with later
+ :meth:`scan_dragto` calls.
+ This is typically bound to a mouse button press in the widget.
+
+ .. method:: scan_dragto(x, y, gain=10)
+
+ Scroll the canvas by *gain* times the difference between *x*, *y* and the
+ coordinates passed to the last :meth:`scan_mark` call.
+ This is typically bound to mouse motion events in the widget, producing
+ the effect of dragging the canvas at high speed through its window.
+
+ .. method:: postscript(cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Generate a PostScript (Encapsulated PostScript, version 3.0)
+ representation of part or all of the canvas.
+ If the *file* or *channel* option is given, the PostScript is written
+ there and an empty string is returned; otherwise it is returned as a
+ string.
+ By default only the area currently visible in the window is generated, so
+ it is usually necessary either to call :meth:`~Misc.update` first or to
+ use the *width* and *height* options.
+ Supported options include *colormap*, *colormode*, *file*, *fontmap*,
+ *height*, *pageanchor*, *pageheight*, *pagewidth*, *pagex*, *pagey*,
+ *rotate*, *width*, *x* and *y*.
+
+
+.. class:: Checkbutton(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Checkbutton` widget displays a textual string, bitmap or image
+ together with a square indicator, and toggles a boolean selection when
+ pressed.
+ It has all the behavior of a simple button and, in addition, can be
+ selected: when selected the indicator is drawn with a check mark and the
+ associated variable is set to the ``onvalue``, and when deselected the
+ indicator is drawn empty and the variable is set to the ``offvalue``.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`.
+ In addition to the standard widget options, a checkbutton accepts the
+ options documented in the Tk ``checkbutton`` manual page, such as
+ *variable*, *onvalue*, *offvalue* and *command*.
+
+ .. method:: invoke()
+
+ Do just what would happen if the user pressed the checkbutton with the
+ mouse: toggle the selection state of the button and invoke the associated
+ command, if there is one.
+ Return the result of the command, or an empty string if no command is
+ associated with the checkbutton.
+ This is ignored if the checkbutton's state is ``disabled``.
+
+ .. method:: select()
+
+ Select the checkbutton and set the associated variable to its
+ ``onvalue``.
+
+ .. method:: deselect()
+
+ Deselect the checkbutton and set the associated variable to its
+ ``offvalue``.
+
+ .. method:: toggle()
+
+ Toggle the selection state of the button, redisplaying it and modifying
+ its associated variable to reflect the new state.
+
+ .. method:: flash()
+
+ Flash the checkbutton by redisplaying it several times, alternating
+ between the active and normal colors.
+ At the end of the flash the checkbutton is left in the same normal or
+ active state as when the method was called.
+ This is ignored if the checkbutton's state is ``disabled``.
+
+
+.. class:: Entry(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ An :class:`!Entry` widget displays a single line of text and lets the user
+ edit it.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget` and :class:`XView`; since entries can hold
+ strings too long to fit in the window, they support horizontal scrolling
+ through :meth:`~XView.xview`.
+
+ In addition to the standard widget options, an entry accepts the options
+ documented in the Tk ``entry`` manual page.
+ Notable ones are *textvariable* (the name of a variable kept in sync with
+ the entry's contents), *show* (if set, each character is displayed as the
+ given character rather than its true value, useful for password entry),
+ *validate* and *validatecommand* (which together let a callback accept or
+ reject edits), and *state* (one of ``'normal'``, ``'disabled'`` or
+ ``'readonly'``).
+
+ Many of the methods below take an *index* argument that selects a character
+ in the entry's string.
+ As described in the Tk ``entry`` manual page, *index* may be a number
+ (counting from 0), ``'insert'`` (the character just after the insertion
+ cursor), ``'end'`` (just after the last character), ``'anchor'`` (the
+ selection anchor point), ``'sel.first'`` and ``'sel.last'`` (the ends of the
+ selection), or ``@x`` (the character covering pixel x-coordinate *x* in the
+ window).
+ Out-of-range indices are rounded to the nearest legal value.
+
+ .. method:: delete(first, last=None)
+
+ Delete the characters from index *first* up to but not including index
+ *last*.
+ If *last* is omitted, only the single character at *first* is deleted.
+
+ .. method:: get()
+
+ Return the entry's current string.
+
+ .. method:: insert(index, string)
+
+ Insert *string* just before the character given by *index*.
+
+ .. method:: icursor(index)
+
+ Arrange for the insertion cursor to be displayed just before the
+ character given by *index*.
+
+ .. method:: index(index)
+
+ Return the numerical index corresponding to *index*.
+
+ .. method:: select_adjust(index)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: selection_adjust(index)
+
+ Locate the end of the selection nearest to the character given by
+ *index*, and adjust that end to be at *index* (including but not going
+ beyond it); the other end becomes the anchor point for future
+ :meth:`selection_to` calls.
+ If there is no selection in the entry, a new one is created between
+ *index* and the most recent anchor point, inclusive.
+ :meth:`select_adjust` is an alias of :meth:`!selection_adjust`.
+
+ .. method:: select_clear()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: selection_clear()
+
+ Clear the selection if it is currently in this widget.
+ If the selection is not in this widget the method has no effect.
+ :meth:`select_clear` is an alias of :meth:`!selection_clear`.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ This shadows the inherited :meth:`Misc.selection_clear`,
+ which clears the X selection;
+ that method is not available on an :class:`Entry`.
+
+ .. method:: select_from(index)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: selection_from(index)
+
+ Set the selection anchor point to just before the character given by
+ *index*, without changing the selection.
+ :meth:`select_from` is an alias of :meth:`!selection_from`.
+
+ .. method:: select_present()
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: selection_present()
+
+ Return ``True`` if there are characters selected in the entry, ``False``
+ otherwise.
+ :meth:`select_present` is an alias of :meth:`!selection_present`.
+
+ .. method:: select_range(start, end)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: selection_range(start, end)
+
+ Set the selection to include the characters starting with the one indexed
+ by *start* and ending with the one just before *end*.
+ If *end* refers to the same character as *start* or an earlier one, the
+ selection is cleared.
+ :meth:`select_range` is an alias of :meth:`!selection_range`.
+
+ .. method:: select_to(index)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: selection_to(index)
+
+ Set the selection between the anchor point and *index*: if *index* is
+ before the anchor point, the selection runs from *index* up to but not
+ including the anchor; if *index* is after it, from the anchor up to but
+ not including *index*; if they coincide, nothing happens.
+ The anchor point is the one set by the most recent :meth:`selection_from`
+ or :meth:`selection_adjust` call.
+ If there is no selection in the entry, a new one is created using the
+ most recent anchor point.
+ :meth:`select_to` is an alias of :meth:`!selection_to`.
+
+ .. method:: scan_mark(x)
+
+ Record *x* and the current view in the entry window, for use with later
+ :meth:`scan_dragto` calls.
+ Typically associated with a mouse button press in the widget.
+
+ .. method:: scan_dragto(x)
+
+ Compute the difference between *x* and the *x* given to the last
+ :meth:`scan_mark` call, and adjust the view left or right by 10 times
+ that difference.
+ Typically associated with mouse motion events, to produce the effect of
+ dragging the entry at high speed through the window.
+
+
+.. class:: Frame(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Frame` widget is a simple container.
+ Its primary purpose is to act as a spacer or container for complex window
+ layouts; its only features are its background and an optional 3-D border to
+ make the frame appear raised or sunken.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`.
+ Refer to the Tk ``frame`` manual page for the full list of options.
+
+
+.. class:: Label(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Label` widget displays a non-interactive textual string, bitmap
+ or image.
+ The displayed text is set with the *text* option or linked to a variable
+ through *textvariable*, and an image can be shown using the *image* option.
+ Text must all be in a single font but may occupy multiple lines, and one
+ character may be underlined with the *underline* option.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`.
+ Refer to the Tk ``label`` manual page for the full list of options.
+
+
+.. class:: LabelFrame(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!LabelFrame` widget is a container that has the features of a
+ :class:`Frame` plus the ability to display a label.
+ The label text is set with the *text* option and positioned with
+ *labelanchor*, or an arbitrary widget may be used as the label by giving it
+ as the *labelwidget* option.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`.
+ Refer to the Tk ``labelframe`` manual page for the full list of options.
+
+
+.. class:: Listbox(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Listbox` widget displays a list of single-line text items, one
+ per line, of which the user can select one or more.
+ The way the selection behaves is governed by the *selectmode* option, which
+ is one of ``browse`` (the default; at most one item, which may be dragged
+ with the mouse), ``single`` (at most one item), ``multiple`` (any number of
+ items, toggled individually), or ``extended`` (any number of items,
+ including discontiguous ranges, selected by clicking and dragging).
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`, :class:`XView` and :class:`YView`, so the
+ view can be scrolled horizontally and vertically with :meth:`~XView.xview`
+ and :meth:`~YView.yview`.
+ Refer to the Tk ``listbox`` manual page for the full list of options.
+
+ Many of the methods take an *index* argument identifying a particular item.
+ As described in the Tk ``listbox`` manual page, *index* may be a numeric
+ index (counting from 0 at the top), ``'active'`` (the item with the location
+ cursor, set with :meth:`activate`), ``'anchor'`` (the selection anchor, set
+ with :meth:`selection_anchor`), ``'end'`` (the last item, or for
+ :meth:`index` and :meth:`insert` the position just after it), or ``@x,y``
+ (the item covering pixel coordinates *x*, *y* in the listbox window).
+ Arguments named *first* and *last* are indices of the same forms.
+
+ .. method:: insert(index, *elements)
+
+ Insert the given *elements* as new items just before the item given by
+ *index*.
+ If *index* is ``'end'``, the new items are appended to the end of the
+ list.
+
+ .. method:: delete(first, last=None)
+
+ Delete the items in the range from *first* to *last* inclusive.
+ If *last* is omitted, it defaults to *first*, so that a single item is
+ deleted.
+
+ .. method:: get(first, last=None)
+
+ If *last* is omitted, return the contents of the item given by *first*,
+ or an empty string if *first* refers to a non-existent item.
+ If *last* is given, return a tuple of all the items in the range from
+ *first* to *last* inclusive.
+
+ .. method:: size()
+
+ Return the total number of items in the listbox.
+
+ This shadows the inherited :meth:`!Misc.size`;
+ use :meth:`~Misc.grid_size` for the grid size.
+
+ .. method:: index(index)
+
+ Return the integer index value corresponding to *index*, or ``None`` if
+ *index* is out of range.
+ If *index* is ``'end'``, the result is a count of the number of items in
+ the listbox (not the index of the last item).
+
+ .. method:: bbox(index)
+
+ Return a tuple ``(x, y, width, height)`` describing the bounding box, in
+ pixels relative to the widget, of the text of the item given by *index*.
+ Return ``None`` if no part of that item is visible on the screen, or if
+ *index* refers to a non-existent item; if the item is only partly
+ visible, the result still gives the full area of the item, including the
+ parts that are not visible.
+
+ This shadows the inherited :meth:`!Misc.bbox`;
+ use :meth:`~Misc.grid_bbox` for the grid bounding box.
+
+ .. method:: nearest(y)
+
+ Given a y-coordinate within the listbox window, return the index of the
+ visible item nearest to that y-coordinate.
+
+ .. method:: see(index)
+
+ Adjust the view so that the item given by *index* is visible.
+ If the item is already visible the method has no effect; if it is near an
+ edge of the window the listbox scrolls just enough to bring it into view
+ at that edge, otherwise the listbox scrolls to center the item.
+
+ .. method:: activate(index)
+
+ Set the active item to the one given by *index*.
+ If *index* is outside the range of items, the closest item is activated
+ instead.
+ The active item is drawn as specified by the *activestyle* option when
+ the widget has the input focus, and its index may be retrieved with the
+ ``'active'`` index.
+
+ .. method:: curselection()
+
+ Return a tuple containing the numerical indices of all of the items that
+ are currently selected, or an empty tuple if no items are selected.
+
+ .. method:: select_anchor(index)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: selection_anchor(index)
+
+ Set the selection anchor to the item given by *index*.
+ If *index* refers to a non-existent item, the closest item is used.
+ The selection anchor is the end of the selection that is fixed while
+ dragging out a selection with the mouse, and may afterwards be referred
+ to with the ``'anchor'`` index.
+ :meth:`select_anchor` is an alias of :meth:`!selection_anchor`.
+
+ .. method:: select_clear(first, last=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: selection_clear(first, last=None)
+
+ Deselect any of the items in the range from *first* to *last* inclusive
+ that are selected.
+ The selection state of items outside this range is not changed.
+ :meth:`select_clear` is an alias of :meth:`!selection_clear`.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ This shadows the inherited :meth:`Misc.selection_clear`,
+ which clears the X selection;
+ that method is not available on a :class:`Listbox`.
+
+ .. method:: select_includes(index)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: selection_includes(index)
+
+ Return ``True`` if the item given by *index* is currently selected,
+ ``False`` otherwise.
+ :meth:`select_includes` is an alias of :meth:`!selection_includes`.
+
+ .. method:: select_set(first, last=None)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: selection_set(first, last=None)
+
+ Select all of the items in the range from *first* to *last* inclusive,
+ without affecting the selection state of items outside that range.
+ :meth:`select_set` is an alias of :meth:`!selection_set`.
+
+ .. method:: itemcget(index, option)
+
+ Return the current value of the configuration option *option* for the
+ item given by *index*.
+
+ .. method:: itemconfig(index, cnf=None, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: itemconfigure(index, cnf=None, **kw)
+
+ Query or modify the configuration options of the item given by *index*.
+ This mirrors :meth:`~Misc.configure`, except that it applies to an
+ individual item rather than to the listbox as a whole.
+ With no options, it returns a dictionary describing the current options
+ of the item; otherwise it sets the given options.
+ The supported item options are *background*, *foreground*,
+ *selectbackground* and *selectforeground*.
+ :meth:`itemconfig` is an alias of :meth:`!itemconfigure`.
+
+ .. method:: scan_mark(x, y)
+
+ Record *x*, *y* and the current view, for use with later
+ :meth:`scan_dragto` calls.
+ This is typically bound to a mouse button press in the widget.
+
+ .. method:: scan_dragto(x, y)
+
+ Scroll the listbox by 10 times the difference between *x*, *y* and the
+ coordinates passed to the last :meth:`scan_mark` call.
+ This is typically bound to mouse motion events in the widget, producing
+ the effect of dragging the list at high speed through the window.
+
+
+.. class:: Menu(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Menu` widget displays a column of entries, each of which may be a
+ command, a checkbutton, a radiobutton, a cascade (which posts an associated
+ submenu) or a separator.
+ Menus are used as the menubar of a toplevel window, as pulldown menus posted
+ from a cascade entry or menubutton, and as popup menus.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`.
+
+ Many of the entry methods take an *index* argument that selects which entry
+ to operate on.
+ As described in the Tk ``menu`` manual page, *index* may be a numeric index
+ (counting from 0 at the top), ``'active'`` (the currently active entry),
+ ``'end'`` or ``'last'`` (the bottommost entry), ``'none'`` (no entry at all,
+ written ``{}`` in Tcl), ``@y`` (the entry covering pixel y-coordinate *y* in
+ the menu window), or a pattern matched against the labels of the entries
+ from the top down.
+
+ .. method:: add(itemType, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Add a new entry to the bottom of the menu.
+ *itemType* is one of ``'command'``, ``'cascade'``, ``'checkbutton'``,
+ ``'radiobutton'`` or ``'separator'`` and determines the type of the new
+ entry; the remaining options configure it.
+ The :meth:`!add_command`, :meth:`!add_cascade`, :meth:`!add_checkbutton`,
+ :meth:`!add_radiobutton` and :meth:`!add_separator` convenience methods
+ call this method with the corresponding *itemType*.
+
+ The entry is configured by the following options, although not every
+ option applies to every entry type (a separator accepts none of them):
+
+ *label*
+ The text to display in the entry.
+
+ *command*
+ The function to call when the entry is invoked (command, checkbutton
+ and radiobutton entries).
+
+ *accelerator*
+ A string displayed at the right of the entry to advertise an
+ accelerator keystroke; it does not itself create the binding.
+
+ *underline*
+ The index of a character in the label to underline for keyboard
+ traversal.
+
+ *state*
+ One of ``'normal'``, ``'active'`` or ``'disabled'``.
+
+ *image*
+ An image to display instead of, or together with, the text label.
+
+ *compound*
+ Where to show the image relative to the text: ``'none'`` (the
+ default), ``'text'``, ``'image'``, ``'top'``, ``'bottom'``, ``'left'``
+ or ``'right'``.
+
+ *bitmap*
+ A bitmap to display instead of the text label.
+
+ *font*
+ The font to use for the text.
+
+ *background*, *foreground*
+ The entry's background and foreground colors in its normal state
+ (ignored on macOS).
+
+ *activebackground*, *activeforeground*
+ The background and foreground colors used when the entry is active
+ (ignored on macOS).
+
+ *columnbreak*
+ If true, the entry starts a new column instead of being placed below
+ the previous entry.
+
+ *hidemargin*
+ If true, the standard margin around the entry is omitted, which is
+ useful when a menu is used as a palette.
+
+ *menu*
+ The submenu posted by a cascade entry; it must be a child of this
+ menu.
+
+ *variable*
+ The variable associated with a checkbutton or radiobutton entry.
+
+ *onvalue*, *offvalue*
+ The values stored in *variable* when a checkbutton entry is selected
+ or cleared.
+
+ *value*
+ The value stored in *variable* when a radiobutton entry is selected.
+
+ *indicatoron*
+ Whether to display the indicator of a checkbutton or radiobutton
+ entry.
+
+ *selectcolor*
+ The color of the indicator of a checkbutton or radiobutton entry when
+ it is selected.
+
+ *selectimage*
+ The image displayed when a checkbutton or radiobutton entry is
+ selected and *image* is also given.
+
+ .. method:: add_cascade(cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Add a new cascade entry to the bottom of the menu.
+ A cascade entry has an associated submenu, given by its *menu* option,
+ which must be a child of this menu; posting the entry posts the submenu
+ next to it.
+
+ .. method:: add_checkbutton(cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Add a new checkbutton entry to the bottom of the menu.
+ When invoked, a checkbutton entry toggles between its *onvalue* and
+ *offvalue*, storing the result in its associated *variable*, and displays
+ an indicator showing whether it is selected.
+
+ .. method:: add_command(cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Add a new command entry to the bottom of the menu.
+ A command entry behaves much like a button: when it is invoked, the
+ callback given by its *command* option is called.
+
+ .. method:: add_radiobutton(cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Add a new radiobutton entry to the bottom of the menu.
+ Radiobutton entries sharing the same *variable* form a group of which
+ only one may be selected at a time; selecting an entry stores its *value*
+ in the variable.
+
+ .. method:: add_separator(cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Add a separator to the bottom of the menu.
+ A separator is displayed as a horizontal dividing line and cannot be
+ activated or invoked.
+
+ .. method:: insert(index, itemType, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Same as :meth:`add`, except that the new entry is inserted just before
+ the entry given by *index* instead of being appended to the end of the
+ menu.
+ *itemType* is one of ``'command'``, ``'cascade'``, ``'checkbutton'``,
+ ``'radiobutton'`` or ``'separator'``.
+ The :meth:`!insert_command`, :meth:`!insert_cascade`,
+ :meth:`!insert_checkbutton`, :meth:`!insert_radiobutton` and
+ :meth:`!insert_separator` convenience methods call this method with the
+ corresponding *itemType*.
+
+ .. method:: insert_cascade(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Insert a new cascade entry before the entry given by *index* (see
+ :meth:`add_cascade`).
+
+ .. method:: insert_checkbutton(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Insert a new checkbutton entry before the entry given by *index* (see
+ :meth:`add_checkbutton`).
+
+ .. method:: insert_command(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Insert a new command entry before the entry given by *index* (see
+ :meth:`add_command`).
+
+ .. method:: insert_radiobutton(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Insert a new radiobutton entry before the entry given by *index* (see
+ :meth:`add_radiobutton`).
+
+ .. method:: insert_separator(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Insert a separator before the entry given by *index* (see
+ :meth:`add_separator`).
+
+ .. method:: delete(index1, index2=None)
+
+ Delete all of the menu entries between *index1* and *index2* inclusive.
+ If *index2* is omitted, it defaults to *index1*, so that a single entry
+ is deleted.
+ Attempts to delete a tear-off entry are ignored; remove it by changing
+ the *tearoff* option instead.
+
+ .. method:: entrycget(index, option)
+
+ Return the current value of the configuration option *option* for the
+ entry given by *index*.
+
+ .. method:: entryconfig(index, cnf=None, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: entryconfigure(index, cnf=None, **kw)
+
+ Query or modify the configuration options of the entry given by *index*.
+ This mirrors :meth:`~Misc.configure`, except that it applies to an
+ individual entry rather than to the menu as a whole.
+ With no options, it returns a dictionary describing the current options
+ of the entry; otherwise it sets the given options.
+ The supported options are those accepted by :meth:`add` for the entry's
+ type.
+ :meth:`entryconfig` is an alias of :meth:`!entryconfigure`.
+
+ .. method:: index(index)
+
+ Return the numerical index corresponding to *index*, or ``None`` if
+ *index* selects no entry.
+
+ .. method:: type(index)
+
+ Return the type of the entry given by *index*: one of ``'command'``,
+ ``'cascade'``, ``'checkbutton'``, ``'radiobutton'``, ``'separator'`` or
+ ``'tearoff'`` (for the tear-off entry).
+
+ .. method:: activate(index)
+
+ Make the entry given by *index* the active entry, redisplaying it with
+ its active colors, and deactivate any previously active entry.
+ If *index* selects no entry, or the selected entry is disabled, the menu
+ ends up with no active entry.
+
+ .. method:: invoke(index)
+
+ Invoke the action of the entry given by *index*, as if it had been
+ clicked.
+ Nothing happens if the entry is disabled.
+ If the entry has a *command* associated with it, the result of that
+ command is returned; otherwise the result is an empty string.
+
+ .. method:: post(x, y)
+
+ Display the menu on the screen at the root-window coordinates *x* and
+ *y*, adjusting them if necessary so that the whole menu is visible.
+ If the *postcommand* option has been specified, it is evaluated before
+ the menu is posted.
+
+ .. method:: tk_popup(x, y, entry='')
+
+ Post the menu as a popup at the root-window coordinates *x* and *y*.
+ If *entry* is given, the menu is positioned so that this entry is
+ displayed under the pointer.
+
+ .. method:: unpost()
+
+ Unmap the menu so that it is no longer displayed, also unposting any
+ posted lower-level cascaded submenu.
+ This has no effect on Windows and macOS, which manage the unposting of
+ menus themselves.
+
+ .. method:: xposition(index)
+
+ Return the x-coordinate, within the menu window, of the leftmost pixel of
+ the entry given by *index*.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+ .. method:: yposition(index)
+
+ Return the y-coordinate, within the menu window, of the topmost pixel of
+ the entry given by *index*.
+
+
+.. class:: Menubutton(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Menubutton` widget displays a textual string, bitmap or image and
+ posts an associated :class:`Menu`, given by its *menu* option, when the user
+ presses it.
+ Like a :class:`Label` it can show *text*, a *textvariable*, or an *image*,
+ and the *direction* option controls where the menu appears relative to the
+ button.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`.
+ Refer to the Tk ``menubutton`` manual page for the full list of options.
+
+
+.. class:: Message(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Message` widget displays a non-interactive textual string, given
+ by the *text* option or linked to a variable through *textvariable*.
+ Unlike a :class:`Label`, it breaks the string into multiple lines in order
+ to produce a given aspect ratio, choosing line breaks at word boundaries,
+ and it can justify the text left, centered or right.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`.
+ Refer to the Tk ``message`` manual page for the full list of options.
+
+
+.. class:: OptionMenu(master, variable, value, *values, **kwargs)
+
+ A helper subclass of :class:`Menubutton` that displays a pop-up menu of
+ mutually exclusive choices.
+ *variable* is a :class:`Variable` kept in sync with the selection, *value*
+ is the initial choice, and *values* are the remaining menu entries.
+ The keyword argument *command* may be given a callback that is invoked with
+ the selected value.
+
+ .. method:: destroy()
+
+ Destroy the widget, also cleaning up the associated pop-up menu.
+
+
+
+.. class:: PanedWindow(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!PanedWindow` is a geometry-manager widget that arranges any
+ number of child *panes* in a row (when *orient* is ``'horizontal'``) or a
+ column (when *orient* is ``'vertical'``).
+ Each pane holds one widget, and each pair of adjacent panes is separated by
+ a movable *sash* that the user can drag with the mouse to resize the widgets
+ on either side of it.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`.
+
+ The *orient* option selects the layout direction, *sashwidth* sets the width
+ of each sash and *sashrelief* its relief.
+ When *showhandle* is true a small handle is drawn on each sash that the user
+ can grab to drag it.
+ Refer to the Tk ``panedwindow`` manual page for the full list of options.
+
+ .. method:: add(child, **kw)
+
+ Add *child* to the panedwindow as a new pane, placed after any existing
+ panes.
+ The keyword arguments specify per-pane management options for *child*;
+ they may be any of the options accepted by :meth:`paneconfigure`.
+
+ .. method:: forget(child)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: remove(child)
+
+ Remove the pane containing *child* from the panedwindow.
+ All geometry management options for *child* are forgotten.
+ :meth:`forget` is an alias of :meth:`!remove`.
+ This shadows the inherited geometry-manager :meth:`!forget`;
+ use :meth:`~Pack.pack_forget`, :meth:`~Grid.grid_forget` or
+ :meth:`~Place.place_forget` to remove the widget itself from its manager.
+
+ .. method:: panes()
+
+ Return a tuple of the widgets managed by the panedwindow, one per pane,
+ in order.
+
+ .. method:: panecget(child, option)
+
+ Return the current value of the management option *option* for the pane
+ containing *child*.
+ *option* may be any value allowed by :meth:`paneconfigure`.
+
+ .. method:: paneconfig(tagOrId, cnf=None, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: paneconfigure(tagOrId, cnf=None, **kw)
+
+ Query or modify the management options of the pane containing the widget
+ *tagOrId*.
+ With no options, it returns a dictionary describing all of the available
+ options for the pane; given a single option name as a string, it returns
+ a description of that one option; otherwise it sets the given options.
+ The supported options include *after* and *before* (insert the pane after
+ or before another managed window), *height* and *width* (the outer
+ dimensions of the window, including any border), *minsize* (the minimum
+ size in the paned dimension), *padx* and *pady* (extra space to leave on
+ each side of the window), *sticky* (position or stretch the window within
+ an oversized pane, using a string of the characters ``n``, ``s``, ``e``
+ and ``w``), *hide* (hide the pane while keeping it in the list of panes)
+ and *stretch* (how extra space is allocated to the pane: one of
+ ``'always'``, ``'first'``, ``'last'``, ``'middle'`` or ``'never'``).
+ :meth:`paneconfig` is an alias of :meth:`!paneconfigure`.
+
+ .. method:: identify(x, y)
+
+ Identify the panedwindow component underneath the point given by *x* and
+ *y*, in window coordinates.
+ If the point is over a sash or a sash handle, the result is a two-element
+ tuple containing the index of the sash or handle and a word indicating
+ whether it is over a sash or a handle, such as ``(0, 'sash')`` or
+ ``(2, 'handle')``.
+ If the point is over any other part of the panedwindow, the result is an
+ empty string.
+
+ .. method:: sash(*args)
+
+ Query or change the position of the sashes in the panedwindow.
+ This is a thin wrapper around the Tk ``sash`` subcommand; the convenience
+ methods :meth:`sash_coord`, :meth:`sash_mark` and :meth:`sash_place`
+ should normally be used instead.
+
+ .. method:: sash_coord(index)
+
+ Return the current x and y coordinate pair for the sash given by *index*,
+ which must be an integer between 0 and one less than the number of panes
+ in the panedwindow.
+ The coordinates returned are those of the top left corner of the region
+ containing the sash.
+
+ .. method:: sash_mark(index)
+
+ Record the current mouse position for the sash given by *index*, for use
+ together with later sash-drag operations to move the sash.
+
+ .. method:: sash_place(index, x, y)
+
+ Place the sash given by *index* at the coordinates *x* and *y*.
+
+ .. method:: proxy(*args)
+
+ Query or change the position of the sash proxy, the "ghost" sash shown
+ while a sash is being dragged with non-opaque resizing.
+ This is a thin wrapper around the Tk ``proxy`` subcommand; the
+ convenience methods :meth:`proxy_coord`, :meth:`proxy_forget` and
+ :meth:`proxy_place` should normally be used instead.
+
+ .. method:: proxy_coord()
+
+ Return a tuple containing the x and y coordinates of the most recent
+ proxy location.
+
+ .. method:: proxy_forget()
+
+ Remove the proxy from the display.
+
+ .. method:: proxy_place(x, y)
+
+ Place the proxy at the coordinates *x* and *y*.
+
+
+.. class:: Radiobutton(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Radiobutton` widget displays a textual string, bitmap or image
+ together with a diamond or circular indicator, and selects one choice out of
+ several.
+ It has all the behavior of a simple button and, in addition, can be
+ selected: typically several radiobuttons share a single *variable*, and
+ selecting one sets that variable to the radiobutton's *value*; each
+ radiobutton also monitors the variable and automatically selects or
+ deselects itself when the variable changes.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`.
+ In addition to the standard widget options, a radiobutton accepts the
+ options documented in the Tk ``radiobutton`` manual page, such as
+ *variable*, *value* and *command*.
+
+ .. method:: invoke()
+
+ Do just what would happen if the user pressed the radiobutton with the
+ mouse: select the button and invoke the associated command, if there is
+ one.
+ Return the result of the command, or an empty string if no command is
+ associated with the radiobutton.
+ This is ignored if the radiobutton's state is ``disabled``.
+
+ .. method:: select()
+
+ Select the radiobutton and set the associated variable to the value
+ corresponding to this widget.
+
+ .. method:: deselect()
+
+ Deselect the radiobutton and set the associated variable to an empty
+ string.
+ If this radiobutton was not currently selected, this has no effect.
+
+ .. method:: flash()
+
+ Flash the radiobutton by redisplaying it several times, alternating
+ between the active and normal colors.
+ At the end of the flash the radiobutton is left in the same normal or
+ active state as when the method was called.
+ This is ignored if the radiobutton's state is ``disabled``.
+
+
+.. class:: Scale(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Scale` widget lets the user select a numerical value by moving a
+ slider along a trough.
+ It can be oriented vertically or horizontally and can optionally display a
+ label and the current value.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`.
+
+ In addition to the standard widget options, a scale accepts the options
+ documented in the Tk ``scale`` manual page, such as *from_*, *to*,
+ *resolution*, *orient*, *tickinterval*, *variable* and *command*.
+ As elsewhere in :mod:`!tkinter`, the leading ``-`` of the Tk option name is
+ dropped; *from* is spelled ``from_`` because :keyword:`from` is a Python
+ keyword.
+
+ With a non-integer *resolution*, see :ref:`numeric values and the locale
+ <tkinter-numeric-locale>`.
+
+ .. method:: get()
+
+ Return the current value of the scale.
+ The result is an integer if the scale's *resolution* yields whole
+ numbers, and a float otherwise.
+
+ .. method:: set(value)
+
+ Set the scale to *value*, moving the slider accordingly.
+ This has no effect if the scale is disabled.
+
+ .. method:: coords(value=None)
+
+ Return a tuple ``(x, y)`` giving the pixel coordinates, relative to the
+ widget, of the point on the centerline of the trough that corresponds to
+ *value*.
+ If *value* is omitted, the scale's current value is used.
+
+ .. method:: identify(x, y)
+
+ Return a string describing the part of the scale at the pixel coordinates
+ *x*, *y*: ``'slider'``, ``'trough1'`` (the part of the trough above or to
+ the left of the slider), ``'trough2'`` (below or to the right of the
+ slider), or an empty string if the point is not over any of these
+ elements.
+
+
+.. class:: Scrollbar(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Scrollbar` widget displays a slider and two arrows that let the
+ user scroll an associated widget, such as a :class:`Listbox`, :class:`Text`,
+ :class:`Canvas` or :class:`Entry`.
+ It is connected to the scrolled widget by setting that widget's
+ *xscrollcommand* or *yscrollcommand* option to the scrollbar's :meth:`set`
+ method, and the scrollbar's *command* option to the scrolled widget's
+ :meth:`~XView.xview` or :meth:`~YView.yview` method.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`.
+
+ .. method:: get()
+
+ Return the current scrollbar settings as a tuple ``(first, last)`` of two
+ fractions between 0 and 1, describing the portion of the document that is
+ currently visible, as last passed to :meth:`set`.
+
+ .. method:: set(first, last)
+
+ Set the scrollbar.
+ *first* and *last* are fractions between 0 and 1 giving the positions of
+ the start and end of the visible portion of the associated document.
+ This method is normally registered as the scrolled widget's
+ *xscrollcommand* or *yscrollcommand* and called by that widget.
+
+ .. method:: activate(index=None)
+
+ Mark the element *index* (one of ``'arrow1'``, ``'slider'`` or
+ ``'arrow2'``) as active, displaying it according to the
+ *activebackground* and *activerelief* options.
+ If *index* is omitted, return the name of the currently active element,
+ or ``None`` if no element is active.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ The *index* argument is now optional.
+
+ .. method:: delta(deltax, deltay)
+
+ Return a float indicating the fractional change in the scrollbar setting
+ that corresponds to moving the slider by *deltax* pixels horizontally
+ (for horizontal scrollbars) or *deltay* pixels vertically (for vertical
+ scrollbars).
+
+ .. method:: fraction(x, y)
+
+ Return a float between 0 and 1 indicating where the point at pixel
+ coordinates *x*, *y* lies in the trough: 0 corresponds to the top or left
+ of the trough and 1 to the bottom or right.
+
+ .. method:: identify(x, y)
+
+ Return the name of the element under the pixel coordinates *x*, *y* (such
+ as ``'arrow1'``), or an empty string if the point does not lie in any
+ element of the scrollbar.
+
+
+.. class:: Spinbox(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Spinbox` widget is an :class:`Entry`-like widget with a pair of
+ up/down arrow buttons that let the user step through a range of values in
+ addition to editing the value directly.
+ The set of values may be a numeric range given by the *from_*, *to* and
+ *increment* options, or an explicit list of strings given by the *values*
+ option (which takes precedence over the range).
+ Each time an arrow is invoked the *command* callback, if any, is called; the
+ *wrap* option controls whether stepping past either end of the range wraps
+ around to the other end; the *format* option specifies how numeric values
+ are formatted; and the *validate* option enables validation of the entered
+ text.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget` and :class:`XView`.
+
+ With a non-integer *increment*, see :ref:`numeric values and the locale
+ <tkinter-numeric-locale>`.
+
+ Many of the methods take an *index* argument identifying a character in the
+ spinbox's string.
+ As described in the Tk ``spinbox`` manual page, *index* may be a numeric
+ index (counting from 0), ``'anchor'`` (the selection anchor point),
+ ``'end'`` (just after the last character), ``'insert'`` (the character just
+ after the insertion cursor), ``'sel.first'`` or ``'sel.last'`` (the ends of
+ the selection), or ``@x`` (the character covering pixel x-coordinate *x* in
+ the window).
+
+ .. method:: get()
+
+ Return the spinbox's string.
+
+ .. method:: insert(index, s)
+
+ Insert the characters of the string *s* just before the character given
+ by *index*.
+
+ .. method:: delete(first, last=None)
+
+ Delete one or more characters of the spinbox.
+ *first* is the index of the first character to delete, and *last* is the
+ index of the character just after the last one to delete.
+ If *last* is omitted, a single character at *first* is deleted.
+
+ .. method:: icursor(index)
+
+ Arrange for the insertion cursor to be displayed just before the
+ character given by *index*.
+
+ .. method:: index(index)
+
+ Return the numerical index corresponding to *index*, as a string.
+
+ .. method:: bbox(index)
+
+ Return a tuple of four integers ``(x, y, width, height)`` describing the
+ bounding box of the character given by *index*.
+ *x* and *y* are the pixel coordinates of the upper-left corner of the
+ character relative to the widget, and *width* and *height* are its size
+ in pixels.
+ The bounding box may refer to a region outside the visible area of the
+ window.
+
+ This shadows the inherited :meth:`!Misc.bbox`;
+ use :meth:`~Misc.grid_bbox` for the grid bounding box.
+
+ .. method:: identify(x, y)
+
+ Return the name of the window element at the pixel coordinates *x*, *y*:
+ one of ``'buttondown'``, ``'buttonup'``, ``'entry'`` or ``'none'``.
+
+ .. method:: invoke(element)
+
+ Invoke the spin button given by *element*, either ``'buttonup'`` or
+ ``'buttondown'``, triggering the action associated with it.
+
+ .. method:: scan(*args)
+
+ A thin wrapper around the Tk ``scan`` widget subcommand, used to
+ implement fast dragging of the view: ``scan('mark', x)`` records *x* and
+ the current view, and ``scan('dragto', x)`` adjusts the view relative to
+ that mark.
+ The :meth:`scan_mark` and :meth:`scan_dragto` methods wrap the two forms.
+
+ .. method:: scan_mark(x)
+
+ Record *x* and the current view in the spinbox window, for use with a
+ later :meth:`scan_dragto` call.
+ This is typically associated with a mouse button press in the widget.
+
+ .. method:: scan_dragto(x)
+
+ Adjust the view by 10 times the difference between *x* and the *x* passed
+ to the last :meth:`scan_mark` call.
+ This is typically associated with mouse motion events, producing the
+ effect of dragging the spinbox at high speed through the window.
+
+ .. method:: selection(*args)
+
+ A thin wrapper around the Tk ``selection`` widget subcommand, used to
+ adjust the selection within the spinbox.
+ It has several forms depending on the first argument, such as
+ ``selection('adjust', index)``, ``selection('clear')``,
+ ``selection('element', ?elem?)``, ``selection('from', index)``,
+ ``selection('present')``, ``selection('range', start, end)`` and
+ ``selection('to', index)``.
+ The :meth:`selection_adjust`, :meth:`selection_clear`,
+ :meth:`selection_element`, :meth:`selection_from`,
+ :meth:`selection_present`, :meth:`selection_range` and
+ :meth:`selection_to` methods wrap these forms.
+
+ .. method:: selection_adjust(index)
+
+ Locate the end of the selection nearest to the character given by *index*
+ and adjust that end of the selection to be at *index* (including but not
+ going beyond *index*).
+ The other end becomes the anchor point for future :meth:`selection_to`
+ calls.
+ If the selection is not currently in the spinbox, a new selection is
+ created to include the characters between *index* and the most recent
+ anchor point, inclusive.
+
+ .. method:: selection_clear()
+
+ Clear the selection if it is currently in this widget.
+ If the selection is not in this widget, the method has no effect.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ This shadows the inherited :meth:`Misc.selection_clear`,
+ which clears the X selection;
+ that method is not available on a :class:`Spinbox`.
+
+ .. method:: selection_element(element=None)
+
+ Set or get the currently selected element.
+ If *element* (one of ``'buttonup'``, ``'buttondown'`` or ``'none'``) is
+ given, that spin button is selected and displayed depressed; otherwise
+ the name of the currently selected element is returned.
+
+ .. method:: selection_from(index)
+
+ Set the selection anchor point to just before the character given by
+ *index*, without changing the selection itself.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+
+ .. method:: selection_present()
+
+ Return ``True`` if there are characters selected in the spinbox,
+ ``False`` otherwise.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+
+ .. method:: selection_range(start, end)
+
+ Set the selection to include the characters starting with the one indexed
+ by *start* and ending with the one just before *end*.
+ If *end* refers to the same character as *start* or an earlier one, the
+ selection is cleared.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+
+ .. method:: selection_to(index)
+
+ Set the selection between *index* and the anchor point.
+ If *index* is before the anchor point, the selection runs from *index* up
+ to but not including the anchor point; if it is after, the selection runs
+ from the anchor point up to but not including *index*; if it is the same,
+ nothing happens.
+ The anchor point is the one set by the most recent :meth:`selection_from`
+ or :meth:`selection_adjust` call.
+ If the selection is not in this widget, a new selection is created using
+ the most recent anchor point.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+
+
+.. class:: Text(master=None, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`!Text` widget displays and edits multi-line text.
+ Portions of the text may be styled with **tags**, particular positions may
+ be annotated with floating **marks**, and arbitrary images and other widgets
+ may be embedded in the text.
+ The widget also provides an unlimited undo/redo mechanism and supports peer
+ widgets that share the same underlying data.
+ Inherits from :class:`Widget`, :class:`XView` and :class:`YView`, so the
+ view can be scrolled horizontally and vertically with :meth:`~XView.xview`
+ and :meth:`~YView.yview`.
+ Refer to the Tk ``text`` manual page for the full list of options.
+
+ Most of the methods take one or more *index* arguments that identify a
+ position within the text.
+ As described in the Tk ``text`` manual page, an index is a string consisting
+ of a base, optionally followed by one or more modifiers.
+ The base may be ``'line.char'`` (line *line*, character *char*, where lines
+ are counted from 1 and characters within a line from 0; ``'line.end'``
+ refers to the newline ending the line), ``'end'`` (the position just after
+ the last newline), the name of a mark, ``'tag.first'`` or ``'tag.last'``
+ (the first character tagged with *tag*, or the position just after the last
+ such character), the name of an embedded image or window, or ``@x,y`` (the
+ character covering pixel coordinates *x*, *y* in the widget).
+ A modifier such as ``'+5 chars'``, ``'-3 lines'``, ``'linestart'``,
+ ``'lineend'``, ``'wordstart'`` or ``'wordend'`` adjusts the index relative
+ to its base; several modifiers may be combined and are applied from left to
+ right, for example ``'insert wordstart - 1 c'``.
+
+ .. method:: insert(index, chars, *args)
+
+ Insert the string *chars* just before the character at *index* (if
+ *index* is ``'end'``, just before the final newline).
+ By default the new text inherits any tags present on both sides of the
+ insertion point.
+ If *args* is given, it consists of alternating *tagList*, *chars* values:
+ the preceding *chars* receives exactly the tags listed (a tag list may be
+ a single tag name or a sequence of names), overriding the surrounding
+ tags.
+
+ .. method:: delete(index1, index2=None)
+
+ Delete the range of characters from *index1* up to but not including
+ *index2*.
+ If *index2* is omitted, the single character at *index1* is deleted.
+ The widget always keeps a newline as its last character, so a deletion
+ that would remove it is adjusted accordingly.
+
+ .. method:: replace(index1, index2, chars, *args)
+
+ Replace the range of characters from *index1* up to but not including
+ *index2* with *chars*.
+ This is equivalent to a :meth:`delete` followed by an :meth:`insert` at
+ *index1*; *args* is interpreted as for :meth:`insert`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+ .. method:: get(index1, index2=None)
+
+ Return the text from *index1* up to but not including *index2* as a
+ string.
+ If *index2* is omitted, return the single character at *index1*.
+ Embedded images and windows are omitted from the result.
+
+ .. method:: index(index)
+
+ Return the position corresponding to *index* in the canonical
+ ``'line.char'`` form.
+
+ .. method:: compare(index1, op, index2)
+
+ Compare the positions of *index1* and *index2* using the relational
+ operator *op*, which must be one of ``'<'``, ``'<='``, ``'=='``,
+ ``'>='``, ``'>'`` or ``'!='``, and return the boolean result.
+
+ .. method:: count(index1, index2, *options, return_ints=False)
+
+ Count the number of items of the requested kinds between *index1* and
+ *index2*; the count is negative if *index1* is after *index2*.
+ Each of *options* names a kind of item to count: ``'chars'``,
+ ``'displaychars'``, ``'displayindices'``, ``'displaylines'``,
+ ``'indices'``, ``'lines'``, ``'xpixels'`` or ``'ypixels'`` (the default,
+ used when no option is given, is ``'indices'``).
+ The pseudo-option ``'update'`` forces any out-of-date layout information
+ to be recalculated before the following options are evaluated.
+ When *return_ints* is true and a single counting option is given, return
+ a plain integer; otherwise return a tuple with one integer per counting
+ option (or ``None`` if the result is empty).
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Added the *return_ints* parameter.
+
+
+ .. method:: see(index)
+
+ Adjust the view so that the character given by *index* is visible.
+ If it is already visible the method has no effect; if it is a short
+ distance out of view the widget scrolls just enough to bring it to the
+ nearest edge, otherwise it scrolls to center *index* in the window.
+
+ .. method:: bbox(index)
+
+ Return a tuple ``(x, y, width, height)`` giving the bounding box, in
+ pixels, of the visible part of the character at *index*, or ``None`` if
+ that character is not visible on the screen.
+
+ This shadows the inherited :meth:`!Misc.bbox`;
+ use :meth:`~Misc.grid_bbox` for the grid bounding box.
+
+ .. method:: dlineinfo(index)
+
+ Return a tuple ``(x, y, width, height, baseline)`` describing the display
+ line that contains *index*: the first four values give the bounding box
+ of the line in pixels and *baseline* gives the offset of the baseline
+ measured down from the top of the area.
+ Return ``None`` if that display line is not visible on the screen.
+
+ .. method:: mark_set(markName, index)
+
+ Set the mark named *markName* to the position just before the character
+ at *index*, creating the mark if it does not already exist.
+ A mark created this way has right gravity by default.
+
+ .. method:: mark_unset(*markNames)
+
+ Remove each of the marks named in *markNames*.
+ The special ``insert`` and ``current`` marks may not be removed.
+
+ .. method:: mark_names()
+
+ Return a tuple of the names of all marks currently set in the widget.
+
+ .. method:: mark_gravity(markName, direction=None)
+
+ If *direction* is omitted, return the gravity of mark *markName*, either
+ ``'left'`` or ``'right'``.
+ Otherwise set its gravity to *direction*.
+ The gravity determines on which side of the mark text inserted at the
+ mark's position appears: a mark with right gravity (the default) stays to
+ the right of such text.
+
+ .. method:: mark_next(index)
+
+ Return the name of the first mark at or after *index*, or ``None`` if
+ there is none.
+ When *index* is the name of a mark, the search starts just after that
+ mark.
+
+ .. method:: mark_previous(index)
+
+ Return the name of the last mark at or before *index*, or ``None`` if
+ there is none.
+ When *index* is the name of a mark, the search starts just before that
+ mark.
+
+ .. method:: tag_add(tagName, index1, *args)
+
+ Add the tag *tagName* to the range of characters from *index1* up to but
+ not including the next index in *args*.
+ Further pairs of indices may follow in *args* to tag additional ranges; a
+ trailing single index tags just the character at that index.
+
+ .. method:: tag_remove(tagName, index1, index2=None)
+
+ Remove the tag *tagName* from the characters from *index1* up to but not
+ including *index2* (or from the single character at *index1* if *index2*
+ is omitted).
+ The tag itself continues to exist even if no characters carry it.
+
+ .. method:: tag_delete(*tagNames)
+
+ Delete each of the tags named in *tagNames*, removing them from all
+ characters and discarding their options and bindings.
+
+ .. method:: tag_config(tagName, cnf=None, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: tag_configure(tagName, cnf=None, **kw)
+
+ Query or modify the configuration options of the tag *tagName*.
+ This mirrors :meth:`~Misc.configure`, except that it applies to a tag
+ rather than to the widget as a whole: with no options it returns a
+ dictionary describing the current options, otherwise it sets the given
+ options.
+ Defining a tag this way also gives it a priority higher than any existing
+ tag.
+
+ The supported tag options, all controlling the appearance of the tagged
+ text, are:
+
+ *font*
+ The font to use for the text.
+
+ *foreground*
+ The color to use for the text.
+
+ *background*
+ The color to use for the area behind the text.
+
+ *fgstipple*, *bgstipple*
+ Bitmaps used to stipple the foreground (text) and the background;
+ only well supported on X11.
+
+ *borderwidth*
+ The width of the border drawn around the text according to *relief*
+ (default ``0``).
+
+ *relief*
+ The 3-D appearance of the text's border: ``'flat'`` (the default),
+ ``'raised'``, ``'sunken'``, ``'ridge'``, ``'groove'`` or ``'solid'``.
+
+ *offset*
+ How far the text is raised above (or, if negative, lowered below) the
+ baseline, for superscripts and subscripts.
+
+ *underline*
+ Whether to underline the text.
+
+ *underlinefg*
+ The color of the underline; it defaults to the text color.
+
+ *overstrike*
+ Whether to draw a line through the middle of the text.
+
+ *overstrikefg*
+ The color of the overstrike line; it defaults to the text color.
+
+ *elide*
+ Whether the text is elided (hidden).
+
+ *justify*
+ How to justify the first character of a display line: ``'left'`` (the
+ default), ``'right'`` or ``'center'``.
+
+ *wrap*
+ How to wrap lines that are too long: ``'char'``, ``'word'`` or
+ ``'none'``.
+
+ *lmargin1*, *lmargin2*
+ The indentation, in pixels, of the first display line of a logical
+ line and of the remaining display lines.
+
+ *lmargincolor*
+ The color of the left margin area.
+
+ *rmargin*
+ The right-hand margin, in pixels.
+
+ *rmargincolor*
+ The color of the right margin area.
+
+ *spacing1*, *spacing2*, *spacing3*
+ Extra space, in pixels, above the first display line of a logical
+ line, between its display lines, and below its last display line.
+
+ *tabs*
+ The set of tab stops, in the same form as the widget's *tabs* option.
+
+ *tabstyle*
+ How tab stops are interpreted: ``'tabular'`` or ``'wordprocessor'``.
+
+ *selectbackground*, *selectforeground*
+ The background and foreground colors used for the text while it is
+ selected.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ Tk 8.6 added the *lmargincolor*, *overstrikefg*, *rmargincolor*,
+ *selectbackground*, *selectforeground* and *underlinefg* options.
+
+ :meth:`tag_config` is an alias of :meth:`!tag_configure`.
+
+ .. method:: tag_cget(tagName, option)
+
+ Return the current value of the configuration option *option* for the tag
+ *tagName*.
+
+ .. method:: tag_names(index=None)
+
+ If *index* is omitted, return a tuple of the names of all tags defined in
+ the widget; otherwise return only the names of the tags applied to the
+ character at *index*.
+ The names are ordered from lowest to highest priority.
+
+ .. method:: tag_ranges(tagName)
+
+ Return a tuple of indices describing all ranges of text tagged with
+ *tagName*.
+ The result alternates start and end indices, so that elements ``2*i`` and
+ ``2*i+1`` bound the *i*-th range.
+
+ .. method:: tag_nextrange(tagName, index1, index2=None)
+
+ Search forward from *index1* (up to *index2* if given) for the first
+ range of characters tagged with *tagName*, and return a two-element tuple
+ of its start and end indices, or an empty tuple if there is no such
+ range.
+
+ .. method:: tag_prevrange(tagName, index1, index2=None)
+
+ Search backward from *index1* (down to *index2* if given) for the nearest
+ preceding range of characters tagged with *tagName*, and return a
+ two-element tuple of its start and end indices, or an empty tuple if
+ there is no such range.
+
+ .. method:: tag_raise(tagName, aboveThis=None)
+
+ Raise the priority of tag *tagName* so that it is just above the priority
+ of *aboveThis*, or to the highest priority of all tags if *aboveThis* is
+ omitted.
+ When the display options of overlapping tags conflict, the
+ higher-priority tag wins.
+
+ .. method:: tag_lower(tagName, belowThis=None)
+
+ Lower the priority of tag *tagName* so that it is just below the priority
+ of *belowThis*, or to the lowest priority of all tags if *belowThis* is
+ omitted.
+
+ .. method:: tag_bind(tagName, sequence, func, add=None)
+
+ Bind the event *sequence* on characters tagged with *tagName* to the
+ callback *func*, so that *func* is invoked when that event occurs over
+ such a character.
+ If *add* is true the binding is added alongside any existing bindings for
+ *sequence*, otherwise it replaces them.
+ Works like :meth:`~Misc.bind` and returns the identifier of the new
+ binding.
+
+ .. method:: tag_unbind(tagName, sequence, funcid=None)
+
+ Remove the bindings of the event *sequence* on characters tagged with
+ *tagName*.
+ If *funcid* is given, only that binding (as returned by :meth:`tag_bind`)
+ is removed and its callback is unregistered.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ If *funcid* is given, only that callback is unbound.
+
+
+ .. method:: image_create(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Embed an image at *index* and return the name assigned to this image
+ instance, which may then be used as an index or passed to the other
+ ``image_*`` methods.
+ The options, given in *cnf* and *kw*, include *image* (the Tk image to
+ display), *name* (a base name for the instance), *align*, *padx* and
+ *pady*.
+
+ .. method:: image_cget(index, option)
+
+ Return the current value of the configuration option *option* for the
+ embedded image at *index*.
+
+ .. method:: image_configure(index, cnf=None, **kw)
+
+ Query or modify the configuration options of the embedded image at
+ *index*, like :meth:`~Misc.configure` but applied to that image.
+
+ .. method:: image_names()
+
+ Return a tuple of the names of all images embedded in the widget.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ This shadows the inherited :meth:`Misc.image_names`,
+ which returns the names of all images in the Tcl interpreter;
+ that method is not available on a :class:`Text`.
+
+ .. method:: window_create(index, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Embed a window (any widget) at *index*.
+ The options, given in *cnf* and *kw*, include *window* (the widget to
+ embed), *create* (a callback that creates the widget on demand), *align*,
+ *stretch*, *padx* and *pady*.
+ The embedded widget must be a descendant of the text widget's parent.
+
+ .. method:: window_cget(index, option)
+
+ Return the current value of the configuration option *option* for the
+ embedded window at *index*.
+
+ .. method:: window_config(index, cnf=None, **kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: window_configure(index, cnf=None, **kw)
+
+ Query or modify the configuration options of the embedded window at
+ *index*, like :meth:`~Misc.configure` but applied to that window.
+
+ :meth:`window_config` is an alias of :meth:`!window_configure`.
+
+ .. method:: window_names()
+
+ Return a tuple of the names of all windows embedded in the widget.
+
+ .. method:: edit(*args)
+
+ Low-level wrapper around the Tk ``edit`` widget command that controls the
+ undo/redo mechanism and the modified flag; *args* is the ``edit``
+ subcommand and its arguments.
+ The :meth:`!edit_\*` methods below are thin wrappers around it and are
+ usually more convenient.
+
+ .. method:: edit_modified(arg=None)
+
+ If *arg* is omitted, return the current state of the modified flag as
+ true or false; the flag is set automatically whenever the text is
+ inserted or deleted.
+ Otherwise set the flag to the boolean *arg*.
+
+ .. method:: edit_undo()
+
+ Undo the most recent edit action, that is, all the inserts and deletes
+ recorded on the undo stack since the previous separator, and move it to
+ the redo stack.
+ Raises :exc:`TclError` if the undo stack is empty.
+ Has no effect unless the *undo* option is true.
+ Since Tk 9.0, returns a tuple of indices delimiting the ranges of text
+ that were changed.
+
+ .. method:: edit_redo()
+
+ Reapply the most recently undone edit action, provided no further edits
+ have been made since, and move it back to the undo stack.
+ Raises :exc:`TclError` if the redo stack is empty.
+ Has no effect unless the *undo* option is true.
+ Since Tk 9.0, returns a tuple of indices delimiting the ranges of text
+ that were changed.
+
+ .. method:: edit_reset()
+
+ Clear the undo and redo stacks.
+
+ .. method:: edit_separator()
+
+ Push a separator onto the undo stack, marking a boundary between edit
+ actions for undo and redo.
+ Has no effect unless the *undo* option is true.
+ Separators are inserted automatically when the *autoseparators* option is
+ true.
+
+ .. method:: search(pattern, index, stopindex=None, forwards=None, backwards=None, exact=None, regexp=None, nocase=None, count=None, elide=None)
+
+ Search for *pattern* starting at *index* and return the index of the
+ first character of the first match, or an empty string if there is no
+ match.
+ Searching stops at *stopindex* if given; otherwise it wraps around the
+ ends of the text until the starting position is reached again.
+ The following boolean keyword flags control the search: *forwards* or
+ *backwards* select the direction (forward is the default); *exact* (the
+ default) or *regexp* select literal or regular-expression matching;
+ *nocase* makes the match case-insensitive; and *elide* causes hidden text
+ to be searched as well.
+ If *count* is a :class:`Variable`, the number of index positions in the
+ match is stored in it.
+
+
+ .. method:: scan_mark(x, y)
+
+ Record *x*, *y* and the current view, for use with later
+ :meth:`scan_dragto` calls.
+ This is typically bound to a mouse button press in the widget.
+
+ .. method:: scan_dragto(x, y)
+
+ Scroll the widget by 10 times the difference between *x*, *y* and the
+ coordinates passed to the last :meth:`scan_mark` call.
+ This is typically bound to mouse motion events, producing the effect of
+ dragging the text at high speed through the window.
+
+ .. method:: debug(boolean=None)
+
+ If *boolean* is omitted, return whether internal consistency checks of
+ the B-tree data structure are enabled.
+ Otherwise enable or disable them.
+ The setting is shared by all text widgets and may noticeably slow down
+ widgets holding large amounts of text.
+
+ .. method:: dump(index1, index2=None, command=None, **kw)
+
+ Return the contents of the widget from *index1* up to but not including
+ *index2* (or just the segment at *index1* if *index2* is omitted),
+ including text and information about marks, tags, images and windows.
+ The result is a list of ``(key, value, index)`` triples, where *key* is
+ one of ``'text'``, ``'mark'``, ``'tagon'``, ``'tagoff'``, ``'image'`` or
+ ``'window'``.
+ By default all kinds are reported; passing any of the keyword arguments
+ *all*, *text*, *mark*, *tag*, *image* or *window* as true restricts the
+ dump to the selected kinds.
+ If *command* is given, it is called once per triple with the three values
+ as arguments and nothing is returned.
+
+ .. method:: peer_create(newPathName, cnf={}, **kw)
+
+ Create a peer text widget with the path name *newPathName* that shares
+ this widget's underlying data (text, marks, tags, images and the undo
+ stack).
+ Changes made through any peer are reflected in all of them.
+ By default the peer covers the same lines as this widget; standard text
+ options, including *startline* and *endline*, may be given to override
+ this.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+ .. method:: peer_names()
+
+ Return a tuple of the path names of this widget's peers, not including
+ the widget itself.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+
+ .. method:: yview_pickplace(*what)
+
+ Adjust the view so that the location given by *what* is visible.
+ This is an obsolete equivalent of :meth:`see`, which should be used
+ instead.
+
+
+Variable classes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Variable(master=None, value=None, name=None)
+
+ The base class for the Tk variable wrappers.
+ A Tk variable is a value stored in the Tcl interpreter that can be linked to
+ widgets through their *variable* or *textvariable* options (see
+ :ref:`coupling-widget-variables`), so that changes propagate both ways:
+ updating the variable updates every widget bound to it, and a user editing
+ such a widget updates the variable.
+
+ *master* is the widget whose Tcl interpreter owns the variable; if omitted,
+ the default root window is used.
+ *value* is the initial value; if omitted, a type-specific default is used.
+ *name* is the name of the variable in the Tcl interpreter; if omitted, a
+ unique name of the form ``'PY_VARnum'`` is generated.
+ If *name* matches an existing variable and *value* is omitted, the existing
+ value is retained.
+
+ In most cases you should use one of the typed subclasses below --
+ :class:`StringVar`, :class:`IntVar`, :class:`DoubleVar` or
+ :class:`BooleanVar` -- rather than :class:`!Variable` directly.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ When a :class:`!Variable` is garbage collected, its Tcl variable is unset.
+ Keep a reference to it for as long as a widget is linked to it, for example
+ by storing it as an attribute rather than in a local variable.
+ Otherwise Tk recreates the Tcl variable to keep the widget working, but it
+ is never unset again, leaking one Tcl variable per dropped wrapper.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ Two variables now compare equal (``==``) only when they have the same
+ name, are of the same class, and belong to the same Tcl interpreter.
+
+ .. method:: get()
+
+ Return the current value of the variable.
+ For the base class the value is returned as a string; the typed
+ subclasses convert it to the appropriate Python type.
+
+ .. method:: initialize(value)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: set(value)
+
+ Set the variable to *value*.
+ :meth:`initialize` is an alias of :meth:`!set`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+ The *initialize* spelling.
+
+ .. method:: trace_add(mode, callback)
+
+ Register *callback* to be called when the variable is accessed according
+ to *mode*.
+ *mode* is one of the strings ``'array'``, ``'read'``, ``'write'`` or
+ ``'unset'``, or a list or tuple of such strings.
+
+ When triggered, *callback* is called with three arguments: the name of
+ the Tcl variable, an index (or an empty string if the variable is not an
+ element of an array), and the *mode* that triggered the call.
+
+ Return the internal name of the registered callback, which can be passed
+ to :meth:`trace_remove`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+ .. method:: trace_remove(mode, cbname)
+
+ Remove a trace callback from the variable.
+ *mode* must match the *mode* that was passed to :meth:`trace_add`, and
+ *cbname* is the callback name returned by :meth:`trace_add`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+ .. method:: trace_info()
+
+ Return a list of ``(modes, cbname)`` pairs describing all traces
+ currently set on the variable, where *modes* is a tuple of mode strings
+ and *cbname* is the internal callback name.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+ .. method:: trace(mode, callback)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: trace_variable(mode, callback)
+
+ Register *callback* to be called when the variable is accessed according
+ to *mode*.
+ *mode* is one of the strings ``'r'``, ``'w'`` or ``'u'``, for read, write
+ or unset.
+ Return the internal name of the registered callback.
+ :meth:`trace` is an alias of :meth:`!trace_variable`.
+
+ .. deprecated:: 3.6
+ Use :meth:`trace_add` instead. This method wraps a Tcl feature that
+ was removed in Tcl 9.0.
+
+ .. method:: trace_vdelete(mode, cbname)
+
+ Remove the trace callback named *cbname* registered for *mode* with
+ :meth:`trace_variable`.
+
+ .. deprecated:: 3.6
+ Use :meth:`trace_remove` instead. This method wraps a Tcl feature
+ that was removed in Tcl 9.0.
+
+ .. method:: trace_vinfo()
+
+ Return a list of ``(mode, cbname)`` pairs for all traces set on the
+ variable with :meth:`trace_variable`.
+
+ .. deprecated:: 3.6
+ Use :meth:`trace_info` instead. This method wraps a Tcl feature that
+ was removed in Tcl 9.0.
+
+
+.. class:: StringVar(master=None, value=None, name=None)
+
+ A :class:`Variable` subclass that holds a string.
+ The default value is ``''``.
+
+ .. method:: get()
+
+ Return the value of the variable as a :class:`str`.
+
+
+.. class:: IntVar(master=None, value=None, name=None)
+
+ A :class:`Variable` subclass that holds an integer.
+ The default value is ``0``.
+
+ .. method:: get()
+
+ Return the value of the variable as an :class:`int`.
+
+
+.. class:: DoubleVar(master=None, value=None, name=None)
+
+ A :class:`Variable` subclass that holds a float.
+ The default value is ``0.0``.
+
+ .. method:: get()
+
+ Return the value of the variable as a :class:`float`.
+
+ .. _tkinter-numeric-locale:
+
+ .. note::
+
+ A floating-point value is always parsed with a period (``.``) as the
+ decimal separator, but :class:`Spinbox`, :class:`Scale` and
+ :class:`ttk.Spinbox <tkinter.ttk.Spinbox>` format it according to the
+ ``LC_NUMERIC`` locale. Under a locale that uses a comma they produce a
+ value that :meth:`get` cannot read, raising :exc:`TclError`. Set
+ ``LC_NUMERIC`` to a locale that uses a period (such as ``'C'``) to avoid
+ this.
+
+
+.. class:: BooleanVar(master=None, value=None, name=None)
+
+ A :class:`Variable` subclass that holds a boolean.
+ The default value is ``False``.
+
+ .. method:: get()
+
+ Return the value of the variable as a :class:`bool`.
+ Raise a :exc:`ValueError` if the value cannot be interpreted as a
+ boolean.
+
+ .. method:: initialize(value)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: set(value)
+
+ Set the variable to *value*, converting it to a boolean.
+ :meth:`initialize` is an alias of :meth:`!set`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.3
+ The *initialize* spelling.
+
+
+Image classes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Image(imgtype, name=None, cnf={}, master=None, **kw)
+
+ Base class for Tk images.
+ *imgtype* is the Tk image type, one of ``'photo'`` or ``'bitmap'``.
+ An image is a named object that can be displayed by widgets through their
+ *image* option; deleting all references to the :class:`!Image` object
+ deletes the underlying Tk image.
+ Usually you create a :class:`PhotoImage` or :class:`BitmapImage` rather than
+ an :class:`!Image` directly.
+
+ The image's configuration options are given by *cnf* and *kw* and may be
+ queried and changed later with the mapping protocol (using ``image[key]``)
+ or with the :meth:`configure` method.
+
+ .. method:: config(**kw)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+ .. method:: configure(**kw)
+
+ Modify one or more configuration options of the image.
+ The valid options depend on the image type; see :class:`PhotoImage` and
+ :class:`BitmapImage`.
+ :meth:`config` is an alias of :meth:`!configure`.
+
+ .. method:: height()
+
+ Return the height of the image, in pixels.
+
+ .. method:: width()
+
+ Return the width of the image, in pixels.
+
+ .. method:: type()
+
+ Return the type of the image, that is the value of *imgtype* with which
+ it was created (for example ``'photo'`` or ``'bitmap'``).
+
+
+.. class:: PhotoImage(name=None, cnf={}, master=None, **kw)
+
+ A full-color image (the Tk ``photo`` image type), stored internally with a
+ varying degree of transparency per pixel.
+ It can read and write GIF, PPM/PGM and (in Tk 8.6 and later) PNG files, read
+ SVG files (in Tk 9.0 and later), and be drawn in widgets.
+ Inherits from :class:`Image`.
+
+ The configuration options include *data* (the image contents as a string),
+ *file* (the name of a file to read the contents from), *format* (the name of
+ the file format handler), *width* and *height* (the size of the image, used
+ when building it up piece by piece), *gamma* and *palette*.
+
+ .. method:: blank()
+
+ Blank the image; that is, set the entire image to have no data, so that
+ it is displayed as transparent and the background of whatever window it
+ is displayed in shows through.
+
+ .. method:: cget(option)
+
+ Return the current value of the configuration option *option*.
+
+ .. method:: copy(*, from_coords=None, zoom=None, subsample=None)
+
+ Return a new :class:`PhotoImage` with a copy of this image.
+
+ *from_coords* specifies a rectangular sub-region of the source image to
+ be copied.
+ It must be a tuple or a list of 1 to 4 integers ``(x1, y1, x2, y2)``.
+ ``(x1, y1)`` and ``(x2, y2)`` specify diagonally opposite corners of the
+ rectangle.
+ If *x2* and *y2* are not specified, they default to the bottom-right
+ corner of the source image.
+ The pixels copied include the left and top edges of the rectangle but not
+ the bottom or right edges.
+ If *from_coords* is not given, the whole source image is copied.
+
+ If *zoom* or *subsample* are specified, the image is transformed as in
+ the :meth:`zoom` or :meth:`subsample` methods.
+ The value must be a single integer or a pair of integers.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Added the *from_coords*, *zoom* and *subsample* parameters.
+
+
+ .. method:: copy_replace(sourceImage, *, from_coords=None, to=None, \
+ shrink=False, zoom=None, subsample=None, \
+ compositingrule=None)
+
+ Copy a region from *sourceImage* (which must be a :class:`PhotoImage`)
+ into this image, possibly with pixel zooming and/or subsampling.
+ If no options are specified, the whole of *sourceImage* is copied into
+ this image, starting at coordinates ``(0, 0)``.
+
+ *from_coords* specifies a rectangular sub-region of the source image to
+ be copied, as in the :meth:`copy` method.
+
+ *to* specifies a rectangular sub-region of the destination image to be
+ affected.
+ It must be a tuple or a list of 1 to 4 integers ``(x1, y1, x2, y2)``.
+ If *x2* and *y2* are not specified, they default to ``(x1, y1)`` plus the
+ size of the source region (after subsampling and zooming, if specified).
+ If *x2* and *y2* are specified, the source region is replicated if
+ necessary to fill the destination region in a tiled fashion.
+
+ If *shrink* is true, the size of the destination image is reduced, if
+ necessary, so that the region being copied into is at the bottom-right
+ corner of the image.
+
+ If *zoom* or *subsample* are specified, the image is transformed as in
+ the :meth:`zoom` or :meth:`subsample` methods.
+ The value must be a single integer or a pair of integers.
+
+ *compositingrule* specifies how transparent pixels in the source image
+ are combined with the destination image.
+ With ``'overlay'`` (the default), the old contents of the destination
+ image remain visible, as if the source image were printed on a piece of
+ transparent film and placed over the top of the destination.
+ With ``'set'``, the old contents of the destination image are discarded
+ and the source image is used as-is.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
+ .. method:: data(format=None, *, from_coords=None, background=None, \
+ grayscale=False)
+
+ Return the image data.
+
+ *format* specifies the name of the image file format handler to use.
+ If it is not given, the data is returned as a tuple (one element per row)
+ of strings containing space-separated (one element per pixel/column)
+ colors in ``#RRGGBB`` format.
+
+ *from_coords* specifies a rectangular region of the image to be returned.
+ It must be a tuple or a list of 1 to 4 integers ``(x1, y1, x2, y2)``.
+ If only *x1* and *y1* are specified, the region extends from ``(x1, y1)``
+ to the bottom-right corner of the image.
+ If all four coordinates are given, they specify diagonally opposite
+ corners of the region, including ``(x1, y1)`` and excluding ``(x2, y2)``.
+ If *from_coords* is not given, the whole image is returned.
+
+ If *background* is specified, the data does not contain any transparency
+ information; in all transparent pixels the color is replaced by the
+ specified color.
+
+ If *grayscale* is true, the data does not contain color information; all
+ pixel data is transformed into grayscale.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
+ .. method:: get(x, y)
+
+ Return the color of the pixel at coordinates (*x*, *y*) as an
+ ``(r, g, b)`` tuple of three integers between 0 and 255, representing the
+ red, green and blue components respectively.
+
+ .. method:: put(data, to=None)
+
+ Set pixels of the image to the colors given in *data*, which must be a
+ string or a nested sequence of horizontal rows of pixel colors (for
+ example ``"{red green} {blue yellow}"``).
+
+ *to* specifies the coordinates of the region of the image into which the
+ data are copied.
+ It must be a tuple or a list of 2 or 4 integers ``(x1, y1)`` or
+ ``(x1, y1, x2, y2)`` giving the top-left corner, and optionally the
+ bottom-right corner, of the region.
+ The default position is ``(0, 0)``.
+
+ .. method:: read(filename, format=None, *, from_coords=None, to=None, \
+ shrink=False)
+
+ Read image data from the file named *filename* into the image.
+
+ *format* specifies the format of the image data in the file.
+
+ *from_coords* specifies a rectangular sub-region of the image file data
+ to be copied to the destination image.
+ It must be a tuple or a list of 1 to 4 integers ``(x1, y1, x2, y2)``.
+ If only *x1* and *y1* are specified, the region extends from ``(x1, y1)``
+ to the bottom-right corner of the image in the file.
+ If all four coordinates are given, they specify diagonally opposite
+ corners of the region.
+ If *from_coords* is not given, the whole of the image in the file is
+ read.
+
+ *to* specifies the coordinates of the top-left corner of the region of
+ the image into which the data are read.
+ The default is ``(0, 0)``.
+
+ If *shrink* is true, the size of the image is reduced, if necessary, so
+ that the region into which the file data are read is at the bottom-right
+ corner of the image.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+
+ .. method:: subsample(x, y='', *, from_coords=None)
+
+ Return a new :class:`PhotoImage` based on this image but using only every
+ *x*-th pixel in the X direction and every *y*-th pixel in the Y
+ direction.
+ If *y* is not given, it defaults to the same value as *x*.
+
+ *from_coords* specifies a rectangular sub-region of the source image to
+ be copied, as in the :meth:`copy` method.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Added the *from_coords* parameter.
+
+
+ .. method:: transparency_get(x, y)
+
+ Return ``True`` if the pixel at coordinates (*x*, *y*) is fully
+ transparent, ``False`` otherwise.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+
+ .. method:: transparency_set(x, y, boolean)
+
+ Make the pixel at coordinates (*x*, *y*) fully transparent if *boolean*
+ is true, fully opaque otherwise.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
+
+ .. method:: write(filename, format=None, from_coords=None, *, \
+ background=None, grayscale=False)
+
+ Write image data from the image to the file named *filename*.
+
+ *format* specifies the name of the image file format handler to use.
+ If it is not given, the format is guessed from the file extension.
+
+ *from_coords* specifies a rectangular region of the image to be written.
+ It must be a tuple or a list of 1 to 4 integers ``(x1, y1, x2, y2)``.
+ If only *x1* and *y1* are specified, the region extends from ``(x1, y1)``
+ to the bottom-right corner of the image.
+ If all four coordinates are given, they specify diagonally opposite
+ corners of the region.
+ If *from_coords* is not given, the whole image is written.
+
+ If *background* is specified, the data does not contain any transparency
+ information; in all transparent pixels the color is replaced by the
+ specified color.
+
+ If *grayscale* is true, the data does not contain color information; all
+ pixel data is transformed into grayscale.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Added the *background* and *grayscale* parameters.
+
+
+ .. method:: zoom(x, y='', *, from_coords=None)
+
+ Return a new :class:`PhotoImage` with this image magnified by a factor of
+ *x* in the X direction and *y* in the Y direction.
+ If *y* is not given, it defaults to the same value as *x*.
+
+ *from_coords* specifies a rectangular sub-region of the source image to
+ be copied, as in the :meth:`copy` method.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Added the *from_coords* parameter.
+
+
+
+.. class:: BitmapImage(name=None, cnf={}, master=None, **kw)
+
+ A two-color image (the Tk ``bitmap`` image type) created from an X11 bitmap.
+ Each pixel displays a foreground color, a background color, or nothing
+ (producing a transparent effect).
+ Inherits from :class:`Image`.
+
+ The configuration options are *data* or *file* (the source bitmap, given as
+ a string in X11 bitmap format or as the name of a file in that format),
+ *maskdata* or *maskfile* (the mask bitmap, in the same forms), and
+ *foreground* and *background* (the two colors).
+ For pixels where the mask is zero the image displays nothing; for other
+ pixels it displays the foreground color where the source is one and the
+ background color where the source is zero.
+ If *background* is set to an empty string, the background pixels are
+ transparent.
+
+ :class:`!BitmapImage` has no methods of its own beyond those inherited from
+ :class:`Image`.
+
+
+Other classes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Event()
+
+ A container for the attributes of an event passed to a callback bound with
+ :meth:`Misc.bind`.
+ An :class:`!Event` instance has the following attributes, each corresponding
+ to a field of the underlying Tk event; depending on the event type, some
+ attributes may be set to the string ``'??'`` to indicate that they are not
+ meaningful.
+ See :ref:`bindings-and-events`.
+
+ .. attribute:: serial
+
+ The serial number of the event.
+
+ .. attribute:: num
+
+ The mouse button that was pressed or released (for button events).
+
+ .. attribute:: focus
+
+ Whether the window has the focus (for ``Enter`` and ``Leave`` events).
+
+ .. attribute:: height
+ width
+
+ The new height and width of the window (for ``Configure`` and ``Expose``
+ events).
+
+ .. attribute:: keycode
+
+ The keycode of the key that was pressed or released.
+
+ .. attribute:: state
+
+ The state of the event, as a number (for most events) or a string (for
+ ``Visibility`` events).
+
+ .. attribute:: time
+
+ The timestamp of the event, in milliseconds.
+
+ .. attribute:: x
+ y
+
+ The pointer position relative to the widget, in pixels.
+
+ .. attribute:: x_root
+ y_root
+
+ The pointer position relative to the top-left corner of the screen, in
+ pixels.
+
+ .. attribute:: char
+
+ The character typed, as a string (for key events).
+
+ .. attribute:: send_event
+
+ ``True`` if the event was sent by another application.
+
+ .. attribute:: keysym
+
+ The symbolic name of the key that was pressed or released.
+
+ .. attribute:: keysym_num
+
+ The numeric value of :attr:`keysym`.
+
+ .. attribute:: type
+
+ The :class:`EventType` of the event.
+
+ .. attribute:: widget
+
+ The widget on which the event occurred.
+
+ .. attribute:: delta
+
+ The amount the mouse wheel was rotated (for ``MouseWheel`` events).
+
+
+.. class:: EventType(*values)
+
+ An :class:`enum.StrEnum` enumerating the Tk event types, used as the value
+ of :attr:`Event.type`.
+ Its members include, among others, ``KeyPress``, ``KeyRelease``,
+ ``ButtonPress``, ``ButtonRelease``, ``Motion``, ``Enter``, ``Leave``,
+ ``FocusIn``, ``FocusOut``, ``Configure``, ``Map``, ``Unmap``, ``Expose``,
+ ``Destroy`` and ``MouseWheel``.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+
+.. class:: CallWrapper(func, subst, widget)
+
+ Internal helper that wraps a Python callback so that it can be invoked from
+ Tcl.
+ *func* is the Python function, *subst* is an optional function that
+ pre-processes the Tcl arguments, and *widget* is the widget used for error
+ reporting.
+ Instances are created automatically by :meth:`Misc.register`; this class is
+ not normally used directly.
+
+
+Module-level functions
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. function:: Tcl(screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk', useTk=False)
+
+ The :func:`Tcl` function is a factory function which creates an object much
+ like that created by the :class:`Tk` class, except that it does not
+ initialize the Tk subsystem.
+ This is most often useful when driving the Tcl interpreter in an environment
+ where one doesn't want to create extraneous toplevel windows, or where one
+ cannot (such as Unix/Linux systems without an X server).
+ An object created by the :func:`Tcl` object can have a Toplevel window
+ created (and the Tk subsystem initialized) by calling its :meth:`~Tk.loadtk`
+ method.
+
+.. function:: NoDefaultRoot()
+
+ Inhibit the creation of an implicit default root window.
+ Afterwards :mod:`!tkinter` no longer creates a shared default root
+ automatically, and operations that rely on one --- such as constructing a
+ widget without an explicit *master* --- raise a :exc:`RuntimeError`.
+ Call this early in larger applications to make the root window explicit.
+
+.. function:: mainloop(n=0)
+
+ Run the Tk main event loop on the default root window until all windows are
+ destroyed.
+ Equivalent to calling :meth:`Misc.mainloop` on the default root.
+
+.. function:: getboolean(s)
+
+ Convert the Tcl boolean string *s* (one of ``'1'``, ``'true'``, ``'yes'``,
+ ``'on'`` and similar, or their false counterparts) to a Python
+ :class:`bool`.
+ Raise :exc:`TclError` for an invalid value.
+
+.. function:: getdouble(s)
+
+ Convert *s* to a floating-point number.
+ This is the built-in :class:`float`.
+
+.. function:: getint(s)
+
+ Convert *s* to an integer.
+ This is the built-in :class:`int`.
+
+.. function:: image_names()
+
+ Return the names of all existing images in the default root's interpreter.
+
+.. function:: image_types()
+
+ Return the available image types (such as ``'photo'`` and ``'bitmap'``) in
+ the default root's interpreter.
+
+
+.. _tkinter-file-handlers:
+
+File handlers
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Tk allows you to register and unregister a callback function which will be
+called from the Tk mainloop when I/O is possible on a file descriptor.
+Only one handler may be registered per file descriptor. Example code::
+
+ import tkinter
+ widget = tkinter.Tk()
+ mask = tkinter.READABLE | tkinter.WRITABLE
+ widget.tk.createfilehandler(file, mask, callback)
+ ...
+ widget.tk.deletefilehandler(file)
+
+This feature is not available on Windows.
+
+Since you don't know how many bytes are available for reading, you may not
+want to use the :class:`~io.BufferedIOBase` or :class:`~io.TextIOBase`
+:meth:`~io.BufferedIOBase.read` or :meth:`~io.IOBase.readline` methods,
+since these will insist on reading a predefined number of bytes.
+For sockets, the :meth:`~socket.socket.recv` or
+:meth:`~socket.socket.recvfrom` methods will work fine; for other files,
+use raw reads or ``os.read(file.fileno(), maxbytecount)``.
+
+
+.. method:: Widget.tk.createfilehandler(file, mask, func)
+
+ Registers the file handler callback function *func*. The *file* argument
+ may either be an object with a :meth:`~io.IOBase.fileno` method (such as
+ a file or socket object), or an integer file descriptor. The *mask*
+ argument is an ORed combination of any of the three constants below.
+ The callback is called as follows::
+
+ callback(file, mask)
+
+
+.. method:: Widget.tk.deletefilehandler(file)
+
+ Unregisters a file handler.
+
+
+.. data:: READABLE
+ WRITABLE
+ EXCEPTION
+
+ Constants used in the *mask* arguments.
+
+
+Constants
+^^^^^^^^^
+
+The following symbolic constants are available in both the :mod:`!tkinter`
+and :mod:`!tkinter.constants` namespaces.
+
+.. data:: TRUE
+ YES
+ ON
+
+ Truthy values, all equal to the integer ``1``.
+
+.. data:: FALSE
+ NO
+ OFF
+
+ Falsy values, all equal to the integer ``0``.
+
+.. data:: N
+ S
+ E
+ W
+ NE
+ NW
+ SE
+ SW
+ NS
+ EW
+ NSEW
+ CENTER
+
+ Compass directions (``'n'``, ``'s'``, ``'e'``, ``'w'`` and the diagonals and
+ edges) plus ``CENTER`` (``'center'``), used as values for the *anchor* and
+ *sticky* options and by methods such as :meth:`Misc.grid_anchor`.
+
+.. data:: LEFT
+ RIGHT
+ TOP
+ BOTTOM
+
+ Sides for the *side* option of the packer (see :meth:`Pack.pack_configure`).
+
+.. data:: X
+ Y
+ BOTH
+ NONE
+
+ Values for the *fill* option of the packer: ``'x'``, ``'y'``, ``'both'`` or
+ ``'none'``.
+
+.. data:: RAISED
+ SUNKEN
+ FLAT
+ RIDGE
+ GROOVE
+ SOLID
+
+ Values for the *relief* option, which controls a widget's 3-D border.
+
+.. data:: HORIZONTAL
+ VERTICAL
+
+ Values for the *orient* option of widgets such as :class:`Scale`,
+ :class:`Scrollbar` and :class:`PanedWindow`.
+
+.. data:: CHAR
+ WORD
+
+ Values for the *wrap* option of the :class:`Text` widget, selecting line
+ wrapping on character or word boundaries.
+
+.. data:: BASELINE
+
+ The text-alignment value ``'baseline'``.
+
+.. data:: INSIDE
+ OUTSIDE
+
+ Values for the *bordermode* option of the placer (see
+ :meth:`Place.place_configure`).
+
+.. data:: INSERT
+ CURRENT
+ END
+ ANCHOR
+ SEL
+ SEL_FIRST
+ SEL_LAST
+
+ Symbolic indices used by the :class:`Text`, :class:`Entry`, :class:`Listbox`
+ and :class:`Canvas` widgets, such as ``'insert'`` (the insertion cursor),
+ ``'current'``, ``'end'``, ``'anchor'`` and the bounds of the selection
+ (``'sel.first'`` and ``'sel.last'``).
+
+.. data:: ALL
+
+ The special tag ``'all'``, which matches every item of a :class:`Canvas` or
+ every character of a :class:`Text` (for example ``canvas.delete(ALL)``).
+
+.. data:: NORMAL
+ DISABLED
+ ACTIVE
+ HIDDEN
+
+ Values for the *state* option of various widgets and items.
+
+.. data:: CASCADE
+ CHECKBUTTON
+ COMMAND
+ RADIOBUTTON
+ SEPARATOR
+
+ Menu entry types, used as the *itemType* argument of :meth:`Menu.add` and
+ :meth:`Menu.insert`.
+
+.. data:: SINGLE
+ BROWSE
+ MULTIPLE
+ EXTENDED
+
+ Values for the *selectmode* option of the :class:`Listbox` widget.
+
+.. data:: PIESLICE
+ CHORD
+ ARC
+
+ Values for the *style* option of :class:`Canvas` arc items.
+
+.. data:: BUTT
+ PROJECTING
+ ROUND
+ BEVEL
+ MITER
+
+ Values for the *capstyle* (``'butt'``, ``'projecting'``, ``'round'``) and
+ *joinstyle* (``'round'``, ``'bevel'``, ``'miter'``) options of
+ :class:`Canvas` line items.
+
+.. data:: FIRST
+ LAST
+
+ Values for the *arrow* option of :class:`Canvas` line items, indicating
+ which ends have arrowheads.
+
+.. data:: MOVETO
+ SCROLL
+
+ The first argument passed by a :class:`Scrollbar` to the :meth:`XView.xview`
+ or :meth:`YView.yview` method of the scrolled widget.
+
+.. data:: UNITS
+ PAGES
+
+ Values for the *what* argument of :meth:`XView.xview_scroll` and
+ :meth:`YView.yview_scroll`.
+
+.. data:: UNDERLINE
+ NUMERIC
+ DOTBOX
+
+ Other option values: ``'underline'``, ``'numeric'`` and ``'dotbox'``.
diff --git a/Doc/library/tkinter.scrolledtext.rst b/Doc/library/tkinter.scrolledtext.rst
index d20365baa38690a..9a270fb34633887 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tkinter.scrolledtext.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tkinter.scrolledtext.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`tkinter.scrolledtext` --- Scrolled Text Widget
-====================================================
+:mod:`!tkinter.scrolledtext` --- Scrolled text widget
+=====================================================
.. module:: tkinter.scrolledtext
- :platform: Tk
:synopsis: Text widget with a vertical scroll bar.
.. sectionauthor:: Fred L. Drake, Jr. <fdrake@acm.org>
@@ -16,10 +15,12 @@ implements a basic text widget which has a vertical scroll bar configured to do
the "right thing." Using the :class:`ScrolledText` class is a lot easier than
setting up a text widget and scroll bar directly.
-The text widget and scrollbar are packed together in a :class:`Frame`, and the
-methods of the :class:`Grid` and :class:`Pack` geometry managers are acquired
-from the :class:`Frame` object. This allows the :class:`ScrolledText` widget to
-be used directly to achieve most normal geometry management behavior.
+The text widget and scrollbar are packed together in a :class:`~tkinter.Frame`,
+and the methods of the :class:`~tkinter.Pack`, :class:`~tkinter.Grid` and
+:class:`~tkinter.Place` geometry managers are acquired from the
+:class:`~tkinter.Frame` object.
+This allows the :class:`ScrolledText` widget to be used directly to achieve
+most normal geometry management behavior.
Should more specific control be necessary, the following attributes are
available:
diff --git a/Doc/library/tkinter.ttk.rst b/Doc/library/tkinter.ttk.rst
index bd0d8b3799a0f14..225b88e72910792 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tkinter.ttk.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tkinter.ttk.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`tkinter.ttk` --- Tk themed widgets
-========================================
+:mod:`!tkinter.ttk` --- Tk themed widgets
+=========================================
.. module:: tkinter.ttk
:synopsis: Tk themed widget set
@@ -12,20 +12,29 @@
--------------
-The :mod:`tkinter.ttk` module provides access to the Tk themed widget set,
-introduced in Tk 8.5. It provides additional benefits including anti-aliased font
-rendering under X11 and window transparency (requiring a composition
-window manager on X11).
+The :mod:`!tkinter.ttk` module provides access to the Tk themed widget set,
+introduced in Tk 8.5.
+Its widgets adapt their appearance to the platform's native theme,
+giving an application a better and more consistent look and feel
+than the classic :mod:`tkinter` widgets, whose appearance is fixed.
The basic idea for :mod:`tkinter.ttk` is to separate, to the extent possible,
the code implementing a widget's behavior from the code implementing its
appearance.
+Ttk widgets are used just like the classic :mod:`tkinter` widgets
+and share the same machinery:
+the widget hierarchy, the geometry managers, variable coupling and event binding.
+Those foundational concepts are covered in the :mod:`tkinter` documentation
+and are not repeated here.
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.1
+
.. seealso::
- `Tk Widget Styling Support <https://core.tcl.tk/tips/doc/trunk/tip/48.md>`_
- A document introducing theming support for Tk
+ `Tk Widget Styling Support (TIP #48) <https://tip.tcl-lang.org/48.html>`_
+ The Tcl Improvement Proposal that introduced the themed widget styling engine.
Using Ttk
@@ -42,26 +51,28 @@ To override the basic Tk widgets, the import should follow the Tk import::
That code causes several :mod:`tkinter.ttk` widgets (:class:`Button`,
:class:`Checkbutton`, :class:`Entry`, :class:`Frame`, :class:`Label`,
-:class:`LabelFrame`, :class:`Menubutton`, :class:`PanedWindow`,
-:class:`Radiobutton`, :class:`Scale` and :class:`Scrollbar`) to
+:class:`LabelFrame`, :class:`Menubutton`, :class:`OptionMenu`,
+:class:`PanedWindow`, :class:`Radiobutton`, :class:`Scale`,
+:class:`Scrollbar` and :class:`Spinbox`) to
automatically replace the Tk widgets.
-This has the direct benefit of using the new widgets which gives a better
-look and feel across platforms; however, the replacement widgets are not
-completely compatible. The main difference is that widget options such as
-"fg", "bg" and others related to widget styling are no
-longer present in Ttk widgets. Instead, use the :class:`ttk.Style` class
-for improved styling effects.
+.. note::
+ Overriding the classic widgets with ``from tkinter.ttk import *``
+ is convenient for adapting existing code,
+ but new code is usually clearer if it imports the module
+ as ``from tkinter import ttk`` and refers to the themed widgets explicitly,
+ such as ``ttk.Button``.
-.. seealso::
-
- `Converting existing applications to use Tile widgets <https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/doc/converting.txt>`_
- A monograph (using Tcl terminology) about differences typically
- encountered when moving applications to use the new widgets.
+This has the direct benefit of using the new widgets which gives a better look
+and feel across platforms; however, the replacement widgets are not completely
+compatible.
+The main difference is that widget options such as ``fg``, ``bg`` and others
+related to widget styling are no longer present in Ttk widgets.
+Instead, use the :class:`ttk.Style <Style>` class for improved styling effects.
-Ttk Widgets
+Ttk widgets
-----------
Ttk comes with 18 widgets, twelve of which already existed in tkinter:
@@ -70,7 +81,7 @@ Ttk comes with 18 widgets, twelve of which already existed in tkinter:
:class:`Radiobutton`, :class:`Scale`, :class:`Scrollbar`, and :class:`Spinbox`.
The other six are new: :class:`Combobox`, :class:`Notebook`,
:class:`Progressbar`, :class:`Separator`, :class:`Sizegrip` and
-:class:`Treeview`. And all them are subclasses of :class:`Widget`.
+:class:`Treeview`. All of them are subclasses of :class:`Widget`.
Using the Ttk widgets gives the application an improved look and feel.
As discussed above, there are differences in how the styling is coded.
@@ -95,14 +106,14 @@ documentation.
Widget
------
-:class:`ttk.Widget` defines standard options and methods supported by Tk
-themed widgets and is not supposed to be directly instantiated.
+:class:`ttk.Widget <Widget>` defines standard options and methods supported by
+Tk themed widgets and is not supposed to be directly instantiated.
-Standard Options
+Standard options
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-All the :mod:`ttk` Widgets accept the following options:
+All the :mod:`!ttk` Widgets accept the following options:
.. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
@@ -116,9 +127,10 @@ All the :mod:`ttk` Widgets accept the following options:
| | read-only, and may only be specified when the window is |
| | created. |
+-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
-| cursor | Specifies the mouse cursor to be used for the widget. If set |
-| | to the empty string (the default), the cursor is inherited |
-| | for the parent widget. |
+| cursor | Specifies the mouse cursor to be used for the widget. See |
+| | the *cursor* option type under :ref:`Tk-option-data-types`. |
+| | If set to the empty string (the default), the cursor is |
+| | inherited from the parent widget. |
+-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| takefocus | Determines whether the window accepts the focus during |
| | keyboard traversal. 0, 1 or an empty string is returned. |
@@ -133,7 +145,7 @@ All the :mod:`ttk` Widgets accept the following options:
+-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
-Scrollable Widget Options
+Scrollable widget options
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
The following options are supported by widgets that are controlled by a
@@ -146,20 +158,20 @@ scrollbar.
+================+=========================================================+
| xscrollcommand | Used to communicate with horizontal scrollbars. |
| | |
-| | When the view in the widget's window change, the widget |
-| | will generate a Tcl command based on the scrollcommand. |
+| | When the view in the widget's window changes, the widget|
+| | calls the *xscrollcommand* callback. |
| | |
| | Usually this option consists of the method |
-| | :meth:`Scrollbar.set` of some scrollbar. This will cause|
-| | the scrollbar to be updated whenever the view in the |
-| | window changes. |
+| | :meth:`Scrollbar.set <tkinter.Scrollbar.set>` of some |
+| | scrollbar. This will cause the scrollbar to be updated |
+| | whenever the view in the window changes. |
+----------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| yscrollcommand | Used to communicate with vertical scrollbars. |
| | For some more information, see above. |
+----------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
-Label Options
+Label options
^^^^^^^^^^^^^
The following options are supported by labels, buttons and other button-like
@@ -205,7 +217,7 @@ widgets.
+--------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
-Compatibility Options
+Compatibility options
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
.. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|
@@ -219,7 +231,7 @@ Compatibility Options
| | affect this option. |
+--------+----------------------------------------------------------------+
-Widget States
+Widget states
^^^^^^^^^^^^^
The widget state is a bitmap of independent state flags.
@@ -260,8 +272,9 @@ an exclamation point indicating that the bit is off.
ttk.Widget
^^^^^^^^^^
-Besides the methods described below, the :class:`ttk.Widget` supports the
-methods :meth:`tkinter.Widget.cget` and :meth:`tkinter.Widget.configure`.
+Besides the methods described below, the :class:`ttk.Widget <Widget>` supports
+the methods :meth:`tkinter.Widget.cget <tkinter.Misc.cget>` and
+:meth:`tkinter.Widget.configure <tkinter.Misc.configure>`.
.. class:: Widget
@@ -288,22 +301,27 @@ methods :meth:`tkinter.Widget.cget` and :meth:`tkinter.Widget.configure`.
which flags were changed. If *statespec* is not specified, returns
the currently enabled state flags.
+ Not to be confused with :meth:`Wm.state <tkinter.Wm.state>`.
+
*statespec* will usually be a list or a tuple.
Combobox
--------
-The :class:`ttk.Combobox` widget combines a text field with a pop-down list of
-values. This widget is a subclass of :class:`Entry`.
+The :class:`ttk.Combobox <Combobox>` widget combines a text field with a
+pop-down list of values.
+This widget is a subclass of :class:`Entry`.
-Besides the methods inherited from :class:`Widget`: :meth:`Widget.cget`,
-:meth:`Widget.configure`, :meth:`Widget.identify`, :meth:`Widget.instate`
-and :meth:`Widget.state`, and the following inherited from :class:`Entry`:
-:meth:`Entry.bbox`, :meth:`Entry.delete`, :meth:`Entry.icursor`,
-:meth:`Entry.index`, :meth:`Entry.insert`, :meth:`Entry.selection`,
-:meth:`Entry.xview`, it has some other methods, described at
-:class:`ttk.Combobox`.
+Besides the methods inherited from :class:`Widget`: :meth:`~tkinter.Misc.cget`,
+:meth:`~tkinter.Misc.configure`, :meth:`~Widget.identify`,
+:meth:`~Widget.instate` and :meth:`~Widget.state`, and the following inherited
+from :class:`Entry`: :meth:`~Entry.bbox`, :meth:`~tkinter.Entry.delete`,
+:meth:`~tkinter.Entry.icursor`, :meth:`~tkinter.Entry.index`,
+:meth:`~tkinter.Entry.insert`,
+:meth:`selection* <tkinter.Entry.selection_adjust>`,
+:meth:`xview* <tkinter.XView.xview>`, it has some other methods, described at
+:class:`ttk.Combobox <Combobox>`.
Options
@@ -317,7 +335,7 @@ This widget accepts the following specific options:
| Option | Description |
+=================+========================================================+
| exportselection | Boolean value. If set, the widget selection is linked |
-| | to the Window Manager selection (which can be returned |
+| | to the X selection (which can be returned |
| | by invoking Misc.selection_get, for example). |
+-----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
| justify | Specifies how the text is aligned within the widget. |
@@ -331,7 +349,7 @@ This widget accepts the following specific options:
+-----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
| state | One of "normal", "readonly", or "disabled". In the |
| | "readonly" state, the value may not be edited directly,|
-| | and the user can only selection of the values from the |
+| | and the user can only select one of the values from the|
| | dropdown list. In the "normal" state, the text field is|
| | directly editable. In the "disabled" state, no |
| | interaction is possible. |
@@ -349,6 +367,11 @@ This widget accepts the following specific options:
| | widget's font. |
+-----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+.. note::
+
+ Tk 9.1 added the *locale* option, which selects the locale used to determine
+ word and character boundaries within the text (``"C"`` by default).
+
Virtual events
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
@@ -381,16 +404,18 @@ ttk.Combobox
Spinbox
-------
-The :class:`ttk.Spinbox` widget is a :class:`ttk.Entry` enhanced with increment
-and decrement arrows. It can be used for numbers or lists of string values.
-This widget is a subclass of :class:`Entry`.
-Besides the methods inherited from :class:`Widget`: :meth:`Widget.cget`,
-:meth:`Widget.configure`, :meth:`Widget.identify`, :meth:`Widget.instate`
-and :meth:`Widget.state`, and the following inherited from :class:`Entry`:
-:meth:`Entry.bbox`, :meth:`Entry.delete`, :meth:`Entry.icursor`,
-:meth:`Entry.index`, :meth:`Entry.insert`, :meth:`Entry.xview`,
-it has some other methods, described at :class:`ttk.Spinbox`.
+The :class:`ttk.Spinbox <Spinbox>` widget is a :class:`ttk.Entry <Entry>`
+enhanced with increment and decrement arrows.
+It can be used for numbers or lists of string values.
+This widget is a subclass of :class:`Entry`.
+Besides the methods inherited from :class:`Widget`: :meth:`~tkinter.Misc.cget`,
+:meth:`~tkinter.Misc.configure`, :meth:`~Widget.identify`,
+:meth:`~Widget.instate` and :meth:`~Widget.state`, and the following inherited
+from :class:`Entry`: :meth:`~Entry.bbox`, :meth:`~tkinter.Entry.delete`,
+:meth:`~tkinter.Entry.icursor`, :meth:`~tkinter.Entry.index`,
+:meth:`~tkinter.Entry.insert`, :meth:`xview* <tkinter.XView.xview>`, it has
+some other methods, described at :class:`ttk.Spinbox <Spinbox>`.
Options
^^^^^^^
@@ -450,6 +475,11 @@ ttk.Spinbox
.. class:: Spinbox
+ With a non-integer increment, see :ref:`numeric values and the locale
+ <tkinter-numeric-locale>`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
+
.. method:: get()
Returns the current value of the spinbox.
@@ -460,6 +490,7 @@ ttk.Spinbox
Sets the value of the spinbox to *value*.
+
Notebook
--------
@@ -494,7 +525,7 @@ This widget accepts the following specific options:
+---------+----------------------------------------------------------------+
-Tab Options
+Tab options
^^^^^^^^^^^
There are also specific options for tabs:
@@ -512,7 +543,8 @@ There are also specific options for tabs:
| | area. Value is a string containing zero or more of the |
| | characters "n", "s", "e" or "w". Each letter refers to a |
| | side (north, south, east or west) that the child window will |
-| | stick to, as per the :meth:`grid` geometry manager. |
+| | stick to, as per the :meth:`grid <tkinter.Grid.grid>` |
+| | geometry manager. |
+-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| padding | Specifies the amount of extra space to add between the |
| | notebook and this pane. Syntax is the same as for the option |
@@ -534,11 +566,11 @@ There are also specific options for tabs:
+-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
-Tab Identifiers
+Tab identifiers
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-The tab_id present in several methods of :class:`ttk.Notebook` may take any
-of the following forms:
+The tab_id present in several methods of :class:`ttk.Notebook <Notebook>` may
+take any of the following forms:
* An integer between zero and the number of tabs
* The name of a child window
@@ -548,7 +580,7 @@ of the following forms:
:meth:`Notebook.index`)
-Virtual Events
+Virtual events
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
This widget generates a **<<NotebookTabChanged>>** virtual event after a new
@@ -575,6 +607,11 @@ ttk.Notebook
Removes the tab specified by *tab_id*, unmaps and unmanages the
associated window.
+ This shadows the inherited geometry-manager :meth:`!forget`;
+ use :meth:`~tkinter.Pack.pack_forget`, :meth:`~tkinter.Grid.grid_forget`
+ or :meth:`~tkinter.Place.place_forget` to remove the widget itself from
+ its manager.
+
.. method:: hide(tab_id)
@@ -628,7 +665,7 @@ ttk.Notebook
.. method:: tabs()
- Returns a list of windows managed by the notebook.
+ Returns a tuple of windows managed by the notebook.
.. method:: enable_traversal()
@@ -644,16 +681,18 @@ ttk.Notebook
select that tab.
Multiple notebooks in a single toplevel may be enabled for traversal,
- including nested notebooks. However, notebook traversal only works
- properly if all panes have the notebook they are in as master.
+ including nested notebooks.
+ However, notebook traversal only works properly if all panes are direct
+ children of the notebook.
Progressbar
-----------
-The :class:`ttk.Progressbar` widget shows the status of a long-running
-operation. It can operate in two modes: 1) the determinate mode which shows the
-amount completed relative to the total amount of work to be done and 2) the
+The :class:`ttk.Progressbar <Progressbar>` widget shows the status of a
+long-running operation.
+It can operate in two modes: 1) the determinate mode which shows the amount
+completed relative to the total amount of work to be done and 2) the
indeterminate mode which provides an animated display to let the user know that
work is progressing.
@@ -723,10 +762,11 @@ ttk.Progressbar
Separator
---------
-The :class:`ttk.Separator` widget displays a horizontal or vertical separator
-bar.
+The :class:`ttk.Separator <Separator>` widget displays a horizontal or vertical
+separator bar.
-It has no other methods besides the ones inherited from :class:`ttk.Widget`.
+It has no other methods besides the ones inherited from
+:class:`ttk.Widget <Widget>`.
Options
@@ -747,11 +787,12 @@ This widget accepts the following specific option:
Sizegrip
--------
-The :class:`ttk.Sizegrip` widget (also known as a grow box) allows the user to
-resize the containing toplevel window by pressing and dragging the grip.
+The :class:`ttk.Sizegrip <Sizegrip>` widget (also known as a grow box) allows
+the user to resize the containing toplevel window by pressing and dragging the
+grip.
This widget has neither specific options nor specific methods, besides the
-ones inherited from :class:`ttk.Widget`.
+ones inherited from :class:`ttk.Widget <Widget>`.
Platform-specific notes
@@ -766,18 +807,19 @@ Bugs
^^^^
* If the containing toplevel's position was specified relative to the right
- or bottom of the screen (e.g. ....), the :class:`Sizegrip` widget will
- not resize the window.
+ or bottom of the screen (for example, ....), the :class:`Sizegrip` widget
+ will not resize the window.
* This widget supports only "southeast" resizing.
Treeview
--------
-The :class:`ttk.Treeview` widget displays a hierarchical collection of items.
+The :class:`ttk.Treeview <Treeview>` widget displays a hierarchical collection
+of items.
Each item has a textual label, an optional image, and an optional list of data
-values. The data values are displayed in successive columns after the tree
-label.
+values.
+The data values are displayed in successive columns after the tree label.
The order in which data values are displayed may be controlled by setting
the widget option ``displaycolumns``. The tree widget can also display column
@@ -839,15 +881,25 @@ This widget accepts the following specific options:
| | * tree: display tree labels in column #0. |
| | * headings: display the heading row. |
| | |
-| | The default is "tree headings", i.e., show all |
+| | The default is "tree headings", that is, show all |
| | elements. |
| | |
| | **Note**: Column #0 always refers to the tree column, |
| | even if show="tree" is not specified. |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
+.. note::
-Item Options
+ Tk 9.0 added several :class:`Treeview` features.
+ The *selectmode* option gained the values ``"single"`` and ``"multiple"``;
+ the new widget options *selecttype* (``"item"`` or ``"cell"`` selection),
+ *striped* (zebra-striped rows), and *titlecolumns* / *titleitems* (columns
+ or rows frozen against scrolling) were introduced; the column *separator*
+ option was added; and items gained a *hidden* option.
+ Tk 9.1 added the *rowheight* and *headingheight* options.
+
+
+Item options
^^^^^^^^^^^^
The following item options may be specified for items in the insert and item
@@ -876,7 +928,7 @@ widget commands.
+--------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
-Tag Options
+Tag options
^^^^^^^^^^^
The following options may be specified on tags:
@@ -897,7 +949,7 @@ The following options may be specified on tags:
+------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
-Column Identifiers
+Column identifiers
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Column identifiers take any of the following forms:
@@ -921,7 +973,7 @@ then data column n is displayed in column #n+1. Again, **column #0 always
refers to the tree column**.
-Virtual Events
+Virtual events
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
The Treeview widget generates the following virtual events.
@@ -955,20 +1007,23 @@ ttk.Treeview
the specified *item* in the form (x, y, width, height).
If *column* is specified, returns the bounding box of that cell. If the
- *item* is not visible (i.e., if it is a descendant of a closed item or is
- scrolled offscreen), returns an empty string.
+ *item* is not visible (that is, if it is a descendant of a closed item
+ or is scrolled offscreen), returns an empty string.
+
+ This shadows the inherited :meth:`!Misc.bbox`;
+ use :meth:`~tkinter.Misc.grid_bbox` for the grid bounding box.
.. method:: get_children(item=None)
- Returns the list of children belonging to *item*.
+ Returns a tuple of children belonging to *item*.
If *item* is not specified, returns root children.
.. method:: set_children(item, *newchildren)
- Replaces *item*'s child with *newchildren*.
+ Replaces *item*'s children with *newchildren*.
Children present in *item* that are not present in *newchildren* are
detached from the tree. No items in *newchildren* may be an ancestor of
@@ -995,6 +1050,9 @@ ttk.Treeview
The minimum width of the column in pixels. The treeview widget will
not make the column any smaller than specified by this option when
the widget is resized or the user drags a column.
+ *separator*: ``True``/``False``
+ Specifies whether a column separator should be drawn to the right of
+ the column.
*stretch*: ``True``/``False``
Specifies whether the column's width should be adjusted when
the widget is resized.
@@ -1022,7 +1080,8 @@ ttk.Treeview
.. method:: exists(item)
- Returns ``True`` if the specified *item* is present in the tree.
+ Returns ``True`` if the specified *item* is present in the tree,
+ ``False`` otherwise.
.. method:: focus(item=None)
@@ -1030,6 +1089,9 @@ ttk.Treeview
If *item* is specified, sets the focus item to *item*. Otherwise, returns
the current focus item, or '' if there is none.
+ This shadows the inherited :meth:`!Misc.focus`;
+ use :meth:`~tkinter.Misc.focus_set` to focus the widget itself.
+
.. method:: heading(column, option=None, **kw)
@@ -1068,7 +1130,7 @@ ttk.Treeview
.. method:: identify_column(x)
- Returns the data column identifier of the cell at position *x*.
+ Returns the display column identifier of the cell at position *x*.
The tree column has ID #0.
@@ -1131,6 +1193,9 @@ ttk.Treeview
Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding values as given by *kw*.
+ .. method:: reattach(item, parent, index)
+ :no-typesetting:
+
.. method:: move(item, parent, index)
Moves *item* to position *index* in *parent*'s list of children.
@@ -1140,6 +1205,8 @@ ttk.Treeview
than or equal to the number of children, it is moved to the end. If *item*
was detached it is reattached.
+ :meth:`reattach` is an alias of :meth:`!move`.
+
.. method:: next(item)
@@ -1159,11 +1226,6 @@ ttk.Treeview
the first child of its parent.
- .. method:: reattach(item, parent, index)
-
- An alias for :meth:`Treeview.move`.
-
-
.. method:: see(item)
Ensure that *item* is visible.
@@ -1241,9 +1303,9 @@ ttk.Treeview
.. method:: tag_has(tagname, item=None)
- If *item* is specified, returns 1 or 0 depending on whether the specified
- *item* has the given *tagname*. Otherwise, returns a list of all items
- that have the specified tag.
+ If *item* is specified, returns ``True`` if the specified *item* has the
+ given *tagname* and ``False`` otherwise.
+ Otherwise, returns a tuple of all items that have the specified tag.
Availability: Tk 8.6
@@ -1260,20 +1322,26 @@ ttk.Treeview
.. _TtkStyling:
-Ttk Styling
+Ttk styling
-----------
-Each widget in :mod:`ttk` is assigned a style, which specifies the set of
-elements making up the widget and how they are arranged, along with dynamic
-and default settings for element options. By default the style name is the
-same as the widget's class name, but it may be overridden by the widget's style
-option. If you don't know the class name of a widget, use the method
-:meth:`Misc.winfo_class` (somewidget.winfo_class()).
+Each widget in :mod:`!ttk` is assigned a style, which specifies the set of
+elements making up the widget and how they are arranged, along with dynamic and
+default settings for element options.
+By default the style name is the same as the widget's class name, but it may be
+overridden by the widget's style option.
+If you don't know the class name of a widget, use the method
+:meth:`Misc.winfo_class <tkinter.Misc.winfo_class>` (somewidget.winfo_class()).
.. seealso::
- `Tcl'2004 conference presentation <https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/tile-tcl2004.pdf>`_
- This document explains how the theme engine works
+ `Introduction to the Tk theme engine <https://www.tcl-lang.org/man/tcl9.0/TkCmd/ttk_intro.html>`_
+ The ``ttk::intro`` man page explains how the theme engine works.
+
+ `The Tile Widget Set <https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/tile-tcl2004.pdf>`_
+ Joe English's 2004 paper introducing the theme engine
+ (then the separate *Tile* extension),
+ with diagrams of how elements and layouts make up a widget's appearance.
.. class:: Style
@@ -1337,6 +1405,12 @@ option. If you don't know the class name of a widget, use the method
'red')]`` in the foreground option, for example, the result would be a
blue foreground when the widget were in active or pressed states.
+ When called to query the map (without specifying values to set), it
+ returns a dictionary mapping each option to its list of statespecs.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ The value returned when querying the map was corrected.
+
.. method:: lookup(style, option, state=None, default=None)
@@ -1500,12 +1574,12 @@ option. If you don't know the class name of a widget, use the method
.. method:: element_names()
- Returns the list of elements defined in the current theme.
+ Returns a tuple of elements defined in the current theme.
.. method:: element_options(elementname)
- Returns the list of *elementname*'s options.
+ Returns a tuple of *elementname*'s options.
.. method:: theme_create(themename, parent=None, settings=None)
@@ -1557,7 +1631,7 @@ option. If you don't know the class name of a widget, use the method
.. method:: theme_names()
- Returns a list of all known themes.
+ Returns a tuple of all known themes.
.. method:: theme_use(themename=None)
@@ -1596,3 +1670,259 @@ The valid options/values are:
the layout name, and the other is a `Layout`_.
.. _Layout: `Layouts`_
+
+
+Additional widgets
+------------------
+
+The following themed widgets complete the :mod:`tkinter.ttk` widget set.
+Each is the themed counterpart of the like-named classic :mod:`tkinter` widget
+and inherits the common methods of :class:`Widget`.
+
+.. class:: Button(master=None, **kw)
+
+ Ttk :class:`Button` widget, displays a textual label and/or image, and
+ evaluates a command when pressed.
+ It is the themed counterpart of :class:`tkinter.Button` and inherits the
+ common widget methods from :class:`Widget`.
+
+ .. method:: invoke()
+
+ Invoke the command associated with the button and return its result.
+
+
+.. class:: Checkbutton(master=None, **kw)
+
+ Ttk :class:`Checkbutton` widget, used to control a boolean variable that is
+ toggled on and off.
+ It is the themed counterpart of :class:`tkinter.Checkbutton` and inherits
+ the common widget methods from :class:`Widget`.
+
+ .. method:: invoke()
+
+ Toggle the button between its selected and deselected states, invoke the
+ command associated with the button, and return its result.
+
+
+.. class:: Entry(master=None, widget=None, **kw)
+
+ Ttk :class:`Entry` widget, displays a one-line text string and allows the
+ user to edit it.
+ It is the themed counterpart of :class:`tkinter.Entry` and inherits the
+ common widget methods from :class:`Widget` as well as the editing methods
+ from :class:`tkinter.Entry`.
+
+ .. method:: bbox(index)
+
+ Return a tuple ``(x, y, width, height)`` giving the bounding box of the
+ character at the given *index*.
+
+ This shadows the inherited :meth:`!Misc.bbox`;
+ use :meth:`~tkinter.Misc.grid_bbox` for the grid bounding box.
+
+ .. method:: identify(x, y)
+
+ Return the name of the element under the point given by *x* and *y*, or
+ the empty string if no element is present at that location.
+
+ .. method:: validate()
+
+ Force validation of the entry and return ``True`` if validation
+ succeeded, and ``False`` otherwise.
+
+
+.. class:: Frame(master=None, **kw)
+
+ Ttk :class:`Frame` widget, a container used to group and lay out other
+ widgets.
+ It is the themed counterpart of :class:`tkinter.Frame` and inherits the
+ common widget methods from :class:`Widget`.
+
+
+.. class:: Label(master=None, **kw)
+
+ Ttk :class:`Label` widget, displays a textual label and/or image.
+ It is the themed counterpart of :class:`tkinter.Label` and inherits the
+ common widget methods from :class:`Widget`.
+
+
+.. class:: Labelframe(master=None, **kw)
+
+ Ttk :class:`Labelframe` widget, a container that draws a border and a title
+ label around its contents.
+ It is the themed counterpart of :class:`tkinter.LabelFrame` and inherits the
+ common widget methods from :class:`Widget`.
+
+
+.. class:: Menubutton(master=None, **kw)
+
+ Ttk :class:`Menubutton` widget, displays a textual label and/or image, and
+ pops up a menu when pressed.
+ It is the themed counterpart of :class:`tkinter.Menubutton` and inherits the
+ common widget methods from :class:`Widget`.
+
+
+.. class:: OptionMenu(master, variable, default=None, *values, **kwargs)
+
+ Ttk :class:`OptionMenu` widget, a :class:`Menubutton` that pops up a menu of
+ mutually exclusive choices.
+ *variable* is the variable that tracks the currently selected value,
+ *default* is the value to set initially, and *values* are the entries to
+ display in the menu.
+ A *command* keyword argument may be given to specify a callable that is
+ invoked with the selected value whenever the selection changes; the *style*
+ keyword argument sets the style used by the underlying menubutton; and the
+ *direction* keyword argument sets where the menu is posted relative to the
+ menubutton (one of ``'above'``, ``'below'`` (the default), ``'left'``,
+ ``'right'`` or ``'flush'``).
+
+ .. method:: set_menu(default=None, *values)
+
+ Replace the entries of the menu with *values*.
+ If *default* is given, also set it as the current value of the
+ *variable*.
+
+ .. method:: destroy()
+
+ Destroy this widget and its associated menu.
+
+
+
+.. class:: Panedwindow(master=None, **kw)
+
+ Ttk :class:`Panedwindow` widget, displays a number of subwindows stacked
+ either vertically or horizontally.
+ The user may adjust the relative sizes of the subwindows by dragging the
+ sash between panes.
+ It is the themed counterpart of :class:`tkinter.PanedWindow` and inherits
+ the common widget methods from :class:`Widget`, as well as the :meth:`!add`
+ and :meth:`!panes` methods from :class:`tkinter.PanedWindow`.
+
+ .. method:: insert(pos, child, **kw)
+
+ Insert a pane containing *child* at the position *pos*.
+ *pos* is either the string ``'end'``, an integer index, or the name of a
+ managed subwindow.
+ If *child* is already managed by the paned window, move it to the
+ specified position.
+ Any keyword arguments set pane options.
+
+ .. method:: forget(child)
+
+ Remove *child*, which may be either an integer index or the name of a
+ managed subwindow, from the panes.
+
+ This shadows the inherited geometry-manager :meth:`!forget`;
+ use :meth:`~tkinter.Pack.pack_forget`, :meth:`~tkinter.Grid.grid_forget`
+ or :meth:`~tkinter.Place.place_forget` to remove the widget itself from
+ its manager.
+
+ .. method:: pane(pane, option=None, **kw)
+
+ Query or modify the options of the specified *pane*, where *pane* is
+ either an integer index or the name of a managed subwindow.
+ If no arguments are given, return a dictionary of the pane option values.
+ If *option* is specified, return the value of that option.
+ Otherwise, set the options given as keyword arguments to their
+ corresponding values.
+
+ .. method:: sashpos(index, newpos=None)
+
+ If *newpos* is specified, set the position of sash number *index* and
+ return its new position.
+ This may adjust the positions of adjacent sashes to ensure that positions
+ are monotonically increasing; positions are also constrained to be
+ between 0 and the total size of the widget.
+ If *newpos* is omitted, return the current position of the sash.
+
+
+.. class:: Radiobutton(master=None, **kw)
+
+ Ttk :class:`Radiobutton` widget, used as part of a group to control a single
+ shared variable by selecting one of several mutually exclusive values.
+ It is the themed counterpart of :class:`tkinter.Radiobutton` and inherits
+ the common widget methods from :class:`Widget`.
+
+ .. method:: invoke()
+
+ Set the option variable to the button's value, select the button, invoke
+ the command associated with the button, and return its result.
+
+
+.. class:: Scale(master=None, **kw)
+
+ Ttk :class:`Scale` widget, displays a slider that lets the user select a
+ numeric value from a range by moving the slider along a trough.
+ It is the themed counterpart of :class:`tkinter.Scale` and inherits the
+ common widget methods from :class:`Widget`.
+
+ .. method:: configure(cnf=None, **kw)
+
+ Modify or query the widget options, like
+ :meth:`Widget.configure <tkinter.Misc.configure>`.
+ In addition, this method clips the ``from`` and ``to`` values so that the
+ current value stays within the range defined by them.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.9
+ Now returns the configuration value, like
+ :meth:`Widget.configure <tkinter.Misc.configure>`.
+
+
+ .. method:: get(x=None, y=None)
+
+ Return the current value of the scale.
+ If *x* and *y* are given, return the value corresponding to the pixel
+ coordinate *x*, *y* instead.
+
+
+.. class:: Scrollbar(master=None, **kw)
+
+ Ttk :class:`Scrollbar` widget, controls the viewport of an associated
+ scrollable widget such as a :class:`Treeview`, :class:`Entry` or
+ :class:`tkinter.Text`.
+ It is the themed counterpart of :class:`tkinter.Scrollbar` and inherits the
+ common widget methods from :class:`Widget`, as well as the :meth:`!set` and
+ :meth:`!get` methods from :class:`tkinter.Scrollbar`.
+
+
+.. class:: Separator(master=None, **kw)
+
+ Ttk :class:`Separator` widget, displays a horizontal or vertical separator
+ line.
+ It has no direct counterpart in :mod:`tkinter` and inherits the common
+ widget methods from :class:`Widget`.
+
+
+.. class:: Sizegrip(master=None, **kw)
+
+ Ttk :class:`Sizegrip` widget, displays a grip that allows the user to resize
+ the containing toplevel window by pressing and dragging the grip, typically
+ placed in the bottom-right corner.
+ It has no direct counterpart in :mod:`tkinter` and inherits the common
+ widget methods from :class:`Widget`.
+
+
+.. class:: LabeledScale(master=None, variable=None, from_=0, to=10, **kw)
+
+ A :class:`Frame` containing a :class:`Scale` and a :class:`Label` that shows
+ the scale's current value.
+ *variable* is the :class:`~tkinter.IntVar` tracked by the scale (one is
+ created if it is not given), and *from_* and *to* define the range of the
+ scale.
+
+ .. method:: destroy()
+
+ Destroy this widget and remove the trace callback registered on the
+ associated variable.
+
+
+.. class:: LabelFrame(master=None, **kw)
+
+ Alias of :class:`Labelframe`, kept for naming compatibility with
+ :class:`tkinter.LabelFrame`.
+
+
+.. class:: PanedWindow(master=None, **kw)
+
+ Alias of :class:`Panedwindow`, kept for naming compatibility with
+ :class:`tkinter.PanedWindow`.
diff --git a/Doc/library/token-list.inc b/Doc/library/token-list.inc
index 39df2927a0b7f2d..655758c4a400ccd 100644
--- a/Doc/library/token-list.inc
+++ b/Doc/library/token-list.inc
@@ -1,230 +1,104 @@
.. Auto-generated by Tools/build/generate_token.py
-.. data:: ENDMARKER
-.. data:: NAME
-
-.. data:: NUMBER
-
-.. data:: STRING
-
-.. data:: NEWLINE
-
-.. data:: INDENT
-
-.. data:: DEDENT
-
-.. data:: LPAR
-
- Token value for ``"("``.
-
-.. data:: RPAR
-
- Token value for ``")"``.
-
-.. data:: LSQB
-
- Token value for ``"["``.
-
-.. data:: RSQB
-
- Token value for ``"]"``.
-
-.. data:: COLON
-
- Token value for ``":"``.
-
-.. data:: COMMA
-
- Token value for ``","``.
-
-.. data:: SEMI
-
- Token value for ``";"``.
-
-.. data:: PLUS
-
- Token value for ``"+"``.
-
-.. data:: MINUS
-
- Token value for ``"-"``.
-
-.. data:: STAR
-
- Token value for ``"*"``.
-
-.. data:: SLASH
-
- Token value for ``"/"``.
-
-.. data:: VBAR
-
- Token value for ``"|"``.
-
-.. data:: AMPER
-
- Token value for ``"&"``.
-
-.. data:: LESS
-
- Token value for ``"<"``.
-
-.. data:: GREATER
-
- Token value for ``">"``.
-
-.. data:: EQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"="``.
-
-.. data:: DOT
-
- Token value for ``"."``.
-
-.. data:: PERCENT
-
- Token value for ``"%"``.
-
-.. data:: LBRACE
-
- Token value for ``"{"``.
-
-.. data:: RBRACE
-
- Token value for ``"}"``.
-
-.. data:: EQEQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"=="``.
-
-.. data:: NOTEQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"!="``.
-
-.. data:: LESSEQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"<="``.
-
-.. data:: GREATEREQUAL
-
- Token value for ``">="``.
-
-.. data:: TILDE
-
- Token value for ``"~"``.
-
-.. data:: CIRCUMFLEX
-
- Token value for ``"^"``.
-
-.. data:: LEFTSHIFT
-
- Token value for ``"<<"``.
-
-.. data:: RIGHTSHIFT
-
- Token value for ``">>"``.
-
-.. data:: DOUBLESTAR
-
- Token value for ``"**"``.
-
-.. data:: PLUSEQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"+="``.
-
-.. data:: MINEQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"-="``.
-
-.. data:: STAREQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"*="``.
-
-.. data:: SLASHEQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"/="``.
-
-.. data:: PERCENTEQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"%="``.
-
-.. data:: AMPEREQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"&="``.
-
-.. data:: VBAREQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"|="``.
-
-.. data:: CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"^="``.
-
-.. data:: LEFTSHIFTEQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"<<="``.
-
-.. data:: RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL
-
- Token value for ``">>="``.
-
-.. data:: DOUBLESTAREQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"**="``.
-
-.. data:: DOUBLESLASH
-
- Token value for ``"//"``.
-
-.. data:: DOUBLESLASHEQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"//="``.
-
-.. data:: AT
-
- Token value for ``"@"``.
-
-.. data:: ATEQUAL
-
- Token value for ``"@="``.
-
-.. data:: RARROW
-
- Token value for ``"->"``.
-
-.. data:: ELLIPSIS
-
- Token value for ``"..."``.
-
-.. data:: COLONEQUAL
-
- Token value for ``":="``.
-
-.. data:: EXCLAMATION
-
- Token value for ``"!"``.
-
-.. data:: OP
-
-.. data:: TYPE_IGNORE
-
-.. data:: TYPE_COMMENT
-
-.. data:: SOFT_KEYWORD
-
-.. data:: FSTRING_START
-
-.. data:: FSTRING_MIDDLE
-
-.. data:: FSTRING_END
-
-.. data:: COMMENT
-
-.. data:: NL
-
-.. data:: ERRORTOKEN
-
-.. data:: N_TOKENS
-
-.. data:: NT_OFFSET
+.. list-table::
+ :align: left
+ :header-rows: 1
+
+ * - Token
+ - Value
+ * - .. data:: LPAR
+ - ``"("``
+ * - .. data:: RPAR
+ - ``")"``
+ * - .. data:: LSQB
+ - ``"["``
+ * - .. data:: RSQB
+ - ``"]"``
+ * - .. data:: COLON
+ - ``":"``
+ * - .. data:: COMMA
+ - ``","``
+ * - .. data:: SEMI
+ - ``";"``
+ * - .. data:: PLUS
+ - ``"+"``
+ * - .. data:: MINUS
+ - ``"-"``
+ * - .. data:: STAR
+ - ``"*"``
+ * - .. data:: SLASH
+ - ``"/"``
+ * - .. data:: VBAR
+ - ``"|"``
+ * - .. data:: AMPER
+ - ``"&"``
+ * - .. data:: LESS
+ - ``"<"``
+ * - .. data:: GREATER
+ - ``">"``
+ * - .. data:: EQUAL
+ - ``"="``
+ * - .. data:: DOT
+ - ``"."``
+ * - .. data:: PERCENT
+ - ``"%"``
+ * - .. data:: LBRACE
+ - ``"{"``
+ * - .. data:: RBRACE
+ - ``"}"``
+ * - .. data:: EQEQUAL
+ - ``"=="``
+ * - .. data:: NOTEQUAL
+ - ``"!="``
+ * - .. data:: LESSEQUAL
+ - ``"<="``
+ * - .. data:: GREATEREQUAL
+ - ``">="``
+ * - .. data:: TILDE
+ - ``"~"``
+ * - .. data:: CIRCUMFLEX
+ - ``"^"``
+ * - .. data:: LEFTSHIFT
+ - ``"<<"``
+ * - .. data:: RIGHTSHIFT
+ - ``">>"``
+ * - .. data:: DOUBLESTAR
+ - ``"**"``
+ * - .. data:: PLUSEQUAL
+ - ``"+="``
+ * - .. data:: MINEQUAL
+ - ``"-="``
+ * - .. data:: STAREQUAL
+ - ``"*="``
+ * - .. data:: SLASHEQUAL
+ - ``"/="``
+ * - .. data:: PERCENTEQUAL
+ - ``"%="``
+ * - .. data:: AMPEREQUAL
+ - ``"&="``
+ * - .. data:: VBAREQUAL
+ - ``"|="``
+ * - .. data:: CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL
+ - ``"^="``
+ * - .. data:: LEFTSHIFTEQUAL
+ - ``"<<="``
+ * - .. data:: RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL
+ - ``">>="``
+ * - .. data:: DOUBLESTAREQUAL
+ - ``"**="``
+ * - .. data:: DOUBLESLASH
+ - ``"//"``
+ * - .. data:: DOUBLESLASHEQUAL
+ - ``"//="``
+ * - .. data:: AT
+ - ``"@"``
+ * - .. data:: ATEQUAL
+ - ``"@="``
+ * - .. data:: RARROW
+ - ``"->"``
+ * - .. data:: ELLIPSIS
+ - ``"..."``
+ * - .. data:: COLONEQUAL
+ - ``":="``
+ * - .. data:: EXCLAMATION
+ - ``"!"``
diff --git a/Doc/library/token.rst b/Doc/library/token.rst
index e6dc37d7ad852cf..fb9a982a4b9a47f 100644
--- a/Doc/library/token.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/token.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`token` --- Constants used with Python parse trees
-=======================================================
+:mod:`!token` --- Constants used with Python parse trees
+========================================================
.. module:: token
:synopsis: Constants representing terminal nodes of the parse tree.
@@ -19,6 +19,10 @@ change between Python versions.
The module also provides a mapping from numeric codes to names and some
functions. The functions mirror definitions in the Python C header files.
+Note that a token's value may depend on tokenizer options. For example, a
+``"+"`` token may be reported as either :data:`PLUS` or :data:`OP`, or
+a ``"match"`` token may be either :data:`NAME` or :data:`SOFT_KEYWORD`.
+
.. data:: tok_name
@@ -44,25 +48,92 @@ functions. The functions mirror definitions in the Python C header files.
The token constants are:
-.. include:: token-list.inc
+.. data:: NAME
+
+ Token value that indicates an :ref:`identifier <identifiers>`.
+ Note that keywords are also initially tokenized as ``NAME`` tokens.
+
+.. data:: NUMBER
+
+ Token value that indicates a :ref:`numeric literal <numbers>`
+
+.. data:: STRING
+
+ Token value that indicates a :ref:`string or byte literal <strings>`,
+ excluding :ref:`formatted string literals <f-strings>`.
+ The token string is not interpreted:
+ it includes the surrounding quotation marks and the prefix (if given);
+ backslashes are included literally, without processing escape sequences.
-The following token type values aren't used by the C tokenizer but are needed for
-the :mod:`tokenize` module.
+.. data:: OP
+
+ A generic token value that indicates an
+ :ref:`operator <operators>` or :ref:`delimiter <delimiters>`.
+
+ .. impl-detail::
+
+ This value is only reported by the :mod:`tokenize` module.
+ Internally, the tokenizer uses
+ :ref:`exact token types <token_operators_delimiters>` instead.
.. data:: COMMENT
- :noindex:
Token value used to indicate a comment.
+ The parser ignores :data:`!COMMENT` tokens.
+
+.. data:: NEWLINE
+ Token value that indicates the end of a :ref:`logical line <logical-lines>`.
.. data:: NL
- :noindex:
- Token value used to indicate a non-terminating newline. The
- :data:`NEWLINE` token indicates the end of a logical line of Python code;
- ``NL`` tokens are generated when a logical line of code is continued over
- multiple physical lines.
+ Token value used to indicate a non-terminating newline.
+ :data:`!NL` tokens are generated when a logical line of code is continued
+ over multiple physical lines. The parser ignores :data:`!NL` tokens.
+
+.. data:: INDENT
+
+ Token value used at the beginning of a :ref:`logical line <logical-lines>`
+ to indicate the start of an :ref:`indented block <indentation>`.
+
+.. data:: DEDENT
+
+ Token value used at the beginning of a :ref:`logical line <logical-lines>`
+ to indicate the end of an :ref:`indented block <indentation>`.
+
+.. data:: FSTRING_START
+
+ Token value used to indicate the beginning of an
+ :ref:`f-string literal <f-strings>`.
+
+ .. impl-detail::
+
+ The token string includes the prefix and the opening quote(s), but none
+ of the contents of the literal.
+
+.. data:: FSTRING_MIDDLE
+
+ Token value used for literal text inside an :ref:`f-string literal <f-strings>`,
+ including format specifications.
+
+ .. impl-detail::
+
+ Replacement fields (that is, the non-literal parts of f-strings) use
+ the same tokens as other expressions, and are delimited by
+ :data:`LBRACE`, :data:`RBRACE`, :data:`EXCLAMATION` and :data:`COLON`
+ tokens.
+
+.. data:: FSTRING_END
+
+ Token value used to indicate the end of a :ref:`f-string <f-strings>`.
+
+ .. impl-detail::
+
+ The token string contains the closing quote(s).
+.. data:: ENDMARKER
+
+ Token value that indicates the end of input.
.. data:: ENCODING
@@ -70,13 +141,69 @@ the :mod:`tokenize` module.
into text. The first token returned by :func:`tokenize.tokenize` will
always be an ``ENCODING`` token.
+ .. impl-detail::
+
+ This token type isn't used by the C tokenizer but is needed for
+ the :mod:`tokenize` module.
+
+
+The following token types are not produced by the :mod:`tokenize` module,
+and are defined for special uses in the tokenizer or parser:
+
+.. data:: TYPE_IGNORE
+
+ Token value indicating that a ``type: ignore`` comment was recognized.
+ Such tokens are produced instead of regular :data:`COMMENT` tokens only
+ with the :data:`~ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS` flag.
.. data:: TYPE_COMMENT
- :noindex:
- Token value indicating that a type comment was recognized. Such
- tokens are only produced when :func:`ast.parse()` is invoked with
- ``type_comments=True``.
+ Token value indicating that a type comment was recognized.
+ Such tokens are produced instead of regular :data:`COMMENT` tokens only
+ with the :data:`~ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS` flag.
+
+.. data:: SOFT_KEYWORD
+
+ Token value indicating a :ref:`soft keyword <soft-keywords>`.
+
+ The tokenizer never produces this value.
+ To check for a soft keyword, pass a :data:`NAME` token's string to
+ :func:`keyword.issoftkeyword`.
+
+.. data:: ERRORTOKEN
+
+ Token value used to indicate wrong input.
+
+ The :mod:`tokenize` module generally indicates errors by
+ raising exceptions instead of emitting this token.
+ It can also emit tokens such as :data:`OP` or :data:`NAME` with strings that
+ are later rejected by the parser.
+
+
+.. _token_operators_delimiters:
+
+The remaining tokens represent specific :ref:`operators <operators>` and
+:ref:`delimiters <delimiters>`.
+(The :mod:`tokenize` module reports these as :data:`OP`; see ``exact_type``
+in the :mod:`tokenize` documentation for details.)
+
+.. include:: token-list.inc
+
+
+The following non-token constants are provided:
+
+.. data:: N_TOKENS
+
+ The number of token types defined in this module.
+
+.. NT_OFFSET is deliberately undocumented; if you need it you should be
+ reading the source
+
+.. data:: EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES
+
+ A dictionary mapping the string representation of a token to its numeric code.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.8
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
@@ -95,6 +222,9 @@ the :mod:`tokenize` module.
to support parsing older Python versions for :func:`ast.parse` with
``feature_version`` set to 6 or lower).
+.. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ Added :data:`EXCLAMATION`.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
Removed :data:`!AWAIT` and :data:`!ASYNC` tokens again.
diff --git a/Doc/library/tokenize.rst b/Doc/library/tokenize.rst
index 92bdb052267a689..b80917eae66f8b9 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tokenize.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tokenize.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`tokenize` --- Tokenizer for Python source
-===============================================
+:mod:`!tokenize` --- Tokenizer for Python source
+================================================
.. module:: tokenize
:synopsis: Lexical scanner for Python source code.
@@ -91,11 +91,10 @@ write back the modified script.
sequences with at least two elements, the token type and the token string.
Any additional sequence elements are ignored.
- The reconstructed script is returned as a single string. The result is
- guaranteed to tokenize back to match the input so that the conversion is
- lossless and round-trips are assured. The guarantee applies only to the
- token type and token string as the spacing between tokens (column
- positions) may change.
+ The result is guaranteed to tokenize back to match the input so that the
+ conversion is lossless and round-trips are assured. The guarantee applies
+ only to the token type and token string as the spacing between tokens
+ (column positions) may change.
It returns bytes, encoded using the :data:`~token.ENCODING` token, which
is the first token sequence output by :func:`.tokenize`. If there is no
diff --git a/Doc/library/tomllib.rst b/Doc/library/tomllib.rst
index 406985b84471f22..77555c0e4849045 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tomllib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tomllib.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`tomllib` --- Parse TOML files
-===================================
+:mod:`!tomllib` --- Parse TOML files
+====================================
.. module:: tomllib
:synopsis: Parse TOML files.
@@ -13,10 +13,17 @@
--------------
-This module provides an interface for parsing TOML (Tom's Obvious Minimal
+This module provides an interface for parsing TOML 1.0.0 (Tom's Obvious Minimal
Language, `https://toml.io <https://toml.io/en/>`_). This module does not
support writing TOML.
+.. warning::
+
+ Be cautious when parsing data from untrusted sources.
+ A malicious TOML string may cause the decoder to consume considerable
+ CPU and memory resources.
+ Limiting the size of data to be parsed is recommended.
+
.. seealso::
The :pypi:`Tomli-W package <tomli-w>`
diff --git a/Doc/library/trace.rst b/Doc/library/trace.rst
index 8854905e192b45f..b73710fd6c082eb 100644
--- a/Doc/library/trace.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/trace.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`trace` --- Trace or track Python statement execution
-==========================================================
+:mod:`!trace` --- Trace or track Python statement execution
+===========================================================
.. module:: trace
:synopsis: Trace or track Python statement execution.
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ all Python modules imported during the execution into the current directory.
Display the version of the module and exit.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
- Added ``--module`` option that allows to run an executable module.
+ Added ``--module`` option that allows running an executable module.
Main options
^^^^^^^^^^^^
diff --git a/Doc/library/traceback.rst b/Doc/library/traceback.rst
index ab83e0df10b709b..44b85c3e82f2feb 100644
--- a/Doc/library/traceback.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/traceback.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`traceback` --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback
-========================================================
+:mod:`!traceback` --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback
+=========================================================
.. module:: traceback
:synopsis: Print or retrieve a stack traceback.
@@ -8,11 +8,15 @@
--------------
-This module provides a standard interface to extract, format and print stack
-traces of Python programs. It exactly mimics the behavior of the Python
-interpreter when it prints a stack trace. This is useful when you want to print
-stack traces under program control, such as in a "wrapper" around the
-interpreter.
+This module provides a standard interface to extract, format and print
+stack traces of Python programs. It is more flexible than the
+interpreter's default traceback display, and therefore makes it
+possible to configure certain aspects of the output. Finally,
+it contains a utility for capturing enough information about an
+exception to print it later, without the need to save a reference
+to the actual exception. Since exceptions can be the roots of large
+objects graph, this utility can significantly improve
+memory management.
.. index:: pair: object; traceback
@@ -29,7 +33,20 @@ which are assigned to the :attr:`~BaseException.__traceback__` field of
Module :mod:`pdb`
Interactive source code debugger for Python programs.
-The module defines the following functions:
+The module's API can be divided into two parts:
+
+* Module-level functions offering basic functionality, which are useful for interactive
+ inspection of exceptions and tracebacks.
+
+* :class:`TracebackException` class and its helper classes
+ :class:`StackSummary` and :class:`FrameSummary`. These offer both more
+ flexibility in the output generated and the ability to store the information
+ necessary for later formatting without holding references to actual exception
+ and traceback objects.
+
+
+Module-Level Functions
+----------------------
.. function:: print_tb(tb, limit=None, file=None)
@@ -42,6 +59,14 @@ The module defines the following functions:
:term:`file <file object>` or :term:`file-like object` to
receive the output.
+ .. note::
+
+ The meaning of the *limit* parameter is different than the meaning
+ of :const:`sys.tracebacklimit`. A negative *limit* value corresponds to
+ a positive value of :const:`!sys.tracebacklimit`, whereas the behaviour of
+ a positive *limit* value cannot be achieved with
+ :const:`!sys.tracebacklimit`.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
Added negative *limit* support.
@@ -86,14 +111,14 @@ The module defines the following functions:
.. function:: print_exc(limit=None, file=None, chain=True)
- This is a shorthand for ``print_exception(sys.exception(), limit, file,
- chain)``.
+ This is a shorthand for ``print_exception(sys.exception(), limit=limit, file=file,
+ chain=chain)``.
.. function:: print_last(limit=None, file=None, chain=True)
- This is a shorthand for ``print_exception(sys.last_exc, limit, file,
- chain)``. In general it will work only after an exception has reached
+ This is a shorthand for ``print_exception(sys.last_exc, limit=limit, file=file,
+ chain=chain)``. In general it will work only after an exception has reached
an interactive prompt (see :data:`sys.last_exc`).
@@ -118,9 +143,7 @@ The module defines the following functions:
:ref:`traceback object <traceback-objects>` *tb*. It is useful
for alternate formatting of stack traces. The optional *limit* argument has
the same meaning as for :func:`print_tb`. A "pre-processed" stack trace
- entry is a :class:`FrameSummary` object containing attributes
- :attr:`~FrameSummary.filename`, :attr:`~FrameSummary.lineno`,
- :attr:`~FrameSummary.name`, and :attr:`~FrameSummary.line` representing the
+ entry is a :class:`FrameSummary` object with attributes representing the
information that is usually printed for a stack trace.
@@ -132,6 +155,13 @@ The module defines the following functions:
arguments have the same meaning as for :func:`print_stack`.
+.. function:: print_list(extracted_list, file=None)
+
+ Print the list of tuples as returned by :func:`extract_tb` or
+ :func:`extract_stack` as a formatted stack trace to the given file.
+ If *file* is ``None``, the output is written to :data:`sys.stderr`.
+
+
.. function:: format_list(extracted_list)
Given a list of tuples or :class:`FrameSummary` objects as returned by
@@ -145,7 +175,7 @@ The module defines the following functions:
.. function:: format_exception_only(exc, /[, value], *, show_group=False)
Format the exception part of a traceback using an exception value such as
- given by :data:`sys.last_value`. The return value is a list of strings, each
+ given by :data:`sys.last_exc`. The return value is a list of strings, each
ending in a newline. The list contains the exception's message, which is
normally a single string; however, for :exc:`SyntaxError` exceptions, it
contains several lines that (when printed) display detailed information
@@ -229,7 +259,6 @@ The module defines the following functions:
.. versionadded:: 3.5
-The module also defines the following classes:
:class:`!TracebackException` Objects
------------------------------------
@@ -237,12 +266,17 @@ The module also defines the following classes:
.. versionadded:: 3.5
:class:`!TracebackException` objects are created from actual exceptions to
-capture data for later printing in a lightweight fashion.
+capture data for later printing. They offer a more lightweight method of
+storing this information by avoiding holding references to
+:ref:`traceback<traceback-objects>` and :ref:`frame<frame-objects>` objects.
+In addition, they expose more options to configure the output compared to
+the module-level functions described above.
.. class:: TracebackException(exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False, compact=False, max_group_width=15, max_group_depth=10)
- Capture an exception for later rendering. *limit*, *lookup_lines* and
- *capture_locals* are as for the :class:`StackSummary` class.
+ Capture an exception for later rendering. The meaning of *limit*,
+ *lookup_lines* and *capture_locals* are as for the :class:`StackSummary`
+ class.
If *compact* is true, only data that is required by
:class:`!TracebackException`'s :meth:`format` method
@@ -302,7 +336,7 @@ capture data for later printing in a lightweight fashion.
.. attribute:: exc_type
- The class of the original traceback.
+ The class of the original exception.
.. deprecated:: 3.13
@@ -346,7 +380,7 @@ capture data for later printing in a lightweight fashion.
For syntax errors - the compiler error message.
- .. classmethod:: from_exception(exc, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)
+ .. classmethod:: from_exception(exc, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False, compact=False, max_group_width=15, max_group_depth=10)
Capture an exception for later rendering. *limit*, *lookup_lines* and
*capture_locals* are as for the :class:`StackSummary` class.
@@ -463,7 +497,9 @@ capture data for later printing in a lightweight fashion.
A :class:`!FrameSummary` object represents a single :ref:`frame <frame-objects>`
in a :ref:`traceback <traceback-objects>`.
-.. class:: FrameSummary(filename, lineno, name, lookup_line=True, locals=None, line=None)
+.. class:: FrameSummary(filename, lineno, name, *,\
+ lookup_line=True, locals=None,\
+ line=None, end_lineno=None, colno=None, end_colno=None)
Represents a single :ref:`frame <frame-objects>` in the
:ref:`traceback <traceback-objects>` or stack that is being formatted
@@ -473,7 +509,7 @@ in a :ref:`traceback <traceback-objects>`.
attribute accessed (which also happens when casting it to a :class:`tuple`).
:attr:`~FrameSummary.line` may be directly provided, and will prevent line
lookups happening at all. *locals* is an optional local variable
- dictionary, and if supplied the variable representations are stored in the
+ mapping, and if supplied the variable representations are stored in the
summary for later display.
:class:`!FrameSummary` instances have the following attributes:
@@ -499,10 +535,29 @@ in a :ref:`traceback <traceback-objects>`.
trailing whitespace stripped.
If the source is not available, it is ``None``.
+ .. attribute:: FrameSummary.end_lineno
+
+ The last line number of the source code for this frame.
+ By default, it is set to ``lineno`` and indexation starts from 1.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ The default value changed from ``None`` to ``lineno``.
+
+ .. attribute:: FrameSummary.colno
+
+ The column number of the source code for this frame.
+ By default, it is ``None`` and indexation starts from 0.
+
+ .. attribute:: FrameSummary.end_colno
+
+ The last column number of the source code for this frame.
+ By default, it is ``None`` and indexation starts from 0.
+
+
.. _traceback-example:
-Traceback Examples
-------------------
+Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions
+--------------------------------------------
This simple example implements a basic read-eval-print loop, similar to (but
less useful than) the standard Python interactive interpreter loop. For a more
@@ -541,8 +596,7 @@ exception and traceback:
try:
lumberjack()
- except IndexError:
- exc = sys.exception()
+ except IndexError as exc:
print("*** print_tb:")
traceback.print_tb(exc.__traceback__, limit=1, file=sys.stdout)
print("*** print_exception:")
@@ -645,5 +699,88 @@ This last example demonstrates the final few formatting functions:
[' File "spam.py", line 3, in <module>\n spam.eggs()\n',
' File "eggs.py", line 42, in eggs\n return "bacon"\n']
>>> an_error = IndexError('tuple index out of range')
- >>> traceback.format_exception_only(type(an_error), an_error)
+ >>> traceback.format_exception_only(an_error)
['IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']
+
+
+Examples of Using :class:`TracebackException`
+---------------------------------------------
+
+With the helper class, we have more options::
+
+ >>> import sys
+ >>> from traceback import TracebackException
+ >>>
+ >>> def lumberjack():
+ ... bright_side_of_life()
+ ...
+ >>> def bright_side_of_life():
+ ... t = "bright", "side", "of", "life"
+ ... return t[5]
+ ...
+ >>> try:
+ ... lumberjack()
+ ... except IndexError as e:
+ ... exc = e
+ ...
+ >>> try:
+ ... try:
+ ... lumberjack()
+ ... except:
+ ... 1/0
+ ... except Exception as e:
+ ... chained_exc = e
+ ...
+ >>> # limit works as with the module-level functions
+ >>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2).print()
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack
+ bright_side_of_life()
+ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
+ File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life
+ return t[5]
+ ~^^^
+ IndexError: tuple index out of range
+
+ >>> # capture_locals adds local variables in frames
+ >>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2, capture_locals=True).print()
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack
+ bright_side_of_life()
+ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
+ File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life
+ return t[5]
+ ~^^^
+ t = ("bright", "side", "of", "life")
+ IndexError: tuple index out of range
+
+ >>> # The *chain* kwarg to print() controls whether chained
+ >>> # exceptions are displayed
+ >>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print()
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "<python-input-19>", line 4, in <module>
+ lumberjack()
+ ~~~~~~~~~~^^
+ File "<python-input-8>", line 7, in lumberjack
+ bright_side_of_life()
+ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
+ File "<python-input-8>", line 11, in bright_side_of_life
+ return t[5]
+ ~^^^
+ IndexError: tuple index out of range
+
+ During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:
+
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module>
+ 1/0
+ ~^~
+ ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
+
+ >>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print(chain=False)
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module>
+ 1/0
+ ~^~
+ ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
+
diff --git a/Doc/library/tracemalloc.rst b/Doc/library/tracemalloc.rst
index 68432aeaecbcc17..f6b6fad8559c685 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tracemalloc.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tracemalloc.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`tracemalloc` --- Trace memory allocations
-===============================================
+:mod:`!tracemalloc` --- Trace memory allocations
+================================================
.. module:: tracemalloc
:synopsis: Trace memory allocations.
@@ -589,7 +589,7 @@ Snapshot
If *cumulative* is ``True``, cumulate size and count of memory blocks of
all frames of the traceback of a trace, not only the most recent frame.
- The cumulative mode can only be used with *key_type* equals to
+ The cumulative mode can only be used with *key_type* equal to
``'filename'`` and ``'lineno'``.
The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by:
@@ -720,11 +720,10 @@ Traceback
When a snapshot is taken, tracebacks of traces are limited to
:func:`get_traceback_limit` frames. See the :func:`take_snapshot` function.
The original number of frames of the traceback is stored in the
- :attr:`Traceback.total_nframe` attribute. That allows to know if a traceback
+ :attr:`Traceback.total_nframe` attribute. That allows one to know if a traceback
has been truncated by the traceback limit.
- The :attr:`Trace.traceback` attribute is an instance of :class:`Traceback`
- instance.
+ The :attr:`Trace.traceback` attribute is a :class:`Traceback` instance.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7
Frames are now sorted from the oldest to the most recent, instead of most recent to oldest.
diff --git a/Doc/library/tty.rst b/Doc/library/tty.rst
index ed63561c40de249..5d22508f2949463 100644
--- a/Doc/library/tty.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/tty.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`tty` --- Terminal control functions
-=========================================
+:mod:`!tty` --- Terminal control functions
+==========================================
.. module:: tty
- :platform: Unix
:synopsis: Utility functions that perform common terminal control operations.
.. moduleauthor:: Steen Lumholt
@@ -53,7 +52,7 @@ The :mod:`tty` module defines the following functions:
is saved before setting *fd* to raw mode; this value is returned.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
- The return value is now the original tty attributes, instead of None.
+ The return value is now the original tty attributes, instead of ``None``.
.. function:: setcbreak(fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)
@@ -67,7 +66,7 @@ The :mod:`tty` module defines the following functions:
the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
- The return value is now the original tty attributes, instead of None.
+ The return value is now the original tty attributes, instead of ``None``.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12.2
The ``ICRNL`` flag is no longer cleared. This restores the behavior
diff --git a/Doc/library/tulip_coro.dia b/Doc/library/tulip_coro.dia
deleted file mode 100644
index 70a33e3c00cf6e4..000000000000000
Binary files a/Doc/library/tulip_coro.dia and /dev/null differ
diff --git a/Doc/library/tulip_coro.png b/Doc/library/tulip_coro.png
deleted file mode 100644
index aad41c93015d09b..000000000000000
Binary files a/Doc/library/tulip_coro.png and /dev/null differ
diff --git a/Doc/library/turtle.rst b/Doc/library/turtle.rst
index 2941201332a715e..6accb93fa04db82 100644
--- a/Doc/library/turtle.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/turtle.rst
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
-=================================
-:mod:`turtle` --- Turtle graphics
-=================================
+==================================
+:mod:`!turtle` --- Turtle graphics
+==================================
.. module:: turtle
:synopsis: An educational framework for simple graphics applications
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/turtle.py`
.. testsetup:: default
+ :skipif: _tkinter is None
from turtle import *
turtle = Turtle()
@@ -120,7 +121,7 @@ off-screen)::
home()
The home position is at the center of the turtle's screen. If you ever need to
-know them, get the turtle's x-y co-ordinates with::
+know them, get the turtle's x-y coordinates with::
pos()
@@ -159,14 +160,16 @@ filling can be turned on and off::
Next we'll create a loop::
+ start = pos()
+
while True:
forward(200)
left(170)
- if abs(pos()) < 1:
+ if distance(start) < 1:
break
-``abs(pos()) < 1`` is a good way to know when the turtle is back at its
-home position.
+``distance(start) < 1`` is a good way to know when the turtle is back at its
+start position.
Finally, complete the filling::
@@ -471,6 +474,7 @@ Turtle motion
turtle is headed. Do not change the turtle's heading.
.. doctest::
+ :skipif: _tkinter is None
:hide:
>>> turtle.goto(0, 0)
@@ -743,13 +747,17 @@ Turtle motion
180.0
-.. function:: dot(size=None, *color)
+.. function:: dot()
+ dot(size)
+ dot(color, /)
+ dot(size, color, /)
+ dot(size, r, g, b, /)
:param size: an integer >= 1 (if given)
:param color: a colorstring or a numeric color tuple
Draw a circular dot with diameter *size*, using *color*. If *size* is
- not given, the maximum of pensize+4 and 2*pensize is used.
+ not given, the maximum of ``pensize+4`` and ``2*pensize`` is used.
.. doctest::
@@ -809,6 +817,7 @@ Turtle motion
last *n* stamps.
.. doctest::
+ :skipif: _tkinter is None
>>> for i in range(8):
... unused_stamp_id = turtle.stamp()
@@ -987,8 +996,8 @@ Settings for measurement
>>> turtle.heading()
90.0
- Change angle measurement unit to grad (also known as gon,
- grade, or gradian and equals 1/100-th of the right angle.)
+ >>> # Change angle measurement unit to grad (also known as gon,
+ >>> # grade, or gradian and equals 1/100-th of the right angle.)
>>> turtle.degrees(400.0)
>>> turtle.heading()
100.0
@@ -1118,7 +1127,9 @@ Drawing state
Color control
~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-.. function:: pencolor(*args)
+.. function:: pencolor()
+ pencolor(color, /)
+ pencolor(r, g, b, /)
Return or set the pencolor.
@@ -1127,7 +1138,7 @@ Color control
``pencolor()``
Return the current pencolor as color specification string or
as a tuple (see example). May be used as input to another
- color/pencolor/fillcolor call.
+ color/pencolor/fillcolor/bgcolor call.
``pencolor(colorstring)``
Set pencolor to *colorstring*, which is a Tk color specification string,
@@ -1167,7 +1178,9 @@ Color control
(50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
-.. function:: fillcolor(*args)
+.. function:: fillcolor()
+ fillcolor(color, /)
+ fillcolor(r, g, b, /)
Return or set the fillcolor.
@@ -1176,7 +1189,7 @@ Color control
``fillcolor()``
Return the current fillcolor as color specification string, possibly
in tuple format (see example). May be used as input to another
- color/pencolor/fillcolor call.
+ color/pencolor/fillcolor/bgcolor call.
``fillcolor(colorstring)``
Set fillcolor to *colorstring*, which is a Tk color specification string,
@@ -1210,7 +1223,10 @@ Color control
(255.0, 255.0, 255.0)
-.. function:: color(*args)
+.. function:: color()
+ color(color, /)
+ color(r, g, b, /)
+ color(pencolor, fillcolor, /)
Return or set pencolor and fillcolor.
@@ -1336,8 +1352,11 @@ More drawing control
font. If *move* is true, the pen is moved to the bottom-right corner of the
text. By default, *move* is ``False``.
- >>> turtle.write("Home = ", True, align="center")
- >>> turtle.write((0,0), True)
+ .. doctest::
+ :skipif: _tkinter is None
+
+ >>> turtle.write("Home = ", True, align="center")
+ >>> turtle.write((0,0), True)
Turtle state
@@ -1374,12 +1393,15 @@ Visibility
Return ``True`` if the Turtle is shown, ``False`` if it's hidden.
- >>> turtle.hideturtle()
- >>> turtle.isvisible()
- False
- >>> turtle.showturtle()
- >>> turtle.isvisible()
- True
+ .. doctest::
+ :skipif: _tkinter is None
+
+ >>> turtle.hideturtle()
+ >>> turtle.isvisible()
+ False
+ >>> turtle.showturtle()
+ >>> turtle.isvisible()
+ True
Appearance
@@ -1796,13 +1818,32 @@ Most of the examples in this section refer to a TurtleScreen instance called
Window control
--------------
-.. function:: bgcolor(*args)
+.. function:: bgcolor()
+ bgcolor(color, /)
+ bgcolor(r, g, b, /)
- :param args: a color string or three numbers in the range 0..colormode or a
- 3-tuple of such numbers
+ Return or set the background color of the TurtleScreen.
+ Four input formats are allowed:
- Set or return background color of the TurtleScreen.
+ ``bgcolor()``
+ Return the current background color as color specification string or
+ as a tuple (see example). May be used as input to another
+ color/pencolor/fillcolor/bgcolor call.
+
+ ``bgcolor(colorstring)``
+ Set the background color to *colorstring*, which is a Tk color
+ specification string, such as ``"red"``, ``"yellow"``, or ``"#33cc8c"``.
+
+ ``bgcolor((r, g, b))``
+ Set the background color to the RGB color represented by the tuple of
+ *r*, *g*, and *b*.
+ Each of *r*, *g*, and *b* must be in the range 0..colormode, where
+ colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see :func:`colormode`).
+
+ ``bgcolor(r, g, b)``
+ Set the background color to the RGB color represented by *r*, *g*, and *b*. Each of
+ *r*, *g*, and *b* must be in the range 0..colormode.
.. doctest::
:skipif: _tkinter is None
@@ -1873,6 +1914,9 @@ Window control
method, one can make visible those parts of a drawing which were outside the
canvas before.
+ .. doctest::
+ :skipif: _tkinter is None
+
>>> screen.screensize()
(400, 300)
>>> screen.screensize(2000,1500)
@@ -2646,68 +2690,68 @@ The demo scripts are:
.. tabularcolumns:: |l|L|L|
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| Name | Description | Features |
-+================+==============================+=======================+
-| bytedesign | complex classical | :func:`tracer`, delay,|
-| | turtle graphics pattern | :func:`update` |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| chaos | graphs Verhulst dynamics, | world coordinates |
-| | shows that computer's | |
-| | computations can generate | |
-| | results sometimes against the| |
-| | common sense expectations | |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| clock | analog clock showing time | turtles as clock's |
-| | of your computer | hands, ontimer |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| colormixer | experiment with r, g, b | :func:`ondrag` |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| forest | 3 breadth-first trees | randomization |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| fractalcurves | Hilbert & Koch curves | recursion |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| lindenmayer | ethnomathematics | L-System |
-| | (indian kolams) | |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| minimal_hanoi | Towers of Hanoi | Rectangular Turtles |
-| | | as Hanoi discs |
-| | | (shape, shapesize) |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| nim | play the classical nim game | turtles as nimsticks, |
-| | with three heaps of sticks | event driven (mouse, |
-| | against the computer. | keyboard) |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| paint | super minimalistic | :func:`onclick` |
-| | drawing program | |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| peace | elementary | turtle: appearance |
-| | | and animation |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| penrose | aperiodic tiling with | :func:`stamp` |
-| | kites and darts | |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| planet_and_moon| simulation of | compound shapes, |
-| | gravitational system | :class:`Vec2D` |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| rosette | a pattern from the wikipedia | :func:`clone`, |
-| | article on turtle graphics | :func:`undo` |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| round_dance | dancing turtles rotating | compound shapes, clone|
-| | pairwise in opposite | shapesize, tilt, |
-| | direction | get_shapepoly, update |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| sorting_animate| visual demonstration of | simple alignment, |
-| | different sorting methods | randomization |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| tree | a (graphical) breadth | :func:`clone` |
-| | first tree (using generators)| |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| two_canvases | simple design | turtles on two |
-| | | canvases |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
-| yinyang | another elementary example | :func:`circle` |
-+----------------+------------------------------+-----------------------+
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| Name | Description | Features |
++========================+==============================+======================================+
+| ``bytedesign`` | complex classical | :func:`tracer`, :func:`delay`, |
+| | turtle graphics pattern | :func:`update` |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``chaos`` | graphs Verhulst dynamics, | world coordinates |
+| | shows that computer's | |
+| | computations can generate | |
+| | results sometimes against the| |
+| | common sense expectations | |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``clock`` | analog clock showing time | turtles as clock's |
+| | of your computer | hands, :func:`ontimer` |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``colormixer`` | experiment with r, g, b | :func:`ondrag` |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``forest`` | 3 breadth-first trees | randomization |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``fractalcurves`` | Hilbert & Koch curves | recursion |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``lindenmayer`` | ethnomathematics | L-System |
+| | (indian kolams) | |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``minimal_hanoi`` | Towers of Hanoi | Rectangular Turtles |
+| | | as Hanoi discs |
+| | | (:func:`shape`, :func:`shapesize`) |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``nim`` | play the classical nim game | turtles as nimsticks, |
+| | with three heaps of sticks | event driven (mouse, |
+| | against the computer. | keyboard) |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``paint`` | super minimalistic | :func:`onclick` |
+| | drawing program | |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``peace`` | elementary | turtle: appearance |
+| | | and animation |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``penrose`` | aperiodic tiling with | :func:`stamp` |
+| | kites and darts | |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``planet_and_moon`` | simulation of | compound shapes, |
+| | gravitational system | :class:`Vec2D` |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``rosette`` | a pattern from the wikipedia | :func:`clone`, |
+| | article on turtle graphics | :func:`undo` |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``round_dance`` | dancing turtles rotating | compound shapes, :func:`clone` |
+| | pairwise in opposite | :func:`shapesize`, :func:`tilt`, |
+| | direction | :func:`get_shapepoly`, :func:`update`|
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``sorting_animate`` | visual demonstration of | simple alignment, |
+| | different sorting methods | randomization |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``tree`` | a (graphical) breadth | :func:`clone` |
+| | first tree (using generators)| |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``two_canvases`` | simple design | turtles on two |
+| | | canvases |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+| ``yinyang`` | another elementary example | :func:`circle` |
++------------------------+------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
Have fun!
diff --git a/Doc/library/types.rst b/Doc/library/types.rst
index 89bc0a600c0af8f..ee7da536fe2e6c6 100644
--- a/Doc/library/types.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/types.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`types` --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
-===================================================================
+:mod:`!types` --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
+====================================================================
.. module:: types
:synopsis: Names for built-in types.
@@ -91,8 +91,8 @@ Dynamic Type Creation
For classes that have an ``__orig_bases__`` attribute, this
function returns the value of ``cls.__orig_bases__``.
- For classes without the ``__orig_bases__`` attribute, ``cls.__bases__`` is
- returned.
+ For classes without the ``__orig_bases__`` attribute,
+ :attr:`cls.__bases__ <type.__bases__>` is returned.
Examples::
@@ -143,15 +143,15 @@ If you instantiate any of these types, note that signatures may vary between Pyt
Standard names are defined for the following types:
-.. data:: NoneType
+.. class:: NoneType
The type of :data:`None`.
.. versionadded:: 3.10
-.. data:: FunctionType
- LambdaType
+.. class:: FunctionType
+ LambdaType
The type of user-defined functions and functions created by
:keyword:`lambda` expressions.
@@ -162,13 +162,13 @@ Standard names are defined for the following types:
and is not raised for normal compilation.
-.. data:: GeneratorType
+.. class:: GeneratorType
The type of :term:`generator`-iterator objects, created by
generator functions.
-.. data:: CoroutineType
+.. class:: CoroutineType
The type of :term:`coroutine` objects, created by
:keyword:`async def` functions.
@@ -176,7 +176,7 @@ Standard names are defined for the following types:
.. versionadded:: 3.5
-.. data:: AsyncGeneratorType
+.. class:: AsyncGeneratorType
The type of :term:`asynchronous generator`-iterator objects, created by
asynchronous generator functions.
@@ -196,28 +196,28 @@ Standard names are defined for the following types:
required by the initializer. The audit event only occurs for direct
instantiation of code objects, and is not raised for normal compilation.
-.. data:: CellType
+.. class:: CellType
The type for cell objects: such objects are used as containers for
- a function's free variables.
+ a function's :term:`closure variables <closure variable>`.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
-.. data:: MethodType
+.. class:: MethodType
The type of methods of user-defined class instances.
-.. data:: BuiltinFunctionType
- BuiltinMethodType
+.. class:: BuiltinFunctionType
+ BuiltinMethodType
The type of built-in functions like :func:`len` or :func:`sys.exit`, and
methods of built-in classes. (Here, the term "built-in" means "written in
C".)
-.. data:: WrapperDescriptorType
+.. class:: WrapperDescriptorType
The type of methods of some built-in data types and base classes such as
:meth:`object.__init__` or :meth:`object.__lt__`.
@@ -225,7 +225,7 @@ Standard names are defined for the following types:
.. versionadded:: 3.7
-.. data:: MethodWrapperType
+.. class:: MethodWrapperType
The type of *bound* methods of some built-in data types and base classes.
For example it is the type of :code:`object().__str__`.
@@ -233,21 +233,21 @@ Standard names are defined for the following types:
.. versionadded:: 3.7
-.. data:: NotImplementedType
+.. class:: NotImplementedType
The type of :data:`NotImplemented`.
.. versionadded:: 3.10
-.. data:: MethodDescriptorType
+.. class:: MethodDescriptorType
The type of methods of some built-in data types such as :meth:`str.join`.
.. versionadded:: 3.7
-.. data:: ClassMethodDescriptorType
+.. class:: ClassMethodDescriptorType
The type of *unbound* class methods of some built-in data types such as
``dict.__dict__['fromkeys']``.
@@ -260,65 +260,20 @@ Standard names are defined for the following types:
The type of :term:`modules <module>`. The constructor takes the name of the
module to be created and optionally its :term:`docstring`.
- .. note::
- Use :func:`importlib.util.module_from_spec` to create a new module if you
- wish to set the various import-controlled attributes.
-
- .. attribute:: __doc__
-
- The :term:`docstring` of the module. Defaults to ``None``.
-
- .. attribute:: __loader__
-
- The :term:`loader` which loaded the module. Defaults to ``None``.
-
- This attribute is to match :attr:`importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.loader`
- as stored in the :attr:`__spec__` object.
-
- .. note::
- A future version of Python may stop setting this attribute by default.
- To guard against this potential change, preferably read from the
- :attr:`__spec__` attribute instead or use
- ``getattr(module, "__loader__", None)`` if you explicitly need to use
- this attribute.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.4
- Defaults to ``None``. Previously the attribute was optional.
-
- .. attribute:: __name__
-
- The name of the module. Expected to match
- :attr:`importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.name`.
-
- .. attribute:: __package__
-
- Which :term:`package` a module belongs to. If the module is top-level
- (i.e. not a part of any specific package) then the attribute should be set
- to ``''``, else it should be set to the name of the package (which can be
- :attr:`__name__` if the module is a package itself). Defaults to ``None``.
-
- This attribute is to match :attr:`importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.parent`
- as stored in the :attr:`__spec__` object.
-
- .. note::
- A future version of Python may stop setting this attribute by default.
- To guard against this potential change, preferably read from the
- :attr:`__spec__` attribute instead or use
- ``getattr(module, "__package__", None)`` if you explicitly need to use
- this attribute.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.4
- Defaults to ``None``. Previously the attribute was optional.
-
- .. attribute:: __spec__
-
- A record of the module's import-system-related state. Expected to be an
- instance of :class:`importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec`.
+ .. seealso::
- .. versionadded:: 3.4
+ :ref:`Documentation on module objects <module-objects>`
+ Provides details on the special attributes that can be found on
+ instances of :class:`!ModuleType`.
+ :func:`importlib.util.module_from_spec`
+ Modules created using the :class:`!ModuleType` constructor are
+ created with many of their special attributes unset or set to default
+ values. :func:`!module_from_spec` provides a more robust way of
+ creating :class:`!ModuleType` instances which ensures the various
+ attributes are set appropriately.
-.. data:: EllipsisType
+.. class:: EllipsisType
The type of :data:`Ellipsis`.
@@ -368,13 +323,13 @@ Standard names are defined for the following types:
dynamically.
-.. data:: FrameType
+.. class:: FrameType
The type of :ref:`frame objects <frame-objects>` such as found in
:attr:`tb.tb_frame <traceback.tb_frame>` if ``tb`` is a traceback object.
-.. data:: GetSetDescriptorType
+.. class:: GetSetDescriptorType
The type of objects defined in extension modules with ``PyGetSetDef``, such
as :attr:`FrameType.f_locals <frame.f_locals>` or ``array.array.typecode``.
@@ -383,7 +338,7 @@ Standard names are defined for the following types:
:class:`property` type, but for classes defined in extension modules.
-.. data:: MemberDescriptorType
+.. class:: MemberDescriptorType
The type of objects defined in extension modules with ``PyMemberDef``, such
as ``datetime.timedelta.days``. This type is used as descriptor for simple C
@@ -392,7 +347,7 @@ Standard names are defined for the following types:
In addition, when a class is defined with a :attr:`~object.__slots__` attribute, then for
each slot, an instance of :class:`!MemberDescriptorType` will be added as an attribute
- on the class. This allows the slot to appear in the class's :attr:`~object.__dict__`.
+ on the class. This allows the slot to appear in the class's :attr:`~type.__dict__`.
.. impl-detail::
@@ -405,6 +360,10 @@ Standard names are defined for the following types:
entries, which means that when the mapping changes, the view reflects these
changes.
+ :class:`!MappingProxyType`\s are :ref:`generic <generics>` over two types,
+ signifying (respectively) the types of the underlying mapping's keys and
+ values.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
diff --git a/Doc/library/typing.rst b/Doc/library/typing.rst
index f53080e0610cb1f..2920640246347c7 100644
--- a/Doc/library/typing.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/typing.rst
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
-========================================
-:mod:`typing` --- Support for type hints
-========================================
+=========================================
+:mod:`!typing` --- Support for type hints
+=========================================
.. testsetup:: *
@@ -27,12 +27,13 @@ This module provides runtime support for type hints.
Consider the function below::
- def moon_weight(earth_weight: float) -> str:
- return f'On the moon, you would weigh {earth_weight * 0.166} kilograms.'
+ def surface_area_of_cube(edge_length: float) -> str:
+ return f"The surface area of the cube is {6 * edge_length ** 2}."
-The function ``moon_weight`` takes an argument expected to be an instance of :class:`float`,
-as indicated by the *type hint* ``earth_weight: float``. The function is expected to
-return an instance of :class:`str`, as indicated by the ``-> str`` hint.
+The function ``surface_area_of_cube`` takes an argument expected to
+be an instance of :class:`float`, as indicated by the :term:`type hint`
+``edge_length: float``. The function is expected to return an instance
+of :class:`str`, as indicated by the ``-> str`` hint.
While type hints can be simple classes like :class:`float` or :class:`str`,
they can also be more complex. The :mod:`typing` module provides a vocabulary of
@@ -44,15 +45,15 @@ provides backports of these new features to older versions of Python.
.. seealso::
- `"Typing cheat sheet" <https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/cheat_sheet_py3.html>`_
+ `Typing cheat sheet <https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/cheat_sheet_py3.html>`_
A quick overview of type hints (hosted at the mypy docs)
- "Type System Reference" section of `the mypy docs <https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/index.html>`_
+ Type System Reference section of `the mypy docs <https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/index.html>`_
The Python typing system is standardised via PEPs, so this reference
should broadly apply to most Python type checkers. (Some parts may still
be specific to mypy.)
- `"Static Typing with Python" <https://typing.readthedocs.io/en/latest/>`_
+ `Static Typing with Python <https://typing.python.org/en/latest/>`_
Type-checker-agnostic documentation written by the community detailing
type system features, useful typing related tools and typing best
practices.
@@ -63,7 +64,7 @@ Specification for the Python Type System
========================================
The canonical, up-to-date specification of the Python type system can be
-found at `"Specification for the Python type system" <https://typing.readthedocs.io/en/latest/spec/index.html>`_.
+found at `Specification for the Python type system <https://typing.python.org/en/latest/spec/index.html>`_.
.. _type-aliases:
@@ -97,8 +98,9 @@ Type aliases are useful for simplifying complex type signatures. For example::
# The static type checker will treat the previous type signature as
# being exactly equivalent to this one.
def broadcast_message(
- message: str,
- servers: Sequence[tuple[tuple[str, int], dict[str, str]]]) -> None:
+ message: str,
+ servers: Sequence[tuple[tuple[str, int], dict[str, str]]]
+ ) -> None:
...
The :keyword:`type` statement is new in Python 3.12. For backwards
@@ -206,7 +208,7 @@ Annotating callable objects
===========================
Functions -- or other :term:`callable` objects -- can be annotated using
-:class:`collections.abc.Callable` or :data:`typing.Callable`.
+:class:`collections.abc.Callable` or deprecated :data:`typing.Callable`.
``Callable[[int], str]`` signifies a function that takes a single parameter
of type :class:`int` and returns a :class:`str`.
@@ -228,9 +230,11 @@ For example:
callback: Callable[[str], Awaitable[None]] = on_update
+.. index:: single: ...; ellipsis literal
+
The subscription syntax must always be used with exactly two values: the
argument list and the return type. The argument list must be a list of types,
-a :class:`ParamSpec`, :data:`Concatenate`, or an ellipsis. The return type must
+a :class:`ParamSpec`, :data:`Concatenate`, or an ellipsis (``...``). The return type must
be a single type.
If a literal ellipsis ``...`` is given as the argument list, it indicates that
@@ -373,8 +377,11 @@ accepts *any number* of type arguments::
# but ``z`` has been assigned to a tuple of length 3
z: tuple[int] = (1, 2, 3)
+.. index:: single: ...; ellipsis literal
+
To denote a tuple which could be of *any* length, and in which all elements are
-of the same type ``T``, use ``tuple[T, ...]``. To denote an empty tuple, use
+of the same type ``T``, use the literal ellipsis ``...``: ``tuple[T, ...]``.
+To denote an empty tuple, use
``tuple[()]``. Using plain ``tuple`` as an annotation is equivalent to using
``tuple[Any, ...]``::
@@ -399,7 +406,7 @@ The type of class objects
=========================
A variable annotated with ``C`` may accept a value of type ``C``. In
-contrast, a variable annotated with ``type[C]`` (or
+contrast, a variable annotated with ``type[C]`` (or deprecated
:class:`typing.Type[C] <Type>`) may accept values that are classes
themselves -- specifically, it will accept the *class object* of ``C``. For
example::
@@ -439,6 +446,87 @@ For example::
``type[Any]`` is equivalent to :class:`type`, which is the root of Python's
:ref:`metaclass hierarchy <metaclasses>`.
+
+.. _annotating-generators-and-coroutines:
+
+Annotating generators and coroutines
+====================================
+
+A generator can be annotated using the generic type
+:class:`Generator[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType] <collections.abc.Generator>`.
+For example::
+
+ def echo_round() -> Generator[int, float, str]:
+ sent = yield 0
+ while sent >= 0:
+ sent = yield round(sent)
+ return 'Done'
+
+Note that unlike many other generic classes in the standard library,
+the ``SendType`` of :class:`~collections.abc.Generator` behaves
+contravariantly, not covariantly or invariantly.
+
+The ``SendType`` and ``ReturnType`` parameters default to :const:`!None`::
+
+ def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int]:
+ while True:
+ yield start
+ start += 1
+
+It is also possible to set these types explicitly::
+
+ def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int, None, None]:
+ while True:
+ yield start
+ start += 1
+
+Simple generators that only ever yield values can also be annotated
+as having a return type of either
+:class:`Iterable[YieldType] <collections.abc.Iterable>`
+or :class:`Iterator[YieldType] <collections.abc.Iterator>`::
+
+ def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Iterator[int]:
+ while True:
+ yield start
+ start += 1
+
+Async generators are handled in a similar fashion, but don't
+expect a ``ReturnType`` type argument
+(:class:`AsyncGenerator[YieldType, SendType] <collections.abc.AsyncGenerator>`).
+The ``SendType`` argument defaults to :const:`!None`, so the following definitions
+are equivalent::
+
+ async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int]:
+ while True:
+ yield start
+ start = await increment(start)
+
+ async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int, None]:
+ while True:
+ yield start
+ start = await increment(start)
+
+As in the synchronous case,
+:class:`AsyncIterable[YieldType] <collections.abc.AsyncIterable>`
+and :class:`AsyncIterator[YieldType] <collections.abc.AsyncIterator>` are
+available as well::
+
+ async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
+ while True:
+ yield start
+ start = await increment(start)
+
+Coroutines can be annotated using
+:class:`Coroutine[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType] <collections.abc.Coroutine>`.
+Generic arguments correspond to those of :class:`~collections.abc.Generator`,
+for example::
+
+ from collections.abc import Coroutine
+ c: Coroutine[list[str], str, int] # Some coroutine defined elsewhere
+ x = c.send('hi') # Inferred type of 'x' is list[str]
+ async def bar() -> None:
+ y = await c # Inferred type of 'y' is int
+
.. _user-defined-generics:
User-defined generic types
@@ -582,7 +670,7 @@ through a simple assignment::
User-defined generics for parameter expressions are also supported via parameter
specification variables in the form ``[**P]``. The behavior is consistent
with type variables' described above as parameter specification variables are
-treated by the typing module as a specialized type variable. The one exception
+treated by the :mod:`!typing` module as a specialized type variable. The one exception
to this is that a list of types can be used to substitute a :class:`ParamSpec`::
>>> class Z[T, **P]: ... # T is a TypeVar; P is a ParamSpec
@@ -623,7 +711,7 @@ are intended primarily for static type checking.
A user-defined generic class can have ABCs as base classes without a metaclass
conflict. Generic metaclasses are not supported. The outcome of parameterizing
-generics is cached, and most types in the typing module are :term:`hashable` and
+generics is cached, and most types in the :mod:`!typing` module are :term:`hashable` and
comparable for equality.
@@ -631,8 +719,8 @@ The :data:`Any` type
====================
A special kind of type is :data:`Any`. A static type checker will treat
-every type as being compatible with :data:`Any` and :data:`Any` as being
-compatible with every type.
+every type as assignable to :data:`Any` and :data:`Any` as assignable to
+every type.
This means that it is possible to perform any operation or method call on a
value of type :data:`Any` and assign it to any variable::
@@ -697,7 +785,7 @@ it as a return value) of a more specialized type is a type error. For example::
hash_a(42)
hash_a("foo")
- # Passes type checking, since Any is compatible with all types
+ # Passes type checking, since Any is assignable to all types
hash_b(42)
hash_b("foo")
@@ -725,7 +813,7 @@ For example, this conforms to :pep:`484`::
def __len__(self) -> int: ...
def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...
-:pep:`544` allows to solve this problem by allowing users to write
+:pep:`544` solves this problem by allowing users to write
the above code without explicit base classes in the class definition,
allowing ``Bucket`` to be implicitly considered a subtype of both ``Sized``
and ``Iterable[int]`` by static type checkers. This is known as
@@ -763,8 +851,8 @@ using ``[]``.
Special type indicating an unconstrained type.
- * Every type is compatible with :data:`Any`.
- * :data:`Any` is compatible with every type.
+ * Every type is assignable to :data:`Any`.
+ * :data:`Any` is assignable to every type.
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
:data:`Any` can now be used as a base class. This can be useful for
@@ -1015,6 +1103,12 @@ These can be used as types in annotations. They all support subscription using
Union[Union[int, str], float] == Union[int, str, float]
+ However, this does not apply to unions referenced through a type
+ alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the underlying :class:`TypeAliasType`::
+
+ type A = Union[int, str]
+ Union[A, float] != Union[int, str, float]
+
* Unions of a single argument vanish, e.g.::
Union[int] == int # The constructor actually returns int
@@ -1065,12 +1159,15 @@ These can be used as types in annotations. They all support subscription using
Special form for annotating higher-order functions.
+ .. index:: single: ...; ellipsis literal
+
``Concatenate`` can be used in conjunction with :ref:`Callable <annotating-callables>` and
:class:`ParamSpec` to annotate a higher-order callable which adds, removes,
or transforms parameters of another
callable. Usage is in the form
``Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ..., ParamSpecVariable]``. ``Concatenate``
- is currently only valid when used as the first argument to a :ref:`Callable <annotating-callables>`.
+ is valid when used in :ref:`Callable <annotating-callables>` type hints
+ and when instantiating user-defined generic classes with :class:`ParamSpec` parameters.
The last parameter to ``Concatenate`` must be a :class:`ParamSpec` or
ellipsis (``...``).
@@ -1139,6 +1236,32 @@ These can be used as types in annotations. They all support subscription using
is allowed as type argument to ``Literal[...]``, but type checkers may
impose restrictions. See :pep:`586` for more details about literal types.
+ Additional details:
+
+ * The arguments must be literal values and there must be at least one.
+
+ * Nested ``Literal`` types are flattened, e.g.::
+
+ assert Literal[Literal[1, 2], 3] == Literal[1, 2, 3]
+
+ However, this does not apply to ``Literal`` types referenced through a type
+ alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the underlying :class:`TypeAliasType`::
+
+ type A = Literal[1, 2]
+ assert Literal[A, 3] != Literal[1, 2, 3]
+
+ * Redundant arguments are skipped, e.g.::
+
+ assert Literal[1, 2, 1] == Literal[1, 2]
+
+ * When comparing literals, the argument order is ignored, e.g.::
+
+ assert Literal[1, 2] == Literal[2, 1]
+
+ * You cannot subclass or instantiate a ``Literal``.
+
+ * You cannot write ``Literal[X][Y]``.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.8
.. versionchanged:: 3.9.1
@@ -1161,10 +1284,10 @@ These can be used as types in annotations. They all support subscription using
:data:`ClassVar` accepts only types and cannot be further subscribed.
- :data:`ClassVar` is not a class itself, and should not
+ :data:`ClassVar` is not a class itself, and cannot
be used with :func:`isinstance` or :func:`issubclass`.
:data:`ClassVar` does not change Python runtime behavior, but
- it can be used by third-party type checkers. For example, a type checker
+ it can be used by static type checkers. For example, a type checker
might flag the following code as an error::
enterprise_d = Starship(3000)
@@ -1233,8 +1356,8 @@ These can be used as types in annotations. They all support subscription using
year: int
def mutate_movie(m: Movie) -> None:
- m["year"] = 1992 # allowed
- m["title"] = "The Matrix" # typechecker error
+ m["year"] = 1999 # allowed
+ m["title"] = "The Matrix" # type checker error
There is no runtime checking for this property.
@@ -1260,7 +1383,7 @@ These can be used as types in annotations. They all support subscription using
Using ``Annotated[T, x]`` as an annotation still allows for static
typechecking of ``T``, as type checkers will simply ignore the metadata ``x``.
In this way, ``Annotated`` differs from the
- :func:`@no_type_check <no_type_check>` decorator, which can also be used for
+ :deco:`no_type_check` decorator, which can also be used for
adding annotations outside the scope of the typing system, but
completely disables typechecking for a function or class.
@@ -1285,47 +1408,45 @@ These can be used as types in annotations. They all support subscription using
T1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(-10, 5)]
T2 = Annotated[T1, ValueRange(-20, 3)]
- Details of the syntax:
-
- * The first argument to ``Annotated`` must be a valid type
-
- * Multiple metadata elements can be supplied (``Annotated`` supports variadic
- arguments)::
+ The first argument to ``Annotated`` must be a valid type. Multiple metadata
+ elements can be supplied as ``Annotated`` supports variadic arguments. The
+ order of the metadata elements is preserved and matters for equality checks::
- @dataclass
- class ctype:
- kind: str
+ @dataclass
+ class ctype:
+ kind: str
- Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")]
+ a1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")]
+ a2 = Annotated[int, ctype("char"), ValueRange(3, 10)]
- It is up to the tool consuming the annotations to decide whether the
- client is allowed to add multiple metadata elements to one annotation and how to
- merge those annotations.
+ assert a1 != a2 # Order matters
- * ``Annotated`` must be subscripted with at least two arguments (
- ``Annotated[int]`` is not valid)
+ It is up to the tool consuming the annotations to decide whether the
+ client is allowed to add multiple metadata elements to one annotation and how to
+ merge those annotations.
- * The order of the metadata elements is preserved and matters for equality
- checks::
+ Nested ``Annotated`` types are flattened. The order of the metadata elements
+ starts with the innermost annotation::
- assert Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")] != Annotated[
- int, ctype("char"), ValueRange(3, 10)
- ]
+ assert Annotated[Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)], ctype("char")] == Annotated[
+ int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")
+ ]
- * Nested ``Annotated`` types are flattened. The order of the metadata elements
- starts with the innermost annotation::
+ However, this does not apply to ``Annotated`` types referenced through a type
+ alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the underlying :class:`TypeAliasType`::
- assert Annotated[Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)], ctype("char")] == Annotated[
- int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")
- ]
+ type From3To10[T] = Annotated[T, ValueRange(3, 10)]
+ assert Annotated[From3To10[int], ctype("char")] != Annotated[
+ int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")
+ ]
- * Duplicated metadata elements are not removed::
+ Duplicated metadata elements are not removed::
- assert Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)] != Annotated[
- int, ValueRange(3, 10), ValueRange(3, 10)
- ]
+ assert Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)] != Annotated[
+ int, ValueRange(3, 10), ValueRange(3, 10)
+ ]
- * ``Annotated`` can be used with nested and generic aliases:
+ ``Annotated`` can be used with nested and generic aliases:
.. testcode::
@@ -1339,19 +1460,15 @@ These can be used as types in annotations. They all support subscription using
# ``Annotated[list[tuple[int, int]], MaxLen(10)]``:
type V = Vec[int]
- * ``Annotated`` cannot be used with an unpacked :class:`TypeVarTuple`::
-
- type Variadic[*Ts] = Annotated[*Ts, Ann1] # NOT valid
+ ``Annotated`` cannot be used with an unpacked :class:`TypeVarTuple`::
- This would be equivalent to::
+ type Variadic[*Ts] = Annotated[*Ts, Ann1] = Annotated[T1, T2, T3, ..., Ann1] # NOT valid
- Annotated[T1, T2, T3, ..., Ann1]
+ where ``T1``, ``T2``, ... are :class:`TypeVars <TypeVar>`. This is invalid as
+ only one type should be passed to Annotated.
- where ``T1``, ``T2``, etc. are :class:`TypeVars <TypeVar>`. This would be
- invalid: only one type should be passed to Annotated.
-
- * By default, :func:`get_type_hints` strips the metadata from annotations.
- Pass ``include_extras=True`` to have the metadata preserved:
+ By default, :func:`get_type_hints` strips the metadata from annotations.
+ Pass ``include_extras=True`` to have the metadata preserved:
.. doctest::
@@ -1363,8 +1480,8 @@ These can be used as types in annotations. They all support subscription using
>>> get_type_hints(func, include_extras=True)
{'x': typing.Annotated[int, 'metadata'], 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}
- * At runtime, the metadata associated with an ``Annotated`` type can be
- retrieved via the :attr:`!__metadata__` attribute:
+ At runtime, the metadata associated with an ``Annotated`` type can be
+ retrieved via the :attr:`!__metadata__` attribute:
.. doctest::
@@ -1375,6 +1492,23 @@ These can be used as types in annotations. They all support subscription using
>>> X.__metadata__
('very', 'important', 'metadata')
+ If you want to retrieve the original type wrapped by ``Annotated``, use the
+ :attr:`!__origin__` attribute:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> from typing import Annotated, get_origin
+ >>> Password = Annotated[str, "secret"]
+ >>> Password.__origin__
+ <class 'str'>
+
+ Note that using :func:`get_origin` will return ``Annotated`` itself:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> get_origin(Password)
+ typing.Annotated
+
.. seealso::
:pep:`593` - Flexible function and variable annotations
@@ -1454,8 +1588,8 @@ These can be used as types in annotations. They all support subscription using
to write such functions in a type-safe manner.
If a ``TypeIs`` function is a class or instance method, then the type in
- ``TypeIs`` maps to the type of the second parameter after ``cls`` or
- ``self``.
+ ``TypeIs`` maps to the type of the second parameter (after ``cls`` or
+ ``self``).
In short, the form ``def foo(arg: TypeA) -> TypeIs[TypeB]: ...``,
means that if ``foo(arg)`` returns ``True``, then ``arg`` is an instance
@@ -1626,11 +1760,11 @@ without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.
class Sequence[T]: # T is a TypeVar
...
- This syntax can also be used to create bound and constrained type
+ This syntax can also be used to create bounded and constrained type
variables::
- class StrSequence[S: str]: # S is a TypeVar bound to str
- ...
+ class StrSequence[S: str]: # S is a TypeVar with a `str` upper bound;
+ ... # we can say that S is "bounded by `str`"
class StrOrBytesSequence[A: (str, bytes)]: # A is a TypeVar constrained to str or bytes
@@ -1663,8 +1797,8 @@ without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.
"""Add two strings or bytes objects together."""
return x + y
- Note that type variables can be *bound*, *constrained*, or neither, but
- cannot be both bound *and* constrained.
+ Note that type variables can be *bounded*, *constrained*, or neither, but
+ cannot be both bounded *and* constrained.
The variance of type variables is inferred by type checkers when they are created
through the :ref:`type parameter syntax <type-params>` or when
@@ -1674,8 +1808,8 @@ without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.
By default, manually created type variables are invariant.
See :pep:`484` and :pep:`695` for more details.
- Bound type variables and constrained type variables have different
- semantics in several important ways. Using a *bound* type variable means
+ Bounded type variables and constrained type variables have different
+ semantics in several important ways. Using a *bounded* type variable means
that the ``TypeVar`` will be solved using the most specific type possible::
x = print_capitalized('a string')
@@ -1689,8 +1823,8 @@ without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.
z = print_capitalized(45) # error: int is not a subtype of str
- Type variables can be bound to concrete types, abstract types (ABCs or
- protocols), and even unions of types::
+ The upper bound of a type variable can be a concrete type, abstract type
+ (ABC or Protocol), or even a union of types::
# Can be anything with an __abs__ method
def print_abs[T: SupportsAbs](arg: T) -> None:
@@ -1734,7 +1868,7 @@ without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.
.. attribute:: __bound__
- The bound of the type variable, if any.
+ The upper bound of the type variable, if any.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
@@ -1780,7 +1914,7 @@ without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.
.. _typevartuple:
-.. class:: TypeVarTuple(name, default=typing.NoDefault)
+.. class:: TypeVarTuple(name, *, default=typing.NoDefault)
Type variable tuple. A specialized form of :ref:`type variable <typevar>`
that enables *variadic* generics.
@@ -1871,8 +2005,8 @@ without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.
of ``*args``::
def call_soon[*Ts](
- callback: Callable[[*Ts], None],
- *args: *Ts
+ callback: Callable[[*Ts], None],
+ *args: *Ts
) -> None:
...
callback(*args)
@@ -1917,7 +2051,7 @@ without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.
Support for default values was added.
-.. class:: ParamSpec(name, *, bound=None, covariant=False, contravariant=False, default=typing.NoDefault)
+.. class:: ParamSpec(name, *, bound=None, covariant=False, contravariant=False, infer_variance=False, default=typing.NoDefault)
Parameter specification variable. A specialized version of
:ref:`type variables <typevar>`.
@@ -1960,7 +2094,7 @@ without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.
return x + y
Without ``ParamSpec``, the simplest way to annotate this previously was to
- use a :class:`TypeVar` with bound ``Callable[..., Any]``. However this
+ use a :class:`TypeVar` with upper bound ``Callable[..., Any]``. However this
causes two problems:
1. The type checker can't type check the ``inner`` function because
@@ -2029,8 +2163,8 @@ without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.
* :data:`Concatenate`
* :ref:`annotating-callables`
-.. data:: ParamSpecArgs
- ParamSpecKwargs
+.. class:: ParamSpecArgs
+ ParamSpecKwargs
Arguments and keyword arguments attributes of a :class:`ParamSpec`. The
``P.args`` attribute of a ``ParamSpec`` is an instance of ``ParamSpecArgs``,
@@ -2078,7 +2212,7 @@ without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.
.. attribute:: __module__
- The module in which the type alias was defined::
+ The name of the module in which the type alias was defined::
>>> type Alias = int
>>> Alias.__module__
@@ -2149,9 +2283,9 @@ types.
Fields with a default value must come after any fields without a default.
- The resulting class has an extra attribute ``__annotations__`` giving a
- dict that maps the field names to the field types. (The field names are in
- the ``_fields`` attribute and the default values are in the
+ The types for each field name can be retrieved by calling
+ :func:`inspect.get_annotations` on the resulting class. (The field names
+ are in the ``_fields`` attribute and the default values are in the
``_field_defaults`` attribute, both of which are part of the :func:`~collections.namedtuple`
API.)
@@ -2173,7 +2307,9 @@ types.
Backward-compatible usage::
- # For creating a generic NamedTuple on Python 3.11 or lower
+ # For creating a generic NamedTuple on Python 3.11
+ T = TypeVar("T")
+
class Group(NamedTuple, Generic[T]):
key: T
group: list[T]
@@ -2195,6 +2331,10 @@ types.
Removed the ``_field_types`` attribute in favor of the more
standard ``__annotations__`` attribute which has the same information.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.9
+ ``NamedTuple`` is now a function rather than a class.
+ It can still be used as a class base, as described above.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Added support for generic namedtuples.
@@ -2215,7 +2355,7 @@ types.
Helper class to create low-overhead :ref:`distinct types <distinct>`.
- A ``NewType`` is considered a distinct type by a typechecker. At runtime,
+ A ``NewType`` is considered a distinct type by a type checker. At runtime,
however, calling a ``NewType`` returns its argument unchanged.
Usage::
@@ -2225,7 +2365,7 @@ types.
.. attribute:: __module__
- The module in which the new type is defined.
+ The name of the module in which the new type is defined.
.. attribute:: __name__
@@ -2263,9 +2403,10 @@ types.
func(C()) # Passes static type check
See :pep:`544` for more details. Protocol classes decorated with
- :func:`runtime_checkable` (described later) act as simple-minded runtime
+ :deco:`runtime_checkable` (described later) act as simple-minded runtime
protocols that check only the presence of given attributes, ignoring their
- type signatures.
+ type signatures. Protocol classes without this decorator cannot be used
+ as the second argument to :func:`isinstance` or :func:`issubclass`.
Protocol classes can be generic, for example::
@@ -2289,8 +2430,7 @@ types.
Mark a protocol class as a runtime protocol.
Such a protocol can be used with :func:`isinstance` and :func:`issubclass`.
- This raises :exc:`TypeError` when applied to a non-protocol class. This
- allows a simple-minded structural check, very similar to "one trick ponies"
+ This allows a simple-minded structural check, very similar to "one-trick ponies"
in :mod:`collections.abc` such as :class:`~collections.abc.Iterable`. For example::
@runtime_checkable
@@ -2306,9 +2446,11 @@ types.
import threading
assert isinstance(threading.Thread(name='Bob'), Named)
+ This decorator raises :exc:`TypeError` when applied to a non-protocol class.
+
.. note::
- :func:`!runtime_checkable` will check only the presence of the required
+ :deco:`!runtime_checkable` will check only the presence of the required
methods or attributes, not their type signatures or types.
For example, :class:`ssl.SSLObject`
is a class, therefore it passes an :func:`issubclass`
@@ -2341,14 +2483,14 @@ types.
at runtime as soon as the class has been created. Monkey-patching
attributes onto a runtime-checkable protocol will still work, but will
have no impact on :func:`isinstance` checks comparing objects to the
- protocol. See :ref:`"What's new in Python 3.12" <whatsnew-typing-py312>`
+ protocol. See :ref:`What's new in Python 3.12 <whatsnew-typing-py312>`
for more details.
.. class:: TypedDict(dict)
Special construct to add type hints to a dictionary.
- At runtime it is a plain :class:`dict`.
+ At runtime ":class:`!TypedDict` instances" are simply :class:`dicts <dict>`.
``TypedDict`` declares a dictionary type that expects all of its
instances to have a certain set of keys, where each key is
@@ -2373,15 +2515,20 @@ types.
This functional syntax allows defining keys which are not valid
:ref:`identifiers <identifiers>`, for example because they are
- keywords or contain hyphens::
+ keywords or contain hyphens, or when key names must not be
+ :ref:`mangled <private-name-mangling>` like regular private names::
# raises SyntaxError
class Point2D(TypedDict):
in: int # 'in' is a keyword
x-y: int # name with hyphens
+ class Definition(TypedDict):
+ __schema: str # mangled to `_Definition__schema`
+
# OK, functional syntax
Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'in': int, 'x-y': int})
+ Definition = TypedDict('Definition', {'__schema': str}) # not mangled
By default, all keys must be present in a ``TypedDict``. It is possible to
mark individual keys as non-required using :data:`NotRequired`::
@@ -2474,7 +2621,7 @@ types.
key: T
group: list[T]
- A ``TypedDict`` can be introspected via annotations dicts
+ A ``TypedDict`` can be introspected via :func:`inspect.get_annotations`
(see :ref:`annotations-howto` for more information on annotations best practices),
:attr:`__total__`, :attr:`__required_keys__`, and :attr:`__optional_keys__`.
@@ -2498,7 +2645,7 @@ types.
This attribute reflects *only* the value of the ``total`` argument
to the current ``TypedDict`` class, not whether the class is semantically
- total. For example, a ``TypedDict`` with ``__total__`` set to True may
+ total. For example, a ``TypedDict`` with ``__total__`` set to ``True`` may
have keys marked with :data:`NotRequired`, or it may inherit from another
``TypedDict`` with ``total=False``. Therefore, it is generally better to use
:attr:`__required_keys__` and :attr:`__optional_keys__` for introspection.
@@ -2517,7 +2664,7 @@ types.
For backwards compatibility with Python 3.10 and below,
it is also possible to use inheritance to declare both required and
- non-required keys in the same ``TypedDict`` . This is done by declaring a
+ non-required keys in the same ``TypedDict``. This is done by declaring a
``TypedDict`` with one value for the ``total`` argument and then
inheriting from it in another ``TypedDict`` with a different value for
``total``:
@@ -2546,7 +2693,7 @@ types.
``__required_keys__`` and ``__optional_keys__`` rely on may not work
properly, and the values of the attributes may be incorrect.
- Support for :data:`ReadOnly` is reflected in the following attributes::
+ Support for :data:`ReadOnly` is reflected in the following attributes:
.. attribute:: __readonly_keys__
@@ -2566,6 +2713,10 @@ types.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.9
+ ``TypedDict`` is now a function rather than a class.
+ It can still be used as a class base, as described above.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Added support for marking individual keys as :data:`Required` or :data:`NotRequired`.
See :pep:`655`.
@@ -2590,39 +2741,39 @@ types.
Protocols
---------
-The following protocols are provided by the typing module. All are decorated
-with :func:`@runtime_checkable <runtime_checkable>`.
+The following protocols are provided by the :mod:`!typing` module. All are decorated
+with :deco:`runtime_checkable`.
.. class:: SupportsAbs
- An ABC with one abstract method ``__abs__`` that is covariant
+ A protocol with one abstract method ``__abs__`` that is covariant
in its return type.
.. class:: SupportsBytes
- An ABC with one abstract method ``__bytes__``.
+ A protocol with one abstract method ``__bytes__``.
.. class:: SupportsComplex
- An ABC with one abstract method ``__complex__``.
+ A protocol with one abstract method ``__complex__``.
.. class:: SupportsFloat
- An ABC with one abstract method ``__float__``.
+ A protocol with one abstract method ``__float__``.
.. class:: SupportsIndex
- An ABC with one abstract method ``__index__``.
+ A protocol with one abstract method ``__index__``.
.. versionadded:: 3.8
.. class:: SupportsInt
- An ABC with one abstract method ``__int__``.
+ A protocol with one abstract method ``__int__``.
.. class:: SupportsRound
- An ABC with one abstract method ``__round__``
+ A protocol with one abstract method ``__round__``
that is covariant in its return type.
ABCs for working with IO
@@ -2707,7 +2858,7 @@ Functions and decorators
.. seealso::
`Unreachable Code and Exhaustiveness Checking
- <https://typing.readthedocs.io/en/latest/source/unreachable.html>`__ has more
+ <https://typing.python.org/en/latest/guides/unreachable.html>`__ has more
information about exhaustiveness checking with static typing.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
@@ -2749,12 +2900,12 @@ Functions and decorators
Decorator to mark an object as providing
:func:`dataclass <dataclasses.dataclass>`-like behavior.
- ``dataclass_transform`` may be used to
+ ``@dataclass_transform`` may be used to
decorate a class, metaclass, or a function that is itself a decorator.
The presence of ``@dataclass_transform()`` tells a static type checker that the
decorated object performs runtime "magic" that
transforms a class in a similar way to
- :func:`@dataclasses.dataclass <dataclasses.dataclass>`.
+ :deco:`dataclasses.dataclass`.
Example usage with a decorator function:
@@ -2792,19 +2943,19 @@ Functions and decorators
The ``CustomerModel`` classes defined above will
be treated by type checkers similarly to classes created with
- :func:`@dataclasses.dataclass <dataclasses.dataclass>`.
+ :deco:`dataclasses.dataclass`.
For example, type checkers will assume these classes have
``__init__`` methods that accept ``id`` and ``name``.
The decorated class, metaclass, or function may accept the following bool
arguments which type checkers will assume have the same effect as they
would have on the
- :func:`@dataclasses.dataclass<dataclasses.dataclass>` decorator: ``init``,
+ :deco:`dataclasses.dataclass` decorator: ``init``,
``eq``, ``order``, ``unsafe_hash``, ``frozen``, ``match_args``,
``kw_only``, and ``slots``. It must be possible for the value of these
arguments (``True`` or ``False``) to be statically evaluated.
- The arguments to the ``dataclass_transform`` decorator can be used to
+ The arguments to the ``@dataclass_transform`` decorator can be used to
customize the default behaviors of the decorated class, metaclass, or
function:
@@ -2868,8 +3019,8 @@ Functions and decorators
keyword-only. If ``True``, the field will be keyword-only. If
``False``, it will not be keyword-only. If unspecified, the value of
the ``kw_only`` parameter on the object decorated with
- ``dataclass_transform`` will be used, or if that is unspecified, the
- value of ``kw_only_default`` on ``dataclass_transform`` will be used.
+ ``@dataclass_transform`` will be used, or if that is unspecified, the
+ value of ``kw_only_default`` on ``@dataclass_transform`` will be used.
* - ``alias``
- Provides an alternative name for the field. This alternative
name is used in the synthesized ``__init__`` method.
@@ -2927,12 +3078,12 @@ Functions and decorators
.. function:: get_overloads(func)
- Return a sequence of :func:`@overload <overload>`-decorated definitions for
+ Return a sequence of :deco:`overload`-decorated definitions for
*func*.
*func* is the function object for the implementation of the
overloaded function. For example, given the definition of ``process`` in
- the documentation for :func:`@overload <overload>`,
+ the documentation for :deco:`overload`,
``get_overloads(process)`` will return a sequence of three function objects
for the three defined overloads. If called on a function with no overloads,
``get_overloads()`` returns an empty sequence.
@@ -3080,35 +3231,39 @@ Introspection helpers
Return a dictionary containing type hints for a function, method, module
or class object.
- This is often the same as ``obj.__annotations__``. In addition,
- forward references encoded as string literals are handled by evaluating
- them in ``globals``, ``locals`` and (where applicable)
- :ref:`type parameter <type-params>` namespaces.
- For a class ``C``, return
- a dictionary constructed by merging all the ``__annotations__`` along
- ``C.__mro__`` in reverse order.
-
- The function recursively replaces all ``Annotated[T, ...]`` with ``T``,
- unless ``include_extras`` is set to ``True`` (see :class:`Annotated` for
- more information). For example:
-
- .. testcode::
-
- class Student(NamedTuple):
- name: Annotated[str, 'some marker']
-
- assert get_type_hints(Student) == {'name': str}
- assert get_type_hints(Student, include_extras=False) == {'name': str}
- assert get_type_hints(Student, include_extras=True) == {
- 'name': Annotated[str, 'some marker']
- }
+ This is often the same as ``obj.__annotations__``, but this function makes
+ the following changes to the annotations dictionary:
+
+ * Forward references encoded as string literals or :class:`ForwardRef`
+ objects are handled by evaluating them in *globalns*, *localns*, and
+ (where applicable) *obj*'s :ref:`type parameter <type-params>` namespace.
+ If *globalns* or *localns* is not given, appropriate namespace
+ dictionaries are inferred from *obj*.
+ * ``None`` is replaced with :class:`types.NoneType`.
+ * If :deco:`no_type_check` has been applied to *obj*, an
+ empty dictionary is returned.
+ * If *obj* is a class ``C``, the function returns a dictionary that merges
+ annotations from ``C``'s base classes with those on ``C`` directly. This
+ is done by traversing :attr:`C.__mro__ <type.__mro__>` and iteratively
+ combining
+ ``__annotations__`` dictionaries. Annotations on classes appearing
+ earlier in the :term:`method resolution order` always take precedence over
+ annotations on classes appearing later in the method resolution order.
+ * The function recursively replaces all occurrences of
+ ``Annotated[T, ...]``, ``Required[T]``, ``NotRequired[T]``, and ``ReadOnly[T]``
+ with ``T``, unless *include_extras* is set to ``True`` (see
+ :class:`Annotated` for more information).
+
+ See also :func:`inspect.get_annotations`, a lower-level function that
+ returns annotations more directly.
.. note::
- :func:`get_type_hints` does not work with imported
- :ref:`type aliases <type-aliases>` that include forward references.
- Enabling postponed evaluation of annotations (:pep:`563`) may remove
- the need for most forward references.
+ If any forward references in the annotations of *obj* are not resolvable
+ or are not valid Python code, this function will raise an exception
+ such as :exc:`NameError`. For example, this can happen with imported
+ :ref:`type aliases <type-aliases>` that include forward references,
+ or with names imported under :data:`if TYPE_CHECKING <TYPE_CHECKING>`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
Added ``include_extras`` parameter as part of :pep:`593`.
@@ -3137,6 +3292,7 @@ Introspection helpers
assert get_origin(str) is None
assert get_origin(Dict[str, int]) is dict
assert get_origin(Union[int, str]) is Union
+ assert get_origin(Annotated[str, "metadata"]) is Annotated
P = ParamSpec('P')
assert get_origin(P.args) is P
assert get_origin(P.kwargs) is P
@@ -3184,14 +3340,27 @@ Introspection helpers
Determine if a type is a :class:`Protocol`.
- For example::
+ For example:
+
+ .. testcode::
class P(Protocol):
def a(self) -> str: ...
b: int
- is_protocol(P) # => True
- is_protocol(int) # => False
+ assert is_protocol(P)
+ assert not is_protocol(int)
+
+ This function only returns true for ``Protocol`` classes, not for
+ :ref:`generic aliases <types-genericalias>` of them:
+
+ .. testcode::
+
+ class GenericP[T](Protocol):
+ def a(self) -> T: ...
+ b: int
+
+ assert not is_protocol(GenericP[int])
.. versionadded:: 3.13
@@ -3214,6 +3383,17 @@ Introspection helpers
# not a typed dict itself
assert not is_typeddict(TypedDict)
+ This function only returns true for ``TypedDict`` classes, not for
+ :ref:`generic aliases <types-genericalias>` of them:
+
+ .. testcode::
+
+ class GenericFilm[T](TypedDict):
+ title: str
+ year: T
+
+ assert not is_typeddict(GenericFilm[int])
+
.. versionadded:: 3.10
.. class:: ForwardRef
@@ -3252,7 +3432,7 @@ Constant
.. data:: TYPE_CHECKING
- A special constant that is assumed to be ``True`` by 3rd party static
+ A special constant that is assumed to be ``True`` by static
type checkers. It is ``False`` at runtime.
Usage::
@@ -3285,7 +3465,7 @@ Deprecated aliases
------------------
This module defines several deprecated aliases to pre-existing
-standard library classes. These were originally included in the typing
+standard library classes. These were originally included in the :mod:`!typing`
module in order to support parameterizing these generic classes using ``[]``.
However, the aliases became redundant in Python 3.9 when the
corresponding pre-existing classes were enhanced to support ``[]`` (see
@@ -3298,7 +3478,7 @@ interpreter for these aliases.
If at some point it is decided to remove these deprecated aliases, a
deprecation warning will be issued by the interpreter for at least two releases
-prior to removal. The aliases are guaranteed to remain in the typing module
+prior to removal. The aliases are guaranteed to remain in the :mod:`!typing` module
without deprecation warnings until at least Python 3.14.
Type checkers are encouraged to flag uses of the deprecated types if the
@@ -3314,14 +3494,9 @@ Aliases to built-in types
Deprecated alias to :class:`dict`.
Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred
- to use an abstract collection type such as :class:`Mapping`
+ to use an abstract collection type such as :class:`~collections.abc.Mapping`
rather than to use :class:`dict` or :class:`!typing.Dict`.
- This type can be used as follows::
-
- def count_words(text: str) -> Dict[str, int]:
- ...
-
.. deprecated:: 3.9
:class:`builtins.dict <dict>` now supports subscripting (``[]``).
See :pep:`585` and :ref:`types-genericalias`.
@@ -3331,16 +3506,9 @@ Aliases to built-in types
Deprecated alias to :class:`list`.
Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred
- to use an abstract collection type such as :class:`Sequence` or
- :class:`Iterable` rather than to use :class:`list` or :class:`!typing.List`.
-
- This type may be used as follows::
-
- def vec2[T: (int, float)](x: T, y: T) -> List[T]:
- return [x, y]
-
- def keep_positives[T: (int, float)](vector: Sequence[T]) -> List[T]:
- return [item for item in vector if item > 0]
+ to use an abstract collection type such as
+ :class:`~collections.abc.Sequence` or :class:`~collections.abc.Iterable`
+ rather than to use :class:`list` or :class:`!typing.List`.
.. deprecated:: 3.9
:class:`builtins.list <list>` now supports subscripting (``[]``).
@@ -3351,8 +3519,8 @@ Aliases to built-in types
Deprecated alias to :class:`builtins.set <set>`.
Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred
- to use an abstract collection type such as :class:`AbstractSet`
- rather than to use :class:`set` or :class:`!typing.Set`.
+ to use an abstract collection type such as :class:`collections.abc.Set`
+ rather than to use :class:`set` or :class:`typing.Set`.
.. deprecated:: 3.9
:class:`builtins.set <set>` now supports subscripting (``[]``).
@@ -3504,11 +3672,25 @@ Aliases to container ABCs in :mod:`collections.abc`
.. class:: ByteString(Sequence[int])
- This type represents the types :class:`bytes`, :class:`bytearray`,
- and :class:`memoryview` of byte sequences.
+ Deprecated alias to :class:`collections.abc.ByteString`.
+
+ Use ``isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)`` to test if ``obj``
+ implements the :ref:`buffer protocol <bufferobjects>` at runtime. For use in
+ type annotations, either use :class:`~collections.abc.Buffer` or a union
+ that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g.,
+ ``bytes | bytearray | memoryview``).
- .. deprecated-removed:: 3.9 3.14
- Prefer :class:`collections.abc.Buffer`, or a union like ``bytes | bytearray | memoryview``.
+ :class:`!ByteString` was originally intended to be an abstract class that
+ would serve as a supertype of both :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`.
+ However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an
+ instance of :class:`!ByteString` never actually told you anything useful
+ about the object. Other common buffer types such as :class:`memoryview` were
+ also never understood as subtypes of :class:`!ByteString` (either at runtime
+ or by static type checkers).
+
+ See :pep:`PEP 688 <688#current-options>` for more details.
+
+ .. deprecated-removed:: 3.9 3.17
.. class:: Collection(Sized, Iterable[T_co], Container[T_co])
@@ -3548,11 +3730,6 @@ Aliases to container ABCs in :mod:`collections.abc`
Deprecated alias to :class:`collections.abc.Mapping`.
- This type can be used as follows::
-
- def get_position_in_index(word_list: Mapping[str, int], word: str) -> int:
- return word_list[word]
-
.. deprecated:: 3.9
:class:`collections.abc.Mapping` now supports subscripting (``[]``).
See :pep:`585` and :ref:`types-genericalias`.
@@ -3616,14 +3793,9 @@ Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in :mod:`collections.abc`
Deprecated alias to :class:`collections.abc.Coroutine`.
- The variance and order of type variables
- correspond to those of :class:`Generator`, for example::
-
- from collections.abc import Coroutine
- c: Coroutine[list[str], str, int] # Some coroutine defined elsewhere
- x = c.send('hi') # Inferred type of 'x' is list[str]
- async def bar() -> None:
- y = await c # Inferred type of 'y' is int
+ See :ref:`annotating-generators-and-coroutines`
+ for details on using :class:`collections.abc.Coroutine`
+ and ``typing.Coroutine`` in type annotations.
.. versionadded:: 3.5.3
@@ -3635,40 +3807,9 @@ Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in :mod:`collections.abc`
Deprecated alias to :class:`collections.abc.AsyncGenerator`.
- An async generator can be annotated by the generic type
- ``AsyncGenerator[YieldType, SendType]``. For example::
-
- async def echo_round() -> AsyncGenerator[int, float]:
- sent = yield 0
- while sent >= 0.0:
- rounded = await round(sent)
- sent = yield rounded
-
- Unlike normal generators, async generators cannot return a value, so there
- is no ``ReturnType`` type parameter. As with :class:`Generator`, the
- ``SendType`` behaves contravariantly.
-
- The ``SendType`` defaults to :const:`!None`::
-
- async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int]:
- while True:
- yield start
- start = await increment(start)
-
- It is also possible to set this type explicitly::
-
- async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int, None]:
- while True:
- yield start
- start = await increment(start)
-
- Alternatively, annotate your generator as having a return type of
- either ``AsyncIterable[YieldType]`` or ``AsyncIterator[YieldType]``::
-
- async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
- while True:
- yield start
- start = await increment(start)
+ See :ref:`annotating-generators-and-coroutines`
+ for details on using :class:`collections.abc.AsyncGenerator`
+ and ``typing.AsyncGenerator`` in type annotations.
.. versionadded:: 3.6.1
@@ -3750,40 +3891,9 @@ Aliases to other ABCs in :mod:`collections.abc`
Deprecated alias to :class:`collections.abc.Generator`.
- A generator can be annotated by the generic type
- ``Generator[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]``. For example::
-
- def echo_round() -> Generator[int, float, str]:
- sent = yield 0
- while sent >= 0:
- sent = yield round(sent)
- return 'Done'
-
- Note that unlike many other generics in the typing module, the ``SendType``
- of :class:`Generator` behaves contravariantly, not covariantly or
- invariantly.
-
- The ``SendType`` and ``ReturnType`` parameters default to :const:`!None`::
-
- def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int]:
- while True:
- yield start
- start += 1
-
- It is also possible to set these types explicitly::
-
- def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int, None, None]:
- while True:
- yield start
- start += 1
-
- Alternatively, annotate your generator as having a return type of
- either ``Iterable[YieldType]`` or ``Iterator[YieldType]``::
-
- def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Iterator[int]:
- while True:
- yield start
- start += 1
+ See :ref:`annotating-generators-and-coroutines`
+ for details on using :class:`collections.abc.Generator`
+ and ``typing.Generator`` in type annotations.
.. deprecated:: 3.9
:class:`collections.abc.Generator` now supports subscripting (``[]``).
@@ -3877,7 +3987,7 @@ convenience. This is subject to change, and not all deprecations are listed.
- :pep:`585`
* - :class:`typing.ByteString`
- 3.9
- - 3.14
+ - 3.17
- :gh:`91896`
* - :data:`typing.Text`
- 3.11
diff --git a/Doc/library/unicodedata.rst b/Doc/library/unicodedata.rst
index 7db47d48022a0ea..2f0006df7ea8339 100644
--- a/Doc/library/unicodedata.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/unicodedata.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`unicodedata` --- Unicode Database
-=======================================
+:mod:`!unicodedata` --- Unicode Database
+========================================
.. module:: unicodedata
:synopsis: Access the Unicode Database.
@@ -25,80 +25,133 @@ Standard Annex #44, `"Unicode Character Database"
<https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/>`_. It defines the
following functions:
+.. seealso::
+
+ The :ref:`unicode-howto` for more information about Unicode and how to use
+ this module.
+
.. function:: lookup(name)
Look up character by name. If a character with the given name is found, return
the corresponding character. If not found, :exc:`KeyError` is raised.
+ For example::
+
+ >>> unicodedata.lookup('LEFT CURLY BRACKET')
+ '{'
+
+ The characters returned by this function are the same as those produced by
+ ``\N`` escape sequence in string literals. For example::
+
+ >>> unicodedata.lookup('MIDDLE DOT') == '\N{MIDDLE DOT}'
+ True
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
Support for name aliases [#]_ and named sequences [#]_ has been added.
-.. function:: name(chr[, default])
+.. function:: name(chr, default=None, /)
Returns the name assigned to the character *chr* as a string. If no
name is defined, *default* is returned, or, if not given, :exc:`ValueError` is
- raised.
+ raised. For example::
+
+ >>> unicodedata.name('½')
+ 'VULGAR FRACTION ONE HALF'
+ >>> unicodedata.name('\uFFFF', 'fallback')
+ 'fallback'
-.. function:: decimal(chr[, default])
+.. function:: decimal(chr, default=None, /)
Returns the decimal value assigned to the character *chr* as integer.
If no such value is defined, *default* is returned, or, if not given,
- :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+ :exc:`ValueError` is raised. For example::
+ >>> unicodedata.decimal('\N{ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT NINE}')
+ 9
+ >>> unicodedata.decimal('\N{SUPERSCRIPT NINE}', -1)
+ -1
-.. function:: digit(chr[, default])
+
+.. function:: digit(chr, default=None, /)
Returns the digit value assigned to the character *chr* as integer.
If no such value is defined, *default* is returned, or, if not given,
- :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+ :exc:`ValueError` is raised::
+
+ >>> unicodedata.digit('\N{SUPERSCRIPT NINE}')
+ 9
-.. function:: numeric(chr[, default])
+.. function:: numeric(chr, default=None, /)
Returns the numeric value assigned to the character *chr* as float.
If no such value is defined, *default* is returned, or, if not given,
- :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+ :exc:`ValueError` is raised::
+
+ >>> unicodedata.numeric('½')
+ 0.5
.. function:: category(chr)
Returns the general category assigned to the character *chr* as
- string.
+ string. General category names consist of two letters.
+ See the `General Category Values section of the Unicode Character
+ Database documentation <https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/tr44-30.html#General_Category_Values>`_
+ for a list of category codes. For example::
+
+ >>> unicodedata.category('A') # 'L'etter, 'u'ppercase
+ 'Lu'
.. function:: bidirectional(chr)
Returns the bidirectional class assigned to the character *chr* as
string. If no such value is defined, an empty string is returned.
+ See the `Bidirectional Class Values section of the Unicode Character
+ Database <https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/tr44-30.html#Bidi_Class_Values>`_
+ documentation for a list of bidirectional codes. For example::
+
+ >>> unicodedata.bidirectional('\N{ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT SEVEN}') # 'A'rabic, 'N'umber
+ 'AN'
.. function:: combining(chr)
Returns the canonical combining class assigned to the character *chr*
as integer. Returns ``0`` if no combining class is defined.
+ See the `Canonical Combining Class Values section of the Unicode Character
+ Database <https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/tr44-30.html#Canonical_Combining_Class_Values>`_
+ for more information.
.. function:: east_asian_width(chr)
Returns the east asian width assigned to the character *chr* as
- string.
+ string. For a list of widths and or more information, see the
+ `Unicode Standard Annex #11 <https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr11/tr11-41.html>`_.
.. function:: mirrored(chr)
Returns the mirrored property assigned to the character *chr* as
integer. Returns ``1`` if the character has been identified as a "mirrored"
- character in bidirectional text, ``0`` otherwise.
+ character in bidirectional text, ``0`` otherwise. For example::
+
+ >>> unicodedata.mirrored('>')
+ 1
.. function:: decomposition(chr)
Returns the character decomposition mapping assigned to the character
*chr* as string. An empty string is returned in case no such mapping is
- defined.
+ defined. For example::
+
+ >>> unicodedata.decomposition('Ã')
+ '0041 0303'
.. function:: normalize(form, unistr)
@@ -122,9 +175,9 @@ following functions:
normally would be unified with other characters. For example, U+2160 (ROMAN
NUMERAL ONE) is really the same thing as U+0049 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I).
However, it is supported in Unicode for compatibility with existing character
- sets (e.g. gb2312).
+ sets (for example, gb2312).
- The normal form KD (NFKD) will apply the compatibility decomposition, i.e.
+ The normal form KD (NFKD) will apply the compatibility decomposition, that is,
replace all compatibility characters with their equivalents. The normal form KC
(NFKC) first applies the compatibility decomposition, followed by the canonical
composition.
@@ -133,6 +186,7 @@ following functions:
a human reader, if one has combining characters and the other
doesn't, they may not compare equal.
+
.. function:: is_normalized(form, unistr)
Return whether the Unicode string *unistr* is in the normal form *form*. Valid
@@ -154,24 +208,6 @@ In addition, the module exposes the following constant:
Unicode database version 3.2 instead, for applications that require this
specific version of the Unicode database (such as IDNA).
-Examples:
-
- >>> import unicodedata
- >>> unicodedata.lookup('LEFT CURLY BRACKET')
- '{'
- >>> unicodedata.name('/')
- 'SOLIDUS'
- >>> unicodedata.decimal('9')
- 9
- >>> unicodedata.decimal('a')
- Traceback (most recent call last):
- File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
- ValueError: not a decimal
- >>> unicodedata.category('A') # 'L'etter, 'u'ppercase
- 'Lu'
- >>> unicodedata.bidirectional('\u0660') # 'A'rabic, 'N'umber
- 'AN'
-
.. rubric:: Footnotes
diff --git a/Doc/library/unittest.mock-examples.rst b/Doc/library/unittest.mock-examples.rst
index f2bdde80bdbd644..176b1b6903a19d3 100644
--- a/Doc/library/unittest.mock-examples.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/unittest.mock-examples.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`unittest.mock` --- getting started
-========================================
+:mod:`!unittest.mock` --- getting started
+=========================================
.. moduleauthor:: Michael Foord <michael@python.org>
.. currentmodule:: unittest.mock
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@
Using Mock
----------
-Mock Patching Methods
+Mock patching methods
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Common uses for :class:`Mock` objects include:
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ the ``something`` method:
-Mock for Method Calls on an Object
+Mock for method calls on an object
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
In the last example we patched a method directly on an object to check that it
@@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ accessing it in the test will create it, but :meth:`~Mock.assert_called_with`
will raise a failure exception.
-Mocking Classes
+Mocking classes
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
A common use case is to mock out classes instantiated by your code under test.
@@ -140,7 +140,7 @@ name is also propagated to attributes or methods of the mock:
<MagicMock name='foo.method' id='...'>
-Tracking all Calls
+Tracking all calls
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Often you want to track more than a single call to a method. The
@@ -177,7 +177,7 @@ possible to track nested calls where the parameters used to create ancestors are
True
-Setting Return Values and Attributes
+Setting return values and attributes
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Setting the return values on a mock object is trivially easy:
@@ -318,7 +318,7 @@ return an async function.
>>> mock_instance.__aexit__.assert_awaited_once()
-Creating a Mock from an Existing Object
+Creating a mock from an existing object
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
One problem with over use of mocking is that it couples your tests to the
@@ -385,7 +385,7 @@ contents per file stored in a dictionary::
assert file2.read() == "default"
-Patch Decorators
+Patch decorators
----------------
.. note::
@@ -519,7 +519,7 @@ decorator individually to every method whose name starts with "test".
.. _further-examples:
-Further Examples
+Further examples
----------------
@@ -600,13 +600,13 @@ this list of calls for us::
Partial mocking
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-In some tests I wanted to mock out a call to :meth:`datetime.date.today`
-to return a known date, but I didn't want to prevent the code under test from
-creating new date objects. Unfortunately :class:`datetime.date` is written in C, and
-so I couldn't just monkey-patch out the static :meth:`datetime.date.today` method.
+For some tests, you may want to mock out a call to :meth:`datetime.date.today`
+to return a known date, but don't want to prevent the code under test from
+creating new date objects. Unfortunately :class:`datetime.date` is written in C,
+so you cannot just monkey-patch out the static :meth:`datetime.date.today` method.
-I found a simple way of doing this that involved effectively wrapping the date
-class with a mock, but passing through calls to the constructor to the real
+Instead, you can effectively wrap the date
+class with a mock, while passing through calls to the constructor to the real
class (and returning real instances).
The :func:`patch decorator <patch>` is used here to
@@ -615,13 +615,13 @@ attribute on the mock date class is then set to a lambda function that returns
a real date. When the mock date class is called a real date will be
constructed and returned by ``side_effect``. ::
- >>> from datetime import date
+ >>> import datetime as dt
>>> with patch('mymodule.date') as mock_date:
- ... mock_date.today.return_value = date(2010, 10, 8)
- ... mock_date.side_effect = lambda *args, **kw: date(*args, **kw)
+ ... mock_date.today.return_value = dt.date(2010, 10, 8)
+ ... mock_date.side_effect = lambda *args, **kw: dt.date(*args, **kw)
...
- ... assert mymodule.date.today() == date(2010, 10, 8)
- ... assert mymodule.date(2009, 6, 8) == date(2009, 6, 8)
+ ... assert mymodule.date.today() == dt.date(2010, 10, 8)
+ ... assert mymodule.date(2009, 6, 8) == dt.date(2009, 6, 8)
Note that we don't patch :class:`datetime.date` globally, we patch ``date`` in the
module that *uses* it. See :ref:`where to patch <where-to-patch>`.
@@ -639,7 +639,7 @@ is discussed in `this blog entry
<https://williambert.online/2011/07/how-to-unit-testing-in-django-with-mocking-and-patching/>`_.
-Mocking a Generator Method
+Mocking a generator method
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
A Python generator is a function or method that uses the :keyword:`yield` statement
@@ -740,19 +740,18 @@ exception is raised in the setUp then tearDown is not called.
>>> MyTest('test_foo').run()
-Mocking Unbound Methods
+Mocking unbound methods
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-Whilst writing tests today I needed to patch an *unbound method* (patching the
-method on the class rather than on the instance). I needed self to be passed
-in as the first argument because I want to make asserts about which objects
-were calling this particular method. The issue is that you can't patch with a
-mock for this, because if you replace an unbound method with a mock it doesn't
-become a bound method when fetched from the instance, and so it doesn't get
-self passed in. The workaround is to patch the unbound method with a real
-function instead. The :func:`patch` decorator makes it so simple to
-patch out methods with a mock that having to create a real function becomes a
-nuisance.
+Sometimes a test needs to patch an *unbound method*, which means patching the
+method on the class rather than on the instance. In order to make assertions
+about which objects were calling this particular method, you need to pass
+``self`` as the first argument. The issue is that you can't patch with a mock for
+this, because if you replace an unbound method with a mock it doesn't become
+a bound method when fetched from the instance, and so it doesn't get ``self``
+passed in. The workaround is to patch the unbound method with a real function
+instead. The :func:`patch` decorator makes it so simple to patch out methods
+with a mock that having to create a real function becomes a nuisance.
If you pass ``autospec=True`` to patch then it does the patching with a
*real* function object. This function object has the same signature as the one
@@ -760,8 +759,8 @@ it is replacing, but delegates to a mock under the hood. You still get your
mock auto-created in exactly the same way as before. What it means though, is
that if you use it to patch out an unbound method on a class the mocked
function will be turned into a bound method if it is fetched from an instance.
-It will have ``self`` passed in as the first argument, which is exactly what I
-wanted:
+It will have ``self`` passed in as the first argument, which is exactly what
+was needed:
>>> class Foo:
... def foo(self):
@@ -939,7 +938,7 @@ and the ``return_value`` will use your subclass automatically. That means all
children of a ``CopyingMock`` will also have the type ``CopyingMock``.
-Nesting Patches
+Nesting patches
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Using patch as a context manager is nice, but if you do multiple patches you
diff --git a/Doc/library/unittest.mock.rst b/Doc/library/unittest.mock.rst
index ee4c7b2ed252b04..faf3f6f615e7096 100644
--- a/Doc/library/unittest.mock.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/unittest.mock.rst
@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
-
-:mod:`unittest.mock` --- mock object library
-============================================
+:mod:`!unittest.mock` --- mock object library
+=============================================
.. module:: unittest.mock
:synopsis: Mock object library.
@@ -69,7 +68,7 @@ available, and then make assertions about how they have been used:
3
>>> thing.method.assert_called_with(3, 4, 5, key='value')
-:attr:`side_effect` allows you to perform side effects, including raising an
+:attr:`~Mock.side_effect` allows you to perform side effects, including raising an
exception when a mock is called:
>>> from unittest.mock import Mock
@@ -240,7 +239,7 @@ the *new_callable* argument to :func:`patch`.
Accessing any attribute not in this list will raise an :exc:`AttributeError`.
If *spec* is an object (rather than a list of strings) then
- :attr:`~instance.__class__` returns the class of the spec object. This
+ :attr:`~object.__class__` returns the class of the spec object. This
allows mocks to pass :func:`isinstance` tests.
* *spec_set*: A stricter variant of *spec*. If used, attempting to *set*
@@ -402,6 +401,8 @@ the *new_callable* argument to :func:`patch`.
The reset_mock method resets all the call attributes on a mock object:
+ .. doctest::
+
>>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
>>> mock('hello')
>>> mock.called
@@ -410,20 +411,41 @@ the *new_callable* argument to :func:`patch`.
>>> mock.called
False
- .. versionchanged:: 3.6
- Added two keyword-only arguments to the reset_mock function.
-
This can be useful where you want to make a series of assertions that
- reuse the same object. Note that :meth:`reset_mock` *doesn't* clear the
- return value, :attr:`side_effect` or any child attributes you have
- set using normal assignment by default. In case you want to reset
- *return_value* or :attr:`side_effect`, then pass the corresponding
- parameter as ``True``. Child mocks and the return value mock
- (if any) are reset as well.
+ reuse the same object.
+
+ *return_value* parameter when set to ``True`` resets :attr:`return_value`:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> mock = Mock(return_value=5)
+ >>> mock('hello')
+ 5
+ >>> mock.reset_mock(return_value=True)
+ >>> mock('hello') # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+ <Mock name='mock()' id='...'>
+
+ *side_effect* parameter when set to ``True`` resets :attr:`side_effect`:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=ValueError)
+ >>> mock('hello')
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ ...
+ ValueError
+ >>> mock.reset_mock(side_effect=True)
+ >>> mock('hello') # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
+ <Mock name='mock()' id='...'>
+
+ Note that :meth:`reset_mock` *doesn't* clear the
+ :attr:`return_value`, :attr:`side_effect` or any child attributes you have
+ set using normal assignment by default.
- .. note:: *return_value*, and :attr:`side_effect` are keyword-only
- arguments.
+ Child mocks are reset as well.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+ Added two keyword-only arguments to the reset_mock function.
.. method:: mock_add_spec(spec, spec_set=False)
@@ -617,7 +639,7 @@ the *new_callable* argument to :func:`patch`.
This is either ``None`` (if the mock hasn't been called), or the
arguments that the mock was last called with. This will be in the
form of a tuple: the first member, which can also be accessed through
- the ``args`` property, is any ordered arguments the mock was
+ the ``args`` property, is any positional arguments the mock was
called with (or an empty tuple) and the second member, which can
also be accessed through the ``kwargs`` property, is any keyword
arguments (or an empty dictionary).
@@ -738,8 +760,8 @@ the *new_callable* argument to :func:`patch`.
.. attribute:: __class__
- Normally the :attr:`__class__` attribute of an object will return its type.
- For a mock object with a :attr:`spec`, ``__class__`` returns the spec class
+ Normally the :attr:`!__class__` attribute of an object will return its type.
+ For a mock object with a :attr:`!spec`, :attr:`!__class__` returns the spec class
instead. This allows mock objects to pass :func:`isinstance` tests for the
object they are replacing / masquerading as:
@@ -747,7 +769,7 @@ the *new_callable* argument to :func:`patch`.
>>> isinstance(mock, int)
True
- :attr:`__class__` is assignable to, this allows a mock to pass an
+ :attr:`!__class__` is assignable to, this allows a mock to pass an
:func:`isinstance` check without forcing you to use a spec:
>>> mock = Mock()
@@ -761,8 +783,8 @@ the *new_callable* argument to :func:`patch`.
meaning of :class:`Mock`, with the exception of *return_value* and *side_effect*
which have no meaning on a non-callable mock.
-Mock objects that use a class or an instance as a :attr:`spec` or
-:attr:`spec_set` are able to pass :func:`isinstance` tests:
+Mock objects that use a class or an instance as a :attr:`!spec` or
+:attr:`!spec_set` are able to pass :func:`isinstance` tests:
>>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
>>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
@@ -861,6 +883,20 @@ object::
3
>>> p.assert_called_once_with()
+.. caution::
+
+ If an :exc:`AttributeError` is raised by :class:`PropertyMock`,
+ it will be interpreted as a missing descriptor and
+ :meth:`~object.__getattr__` will be called on the parent mock::
+
+ >>> m = MagicMock()
+ >>> no_attribute = PropertyMock(side_effect=AttributeError)
+ >>> type(m).my_property = no_attribute
+ >>> m.my_property
+ <MagicMock name='mock.my_property' id='140165240345424'>
+
+ See :meth:`~object.__getattr__` for details.
+
.. class:: AsyncMock(spec=None, side_effect=None, return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None, unsafe=False, **kwargs)
@@ -1162,7 +1198,7 @@ Calls made to the object will be recorded in the attributes
like :attr:`~Mock.call_args` and :attr:`~Mock.call_args_list`.
If :attr:`~Mock.side_effect` is set then it will be called after the call has
-been recorded, so if :attr:`side_effect` raises an exception the call is still
+been recorded, so if :attr:`!side_effect` raises an exception the call is still
recorded.
The simplest way to make a mock raise an exception when called is to make
@@ -1183,8 +1219,8 @@ The simplest way to make a mock raise an exception when called is to make
>>> m.mock_calls
[call(1, 2, 3), call('two', 'three', 'four')]
-If :attr:`side_effect` is a function then whatever that function returns is what
-calls to the mock return. The :attr:`side_effect` function is called with the
+If :attr:`~Mock.side_effect` is a function then whatever that function returns is what
+calls to the mock return. The :attr:`!side_effect` function is called with the
same arguments as the mock. This allows you to vary the return value of the
call dynamically, based on the input:
@@ -1201,7 +1237,7 @@ call dynamically, based on the input:
If you want the mock to still return the default return value (a new mock), or
any set return value, then there are two ways of doing this. Either return
-:attr:`mock.return_value` from inside :attr:`side_effect`, or return :data:`DEFAULT`:
+:attr:`~Mock.return_value` from inside :attr:`~Mock.side_effect`, or return :data:`DEFAULT`:
>>> m = MagicMock()
>>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
@@ -1218,8 +1254,8 @@ any set return value, then there are two ways of doing this. Either return
>>> m()
3
-To remove a :attr:`side_effect`, and return to the default behaviour, set the
-:attr:`side_effect` to ``None``:
+To remove a :attr:`~Mock.side_effect`, and return to the default behaviour, set the
+:attr:`!side_effect` to ``None``:
>>> m = MagicMock(return_value=6)
>>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
@@ -1232,7 +1268,7 @@ To remove a :attr:`side_effect`, and return to the default behaviour, set the
>>> m()
6
-The :attr:`side_effect` can also be any iterable object. Repeated calls to the mock
+The :attr:`~Mock.side_effect` can also be any iterable object. Repeated calls to the mock
will return values from the iterable (until the iterable is exhausted and
a :exc:`StopIteration` is raised):
@@ -1273,7 +1309,7 @@ objects of any type.
You may want a mock object to return ``False`` to a :func:`hasattr` call, or raise an
:exc:`AttributeError` when an attribute is fetched. You can do this by providing
-an object as a :attr:`spec` for a mock, but that isn't always convenient.
+an object as a :attr:`!spec` for a mock, but that isn't always convenient.
You "block" attributes by deleting them. Once deleted, accessing an attribute
will raise an :exc:`AttributeError`.
@@ -1442,7 +1478,7 @@ patch
If you are patching builtins in a module then you don't
need to pass ``create=True``, it will be added by default.
- Patch can be used as a :class:`TestCase` class decorator. It works by
+ Patch can be used as a :class:`~unittest.TestCase` class decorator. It works by
decorating each test method in the class. This reduces the boilerplate
code when your test methods share a common patchings set. :func:`patch` finds
tests by looking for method names that start with ``patch.TEST_PREFIX``.
@@ -1480,7 +1516,7 @@ If the class is instantiated multiple times you could use
can set the *return_value* to be anything you want.
To configure return values on methods of *instances* on the patched class
-you must do this on the :attr:`return_value`. For example::
+you must do this on the :attr:`~Mock.return_value`. For example::
>>> class Class:
... def method(self):
@@ -1801,13 +1837,13 @@ context manager is a dictionary where created mocks are keyed by name::
patch methods: start and stop
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-All the patchers have :meth:`start` and :meth:`stop` methods. These make it simpler to do
+All the patchers have :meth:`!start` and :meth:`!stop` methods. These make it simpler to do
patching in ``setUp`` methods or where you want to do multiple patches without
nesting decorators or with statements.
To use them call :func:`patch`, :func:`patch.object` or :func:`patch.dict` as
normal and keep a reference to the returned ``patcher`` object. You can then
-call :meth:`start` to put the patch in place and :meth:`stop` to undo it.
+call :meth:`!start` to put the patch in place and :meth:`!stop` to undo it.
If you are using :func:`patch` to create a mock for you then it will be returned by
the call to ``patcher.start``. ::
@@ -1824,7 +1860,7 @@ the call to ``patcher.start``. ::
A typical use case for this might be for doing multiple patches in the ``setUp``
-method of a :class:`TestCase`::
+method of a :class:`~unittest.TestCase`::
>>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
... def setUp(self):
@@ -1971,7 +2007,7 @@ Imagine we have a project that we want to test with the following structure::
Now we want to test ``some_function`` but we want to mock out ``SomeClass`` using
:func:`patch`. The problem is that when we import module b, which we will have to
-do then it imports ``SomeClass`` from module a. If we use :func:`patch` to mock out
+do when it imports ``SomeClass`` from module a. If we use :func:`patch` to mock out
``a.SomeClass`` then it will have no effect on our test; module b already has a
reference to the *real* ``SomeClass`` and it looks like our patching had no
effect.
@@ -2187,7 +2223,7 @@ return something else::
>>> mock == 3
True
-The return value of :meth:`MagicMock.__iter__` can be any iterable object and isn't
+The return value of :meth:`!__iter__` can be any iterable object and isn't
required to be an iterator:
>>> mock = MagicMock()
@@ -2497,13 +2533,13 @@ behaviour you can switch it off by setting the module level switch
Alternatively you can just use ``vars(my_mock)`` (instance members) and
``dir(type(my_mock))`` (type members) to bypass the filtering irrespective of
-:const:`mock.FILTER_DIR`.
+:const:`FILTER_DIR`.
mock_open
~~~~~~~~~
-.. function:: mock_open(mock=None, read_data=None)
+.. function:: mock_open(mock=None, read_data='')
A helper function to create a mock to replace the use of :func:`open`. It works
for :func:`open` called directly or used as a context manager.
@@ -2512,7 +2548,7 @@ mock_open
default) then a :class:`MagicMock` will be created for you, with the API limited
to methods or attributes available on standard file handles.
- *read_data* is a string for the :meth:`~io.IOBase.read`,
+ *read_data* is a string for the :meth:`~io.RawIOBase.read`,
:meth:`~io.IOBase.readline`, and :meth:`~io.IOBase.readlines` methods
of the file handle to return. Calls to those methods will take data from
*read_data* until it is depleted. The mock of these methods is pretty
@@ -2524,7 +2560,7 @@ mock_open
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
Added :meth:`~io.IOBase.readline` and :meth:`~io.IOBase.readlines` support.
- The mock of :meth:`~io.IOBase.read` changed to consume *read_data* rather
+ The mock of :meth:`~io.RawIOBase.read` changed to consume *read_data* rather
than returning it on each call.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
@@ -2576,7 +2612,7 @@ And for reading files::
Autospeccing
~~~~~~~~~~~~
-Autospeccing is based on the existing :attr:`spec` feature of mock. It limits the
+Autospeccing is based on the existing :attr:`!spec` feature of mock. It limits the
api of mocks to the api of an original object (the spec), but it is recursive
(implemented lazily) so that attributes of mocks only have the same api as
the attributes of the spec. In addition mocked functions / methods have the
@@ -2585,48 +2621,24 @@ called incorrectly.
Before I explain how auto-speccing works, here's why it is needed.
-:class:`Mock` is a very powerful and flexible object, but it suffers from two flaws
-when used to mock out objects from a system under test. One of these flaws is
-specific to the :class:`Mock` api and the other is a more general problem with using
-mock objects.
-
-First the problem specific to :class:`Mock`. :class:`Mock` has two assert methods that are
-extremely handy: :meth:`~Mock.assert_called_with` and
-:meth:`~Mock.assert_called_once_with`.
-
- >>> mock = Mock(name='Thing', return_value=None)
- >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
- >>> mock.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)
- >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
- >>> mock.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)
- Traceback (most recent call last):
- ...
- AssertionError: Expected 'mock' to be called once. Called 2 times.
-
-Because mocks auto-create attributes on demand, and allow you to call them
-with arbitrary arguments, if you misspell one of these assert methods then
-your assertion is gone:
-
-.. code-block:: pycon
-
- >>> mock = Mock(name='Thing', return_value=None)
- >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
- >>> mock.assret_called_once_with(4, 5, 6) # Intentional typo!
+:class:`Mock` is a very powerful and flexible object, but it suffers from a flaw which
+is general to mocking. If you refactor some of your code, rename members and so on, any
+tests for code that is still using the *old api* but uses mocks instead of the real
+objects will still pass. This means your tests can all pass even though your code is
+broken.
-Your tests can pass silently and incorrectly because of the typo.
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
-The second issue is more general to mocking. If you refactor some of your
-code, rename members and so on, any tests for code that is still using the
-*old api* but uses mocks instead of the real objects will still pass. This
-means your tests can all pass even though your code is broken.
+ Before 3.5, tests with a typo in the word assert would silently pass when they should
+ raise an error. You can still achieve this behavior by passing ``unsafe=True`` to Mock.
Note that this is another reason why you need integration tests as well as
unit tests. Testing everything in isolation is all fine and dandy, but if you
don't test how your units are "wired together" there is still lots of room
for bugs that tests might have caught.
-:mod:`mock` already provides a feature to help with this, called speccing. If you
-use a class or instance as the :attr:`spec` for a mock then you can only access
+:mod:`unittest.mock` already provides a feature to help with this, called speccing. If you
+use a class or instance as the :attr:`!spec` for a mock then you can only access
attributes on the mock that exist on the real class:
>>> from urllib import request
@@ -2641,9 +2653,9 @@ with any methods on the mock:
.. code-block:: pycon
- >>> mock.has_data()
+ >>> mock.header_items()
<mock.Mock object at 0x...>
- >>> mock.has_data.assret_called_with() # Intentional typo!
+ >>> mock.header_items.assret_called_with() # Intentional typo!
Auto-speccing solves this problem. You can either pass ``autospec=True`` to
:func:`patch` / :func:`patch.object` or use the :func:`create_autospec` function to create a
@@ -2664,7 +2676,7 @@ Here's an example of it in use::
>>> mock_request.Request
<MagicMock name='request.Request' spec='Request' id='...'>
-You can see that :class:`request.Request` has a spec. :class:`request.Request` takes two
+You can see that :class:`!request.Request` has a spec. :class:`!request.Request` takes two
arguments in the constructor (one of which is *self*). Here's what happens if
we try to call it incorrectly::
@@ -2680,8 +2692,8 @@ specced mocks)::
>>> req
<NonCallableMagicMock name='request.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>
-:class:`Request` objects are not callable, so the return value of instantiating our
-mocked out :class:`request.Request` is a non-callable mock. With the spec in place
+:class:`!Request` objects are not callable, so the return value of instantiating our
+mocked out :class:`!request.Request` is a non-callable mock. With the spec in place
any typos in our asserts will raise the correct error::
>>> req.add_header('spam', 'eggs')
@@ -2833,8 +2845,8 @@ Sealing mocks
.. versionadded:: 3.7
-Order of precedence of :attr:`side_effect`, :attr:`return_value` and *wraps*
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Order of precedence of :attr:`!side_effect`, :attr:`!return_value` and *wraps*
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The order of their precedence is:
diff --git a/Doc/library/unittest.rst b/Doc/library/unittest.rst
index 3af29f19c802c7a..5fcbe3e647d3ee2 100644
--- a/Doc/library/unittest.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/unittest.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`unittest` --- Unit testing framework
-==========================================
+:mod:`!unittest` --- Unit testing framework
+===========================================
.. module:: unittest
:synopsis: Unit testing framework for Python.
@@ -110,7 +110,7 @@ Here is a short script to test three string methods::
unittest.main()
-A testcase is created by subclassing :class:`unittest.TestCase`. The three
+A test case is created by subclassing :class:`unittest.TestCase`. The three
individual tests are defined with methods whose names start with the letters
``test``. This naming convention informs the test runner about which methods
represent tests.
@@ -443,7 +443,7 @@ run whether the test method succeeded or not.
Such a working environment for the testing code is called a
:dfn:`test fixture`. A new TestCase instance is created as a unique
test fixture used to execute each individual test method. Thus
-:meth:`~TestCase.setUp`, :meth:`~TestCase.tearDown`, and :meth:`~TestCase.__init__`
+:meth:`~TestCase.setUp`, :meth:`~TestCase.tearDown`, and :meth:`!TestCase.__init__`
will be called once per test.
It is recommended that you use TestCase implementations to group tests together
@@ -523,7 +523,7 @@ set-up and tear-down methods::
subclasses will make future test refactorings infinitely easier.
In some cases, the existing tests may have been written using the :mod:`doctest`
-module. If so, :mod:`doctest` provides a :class:`DocTestSuite` class that can
+module. If so, :mod:`doctest` provides a :class:`~doctest.DocTestSuite` class that can
automatically build :class:`unittest.TestSuite` instances from the existing
:mod:`doctest`\ -based tests.
@@ -540,7 +540,7 @@ tests. In addition, it supports marking a test as an "expected failure," a test
that is broken and will fail, but shouldn't be counted as a failure on a
:class:`TestResult`.
-Skipping a test is simply a matter of using the :func:`skip` :term:`decorator`
+Skipping a test is simply a matter of using the :deco:`skip` :term:`decorator`
or one of its conditional variants, calling :meth:`TestCase.skipTest` within a
:meth:`~TestCase.setUp` or test method, or raising :exc:`SkipTest` directly.
@@ -591,7 +591,7 @@ Classes can be skipped just like methods::
:meth:`TestCase.setUp` can also skip the test. This is useful when a resource
that needs to be set up is not available.
-Expected failures use the :func:`expectedFailure` decorator. ::
+Expected failures use the :deco:`expectedFailure` decorator. ::
class ExpectedFailureTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
@unittest.expectedFailure
@@ -773,7 +773,7 @@ Test cases
A class method called before tests in an individual class are run.
``setUpClass`` is called with the class as the only argument
- and must be decorated as a :func:`classmethod`::
+ and must be decorated as a :deco:`classmethod`::
@classmethod
def setUpClass(cls):
@@ -788,7 +788,7 @@ Test cases
A class method called after tests in an individual class have run.
``tearDownClass`` is called with the class as the only argument
- and must be decorated as a :meth:`classmethod`::
+ and must be decorated as a :deco:`classmethod`::
@classmethod
def tearDownClass(cls):
@@ -1013,7 +1013,7 @@ Test cases
additional keyword argument *msg*.
The context manager will store the caught exception object in its
- :attr:`exception` attribute. This can be useful if the intention
+ :attr:`!exception` attribute. This can be useful if the intention
is to perform additional checks on the exception raised::
with self.assertRaises(SomeException) as cm:
@@ -1026,7 +1026,7 @@ Test cases
Added the ability to use :meth:`assertRaises` as a context manager.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
- Added the :attr:`exception` attribute.
+ Added the :attr:`!exception` attribute.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
Added the *msg* keyword argument when used as a context manager.
@@ -1079,8 +1079,8 @@ Test cases
additional keyword argument *msg*.
The context manager will store the caught warning object in its
- :attr:`warning` attribute, and the source line which triggered the
- warnings in the :attr:`filename` and :attr:`lineno` attributes.
+ :attr:`!warning` attribute, and the source line which triggered the
+ warnings in the :attr:`!filename` and :attr:`!lineno` attributes.
This can be useful if the intention is to perform additional checks
on the warning caught::
@@ -1211,9 +1211,9 @@ Test cases
| :meth:`assertNotRegex(s, r) | ``not r.search(s)`` | 3.2 |
| <TestCase.assertNotRegex>` | | |
+---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+--------------+
- | :meth:`assertCountEqual(a, b) | *a* and *b* have the same | 3.2 |
- | <TestCase.assertCountEqual>` | elements in the same number, | |
- | | regardless of their order. | |
+ | :meth:`assertCountEqual(a, b) | *a* contains the same elements | 3.2 |
+ | <TestCase.assertCountEqual>` | as *b*, regardless of their | |
+ | | order. | |
+---------------------------------------+--------------------------------+--------------+
@@ -1374,7 +1374,7 @@ Test cases
that lists the differences between the sets. This method is used by
default when comparing sets or frozensets with :meth:`assertEqual`.
- Fails if either of *first* or *second* does not have a :meth:`set.difference`
+ Fails if either of *first* or *second* does not have a :meth:`~frozenset.difference`
method.
.. versionadded:: 3.1
@@ -1579,18 +1579,20 @@ Test cases
.. versionadded:: 3.13
- .. coroutinemethod:: asyncSetUp()
+ .. method:: asyncSetUp()
+ :async:
- Method called to prepare the test fixture. This is called after :meth:`setUp`.
+ Method called to prepare the test fixture. This is called after :meth:`TestCase.setUp`.
This is called immediately before calling the test method; other than
:exc:`AssertionError` or :exc:`SkipTest`, any exception raised by this method
will be considered an error rather than a test failure. The default implementation
does nothing.
- .. coroutinemethod:: asyncTearDown()
+ .. method:: asyncTearDown()
+ :async:
Method called immediately after the test method has been called and the
- result recorded. This is called before :meth:`tearDown`. This is called even if
+ result recorded. This is called before :meth:`~TestCase.tearDown`. This is called even if
the test method raised an exception, so the implementation in subclasses may need
to be particularly careful about checking internal state. Any exception, other than
:exc:`AssertionError` or :exc:`SkipTest`, raised by this method will be
@@ -1603,7 +1605,8 @@ Test cases
This method accepts a coroutine that can be used as a cleanup function.
- .. coroutinemethod:: enterAsyncContext(cm)
+ .. method:: enterAsyncContext(cm)
+ :async:
Enter the supplied :term:`asynchronous context manager`. If successful,
also add its :meth:`~object.__aexit__` method as a cleanup function by
@@ -1618,7 +1621,7 @@ Test cases
Sets up a new event loop to run the test, collecting the result into
the :class:`TestResult` object passed as *result*. If *result* is
omitted or ``None``, a temporary result object is created (by calling
- the :meth:`defaultTestResult` method) and used. The result object is
+ the :meth:`~TestCase.defaultTestResult` method) and used. The result object is
returned to :meth:`run`'s caller. At the end of the test all the tasks
in the event loop are cancelled.
@@ -1739,7 +1742,7 @@ Grouping tests
returned by repeated iterations before :meth:`TestSuite.run` must be the
same for each call iteration. After :meth:`TestSuite.run`, callers should
not rely on the tests returned by this method unless the caller uses a
- subclass that overrides :meth:`TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex` to preserve
+ subclass that overrides :meth:`!TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex` to preserve
test references.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
@@ -1750,10 +1753,10 @@ Grouping tests
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
In earlier versions the :class:`TestSuite` held references to each
:class:`TestCase` after :meth:`TestSuite.run`. Subclasses can restore
- that behavior by overriding :meth:`TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex`.
+ that behavior by overriding :meth:`!TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex`.
In the typical usage of a :class:`TestSuite` object, the :meth:`run` method
- is invoked by a :class:`TestRunner` rather than by the end-user test harness.
+ is invoked by a :class:`!TestRunner` rather than by the end-user test harness.
Loading and running tests
@@ -1787,12 +1790,12 @@ Loading and running tests
.. method:: loadTestsFromTestCase(testCaseClass)
Return a suite of all test cases contained in the :class:`TestCase`\ -derived
- :class:`testCaseClass`.
+ :class:`!testCaseClass`.
A test case instance is created for each method named by
:meth:`getTestCaseNames`. By default these are the method names
beginning with ``test``. If :meth:`getTestCaseNames` returns no
- methods, but the :meth:`runTest` method is implemented, a single test
+ methods, but the :meth:`!runTest` method is implemented, a single test
case is created for that method instead.
@@ -1839,13 +1842,13 @@ Loading and running tests
case class will be picked up as "a test method within a test case class",
rather than "a callable object".
- For example, if you have a module :mod:`SampleTests` containing a
- :class:`TestCase`\ -derived class :class:`SampleTestCase` with three test
- methods (:meth:`test_one`, :meth:`test_two`, and :meth:`test_three`), the
+ For example, if you have a module :mod:`!SampleTests` containing a
+ :class:`TestCase`\ -derived class :class:`!SampleTestCase` with three test
+ methods (:meth:`!test_one`, :meth:`!test_two`, and :meth:`!test_three`), the
specifier ``'SampleTests.SampleTestCase'`` would cause this method to
return a suite which will run all three test methods. Using the specifier
``'SampleTests.SampleTestCase.test_two'`` would cause it to return a test
- suite which will run only the :meth:`test_two` test method. The specifier
+ suite which will run only the :meth:`!test_two` test method. The specifier
can refer to modules and packages which have not been imported; they will
be imported as a side-effect.
@@ -1992,7 +1995,7 @@ Loading and running tests
Testing frameworks built on top of :mod:`unittest` may want access to the
:class:`TestResult` object generated by running a set of tests for reporting
purposes; a :class:`TestResult` instance is returned by the
- :meth:`TestRunner.run` method for this purpose.
+ :meth:`!TestRunner.run` method for this purpose.
:class:`TestResult` instances have the following attributes that will be of
interest when inspecting the results of running a set of tests:
@@ -2072,18 +2075,18 @@ Loading and running tests
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
Returns ``False`` if there were any :attr:`unexpectedSuccesses`
- from tests marked with the :func:`expectedFailure` decorator.
+ from tests marked with the :deco:`expectedFailure` decorator.
.. method:: stop()
This method can be called to signal that the set of tests being run should
be aborted by setting the :attr:`shouldStop` attribute to ``True``.
- :class:`TestRunner` objects should respect this flag and return without
+ :class:`!TestRunner` objects should respect this flag and return without
running any additional tests.
For example, this feature is used by the :class:`TextTestRunner` class to
stop the test framework when the user signals an interrupt from the
- keyboard. Interactive tools which provide :class:`TestRunner`
+ keyboard. Interactive tools which provide :class:`!TestRunner`
implementations can use this in a similar manner.
The following methods of the :class:`TestResult` class are used to maintain
@@ -2155,7 +2158,7 @@ Loading and running tests
.. method:: addExpectedFailure(test, err)
Called when the test case *test* fails or errors, but was marked with
- the :func:`expectedFailure` decorator.
+ the :deco:`expectedFailure` decorator.
The default implementation appends a tuple ``(test, formatted_err)`` to
the instance's :attr:`expectedFailures` attribute, where *formatted_err*
@@ -2165,7 +2168,7 @@ Loading and running tests
.. method:: addUnexpectedSuccess(test)
Called when the test case *test* was marked with the
- :func:`expectedFailure` decorator, but succeeded.
+ :deco:`expectedFailure` decorator, but succeeded.
The default implementation appends the test to the instance's
:attr:`unexpectedSuccesses` attribute.
@@ -2316,8 +2319,8 @@ Loading and running tests
(see :ref:`Warning control <using-on-warnings>`),
otherwise it will be set to ``'default'``.
- Calling ``main`` actually returns an instance of the ``TestProgram`` class.
- This stores the result of the tests run as the ``result`` attribute.
+ Calling ``main`` returns an object with the ``result`` attribute that contains
+ the result of the tests run as a :class:`unittest.TestResult`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.1
The *exit* parameter was added.
@@ -2403,9 +2406,9 @@ Class and Module Fixtures
-------------------------
Class and module level fixtures are implemented in :class:`TestSuite`. When
-the test suite encounters a test from a new class then :meth:`tearDownClass`
-from the previous class (if there is one) is called, followed by
-:meth:`setUpClass` from the new class.
+the test suite encounters a test from a new class then
+:meth:`~TestCase.tearDownClass` from the previous class (if there is one)
+is called, followed by :meth:`~TestCase.setUpClass` from the new class.
Similarly if a test is from a different module from the previous test then
``tearDownModule`` from the previous module is run, followed by
@@ -2466,6 +2469,10 @@ instead of as an error.
setUpModule and tearDownModule
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+.. function:: setUpModule
+ tearDownModule
+ :no-typesetting:
+
These should be implemented as functions::
def setUpModule():
@@ -2497,7 +2504,7 @@ To add cleanup code that must be run even in the case of an exception, use
.. versionadded:: 3.8
-.. classmethod:: enterModuleContext(cm)
+.. function:: enterModuleContext(cm)
Enter the supplied :term:`context manager`. If successful, also
add its :meth:`~object.__exit__` method as a cleanup function by
@@ -2529,7 +2536,7 @@ Signal Handling
.. versionadded:: 3.2
The :option:`-c/--catch <unittest -c>` command-line option to unittest,
-along with the ``catchbreak`` parameter to :func:`unittest.main()`, provide
+along with the ``catchbreak`` parameter to :func:`unittest.main`, provide
more friendly handling of control-C during a test run. With catch break
behavior enabled control-C will allow the currently running test to complete,
and the test run will then end and report all the results so far. A second
diff --git a/Doc/library/unix.rst b/Doc/library/unix.rst
index 4553a104d15a24d..bae32b362803f12 100644
--- a/Doc/library/unix.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/unix.rst
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
.. _unix:
**********************
-Unix Specific Services
+Unix-specific services
**********************
The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to features that are
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@ of it. Here's an overview:
.. toctree::
+ shlex.rst
posix.rst
pwd.rst
grp.rst
diff --git a/Doc/library/urllib.error.rst b/Doc/library/urllib.error.rst
index facb11f42a40c57..1686ddd09caa483 100644
--- a/Doc/library/urllib.error.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/urllib.error.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`urllib.error` --- Exception classes raised by urllib.request
-==================================================================
+:mod:`!urllib.error` --- Exception classes raised by urllib.request
+===================================================================
.. module:: urllib.error
:synopsis: Exception classes raised by urllib.request.
diff --git a/Doc/library/urllib.parse.rst b/Doc/library/urllib.parse.rst
index 59fb14960ba9f6a..e501c6b29b26524 100644
--- a/Doc/library/urllib.parse.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/urllib.parse.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`urllib.parse` --- Parse URLs into components
-==================================================
+:mod:`!urllib.parse` --- Parse URLs into components
+===================================================
.. module:: urllib.parse
:synopsis: Parse URLs into or assemble them from components.
@@ -22,11 +22,19 @@ to an absolute URL given a "base URL."
The module has been designed to match the internet RFC on Relative Uniform
Resource Locators. It supports the following URL schemes: ``file``, ``ftp``,
-``gopher``, ``hdl``, ``http``, ``https``, ``imap``, ``mailto``, ``mms``,
+``gopher``, ``hdl``, ``http``, ``https``, ``imap``, ``itms-services``, ``mailto``, ``mms``,
``news``, ``nntp``, ``prospero``, ``rsync``, ``rtsp``, ``rtsps``, ``rtspu``,
``sftp``, ``shttp``, ``sip``, ``sips``, ``snews``, ``svn``, ``svn+ssh``,
``telnet``, ``wais``, ``ws``, ``wss``.
+.. impl-detail::
+
+ The inclusion of the ``itms-services`` URL scheme can prevent an app from
+ passing Apple's App Store review process for the macOS and iOS App Stores.
+ Handling for the ``itms-services`` scheme is always removed on iOS; on
+ macOS, it *may* be removed if CPython has been built with the
+ :option:`--with-app-store-compliance` option.
+
The :mod:`urllib.parse` module defines functions that fall into two broad
categories: URL parsing and URL quoting. These are covered in detail in
the following sections.
@@ -42,29 +50,37 @@ URL Parsing
The URL parsing functions focus on splitting a URL string into its components,
or on combining URL components into a URL string.
-.. function:: urlparse(urlstring, scheme='', allow_fragments=True)
+.. function:: urlsplit(urlstring, scheme=None, allow_fragments=True)
+
+ Parse a URL into five components, returning a 5-item :term:`named tuple`
+ :class:`SplitResult` or :class:`SplitResultBytes`.
+ This corresponds to the general structure of a URL:
+ ``scheme://netloc/path?query#fragment``.
+ Each tuple item is a string, possibly empty.
+
+ The delimiters as shown above are not part of the result, except for a
+ leading slash in the *path* component, which is retained if present.
+
+ Additionally, the netloc property is broken down into these additional
+ attributes added to the returned object: username, password, hostname, and
+ port.
+
+ Percent-encoded sequences are not decoded.
- Parse a URL into six components, returning a 6-item :term:`named tuple`. This
- corresponds to the general structure of a URL:
- ``scheme://netloc/path;parameters?query#fragment``.
- Each tuple item is a string, possibly empty. The components are not broken up
- into smaller parts (for example, the network location is a single string), and %
- escapes are not expanded. The delimiters as shown above are not part of the
- result, except for a leading slash in the *path* component, which is retained if
- present. For example:
+ For example:
.. doctest::
:options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
- >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
- >>> urlparse("scheme://netloc/path;parameters?query#fragment")
- ParseResult(scheme='scheme', netloc='netloc', path='/path;parameters', params='',
+ >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
+ >>> urlsplit("scheme://netloc/path?query#fragment")
+ SplitResult(scheme='scheme', netloc='netloc', path='/path',
query='query', fragment='fragment')
- >>> o = urlparse("http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?"
+ >>> o = urlsplit("http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?"
... "highlight=params#url-parsing")
>>> o
- ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='docs.python.org:80',
- path='/3/library/urllib.parse.html', params='',
+ SplitResult(scheme='http', netloc='docs.python.org:80',
+ path='/3/library/urllib.parse.html',
query='highlight=params', fragment='url-parsing')
>>> o.scheme
'http'
@@ -77,7 +93,7 @@ or on combining URL components into a URL string.
>>> o._replace(fragment="").geturl()
'http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?highlight=params'
- Following the syntax specifications in :rfc:`1808`, urlparse recognizes
+ Following the syntax specifications in :rfc:`1808`, :func:`!urlsplit` recognizes
a netloc only if it is properly introduced by '//'. Otherwise the
input is presumed to be a relative URL and thus to start with
a path component.
@@ -85,15 +101,15 @@ or on combining URL components into a URL string.
.. doctest::
:options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
- >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
- >>> urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
- ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
- params='', query='', fragment='')
- >>> urlparse('www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html')
- ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
- params='', query='', fragment='')
- >>> urlparse('help/Python.html')
- ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='help/Python.html', params='',
+ >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
+ >>> urlsplit('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
+ SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
+ query='', fragment='')
+ >>> urlsplit('www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html')
+ SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
+ query='', fragment='')
+ >>> urlsplit('help/Python.html')
+ SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='help/Python.html',
query='', fragment='')
The *scheme* argument gives the default addressing scheme, to be
@@ -118,12 +134,9 @@ or on combining URL components into a URL string.
+------------------+-------+-------------------------+------------------------+
| :attr:`path` | 2 | Hierarchical path | empty string |
+------------------+-------+-------------------------+------------------------+
- | :attr:`params` | 3 | Parameters for last | empty string |
- | | | path element | |
- +------------------+-------+-------------------------+------------------------+
- | :attr:`query` | 4 | Query component | empty string |
+ | :attr:`query` | 3 | Query component | empty string |
+------------------+-------+-------------------------+------------------------+
- | :attr:`fragment` | 5 | Fragment identifier | empty string |
+ | :attr:`fragment` | 4 | Fragment identifier | empty string |
+------------------+-------+-------------------------+------------------------+
| :attr:`username` | | User name | :const:`None` |
+------------------+-------+-------------------------+------------------------+
@@ -147,33 +160,37 @@ or on combining URL components into a URL string.
``#``, ``@``, or ``:`` will raise a :exc:`ValueError`. If the URL is
decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.
+ Following some of the `WHATWG spec`_ that updates :rfc:`3986`, leading C0
+ control and space characters are stripped from the URL. ``\n``,
+ ``\r`` and tab ``\t`` characters are removed from the URL at any position.
+
As is the case with all named tuples, the subclass has a few additional methods
and attributes that are particularly useful. One such method is :meth:`_replace`.
- The :meth:`_replace` method will return a new ParseResult object replacing specified
- fields with new values.
+ The :meth:`_replace` method will return a new :class:`SplitResult` object
+ replacing specified fields with new values.
.. doctest::
:options: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
- >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
- >>> u = urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
+ >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
+ >>> u = urlsplit('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
>>> u
- ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
- params='', query='', fragment='')
+ SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
+ query='', fragment='')
>>> u._replace(scheme='http')
- ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
- params='', query='', fragment='')
+ SplitResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
+ query='', fragment='')
.. warning::
- :func:`urlparse` does not perform validation. See :ref:`URL parsing
+ :func:`urlsplit` does not perform validation. See :ref:`URL parsing
security <url-parsing-security>` for details.
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
Added IPv6 URL parsing capabilities.
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
- The fragment is now parsed for all URL schemes (unless *allow_fragment* is
+ The fragment is now parsed for all URL schemes (unless *allow_fragments* is
false), in accordance with :rfc:`3986`. Previously, an allowlist of
schemes that support fragments existed.
@@ -185,6 +202,14 @@ or on combining URL components into a URL string.
Characters that affect netloc parsing under NFKC normalization will
now raise :exc:`ValueError`.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ ASCII newline and tab characters are stripped from the URL.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ Leading WHATWG C0 control and space characters are stripped from the URL.
+
+.. _WHATWG spec: https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#concept-basic-url-parser
+
.. function:: parse_qs(qs, keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace', max_num_fields=None, separator='&')
@@ -275,93 +300,35 @@ or on combining URL components into a URL string.
separator key, with ``&`` as the default separator.
-.. function:: urlunparse(parts)
+.. function:: urlunsplit(parts)
- Construct a URL from a tuple as returned by ``urlparse()``. The *parts*
- argument can be any six-item iterable. This may result in a slightly
+ Construct a URL from a tuple as returned by ``urlsplit()``. The *parts*
+ argument can be any five-item iterable. This may result in a slightly
different, but equivalent URL, if the URL that was parsed originally had
unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ``?`` with an empty query; the RFC
states that these are equivalent).
-.. function:: urlsplit(urlstring, scheme='', allow_fragments=True)
-
- This is similar to :func:`urlparse`, but does not split the params from the URL.
- This should generally be used instead of :func:`urlparse` if the more recent URL
- syntax allowing parameters to be applied to each segment of the *path* portion
- of the URL (see :rfc:`2396`) is wanted. A separate function is needed to
- separate the path segments and parameters. This function returns a 5-item
- :term:`named tuple`::
-
- (addressing scheme, network location, path, query, fragment identifier).
-
- The return value is a :term:`named tuple`, its items can be accessed by index
- or as named attributes:
-
- +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
- | Attribute | Index | Value | Value if not present |
- +==================+=======+=========================+======================+
- | :attr:`scheme` | 0 | URL scheme specifier | *scheme* parameter |
- +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
- | :attr:`netloc` | 1 | Network location part | empty string |
- +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
- | :attr:`path` | 2 | Hierarchical path | empty string |
- +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
- | :attr:`query` | 3 | Query component | empty string |
- +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
- | :attr:`fragment` | 4 | Fragment identifier | empty string |
- +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
- | :attr:`username` | | User name | :const:`None` |
- +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
- | :attr:`password` | | Password | :const:`None` |
- +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
- | :attr:`hostname` | | Host name (lower case) | :const:`None` |
- +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
- | :attr:`port` | | Port number as integer, | :const:`None` |
- | | | if present | |
- +------------------+-------+-------------------------+----------------------+
-
- Reading the :attr:`port` attribute will raise a :exc:`ValueError` if
- an invalid port is specified in the URL. See section
- :ref:`urlparse-result-object` for more information on the result object.
-
- Unmatched square brackets in the :attr:`netloc` attribute will raise a
- :exc:`ValueError`.
-
- Characters in the :attr:`netloc` attribute that decompose under NFKC
- normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of ``/``, ``?``,
- ``#``, ``@``, or ``:`` will raise a :exc:`ValueError`. If the URL is
- decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.
-
- Following some of the `WHATWG spec`_ that updates RFC 3986, leading C0
- control and space characters are stripped from the URL. ``\n``,
- ``\r`` and tab ``\t`` characters are removed from the URL at any position.
+.. function:: urlparse(urlstring, scheme=None, allow_fragments=True)
- .. warning::
+ This is similar to :func:`urlsplit`, but additionally splits the *path*
+ component on *path* and *params*.
+ This function returns a 6-item :term:`named tuple` :class:`ParseResult`
+ or :class:`ParseResultBytes`.
+ Its items are the same as for the :func:`!urlsplit` result, except that
+ *params* is inserted at index 3, between *path* and *query*.
- :func:`urlsplit` does not perform validation. See :ref:`URL parsing
- security <url-parsing-security>` for details.
+ This function is based on obsoleted :rfc:`1738` and :rfc:`1808`, which
+ listed *params* as the main URL component.
+ The more recent URL syntax allows parameters to be applied to each segment
+ of the *path* portion of the URL (see :rfc:`3986`).
+ :func:`urlsplit` should generally be used instead of :func:`urlparse`.
+ A separate function is needed to separate the path segments and parameters.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.6
- Out-of-range port numbers now raise :exc:`ValueError`, instead of
- returning :const:`None`.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.8
- Characters that affect netloc parsing under NFKC normalization will
- now raise :exc:`ValueError`.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.10
- ASCII newline and tab characters are stripped from the URL.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.12
- Leading WHATWG C0 control and space characters are stripped from the URL.
-
-.. _WHATWG spec: https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#concept-basic-url-parser
-
-.. function:: urlunsplit(parts)
+.. function:: urlunparse(parts)
- Combine the elements of a tuple as returned by :func:`urlsplit` into a
- complete URL as a string. The *parts* argument can be any five-item
+ Combine the elements of a tuple as returned by :func:`urlparse` into a
+ complete URL as a string. The *parts* argument can be any six-item
iterable. This may result in a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the
URL that was parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ?
with an empty query; the RFC states that these are equivalent).
@@ -379,7 +346,7 @@ or on combining URL components into a URL string.
'http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/FAQ.html'
The *allow_fragments* argument has the same meaning and default as for
- :func:`urlparse`.
+ :func:`urlsplit`.
.. note::
@@ -395,6 +362,15 @@ or on combining URL components into a URL string.
If you do not want that behavior, preprocess the *url* with :func:`urlsplit` and
:func:`urlunsplit`, removing possible *scheme* and *netloc* parts.
+ .. warning::
+
+ Because an absolute URL may be passed as the ``url`` parameter, it is
+ generally **not secure** to use ``urljoin`` with an attacker-controlled
+ ``url``. For example in,
+ ``urljoin("https://website.com/users/", username)``, if ``username`` can
+ contain an absolute URL, the result of ``urljoin`` will be the absolute
+ URL.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
@@ -510,7 +486,7 @@ individual URL quoting functions.
Structured Parse Results
------------------------
-The result objects from the :func:`urlparse`, :func:`urlsplit` and
+The result objects from the :func:`urlsplit`, :func:`urlparse` and
:func:`urldefrag` functions are subclasses of the :class:`tuple` type.
These subclasses add the attributes listed in the documentation for
those functions, the encoding and decoding support described in the
@@ -617,8 +593,9 @@ task isn't already covered by the URL parsing functions above.
The optional *encoding* and *errors* parameters specify how to deal with
non-ASCII characters, as accepted by the :meth:`str.encode` method.
- *encoding* defaults to ``'utf-8'``.
- *errors* defaults to ``'strict'``, meaning unsupported characters raise a
+ Although these parameters default to ``None`` in the function signature,
+ when processing :class:`str` inputs, *encoding* effectively defaults to ``'utf-8'``
+ and *errors* to ``'strict'``, meaning unsupported characters raise a
:class:`UnicodeEncodeError`.
*encoding* and *errors* must not be supplied if *string* is a
:class:`bytes`, or a :class:`TypeError` is raised.
diff --git a/Doc/library/urllib.request.rst b/Doc/library/urllib.request.rst
index c1e60a46774704e..bd8bbdd82baa38d 100644
--- a/Doc/library/urllib.request.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/urllib.request.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`urllib.request` --- Extensible library for opening URLs
-=============================================================
+:mod:`!urllib.request` --- Extensible library for opening URLs
+==============================================================
.. module:: urllib.request
:synopsis: Extensible library for opening URLs.
@@ -149,16 +149,28 @@ The :mod:`urllib.request` module defines the following functions:
.. function:: pathname2url(path)
- Convert the pathname *path* from the local syntax for a path to the form used in
- the path component of a URL. This does not produce a complete URL. The return
- value will already be quoted using the :func:`~urllib.parse.quote` function.
+ Convert the given local path to a ``file:`` URL. This function uses
+ :func:`~urllib.parse.quote` function to encode the path. For historical
+ reasons, the return value omits the ``file:`` scheme prefix. This example
+ shows the function being used on Windows::
+ >>> from urllib.request import pathname2url
+ >>> path = 'C:\\Program Files'
+ >>> 'file:' + pathname2url(path)
+ 'file:///C:/Program%20Files'
-.. function:: url2pathname(path)
- Convert the path component *path* from a percent-encoded URL to the local syntax for a
- path. This does not accept a complete URL. This function uses
- :func:`~urllib.parse.unquote` to decode *path*.
+.. function:: url2pathname(url)
+
+ Convert the given ``file:`` URL to a local path. This function uses
+ :func:`~urllib.parse.unquote` to decode the URL. For historical reasons,
+ the given value *must* omit the ``file:`` scheme prefix. This example shows
+ the function being used on Windows::
+
+ >>> from urllib.request import url2pathname
+ >>> url = 'file:///C:/Program%20Files'
+ >>> url2pathname(url.removeprefix('file:'))
+ 'C:\\Program Files'
.. function:: getproxies()
@@ -218,7 +230,7 @@ The following classes are provided:
An appropriate ``Content-Type`` header should be included if the *data*
argument is present. If this header has not been provided and *data*
- is not None, ``Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded`` will
+ is not ``None``, ``Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded`` will
be added as a default.
The next two arguments are only of interest for correct handling
@@ -241,7 +253,7 @@ The following classes are provided:
*method* should be a string that indicates the HTTP request method that
will be used (e.g. ``'HEAD'``). If provided, its value is stored in the
- :attr:`~Request.method` attribute and is used by :meth:`get_method()`.
+ :attr:`~Request.method` attribute and is used by :meth:`get_method`.
The default is ``'GET'`` if *data* is ``None`` or ``'POST'`` otherwise.
Subclasses may indicate a different default method by setting the
:attr:`~Request.method` attribute in the class itself.
@@ -772,10 +784,13 @@ The following attribute and methods should only be used by classes derived from
errors. It will be called automatically by the :class:`OpenerDirector` getting
the error, and should not normally be called in other circumstances.
- *req* will be a :class:`Request` object, *fp* will be a file-like object with
- the HTTP error body, *code* will be the three-digit code of the error, *msg*
- will be the user-visible explanation of the code and *hdrs* will be a mapping
- object with the headers of the error.
+ :class:`OpenerDirector` will call this method with five positional arguments:
+
+ 1. a :class:`Request` object,
+ #. a file-like object with the HTTP error body,
+ #. the three-digit code of the error, as a string,
+ #. the user-visible explanation of the code, as a string, and
+ #. the headers of the error, as a mapping object.
Return values and exceptions raised should be the same as those of
:func:`urlopen`.
@@ -928,8 +943,14 @@ These methods are available on :class:`HTTPPasswordMgr` and
*uri* can be either a single URI, or a sequence of URIs. *realm*, *user* and
*passwd* must be strings. This causes ``(user, passwd)`` to be used as
- authentication tokens when authentication for *realm* and a super-URI of any of
- the given URIs is given.
+ authentication tokens when authentication for *realm* and a super-URI of any
+ of the given URIs is given. If a URI includes a scheme, its credentials only
+ match authentication URIs with the same scheme or no scheme. A URI without a
+ scheme matches authentication URIs with any scheme.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: next
+ Authentication credentials for URIs with a scheme are now scoped by
+ that scheme.
.. method:: HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password(realm, authuri)
@@ -991,8 +1012,12 @@ AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
authenticate for, *req* should be the (failed) :class:`Request` object, and
*headers* should be the error headers.
+ *headers* must be a mapping-like object with case-insensitive lookup
+ that implements the ``get_all()`` method,
+ such as :class:`email.message.Message` or :class:`wsgiref.headers.Headers`.
+
*host* is either an authority (e.g. ``"python.org"``) or a URL containing an
- authority component (e.g. ``"http://python.org/"``). In either case, the
+ authority component (e.g. ``"https://python.org/"``). In either case, the
authority must not contain a userinfo component (so, ``"python.org"`` and
``"python.org:80"`` are fine, ``"joe:password@python.org"`` is not).
@@ -1032,6 +1057,9 @@ AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
should be the (failed) :class:`Request` object, and *headers* should be the
error headers.
+ *headers* must be a mapping-like object with case-insensitive lookup,
+ such as :class:`email.message.Message` or :class:`wsgiref.headers.Headers`.
+
.. _http-digest-auth-handler:
@@ -1064,7 +1092,7 @@ HTTPHandler Objects
.. method:: HTTPHandler.http_open(req)
Send an HTTP request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on
- ``req.has_data()``.
+ ``req.data``.
.. _https-handler-objects:
@@ -1076,7 +1104,7 @@ HTTPSHandler Objects
.. method:: HTTPSHandler.https_open(req)
Send an HTTPS request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on
- ``req.has_data()``.
+ ``req.data``.
.. _file-handler-objects:
@@ -1092,7 +1120,7 @@ FileHandler Objects
.. versionchanged:: 3.2
This method is applicable only for local hostnames. When a remote
- hostname is given, an :exc:`~urllib.error.URLError` is raised.
+ hostname is given, a :exc:`~urllib.error.URLError` is raised.
.. _data-handler-objects:
@@ -1107,7 +1135,7 @@ DataHandler Objects
ignores white spaces in base64 encoded data URLs so the URL may be wrapped
in whatever source file it comes from. But even though some browsers don't
mind about a missing padding at the end of a base64 encoded data URL, this
- implementation will raise an :exc:`ValueError` in that case.
+ implementation will raise a :exc:`ValueError` in that case.
.. _ftp-handler-objects:
@@ -1185,17 +1213,17 @@ In addition to the examples below, more examples are given in
:ref:`urllib-howto`.
This example gets the python.org main page and displays the first 300 bytes of
-it. ::
+it::
>>> import urllib.request
- >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
- ... print(f.read(300))
- ...
- b'<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
- "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">\n\n\n<html
- xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">\n\n<head>\n
- <meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />\n
- <title>Python Programming '
+ >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('https://www.python.org/') as f:
+ ... # The response may be compressed (for example, 'gzip').
+ ... print(f.headers.get('Content-Encoding'))
+ ... data = f.read()
+ ... if f.headers.get('Content-Encoding') == 'gzip':
+ ... import gzip
+ ... data = gzip.decompress(data)
+ ... print(data[:300].decode('utf-8', errors='replace'))
Note that urlopen returns a bytes object. This is because there is no way
for urlopen to automatically determine the encoding of the byte stream
@@ -1203,27 +1231,39 @@ it receives from the HTTP server. In general, a program will decode
the returned bytes object to string once it determines or guesses
the appropriate encoding.
-The following W3C document, https://www.w3.org/International/O-charset\ , lists
-the various ways in which an (X)HTML or an XML document could have specified its
+The following HTML spec document, https://html.spec.whatwg.org/#charset, lists
+the various ways in which an HTML or an XML document could have specified its
encoding information.
-As the python.org website uses *utf-8* encoding as specified in its meta tag, we
-will use the same for decoding the bytes object. ::
+For additional information, see the W3C document: https://www.w3.org/International/questions/qa-html-encoding-declarations.
- >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
- ... print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
+As the python.org website uses *utf-8* encoding as specified in its meta tag, we
+will use the same for decoding the bytes object::
+
+ >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('https://www.python.org/') as f:
+ ... # Check for compression and decode appropriately.
+ ... enc = f.headers.get('Content-Encoding')
+ ... data = f.read()
+ ... if enc == 'gzip':
+ ... import gzip
+ ... data = gzip.decompress(data)
+ ... print(data[:100].decode('utf-8', errors='replace'))
...
- <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
- "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtm
It is also possible to achieve the same result without using the
-:term:`context manager` approach. ::
+:term:`context manager` approach::
>>> import urllib.request
- >>> f = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/')
- >>> print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
- <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
- "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtm
+ >>> f = urllib.request.urlopen('https://www.python.org/')
+ >>> try:
+ ... enc = f.headers.get('Content-Encoding')
+ ... data = f.read()
+ ... if enc == 'gzip':
+ ... import gzip
+ ... data = gzip.decompress(data)
+ ... print(data[:100].decode('utf-8', errors='replace'))
+ ... finally:
+ ... f.close()
In the following example, we are sending a data-stream to the stdin of a CGI
and reading the data it returns to us. Note that this example will only work
@@ -1266,7 +1306,8 @@ Use of Basic HTTP Authentication::
opener = urllib.request.build_opener(auth_handler)
# ...and install it globally so it can be used with urlopen.
urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
- urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.example.com/login.html')
+ with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.example.com/login.html') as f:
+ print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
:func:`build_opener` provides many handlers by default, including a
:class:`ProxyHandler`. By default, :class:`ProxyHandler` uses the environment
@@ -1284,7 +1325,8 @@ programmatically supplied proxy URLs, and adds proxy authorization support with
opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_handler, proxy_auth_handler)
# This time, rather than install the OpenerDirector, we use it directly:
- opener.open('http://www.example.com/login.html')
+ with opener.open('http://www.example.com/login.html') as f:
+ print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
Adding HTTP headers:
@@ -1292,10 +1334,12 @@ Use the *headers* argument to the :class:`Request` constructor, or::
import urllib.request
req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.example.com/')
- req.add_header('Referer', 'http://www.python.org/')
+ req.add_header('Referer', 'https://www.python.org/')
# Customize the default User-Agent header value:
req.add_header('User-Agent', 'urllib-example/0.1 (Contact: . . .)')
- r = urllib.request.urlopen(req)
+ with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
+ print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
+
:class:`OpenerDirector` automatically adds a :mailheader:`User-Agent` header to
every :class:`Request`. To change this::
@@ -1303,7 +1347,8 @@ every :class:`Request`. To change this::
import urllib.request
opener = urllib.request.build_opener()
opener.addheaders = [('User-agent', 'Mozilla/5.0')]
- opener.open('http://www.example.com/')
+ with opener.open('http://www.example.com/') as f:
+ print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
Also, remember that a few standard headers (:mailheader:`Content-Length`,
:mailheader:`Content-Type` and :mailheader:`Host`)
@@ -1318,7 +1363,7 @@ containing parameters::
>>> import urllib.request
>>> import urllib.parse
>>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
- >>> url = "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/query?%s" % params
+ >>> url = "https://www.python.org/?%s" % params
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen(url) as f:
... print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
...
@@ -1330,7 +1375,7 @@ from urlencode is encoded to bytes before it is sent to urlopen as data::
>>> import urllib.parse
>>> data = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
>>> data = data.encode('ascii')
- >>> with urllib.request.urlopen("http://requestb.in/xrbl82xr", data) as f:
+ >>> with urllib.request.urlopen("https://httpbin.org/post", data) as f:
... print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
...
@@ -1339,16 +1384,16 @@ environment settings::
>>> import urllib.request
>>> proxies = {'http': 'http://proxy.example.com:8080/'}
- >>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener(proxies)
- >>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org") as f:
+ >>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.ProxyHandler(proxies))
+ >>> with opener.open("https://www.python.org") as f:
... f.read().decode('utf-8')
...
The following example uses no proxies at all, overriding environment settings::
>>> import urllib.request
- >>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener({})
- >>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org/") as f:
+ >>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.ProxyHandler({}))
+ >>> with opener.open("https://www.python.org/") as f:
... f.read().decode('utf-8')
...
@@ -1381,7 +1426,7 @@ some point in the future.
The following example illustrates the most common usage scenario::
>>> import urllib.request
- >>> local_filename, headers = urllib.request.urlretrieve('http://python.org/')
+ >>> local_filename, headers = urllib.request.urlretrieve('https://python.org/')
>>> html = open(local_filename)
>>> html.close()
@@ -1410,7 +1455,8 @@ some point in the future.
.. function:: urlcleanup()
Cleans up temporary files that may have been left behind by previous
- calls to :func:`urlretrieve`.
+ calls to :func:`urlretrieve`. It also resets the default global opener
+ installed by :func:`install_opener`.
.. class:: URLopener(proxies=None, **x509)
diff --git a/Doc/library/urllib.robotparser.rst b/Doc/library/urllib.robotparser.rst
index b5a49d9c5923876..4f8e0e8a96d13ce 100644
--- a/Doc/library/urllib.robotparser.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/urllib.robotparser.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`urllib.robotparser` --- Parser for robots.txt
-====================================================
+:mod:`!urllib.robotparser` --- Parser for robots.txt
+=====================================================
.. module:: urllib.robotparser
:synopsis: Load a robots.txt file and answer questions about
@@ -19,8 +19,8 @@
This module provides a single class, :class:`RobotFileParser`, which answers
questions about whether or not a particular user agent can fetch a URL on the
-web site that published the :file:`robots.txt` file. For more details on the
-structure of :file:`robots.txt` files, see http://www.robotstxt.org/orig.html.
+website that published the :file:`robots.txt` file. For more details on the
+structure of :file:`robots.txt` files, see :rfc:`9309`.
.. class:: RobotFileParser(url='')
@@ -91,16 +91,16 @@ class::
>>> import urllib.robotparser
>>> rp = urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser()
- >>> rp.set_url("http://www.musi-cal.com/robots.txt")
+ >>> rp.set_url("http://www.pythontest.net/robots.txt")
>>> rp.read()
>>> rrate = rp.request_rate("*")
>>> rrate.requests
- 3
+ 1
>>> rrate.seconds
- 20
+ 1
>>> rp.crawl_delay("*")
6
- >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/search?city=San+Francisco")
- False
- >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.musi-cal.com/")
+ >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.pythontest.net/")
True
+ >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.pythontest.net/no-robots-here/")
+ False
diff --git a/Doc/library/urllib.rst b/Doc/library/urllib.rst
index 624e164625556a8..7d9f39ef070fc31 100644
--- a/Doc/library/urllib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/urllib.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`urllib` --- URL handling modules
-======================================
+:mod:`!urllib` --- URL handling modules
+=======================================
.. module:: urllib
diff --git a/Doc/library/uu.rst b/Doc/library/uu.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..cf6ec0fcef386d2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/uu.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+:mod:`!uu` --- Encode and decode uuencode files
+===============================================
+
+.. module:: uu
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+Encoding and decoding in the uu format can instead be achieved using
+:func:`codecs.encode` and :func:`codecs.decode`, specifying ``"uu"``
+as the encoding.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!uu` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/uu.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/uuid.rst b/Doc/library/uuid.rst
index e2d231da38fd9a9..95f1176e7512b86 100644
--- a/Doc/library/uuid.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/uuid.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`uuid` --- UUID objects according to :rfc:`4122`
-=====================================================
+:mod:`!uuid` --- UUID objects according to :rfc:`4122`
+======================================================
.. module:: uuid
:synopsis: UUID objects (universally unique identifiers) according to RFC 4122
@@ -179,8 +179,6 @@ The :mod:`uuid` module defines the following functions:
administered MAC addresses, since the former are guaranteed to be
globally unique, while the latter are not.
-.. index:: single: getnode
-
.. function:: uuid1(node=None, clock_seq=None)
@@ -189,8 +187,6 @@ The :mod:`uuid` module defines the following functions:
*clock_seq* is given, it is used as the sequence number; otherwise a random
14-bit sequence number is chosen.
-.. index:: single: uuid1
-
.. function:: uuid3(namespace, name)
@@ -198,15 +194,11 @@ The :mod:`uuid` module defines the following functions:
UUID) and a name (which is a :class:`bytes` object or a string
that will be encoded using UTF-8).
-.. index:: single: uuid3
-
.. function:: uuid4()
Generate a random UUID.
-.. index:: single: uuid4
-
.. function:: uuid5(namespace, name)
@@ -214,7 +206,6 @@ The :mod:`uuid` module defines the following functions:
UUID) and a name (which is a :class:`bytes` object or a string
that will be encoded using UTF-8).
-.. index:: single: uuid5
The :mod:`uuid` module defines the following namespace identifiers for use with
:func:`uuid3` or :func:`uuid5`.
diff --git a/Doc/library/venv.rst b/Doc/library/venv.rst
index cdd1fde2e44b006..fe743fd15ac528d 100644
--- a/Doc/library/venv.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/venv.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`venv` --- Creation of virtual environments
-================================================
+:mod:`!venv` --- Creation of virtual environments
+=================================================
.. module:: venv
:synopsis: Creation of virtual environments.
@@ -22,9 +22,9 @@ The :mod:`!venv` module supports creating lightweight "virtual environments",
each with their own independent set of Python packages installed in
their :mod:`site` directories.
A virtual environment is created on top of an existing
-Python installation, known as the virtual environment's "base" Python, and may
-optionally be isolated from the packages in the base environment,
-so only those explicitly installed in the virtual environment are available.
+Python installation, known as the virtual environment's "base" Python, and by
+default is isolated from the packages in the base environment, so
+that only those explicitly installed in the virtual environment are available.
When used from within a virtual environment, common installation tools such as
:pypi:`pip` will install Python packages into a virtual environment
@@ -37,14 +37,14 @@ A virtual environment is (amongst other things):
are by default isolated from software in other virtual environments and Python
interpreters and libraries installed in the operating system.
-* Contained in a directory, conventionally either named ``venv`` or ``.venv`` in
+* Contained in a directory, conventionally named ``.venv`` or ``venv`` in
the project directory, or under a container directory for lots of virtual
environments, such as ``~/.virtualenvs``.
* Not checked into source control systems such as Git.
* Considered as disposable -- it should be simple to delete and recreate it from
- scratch. You don't place any project code in the environment
+ scratch. You don't place any project code in the environment.
* Not considered as movable or copyable -- you just recreate the same
environment in the target location.
@@ -56,12 +56,148 @@ See :pep:`405` for more background on Python virtual environments.
`Python Packaging User Guide: Creating and using virtual environments
<https://packaging.python.org/guides/installing-using-pip-and-virtual-environments/#create-and-use-virtual-environments>`__
-.. include:: ../includes/wasm-ios-notavail.rst
+.. include:: ../includes/wasm-mobile-notavail.rst
Creating virtual environments
-----------------------------
-.. include:: /using/venv-create.inc
+:ref:`Virtual environments <venv-def>` are created by executing the ``venv``
+module:
+
+.. code-block:: shell
+
+ python -m venv /path/to/new/virtual/environment
+
+This creates the target directory (including parent directories as needed)
+and places a :file:`pyvenv.cfg` file in it with a ``home`` key
+pointing to the Python installation from which the command was run.
+It also creates a :file:`bin` (or :file:`Scripts` on Windows) subdirectory
+containing a copy or symlink of the Python executable
+(as appropriate for the platform or arguments used at environment creation time).
+It also creates a :file:`lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages` subdirectory
+(on Windows, this is :file:`Lib\\site-packages`).
+If an existing directory is specified, it will be re-used.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.5
+ The use of ``venv`` is now recommended for creating virtual environments.
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.6 3.8
+ :program:`pyvenv` was the recommended tool for creating virtual environments
+ for Python 3.3 and 3.4, and replaced in 3.5 by executing ``venv`` directly.
+
+.. highlight:: none
+
+On Windows, invoke the ``venv`` command as follows:
+
+.. code-block:: ps1con
+
+ PS> python -m venv C:\path\to\new\virtual\environment
+
+The command, if run with ``-h``, will show the available options::
+
+ usage: venv [-h] [--system-site-packages] [--symlinks | --copies] [--clear]
+ [--upgrade] [--without-pip] [--prompt PROMPT] [--upgrade-deps]
+ [--without-scm-ignore-files]
+ ENV_DIR [ENV_DIR ...]
+
+ Creates virtual Python environments in one or more target directories.
+
+ Once an environment has been created, you may wish to activate it, e.g. by
+ sourcing an activate script in its bin directory.
+
+.. _venv-cli:
+.. program:: venv
+
+.. option:: ENV_DIR
+
+ A required argument specifying the directory to create the environment in.
+
+.. option:: --system-site-packages
+
+ Give the virtual environment access to the system site-packages directory.
+
+.. option:: --symlinks
+
+ Try to use symlinks rather than copies, when symlinks are not the default for the platform.
+
+.. option:: --copies
+
+ Try to use copies rather than symlinks, even when symlinks are the default for the platform.
+
+.. option:: --clear
+
+ Delete the contents of the environment directory if it already exists, before environment creation.
+
+.. option:: --upgrade
+
+ Upgrade the environment directory to use this version of Python, assuming Python has been upgraded in-place.
+
+.. option:: --without-pip
+
+ Skips installing or upgrading pip in the virtual environment (pip is bootstrapped by default).
+
+.. option:: --prompt <PROMPT>
+
+ Provides an alternative prompt prefix for this environment.
+
+.. option:: --upgrade-deps
+
+ Upgrade core dependencies (pip) to the latest version in PyPI.
+
+.. option:: --without-scm-ignore-files
+
+ Skips adding SCM ignore files to the environment directory (Git is supported by default).
+
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+ Installs pip by default, added the ``--without-pip`` and ``--copies``
+ options.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.4
+ In earlier versions, if the target directory already existed, an error was
+ raised, unless the ``--clear`` or ``--upgrade`` option was provided.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.9
+ Add ``--upgrade-deps`` option to upgrade pip + setuptools to the latest on PyPI.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.12
+
+ ``setuptools`` is no longer a core venv dependency.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.13
+
+ Added the ``--without-scm-ignore-files`` option.
+.. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ ``venv`` now creates a :file:`.gitignore` file for Git by default.
+
+.. note::
+ While symlinks are supported on Windows, they are not recommended. Of
+ particular note is that double-clicking ``python.exe`` in File Explorer
+ will resolve the symlink eagerly and ignore the virtual environment.
+
+.. note::
+ On Microsoft Windows, it may be required to enable the ``Activate.ps1``
+ script by setting the execution policy for the user. You can do this by
+ issuing the following PowerShell command:
+
+ .. code-block:: powershell
+
+ PS C:\> Set-ExecutionPolicy -ExecutionPolicy RemoteSigned -Scope CurrentUser
+
+ See `About Execution Policies
+ <https://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkID=135170>`_
+ for more information.
+
+The created :file:`pyvenv.cfg` file also includes the
+``include-system-site-packages`` key, set to ``true`` if ``venv`` is
+run with the ``--system-site-packages`` option, ``false`` otherwise.
+
+Unless the ``--without-pip`` option is given, :mod:`ensurepip` will be
+invoked to bootstrap ``pip`` into the virtual environment.
+
+Multiple paths can be given to ``venv``, in which case an identical virtual
+environment will be created, according to the given options, at each provided
+path.
.. _venv-explanation:
@@ -95,7 +231,7 @@ containing the virtual environment):
| +------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| | csh/tcsh | :samp:`$ source {<venv>}/bin/activate.csh` |
| +------------+--------------------------------------------------+
-| | PowerShell | :samp:`$ {<venv>}/bin/Activate.ps1` |
+| | pwsh | :samp:`$ {<venv>}/bin/Activate.ps1` |
+-------------+------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Windows | cmd.exe | :samp:`C:\\> {<venv>}\\Scripts\\activate.bat` |
| +------------+--------------------------------------------------+
@@ -117,7 +253,7 @@ should be runnable without activating it.
In order to achieve this, scripts installed into virtual environments have
a "shebang" line which points to the environment's Python interpreter,
-i.e. :samp:`#!/{<path-to-venv>}/bin/python`.
+:samp:`#!/{<path-to-venv>}/bin/python`.
This means that the script will run with that interpreter regardless of the
value of :envvar:`PATH`. On Windows, "shebang" line processing is supported if
you have the :ref:`launcher` installed. Thus, double-clicking an installed
@@ -168,31 +304,31 @@ creation according to their needs, the :class:`EnvBuilder` class.
The :class:`EnvBuilder` class accepts the following keyword arguments on
instantiation:
- * ``system_site_packages`` -- a Boolean value indicating that the system Python
+ * *system_site_packages* -- a boolean value indicating that the system Python
site-packages should be available to the environment (defaults to ``False``).
- * ``clear`` -- a Boolean value which, if true, will delete the contents of
+ * *clear* -- a boolean value which, if true, will delete the contents of
any existing target directory, before creating the environment.
- * ``symlinks`` -- a Boolean value indicating whether to attempt to symlink the
+ * *symlinks* -- a boolean value indicating whether to attempt to symlink the
Python binary rather than copying.
- * ``upgrade`` -- a Boolean value which, if true, will upgrade an existing
+ * *upgrade* -- a boolean value which, if true, will upgrade an existing
environment with the running Python - for use when that Python has been
upgraded in-place (defaults to ``False``).
- * ``with_pip`` -- a Boolean value which, if true, ensures pip is
+ * *with_pip* -- a boolean value which, if true, ensures pip is
installed in the virtual environment. This uses :mod:`ensurepip` with
the ``--default-pip`` option.
- * ``prompt`` -- a String to be used after virtual environment is activated
+ * *prompt* -- a string to be used after virtual environment is activated
(defaults to ``None`` which means directory name of the environment would
be used). If the special string ``"."`` is provided, the basename of the
current directory is used as the prompt.
- * ``upgrade_deps`` -- Update the base venv modules to the latest on PyPI
+ * *upgrade_deps* -- Update the base venv modules to the latest on PyPI
- * ``scm_ignore_files`` -- Create ignore files based for the specified source
+ * *scm_ignore_files* -- Create ignore files based for the specified source
control managers (SCM) in the iterable. Support is defined by having a
method named ``create_{scm}_ignore_file``. The only value supported by
default is ``"git"`` via :meth:`create_git_ignore_file`.
@@ -210,10 +346,7 @@ creation according to their needs, the :class:`EnvBuilder` class.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
Added the ``scm_ignore_files`` parameter
- Creators of third-party virtual environment tools will be free to use the
- provided :class:`EnvBuilder` class as a base class.
-
- The returned env-builder is an object which has a method, ``create``:
+ :class:`EnvBuilder` may be used as a base class.
.. method:: create(env_dir)
@@ -313,14 +446,14 @@ creation according to their needs, the :class:`EnvBuilder` class.
.. method:: upgrade_dependencies(context)
- Upgrades the core venv dependency packages (currently ``pip``)
+ Upgrades the core venv dependency packages (currently :pypi:`pip`)
in the environment. This is done by shelling out to the
``pip`` executable in the environment.
.. versionadded:: 3.9
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
- ``setuptools`` is no longer a core venv dependency.
+ :pypi:`setuptools` is no longer a core venv dependency.
.. method:: post_setup(context)
@@ -328,25 +461,15 @@ creation according to their needs, the :class:`EnvBuilder` class.
implementations to pre-install packages in the virtual environment or
perform other post-creation steps.
- .. versionchanged:: 3.7.2
- Windows now uses redirector scripts for ``python[w].exe`` instead of
- copying the actual binaries. In 3.7.2 only :meth:`setup_python` does
- nothing unless running from a build in the source tree.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.7.3
- Windows copies the redirector scripts as part of :meth:`setup_python`
- instead of :meth:`setup_scripts`. This was not the case in 3.7.2.
- When using symlinks, the original executables will be linked.
-
- In addition, :class:`EnvBuilder` provides this utility method that can be
- called from :meth:`setup_scripts` or :meth:`post_setup` in subclasses to
- assist in installing custom scripts into the virtual environment.
-
.. method:: install_scripts(context, path)
+ This method can be
+ called from :meth:`setup_scripts` or :meth:`post_setup` in subclasses to
+ assist in installing custom scripts into the virtual environment.
+
*path* is the path to a directory that should contain subdirectories
- "common", "posix", "nt", each containing scripts destined for the bin
- directory in the environment. The contents of "common" and the
+ ``common``, ``posix``, ``nt``; each containing scripts destined for the
+ ``bin`` directory in the environment. The contents of ``common`` and the
directory corresponding to :data:`os.name` are copied after some text
replacement of placeholders:
@@ -371,10 +494,20 @@ creation according to their needs, the :class:`EnvBuilder` class.
.. method:: create_git_ignore_file(context)
Creates a ``.gitignore`` file within the virtual environment that causes
- the entire directory to be ignored by the ``git`` source control manager.
+ the entire directory to be ignored by the Git source control manager.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.7.2
+ Windows now uses redirector scripts for ``python[w].exe`` instead of
+ copying the actual binaries. In 3.7.2 only :meth:`setup_python` does
+ nothing unless running from a build in the source tree.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.7.3
+ Windows copies the redirector scripts as part of :meth:`setup_python`
+ instead of :meth:`setup_scripts`. This was not the case in 3.7.2.
+ When using symlinks, the original executables will be linked.
+
There is also a module-level convenience function:
.. function:: create(env_dir, system_site_packages=False, clear=False, \
@@ -387,16 +520,16 @@ There is also a module-level convenience function:
.. versionadded:: 3.3
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
- Added the ``with_pip`` parameter
+ Added the *with_pip* parameter
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
- Added the ``prompt`` parameter
+ Added the *prompt* parameter
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
- Added the ``upgrade_deps`` parameter
+ Added the *upgrade_deps* parameter
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
- Added the ``scm_ignore_files`` parameter
+ Added the *scm_ignore_files* parameter
An example of extending ``EnvBuilder``
--------------------------------------
@@ -409,7 +542,7 @@ subclass which installs setuptools and pip into a created virtual environment::
from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
import sys
from threading import Thread
- from urllib.parse import urlparse
+ from urllib.parse import urlsplit
from urllib.request import urlretrieve
import venv
@@ -480,7 +613,7 @@ subclass which installs setuptools and pip into a created virtual environment::
stream.close()
def install_script(self, context, name, url):
- _, _, path, _, _, _ = urlparse(url)
+ _, _, path, _, _ = urlsplit(url)
fn = os.path.split(path)[-1]
binpath = context.bin_path
distpath = os.path.join(binpath, fn)
diff --git a/Doc/library/warnings.rst b/Doc/library/warnings.rst
index 500398636e11ae8..ab798e4dcd81c21 100644
--- a/Doc/library/warnings.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/warnings.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`warnings` --- Warning control
-===================================
+:mod:`!warnings` --- Warning control
+====================================
.. module:: warnings
:synopsis: Issue warning messages and control their disposition.
@@ -68,43 +68,48 @@ The following warnings category classes are currently defined:
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| Class | Description |
+==================================+===============================================+
-| :exc:`Warning` | This is the base class of all warning |
-| | category classes. It is a subclass of |
-| | :exc:`Exception`. |
+| :exc:`Warning` | Base class for warning categories. It is a |
+| | subclass of :exc:`Exception`. |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-| :exc:`UserWarning` | The default category for :func:`warn`. |
+| :exc:`UserWarning` | Base class for warnings generated by user |
+| | code. The default category for :func:`warn`. |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-| :exc:`DeprecationWarning` | Base category for warnings about deprecated |
+| :exc:`DeprecationWarning` | Base class for warnings about deprecated |
| | features when those warnings are intended for |
| | other Python developers (ignored by default, |
| | unless triggered by code in ``__main__``). |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-| :exc:`SyntaxWarning` | Base category for warnings about dubious |
-| | syntactic features. |
+| :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning` | Base class for warnings about features |
+| | that will be deprecated in the future |
+| | (ignored by default). |
++----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :exc:`SyntaxWarning` | Base class for warnings about dubious syntax |
+| | (typically emitted when compiling Python |
+| | source code, and hence may not be suppressed |
+| | by runtime filters). |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-| :exc:`RuntimeWarning` | Base category for warnings about dubious |
-| | runtime features. |
+| :exc:`RuntimeWarning` | Base class for warnings about dubious runtime |
+| | behavior. |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-| :exc:`FutureWarning` | Base category for warnings about deprecated |
+| :exc:`FutureWarning` | Base class for warnings about deprecated |
| | features when those warnings are intended for |
| | end users of applications that are written in |
| | Python. |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-| :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning` | Base category for warnings about features |
-| | that will be deprecated in the future |
-| | (ignored by default). |
-+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-| :exc:`ImportWarning` | Base category for warnings triggered during |
+| :exc:`ImportWarning` | Base class for warnings triggered during |
| | the process of importing a module (ignored by |
| | default). |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-| :exc:`UnicodeWarning` | Base category for warnings related to |
+| :exc:`UnicodeWarning` | Base class for warnings related to |
| | Unicode. |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-| :exc:`BytesWarning` | Base category for warnings related to |
+| :exc:`EncodingWarning` | Base class for warnings related to encodings. |
+| | See :ref:`io-encoding-warning` for details. |
++----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+| :exc:`BytesWarning` | Base class for warnings related to |
| | :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`. |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-| :exc:`ResourceWarning` | Base category for warnings related to |
+| :exc:`ResourceWarning` | Base class for warnings related to |
| | resource usage (ignored by default). |
+----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
@@ -178,6 +183,19 @@ If a warning is reported and doesn't match any registered filter then the
"default" action is applied (hence its name).
+
+.. _repeated-warning-suppression-criteria:
+
+Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The filters that suppress repeated warnings apply the following criteria to determine if a warning is considered a repeat:
+
+- ``"default"``: A warning is considered a repeat only if the (*message*, *category*, *module*, *lineno*) are all the same.
+- ``"module"``: A warning is considered a repeat if the (*message*, *category*, *module*) are the same, ignoring the line number.
+- ``"once"``: A warning is considered a repeat if the (*message*, *category*) are the same, ignoring the module and line number.
+
+
.. _describing-warning-filters:
Describing Warning Filters
@@ -396,7 +414,7 @@ Available Functions
-------------------
-.. function:: warn(message, category=None, stacklevel=1, source=None, *, skip_file_prefixes=None)
+.. function:: warn(message, category=None, stacklevel=1, source=None, *, skip_file_prefixes=())
Issue a warning, or maybe ignore it or raise an exception. The *category*
argument, if given, must be a :ref:`warning category class <warning-categories>`; it
@@ -438,7 +456,7 @@ Available Functions
lower.one_way(**kw)
This makes the warning refer to both the ``example.lower.one_way()`` and
- ``package.higher.another_way()`` call sites only from calling code living
+ ``example.higher.another_way()`` call sites only from calling code living
outside of ``example`` package.
*source*, if supplied, is the destroyed object which emitted a
@@ -454,14 +472,21 @@ Available Functions
.. function:: warn_explicit(message, category, filename, lineno, module=None, registry=None, module_globals=None, source=None)
This is a low-level interface to the functionality of :func:`warn`, passing in
- explicitly the message, category, filename and line number, and optionally the
- module name and the registry (which should be the ``__warningregistry__``
- dictionary of the module). The module name defaults to the filename with
- ``.py`` stripped; if no registry is passed, the warning is never suppressed.
+ explicitly the message, category, filename and line number, and optionally
+ other arguments.
*message* must be a string and *category* a subclass of :exc:`Warning` or
*message* may be a :exc:`Warning` instance, in which case *category* will be
ignored.
+ *module*, if supplied, should be the module name.
+ If no module is passed, the filename with ``.py`` stripped is used.
+
+ *registry*, if supplied, should be the ``__warningregistry__`` dictionary
+ of the module.
+ If no registry is passed, each warning is treated as the first occurrence,
+ that is, filter actions ``"default"``, ``"module"`` and ``"once"`` are
+ handled as ``"always"``.
+
*module_globals*, if supplied, should be the global namespace in use by the code
for which the warning is issued. (This argument is used to support displaying
source for modules found in zipfiles or other non-filesystem import
@@ -522,7 +547,7 @@ Available Functions
and calls to :func:`simplefilter`.
-.. decorator:: deprecated(msg, *, category=DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=1)
+.. decorator:: deprecated(message, /, *, category=DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=1)
Decorator to indicate that a class, function or overload is deprecated.
@@ -564,7 +589,7 @@ Available Functions
The deprecation message passed to the decorator is saved in the
``__deprecated__`` attribute on the decorated object.
If applied to an overload, the decorator
- must be after the :func:`@overload <typing.overload>` decorator
+ must be after the :deco:`~typing.overload` decorator
for the attribute to exist on the overload as returned by
:func:`typing.get_overloads`.
@@ -582,9 +607,23 @@ Available Context Managers
If the *record* argument is :const:`False` (the default) the context manager
returns :class:`None` on entry. If *record* is :const:`True`, a list is
returned that is progressively populated with objects as seen by a custom
- :func:`showwarning` function (which also suppresses output to ``sys.stdout``).
- Each object in the list has attributes with the same names as the arguments to
- :func:`showwarning`.
+ :func:`showwarning` function (which also suppresses output to ``sys.stderr``).
+ Each object in the list is guaranteed to have the following attributes:
+
+ - ``message``: the warning message (an instance of :exc:`Warning`)
+ - ``category``: the warning category (a subclass of :exc:`Warning`)
+ - ``filename``: the file name where the warning occurred (:class:`str`)
+ - ``lineno``: the line number in the file (:class:`int`)
+ - ``file``: the file object used for output (if any), or ``None``
+ - ``line``: the line of source code (if available), or ``None``
+ - ``source``: the original object that generated the warning (if
+ available), or ``None``
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+ The ``source`` attribute was added.
+
+ The type of these objects is not specified and may change; only the
+ presence of these attributes is guaranteed.
The *module* argument takes a module that will be used instead of the
module returned when you import :mod:`warnings` whose filter will be
@@ -595,6 +634,9 @@ Available Context Managers
passed to :func:`simplefilter` as if it were called immediately on
entering the context.
+ See :ref:`warning-filter` for the meaning of the *category* and *lineno*
+ parameters.
+
.. note::
The :class:`catch_warnings` manager works by replacing and
diff --git a/Doc/library/wave.rst b/Doc/library/wave.rst
index 55b029bc742b245..1f6749fdf761192 100644
--- a/Doc/library/wave.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/wave.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`wave` --- Read and write WAV files
-========================================
+:mod:`!wave` --- Read and write WAV files
+=========================================
.. module:: wave
:synopsis: Provide an interface to the WAV sound format.
@@ -46,8 +46,8 @@ The :mod:`wave` module defines the following function and exception:
the file object.
The :func:`.open` function may be used in a :keyword:`with` statement. When
- the :keyword:`!with` block completes, the :meth:`Wave_read.close()` or
- :meth:`Wave_write.close()` method is called.
+ the :keyword:`!with` block completes, the :meth:`Wave_read.close` or
+ :meth:`Wave_write.close` method is called.
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
Added support for unseekable files.
@@ -199,11 +199,21 @@ Wave_write Objects
Set the number of channels.
+ .. method:: getnchannels()
+
+ Return the number of channels.
+
+
.. method:: setsampwidth(n)
Set the sample width to *n* bytes.
+ .. method:: getsampwidth()
+
+ Return the sample width in bytes.
+
+
.. method:: setframerate(n)
Set the frame rate to *n*.
@@ -213,6 +223,11 @@ Wave_write Objects
integer.
+ .. method:: getframerate()
+
+ Return the frame rate.
+
+
.. method:: setnframes(n)
Set the number of frames to *n*. This will be changed later if the number
@@ -220,12 +235,27 @@ Wave_write Objects
raise an error if the output stream is not seekable).
+ .. method:: getnframes()
+
+ Return the number of audio frames written so far.
+
+
.. method:: setcomptype(type, name)
Set the compression type and description. At the moment, only compression type
``NONE`` is supported, meaning no compression.
+ .. method:: getcomptype()
+
+ Return the compression type (``'NONE'``).
+
+
+ .. method:: getcompname()
+
+ Return the human-readable compression type name.
+
+
.. method:: setparams(tuple)
The *tuple* should be ``(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, nframes, comptype,
@@ -233,6 +263,13 @@ Wave_write Objects
parameters.
+ .. method:: getparams()
+
+ Return a :func:`~collections.namedtuple`
+ ``(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)``
+ containing the current output parameters.
+
+
.. method:: tell()
Return current position in the file, with the same disclaimer for the
diff --git a/Doc/library/weakref.rst b/Doc/library/weakref.rst
index d6e062df945c64c..5747d707711d720 100644
--- a/Doc/library/weakref.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/weakref.rst
@@ -125,6 +125,9 @@ See :ref:`__slots__ documentation <slots>` for details.
This is a subclassable type rather than a factory function.
+ Weak references are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the type of the object they
+ reference.
+
.. attribute:: __callback__
This read-only attribute returns the callback currently associated to the
@@ -197,7 +200,7 @@ See :ref:`__slots__ documentation <slots>` for details.
>>> del k1 # d = {k2: 2}
.. versionchanged:: 3.9
- Added support for ``|`` and ``|=`` operators, specified in :pep:`584`.
+ Added support for ``|`` and ``|=`` operators, as specified in :pep:`584`.
:class:`WeakKeyDictionary` objects have an additional method that
exposes the internal references directly. The references are not guaranteed to
@@ -283,9 +286,10 @@ same issues as the :meth:`WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs` method.
from an object's :meth:`~object.__del__` method or a weak reference's
callback.
- When the program exits, each remaining live finalizer is called
- unless its :attr:`atexit` attribute has been set to false. They
- are called in reverse order of creation.
+ When the program exits (or more generally, at :term:`interpreter shutdown`),
+ each remaining live finalizer is called unless its :attr:`atexit` attribute
+ has been set to false.
+ They are called in reverse order of creation.
A finalizer will never invoke its callback during the later part of
the :term:`interpreter shutdown` when module globals are liable to have
@@ -314,9 +318,9 @@ same issues as the :meth:`WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs` method.
.. attribute:: atexit
- A writable boolean property which by default is true. When the
- program exits, it calls all remaining live finalizers for which
- :attr:`.atexit` is true. They are called in reverse order of
+ A writable boolean property which by default is true. At
+ :term:`interpreter shutdown`, all remaining live finalizers for which
+ :attr:`.atexit` is true are called in reverse order of
creation.
.. note::
@@ -329,17 +333,17 @@ same issues as the :meth:`WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs` method.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
-.. data:: ReferenceType
+.. class:: ReferenceType
The type object for weak references objects.
-.. data:: ProxyType
+.. class:: ProxyType
The type object for proxies of objects which are not callable.
-.. data:: CallableProxyType
+.. class:: CallableProxyType
The type object for proxies of callable objects.
diff --git a/Doc/library/webbrowser.rst b/Doc/library/webbrowser.rst
index 3775d9f92454285..a15c26fa344ef7c 100644
--- a/Doc/library/webbrowser.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/webbrowser.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`webbrowser` --- Convenient web-browser controller
-=======================================================
+:mod:`!webbrowser` --- Convenient web-browser controller
+========================================================
.. module:: webbrowser
:synopsis: Easy-to-use controller for web browsers.
@@ -40,18 +40,32 @@ a new tab, with the browser being brought to the foreground. The use of the
:mod:`webbrowser` module on iOS requires the :mod:`ctypes` module. If
:mod:`ctypes` isn't available, calls to :func:`.open` will fail.
+.. _webbrowser-cli:
+
+Command-line interface
+----------------------
+
+.. program:: webbrowser
+
The script :program:`webbrowser` can be used as a command-line interface for the
module. It accepts a URL as the argument. It accepts the following optional
parameters:
-* ``-n``/``--new-window`` opens the URL in a new browser window, if possible.
-* ``-t``/``--new-tab`` opens the URL in a new browser page ("tab").
+.. option:: -n, --new-window
+
+ Opens the URL in a new browser window, if possible.
+
+.. option:: -t, --new-tab
+
+ Opens the URL in a new browser tab.
-The options are, naturally, mutually exclusive. Usage example::
+The options are, naturally, mutually exclusive. Usage example:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
python -m webbrowser -t "https://www.python.org"
-.. include:: ../includes/wasm-notavail.rst
+.. availability:: not WASI, not Android.
The following exception is defined:
@@ -72,6 +86,8 @@ The following functions are defined:
(note that under many window managers this will occur regardless of the
setting of this variable).
+ Returns ``True`` if a browser was successfully launched, ``False`` otherwise.
+
Note that on some platforms, trying to open a filename using this function,
may work and start the operating system's associated program. However, this
is neither supported nor portable.
@@ -84,11 +100,16 @@ The following functions are defined:
Open *url* in a new window of the default browser, if possible, otherwise, open
*url* in the only browser window.
+ Returns ``True`` if a browser was successfully launched, ``False`` otherwise.
+
+
.. function:: open_new_tab(url)
Open *url* in a new page ("tab") of the default browser, if possible, otherwise
equivalent to :func:`open_new`.
+ Returns ``True`` if a browser was successfully launched, ``False`` otherwise.
+
.. function:: get(using=None)
@@ -207,11 +228,11 @@ Here are some simple examples::
.. _browser-controllers:
-Browser Controller Objects
+Browser controller objects
--------------------------
-Browser controllers provide these methods which parallel three of the
-module-level convenience functions:
+Browser controllers provide the :attr:`~controller.name` attribute,
+and the following three methods which parallel module-level convenience functions:
.. attribute:: controller.name
diff --git a/Doc/library/winreg.rst b/Doc/library/winreg.rst
index 06bd4d87eb03c6e..1ba16aab4e1872a 100644
--- a/Doc/library/winreg.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/winreg.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`winreg` --- Windows registry access
-=========================================
+:mod:`!winreg` --- Windows registry access
+==========================================
.. module:: winreg
- :platform: Windows
:synopsis: Routines and objects for manipulating the Windows registry.
.. sectionauthor:: Mark Hammond <MarkH@ActiveState.com>
@@ -14,6 +13,8 @@ integer as the registry handle, a :ref:`handle object <handle-object>` is used
to ensure that the handles are closed correctly, even if the programmer neglects
to explicitly close them.
+.. availability:: Windows.
+
.. _exception-changed:
.. versionchanged:: 3.3
@@ -753,9 +754,6 @@ Handle objects provide semantics for :meth:`~object.__bool__` -- thus ::
will print ``Yes`` if the handle is currently valid (has not been closed or
detached).
-The object also support comparison semantics, so handle objects will compare
-true if they both reference the same underlying Windows handle value.
-
Handle objects can be converted to an integer (e.g., using the built-in
:func:`int` function), in which case the underlying Windows handle value is
returned. You can also use the :meth:`~PyHKEY.Detach` method to return the
diff --git a/Doc/library/winsound.rst b/Doc/library/winsound.rst
index 370c5216652ba7d..1c87e14268c2d63 100644
--- a/Doc/library/winsound.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/winsound.rst
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
-:mod:`winsound` --- Sound-playing interface for Windows
-=======================================================
+:mod:`!winsound` --- Sound-playing interface for Windows
+========================================================
.. module:: winsound
- :platform: Windows
:synopsis: Access to the sound-playing machinery for Windows.
.. moduleauthor:: Toby Dickenson <htrd90@zepler.org>
@@ -13,6 +12,8 @@
The :mod:`winsound` module provides access to the basic sound-playing machinery
provided by Windows platforms. It includes functions and several constants.
+.. availability:: Windows.
+
.. function:: Beep(frequency, duration)
@@ -135,6 +136,13 @@ provided by Windows platforms. It includes functions and several constants.
This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms.
+.. data:: SND_APPLICATION
+
+ The *sound* parameter is an application-specific alias in the registry.
+ This flag can be combined with the :const:`SND_ALIAS` flag
+ to specify an application-defined sound alias.
+
+
.. data:: MB_ICONASTERISK
Play the ``SystemDefault`` sound.
diff --git a/Doc/library/wsgiref.rst b/Doc/library/wsgiref.rst
index 7fe84a2de1fcebf..157d7058931c16e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/wsgiref.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/wsgiref.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`wsgiref` --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
-==============================================================
+:mod:`!wsgiref` --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
+===============================================================
.. module:: wsgiref
:synopsis: WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.
@@ -11,6 +11,11 @@
--------------
+.. warning::
+
+ :mod:`wsgiref` is a reference implementation and is not recommended for
+ production. The module only implements basic security checks.
+
The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) is a standard interface between web
server software and web applications written in Python. Having a standard
interface makes it easy to use an application that supports WSGI with a number
@@ -119,7 +124,8 @@ in type annotations.
applications to set up dummy environments. It should NOT be used by actual WSGI
servers or applications, since the data is fake!
- Example usage::
+ Example usage (see also :func:`~wsgiref.simple_server.demo_app`
+ for another example)::
from wsgiref.util import setup_testing_defaults
from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server
@@ -312,6 +318,8 @@ request. (E.g., using the :func:`shift_path_info` function from
as :mod:`wsgiref.simple_server`) is able to run a simple WSGI application
correctly.
+ The *start_response* callable should follow the :class:`.StartResponse` protocol.
+
.. class:: WSGIServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass)
@@ -679,7 +687,9 @@ input, output, and error streams.
This method can access the current error using ``sys.exception()``,
and should pass that information to *start_response* when calling it (as
- described in the "Error Handling" section of :pep:`3333`).
+ described in the "Error Handling" section of :pep:`3333`). In particular,
+ the *start_response* callable should follow the :class:`.StartResponse`
+ protocol.
The default implementation just uses the :attr:`error_status`,
:attr:`error_headers`, and :attr:`error_body` attributes to generate an output
@@ -781,10 +791,10 @@ in :pep:`3333`.
.. versionadded:: 3.11
-.. class:: StartResponse()
+.. class:: StartResponse
- A :class:`typing.Protocol` describing `start_response()
- <https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#the-start-response-callable>`_
+ A :class:`typing.Protocol` describing :pep:`start_response()
+ <3333#the-start-response-callable>`
callables (:pep:`3333`).
.. data:: WSGIEnvironment
@@ -797,18 +807,18 @@ in :pep:`3333`.
.. class:: InputStream()
- A :class:`typing.Protocol` describing a `WSGI Input Stream
- <https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams>`_.
+ A :class:`typing.Protocol` describing a :pep:`WSGI Input Stream
+ <3333#input-and-error-streams>`.
.. class:: ErrorStream()
- A :class:`typing.Protocol` describing a `WSGI Error Stream
- <https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams>`_.
+ A :class:`typing.Protocol` describing a :pep:`WSGI Error Stream
+ <3333#input-and-error-streams>`.
.. class:: FileWrapper()
- A :class:`typing.Protocol` describing a `file wrapper
- <https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#optional-platform-specific-file-handling>`_.
+ A :class:`typing.Protocol` describing a :pep:`file wrapper
+ <3333#optional-platform-specific-file-handling>`.
See :class:`wsgiref.util.FileWrapper` for a concrete implementation of this
protocol.
@@ -816,7 +826,8 @@ in :pep:`3333`.
Examples
--------
-This is a working "Hello World" WSGI application::
+This is a working "Hello World" WSGI application, where the *start_response*
+callable should follow the :class:`.StartResponse` protocol::
"""
Every WSGI application must have an application object - a callable
diff --git a/Doc/library/xdrlib.rst b/Doc/library/xdrlib.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..59b801c8e4072e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/library/xdrlib.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+:mod:`!xdrlib` --- Encode and decode XDR data
+=============================================
+
+.. module:: xdrlib
+ :synopsis: Removed in 3.13.
+ :deprecated:
+
+.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
+
+This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.
+It was :ref:`removed in Python 3.13 <whatsnew313-pep594>` after
+being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in :pep:`594`.
+
+The last version of Python that provided the :mod:`!xdrlib` module was
+`Python 3.12 <https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/xdrlib.html>`_.
diff --git a/Doc/library/xml.dom.minidom.rst b/Doc/library/xml.dom.minidom.rst
index 72a7a98c2ac4f21..c8fdd7bbcf260c3 100644
--- a/Doc/library/xml.dom.minidom.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/xml.dom.minidom.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`xml.dom.minidom` --- Minimal DOM implementation
-=====================================================
+:mod:`!xml.dom.minidom` --- Minimal DOM implementation
+======================================================
.. module:: xml.dom.minidom
:synopsis: Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation.
@@ -19,11 +19,10 @@ not already proficient with the DOM should consider using the
:mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` module for their XML processing instead.
-.. warning::
+.. note::
- The :mod:`xml.dom.minidom` module is not secure against
- maliciously constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or
- unauthenticated data see :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities`.
+ If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see
+ :ref:`xml-security`.
DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM. With
@@ -63,7 +62,7 @@ document.
What the :func:`parse` and :func:`parseString` functions do is connect an XML
parser with a "DOM builder" that can accept parse events from any SAX parser and
-convert them into a DOM tree. The name of the functions are perhaps misleading,
+convert them into a DOM tree. The names of the functions are perhaps misleading,
but are easy to grasp when learning the interfaces. The parsing of the document
will be completed before these functions return; it's simply that these
functions do not provide a parser implementation themselves.
@@ -250,11 +249,29 @@ rules apply:
Instead, :mod:`xml.dom.minidom` uses standard Python exceptions such as
:exc:`TypeError` and :exc:`AttributeError`.
-* :class:`NodeList` objects are implemented using Python's built-in list type.
- These objects provide the interface defined in the DOM specification, but with
- earlier versions of Python they do not support the official API. They are,
- however, much more "Pythonic" than the interface defined in the W3C
- recommendations.
+* Each of the :class:`~xml.dom.NodeList` and :class:`~xml.dom.NamedNodeMap`
+ interfaces has two implementations, which provide additional methods and
+ operations.
+
+ :attr:`~xml.dom.Node.childNodes` is a subclass of :class:`list`, or, for
+ nodes which cannot have children, a subclass of :class:`tuple`.
+ It supports iteration, concatenation, indexing and slicing.
+
+ :attr:`~xml.dom.Node.attributes` supports ``len()``, the :keyword:`in`
+ operator, subscription by a name or by a ``(namespaceURI, localName)``
+ tuple, assignment and deletion, and the methods :meth:`!get`, :meth:`!keys`,
+ :meth:`!keysNS`, :meth:`!values`, :meth:`!items` and :meth:`!itemsNS`.
+ :attr:`~xml.dom.DocumentType.entities` and
+ :attr:`~xml.dom.DocumentType.notations` are read-only and support only
+ ``len()`` and subscription by a name.
+
+* :attr:`~xml.dom.Document.strictErrorChecking` and
+ :attr:`~xml.dom.Attr.specified` are always ``False``.
+
+* :meth:`~xml.dom.Element.removeAttribute` and
+ :meth:`~xml.dom.Element.removeAttributeNS` raise
+ :exc:`~xml.dom.NotFoundErr` if there is no matching attribute,
+ while the DOM specifies that this has no effect.
The following interfaces have no implementation in :mod:`xml.dom.minidom`:
diff --git a/Doc/library/xml.dom.pulldom.rst b/Doc/library/xml.dom.pulldom.rst
index 843c2fd7fdb937a..12358a25c04bbee 100644
--- a/Doc/library/xml.dom.pulldom.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/xml.dom.pulldom.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`xml.dom.pulldom` --- Support for building partial DOM trees
-=================================================================
+:mod:`!xml.dom.pulldom` --- Support for building partial DOM trees
+==================================================================
.. module:: xml.dom.pulldom
:synopsis: Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX events.
@@ -8,6 +8,11 @@
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py`
+.. The module was written by Paul Prescod and added in Python 2.0.
+ It is not based on any specification: the implementation is the only
+ reference. The Java Streaming API for XML (StAX, JSR 173) is based on
+ it, among other pull parsers.
+
--------------
The :mod:`xml.dom.pulldom` module provides a "pull parser" which can also be
@@ -19,11 +24,10 @@ responsible for explicitly pulling events from the stream, looping over those
events until either processing is finished or an error condition occurs.
-.. warning::
+.. note::
- The :mod:`xml.dom.pulldom` module is not secure against
- maliciously constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or
- unauthenticated data see :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities`.
+ If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see
+ :ref:`xml-security`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7.1
@@ -51,19 +55,49 @@ Example::
doc.expandNode(node)
print(node.toxml())
-``event`` is a constant and can be one of:
+``event`` is one of the following constants,
+and ``node`` is the node which the event is about.
+The nodes implement the :mod:`xml.dom` interfaces;
+they are created by the DOM implementation given to :class:`PullDOM`,
+which is :mod:`xml.dom.minidom` by default.
+
+
+.. data:: START_DOCUMENT
+ END_DOCUMENT
+
+ The start and the end of the document.
+ *node* is the :class:`~xml.dom.Document`.
+
+
+.. data:: START_ELEMENT
+ END_ELEMENT
+
+ The start tag and the end tag of an element.
+ *node* is the :class:`~xml.dom.Element`.
+
+
+.. data:: CHARACTERS
+
+ Character data.
+ *node* is the :class:`~xml.dom.Text` node.
+
-* :data:`START_ELEMENT`
-* :data:`END_ELEMENT`
-* :data:`COMMENT`
-* :data:`START_DOCUMENT`
-* :data:`END_DOCUMENT`
-* :data:`CHARACTERS`
-* :data:`PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION`
-* :data:`IGNORABLE_WHITESPACE`
+.. data:: IGNORABLE_WHITESPACE
-``node`` is an object of type :class:`xml.dom.minidom.Document`,
-:class:`xml.dom.minidom.Element` or :class:`xml.dom.minidom.Text`.
+ White space in element content, as declared in the DTD.
+ *node* is the :class:`~xml.dom.Text` node.
+
+
+.. data:: COMMENT
+
+ A comment.
+ *node* is the :class:`~xml.dom.Comment` node.
+
+
+.. data:: PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION
+
+ A processing instruction.
+ *node* is the :class:`~xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction` node.
Since the document is treated as a "flat" stream of events, the document "tree"
is implicitly traversed and the desired elements are found regardless of their
@@ -75,14 +109,21 @@ given point) or to make use of the :func:`DOMEventStream.expandNode` method
and switch to DOM-related processing.
-.. class:: PullDom(documentFactory=None)
+.. class:: PullDOM(documentFactory=None)
- Subclass of :class:`xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler`.
+ Subclass of :class:`xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler` which turns SAX events
+ into the events of the pull parser.
+ The nodes are created, but they are not added to the tree,
+ unless :meth:`~DOMEventStream.expandNode` is called.
+ *documentFactory*, if given, is a DOM implementation used to create
+ the document; by default the implementation of :mod:`xml.dom.minidom`
+ is used.
.. class:: SAX2DOM(documentFactory=None)
- Subclass of :class:`xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler`.
+ Subclass of :class:`PullDOM` which also adds every created node
+ to the tree, so that the complete document is built.
.. function:: parse(stream_or_string, parser=None, bufsize=None)
@@ -98,7 +139,9 @@ If you have XML in a string, you can use the :func:`parseString` function instea
.. function:: parseString(string, parser=None)
- Return a :class:`DOMEventStream` that represents the (Unicode) *string*.
+ Return a :class:`DOMEventStream` that represents the *string*.
+ *string* must be a :class:`str` instance;
+ to parse bytes, pass a binary file object to :func:`parse`.
.. data:: default_bufsize
@@ -114,18 +157,21 @@ DOMEventStream Objects
.. class:: DOMEventStream(stream, parser, bufsize)
+ Produce the events for the data read from the file object *stream*
+ by the :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader` *parser*.
+ The data is read by *bufsize* bytes, or characters for a text stream,
+ at a time.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.11
Support for :meth:`~object.__getitem__` method has been removed.
.. method:: getEvent()
- Return a tuple containing *event* and the current *node* as
- :class:`xml.dom.minidom.Document` if event equals :data:`START_DOCUMENT`,
- :class:`xml.dom.minidom.Element` if event equals :data:`START_ELEMENT` or
- :data:`END_ELEMENT` or :class:`xml.dom.minidom.Text` if event equals
- :data:`CHARACTERS`.
+ Return the next ``(event, node)`` tuple,
+ or ``None`` at the end of the document.
+ See above for the events and the corresponding nodes.
The current node does not contain information about its children, unless
- :func:`expandNode` is called.
+ :meth:`expandNode` is called.
.. method:: expandNode(node)
@@ -143,4 +189,13 @@ DOMEventStream Objects
# Following statement prints node with all its children '<p>Some text <div>and more</div></p>'
print(node.toxml())
- .. method:: DOMEventStream.reset()
+ .. method:: reset()
+
+ Discard the events which are not read yet
+ and prepare the object for parsing a new document.
+
+
+ .. method:: clear()
+
+ Release the parser and the document.
+ The stream is not closed, and the object can no longer be used.
diff --git a/Doc/library/xml.dom.rst b/Doc/library/xml.dom.rst
index d0e1b248d595d13..3125a269536373f 100644
--- a/Doc/library/xml.dom.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/xml.dom.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`xml.dom` --- The Document Object Model API
-================================================
+:mod:`!xml.dom` --- The Document Object Model API
+=================================================
.. module:: xml.dom
:synopsis: Document Object Model API for Python.
@@ -34,14 +34,6 @@ The Document Object Model is being defined by the W3C in stages, or "levels" in
their terminology. The Python mapping of the API is substantially based on the
DOM Level 2 recommendation.
-.. What if your needs are somewhere between SAX and the DOM? Perhaps
- you cannot afford to load the entire tree in memory but you find the
- SAX model somewhat cumbersome and low-level. There is also a module
- called xml.dom.pulldom that allows you to build trees of only the
- parts of a document that you need structured access to. It also has
- features that allow you to find your way around the DOM.
- See http://www.prescod.net/python/pulldom
-
DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM. How this is
accomplished is not covered at all by DOM Level 1, and Level 2 provides only
limited improvements: There is a :class:`DOMImplementation` object class which
@@ -98,13 +90,15 @@ The :mod:`xml.dom` contains the following functions:
module name of a DOM implementation, or ``None``. If it is not ``None``, imports
the corresponding module and returns a :class:`DOMImplementation` object if the
import succeeds. If no name is given, and if the environment variable
- :envvar:`PYTHON_DOM` is set, this variable is used to find the implementation.
+ :envvar:`!PYTHON_DOM` is set, this variable is used to find the implementation.
+ The only well-known name in the standard library is ``'minidom'``,
+ for :mod:`xml.dom.minidom`.
If name is not given, this examines the available implementations to find one
with the required feature set. If no implementation can be found, raise an
:exc:`ImportError`. The features list must be a sequence of ``(feature,
- version)`` pairs which are passed to the :meth:`hasFeature` method on available
- :class:`DOMImplementation` objects.
+ version)`` pairs which are passed to the :meth:`~DOMImplementation.hasFeature`
+ method on available :class:`DOMImplementation` objects.
Some convenience constants are also provided:
@@ -112,8 +106,8 @@ Some convenience constants are also provided:
.. data:: EMPTY_NAMESPACE
The value used to indicate that no namespace is associated with a node in the
- DOM. This is typically found as the :attr:`namespaceURI` of a node, or used as
- the *namespaceURI* parameter to a namespaces-specific method.
+ DOM. This is typically found as the :attr:`~Node.namespaceURI` of a node, or
+ used as the *namespaceURI* parameter to a namespaces-specific method.
.. data:: XML_NAMESPACE
@@ -140,7 +134,7 @@ exception classes. The :class:`Node` class provided by this module does not
implement any of the methods or attributes defined by the DOM specification;
concrete DOM implementations must provide those. The :class:`Node` class
provided as part of this module does provide the constants used for the
-:attr:`nodeType` attribute on concrete :class:`Node` objects; they are located
+:attr:`~Node.nodeType` attribute on concrete :class:`Node` objects; they are located
within the class rather than at the module level to conform with the DOM
specifications.
@@ -154,6 +148,11 @@ Objects in the DOM
The definitive documentation for the DOM is the DOM specification from the W3C.
+The names documented in this section are DOM interfaces.
+With the exception of :class:`Node` and the exception classes,
+they are not provided by the :mod:`!xml.dom` module itself,
+but by concrete DOM implementations, such as :mod:`xml.dom.minidom`.
+
Note that DOM attributes may also be manipulated as nodes instead of as simple
strings. It is fairly rare that you must do this, however, so this usage is not
yet documented.
@@ -202,6 +201,9 @@ in Python.
DOMImplementation Objects
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+.. class:: DOMImplementation
+ :no-typesetting:
+
The :class:`DOMImplementation` interface provides a way for applications to
determine the availability of particular features in the DOM they are using.
DOM Level 2 added the ability to create new :class:`Document` and
@@ -236,19 +238,53 @@ DOM Level 2 added the ability to create new :class:`Document` and
Node Objects
^^^^^^^^^^^^
+.. class:: Node
+ :no-typesetting:
+
All of the components of an XML document are subclasses of :class:`Node`.
+Only nodes of the following types can have children,
+and only children of the listed types:
+
+:class:`Document`
+ at most one :class:`Element`, at most one :class:`DocumentType`,
+ :class:`ProcessingInstruction` and :class:`Comment`
+
+:class:`DocumentFragment` and :class:`Element`
+ :class:`Element`, :class:`Text`, :class:`CDATASection`,
+ :class:`ProcessingInstruction` and :class:`Comment`
+
+:class:`Attr`
+ :class:`Text`
+
+Nodes of other types cannot have children.
+Inserting a child of a not allowed type raises :exc:`HierarchyRequestErr`.
+
.. attribute:: Node.nodeType
An integer representing the node type. Symbolic constants for the types are on
- the :class:`Node` object: :const:`ELEMENT_NODE`, :const:`ATTRIBUTE_NODE`,
- :const:`TEXT_NODE`, :const:`CDATA_SECTION_NODE`, :const:`ENTITY_NODE`,
- :const:`PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE`, :const:`COMMENT_NODE`,
- :const:`DOCUMENT_NODE`, :const:`DOCUMENT_TYPE_NODE`, :const:`NOTATION_NODE`.
+ the :class:`Node` object.
This is a read-only attribute.
+.. data:: Node.ELEMENT_NODE
+ Node.ATTRIBUTE_NODE
+ Node.TEXT_NODE
+ Node.CDATA_SECTION_NODE
+ Node.ENTITY_REFERENCE_NODE
+ Node.ENTITY_NODE
+ Node.PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE
+ Node.COMMENT_NODE
+ Node.DOCUMENT_NODE
+ Node.DOCUMENT_TYPE_NODE
+ Node.DOCUMENT_FRAGMENT_NODE
+ Node.NOTATION_NODE
+
+ Integer constants for the possible values
+ of the :attr:`~Node.nodeType` attribute.
+
+
.. attribute:: Node.parentNode
The parent of the current node, or ``None`` for the document node. The value is
@@ -284,7 +320,9 @@ All of the components of an XML document are subclasses of :class:`Node`.
.. attribute:: Node.childNodes
- A list of nodes contained within this node. This is a read-only attribute.
+ A :class:`NodeList` of the children of this node.
+ If the node has no children, the list is empty.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
.. attribute:: Node.firstChild
@@ -301,14 +339,14 @@ All of the components of an XML document are subclasses of :class:`Node`.
.. attribute:: Node.localName
- The part of the :attr:`tagName` following the colon if there is one, else the
- entire :attr:`tagName`. The value is a string.
+ The part of the :attr:`~Element.tagName` following the colon if there is one,
+ else the entire :attr:`~Element.tagName`. The value is a string.
.. attribute:: Node.prefix
- The part of the :attr:`tagName` preceding the colon if there is one, else the
- empty string. The value is a string, or ``None``.
+ The part of the :attr:`~Element.tagName` preceding the colon if there is one,
+ else the empty string. The value is a string, or ``None``.
.. attribute:: Node.namespaceURI
@@ -317,21 +355,77 @@ All of the components of an XML document are subclasses of :class:`Node`.
``None``. This is a read-only attribute.
+.. attribute:: Node.ownerDocument
+
+ The :class:`Document` object to which this node belongs, or ``None``
+ for a document itself.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. method:: Node.isSupported(feature, version)
+
+ Return whether the DOM implementation supports a particular *feature*,
+ as :meth:`DOMImplementation.hasFeature` does.
+
+
+.. method:: Node.setUserData(key, data, handler)
+
+ Associate *data* with *key* on this node and return the data previously
+ associated with *key*, or ``None``.
+ If *data* is ``None``, the association is removed.
+ *handler* is called when the node is cloned, imported, renamed or deleted;
+ pass ``None`` if no notification is needed.
+
+
+.. method:: Node.getUserData(key)
+
+ Return the data associated with *key* on this node
+ by :meth:`~Node.setUserData`, or ``None``.
+
+
.. attribute:: Node.nodeName
- This has a different meaning for each node type; see the DOM specification for
- details. You can always get the information you would get here from another
- property such as the :attr:`tagName` property for elements or the :attr:`name`
- property for attributes. For all node types, the value of this attribute will be
- either a string or ``None``. This is a read-only attribute.
+ The name of this node, depending on its type; see the table below.
+ You can always get the information you would get here from another
+ property such as the :attr:`~Element.tagName` property for elements or the
+ :attr:`~Attr.name` property for attributes.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
.. attribute:: Node.nodeValue
- This has a different meaning for each node type; see the DOM specification for
- details. The situation is similar to that with :attr:`nodeName`. The value is
- a string or ``None``.
-
+ The value of this node, depending on its type; see the table below.
+ The value is a string or ``None``.
+
+
+The values of :attr:`~Node.nodeName` and :attr:`~Node.nodeValue`
+for each node type are:
+
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| Node type | nodeName | nodeValue |
++================================+=======================================+=====================================+
+| :class:`Attr` | :attr:`~Attr.name` | :attr:`~Attr.value` |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :class:`CDATASection` | ``'#cdata-section'`` | the content |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :class:`Comment` | ``'#comment'`` | the content |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :class:`Document` | ``'#document'`` | ``None`` |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :class:`DocumentFragment` | ``'#document-fragment'`` | ``None`` |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :class:`DocumentType` | :attr:`~DocumentType.name` | ``None`` |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :class:`Element` | :attr:`~Element.tagName` | ``None`` |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :class:`Entity` | the name of the entity | ``None`` |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :class:`Notation` | the name of the notation | ``None`` |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :class:`ProcessingInstruction` | :attr:`~ProcessingInstruction.target` | :attr:`~ProcessingInstruction.data` |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+| :class:`Text` | ``'#text'`` | the content |
++--------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
.. method:: Node.hasAttributes()
@@ -367,7 +461,7 @@ All of the components of an XML document are subclasses of :class:`Node`.
.. method:: Node.insertBefore(newChild, refChild)
Insert a new child node before an existing child. It must be the case that
- *refChild* is a child of this node; if not, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+ *refChild* is a child of this node; if not, :exc:`NotFoundErr` is raised.
*newChild* is returned. If *refChild* is ``None``, it inserts *newChild* at the
end of the children's list.
@@ -375,14 +469,15 @@ All of the components of an XML document are subclasses of :class:`Node`.
.. method:: Node.removeChild(oldChild)
Remove a child node. *oldChild* must be a child of this node; if not,
- :exc:`ValueError` is raised. *oldChild* is returned on success. If *oldChild*
- will not be used further, its :meth:`unlink` method should be called.
+ :exc:`NotFoundErr` is raised. *oldChild* is returned on success. If *oldChild*
+ will not be used further, its :meth:`~xml.dom.minidom.Node.unlink` method
+ should be called.
.. method:: Node.replaceChild(newChild, oldChild)
Replace an existing node with a new node. It must be the case that *oldChild*
- is a child of this node; if not, :exc:`ValueError` is raised.
+ is a child of this node; if not, :exc:`NotFoundErr` is raised.
.. method:: Node.normalize()
@@ -403,11 +498,16 @@ All of the components of an XML document are subclasses of :class:`Node`.
NodeList Objects
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+.. class:: NodeList
+ :no-typesetting:
+
A :class:`NodeList` represents a sequence of nodes. These objects are used in
two ways in the DOM Core recommendation: an :class:`Element` object provides
-one as its list of child nodes, and the :meth:`getElementsByTagName` and
-:meth:`getElementsByTagNameNS` methods of :class:`Node` return objects with this
-interface to represent query results.
+one as its list of child nodes, and the :meth:`~Element.getElementsByTagName`
+and :meth:`~Element.getElementsByTagNameNS` methods of :class:`Node` return
+objects with this interface to represent query results.
+
+:class:`NodeList` does *not* inherit from :class:`Node`.
The DOM Level 2 recommendation defines one method and one attribute for these
objects:
@@ -415,9 +515,9 @@ objects:
.. method:: NodeList.item(i)
- Return the *i*'th item from the sequence, if there is one, or ``None``. The
- index *i* is not allowed to be less than zero or greater than or equal to the
- length of the sequence.
+ Return the *i*'th item from the sequence,
+ or ``None`` if *i* is out of range.
+ Negative indices are not supported.
.. attribute:: NodeList.length
@@ -442,12 +542,15 @@ If a DOM implementation supports modification of the document, the
DocumentType Objects
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+.. class:: DocumentType
+ :no-typesetting:
+
Information about the notations and entities declared by a document (including
the external subset if the parser uses it and can provide the information) is
available from a :class:`DocumentType` object. The :class:`DocumentType` for a
-document is available from the :class:`Document` object's :attr:`doctype`
+document is available from the :class:`Document` object's :attr:`~Document.doctype`
attribute; if there is no ``DOCTYPE`` declaration for the document, the
-document's :attr:`doctype` attribute will be set to ``None`` instead of an
+document's :attr:`~Document.doctype` attribute will be set to ``None`` instead of an
instance of this interface.
:class:`DocumentType` is a specialization of :class:`Node`, and adds the
@@ -456,14 +559,14 @@ following attributes:
.. attribute:: DocumentType.publicId
- The public identifier for the external subset of the document type definition.
- This will be a string or ``None``.
+ The public identifier for the external subset of the document type definition,
+ or ``None`` if the ``DOCTYPE`` declaration does not specify it.
.. attribute:: DocumentType.systemId
- The system identifier for the external subset of the document type definition.
- This will be a URI as a string, or ``None``.
+ The system identifier, a URI, for the external subset of the document type
+ definition, or ``None`` if the ``DOCTYPE`` declaration does not specify it.
.. attribute:: DocumentType.internalSubset
@@ -481,7 +584,8 @@ following attributes:
.. attribute:: DocumentType.entities
- This is a :class:`NamedNodeMap` giving the definitions of external entities.
+ This is a :class:`NamedNodeMap` of :class:`Entity` nodes
+ giving the definitions of external entities.
For entity names defined more than once, only the first definition is provided
(others are ignored as required by the XML recommendation). This may be
``None`` if the information is not provided by the parser, or if no entities are
@@ -490,7 +594,8 @@ following attributes:
.. attribute:: DocumentType.notations
- This is a :class:`NamedNodeMap` giving the definitions of notations. For
+ This is a :class:`NamedNodeMap` of :class:`Notation` nodes
+ giving the definitions of notations. For
notation names defined more than once, only the first definition is provided
(others are ignored as required by the XML recommendation). This may be
``None`` if the information is not provided by the parser, or if no notations
@@ -502,6 +607,9 @@ following attributes:
Document Objects
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+.. class:: Document
+ :no-typesetting:
+
A :class:`Document` represents an entire XML document, including its constituent
elements, attributes, processing instructions, comments etc. Remember that it
inherits properties from :class:`Node`.
@@ -512,11 +620,50 @@ inherits properties from :class:`Node`.
The one and only root element of the document.
+.. attribute:: Document.doctype
+
+ The :class:`DocumentType` node of the document, or ``None``.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Document.implementation
+
+ The :class:`DOMImplementation` object which created this document.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Document.strictErrorChecking
+
+ Whether error checking is enforced.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Document.documentURI
+
+ The location of the document, or ``None`` if it is unknown.
+
+
+.. method:: Document.createDocumentFragment()
+
+ Create and return an empty :class:`DocumentFragment` node.
+
+
+.. method:: Document.createCDATASection(data)
+
+ Create and return a :class:`CDATASection` node containing *data*.
+
+
+.. method:: Document.importNode(importedNode, deep)
+
+ Return a copy of *importedNode* which belongs to this document.
+ The original node is not removed from its document.
+ If *deep* is true, the descendants of the node are copied too.
+
+
.. method:: Document.createElement(tagName)
Create and return a new element node. The element is not inserted into the
document when it is created. You need to explicitly insert it with one of the
- other methods such as :meth:`insertBefore` or :meth:`appendChild`.
+ other methods such as :meth:`~Node.insertBefore` or :meth:`~Node.appendChild`.
.. method:: Document.createElementNS(namespaceURI, tagName)
@@ -524,7 +671,7 @@ inherits properties from :class:`Node`.
Create and return a new element with a namespace. The *tagName* may have a
prefix. The element is not inserted into the document when it is created. You
need to explicitly insert it with one of the other methods such as
- :meth:`insertBefore` or :meth:`appendChild`.
+ :meth:`~Node.insertBefore` or :meth:`~Node.appendChild`.
.. method:: Document.createTextNode(data)
@@ -552,18 +699,25 @@ inherits properties from :class:`Node`.
Create and return an attribute node. This method does not associate the
attribute node with any particular element. You must use
- :meth:`setAttributeNode` on the appropriate :class:`Element` object to use the
- newly created attribute instance.
+ :meth:`~Element.setAttributeNode` on the appropriate :class:`Element` object
+ to use the newly created attribute instance.
.. method:: Document.createAttributeNS(namespaceURI, qualifiedName)
Create and return an attribute node with a namespace. The *tagName* may have a
prefix. This method does not associate the attribute node with any particular
- element. You must use :meth:`setAttributeNode` on the appropriate
+ element. You must use :meth:`~Element.setAttributeNode` on the appropriate
:class:`Element` object to use the newly created attribute instance.
+.. method:: Document.getElementById(id)
+
+ Return the element with the given ID, or ``None``.
+ Only attributes declared as being of type ID in the DTD
+ or by :meth:`Element.setIdAttribute` are searched.
+
+
.. method:: Document.getElementsByTagName(tagName)
Search for all descendants (direct children, children's children, etc.) with a
@@ -577,11 +731,26 @@ inherits properties from :class:`Node`.
namespace after the prefix.
+.. method:: Document.renameNode(n, namespaceURI, name)
+
+ Rename the element or attribute node *n*
+ and return it.
+ *namespaceURI* is the new namespace URI, or
+ :data:`~xml.dom.EMPTY_NAMESPACE` if the node does not belong to a namespace.
+ *name* is the new qualified name.
+
+ Raise :exc:`WrongDocumentErr` if *n* was created by another document,
+ and :exc:`NotSupportedErr` if it is neither an element nor an attribute.
+
+
.. _dom-element-objects:
Element Objects
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+.. class:: Element
+ :no-typesetting:
+
:class:`Element` is a subclass of :class:`Node`, so inherits all the attributes
of that class.
@@ -592,6 +761,25 @@ of that class.
The value is a string.
+.. method:: Element.setIdAttribute(name)
+
+ Declare that the attribute *name* is of type ID,
+ so that the element is found by :meth:`Document.getElementById`.
+ Raise :exc:`NotFoundErr` if the element has no such attribute.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.setIdAttributeNS(namespaceURI, localName)
+
+ The same as :meth:`~Element.setIdAttribute`,
+ but for an attribute specified by its namespace URI and local name.
+
+
+.. method:: Element.setIdAttributeNode(idAttr)
+
+ The same as :meth:`~Element.setIdAttribute`,
+ but for an already retrieved attribute node.
+
+
.. method:: Element.getElementsByTagName(tagName)
Same as equivalent method in the :class:`Document` class.
@@ -638,8 +826,7 @@ of that class.
.. method:: Element.removeAttribute(name)
- Remove an attribute by name. If there is no matching attribute, a
- :exc:`NotFoundErr` is raised.
+ Remove an attribute by name.
.. method:: Element.removeAttributeNode(oldAttr)
@@ -650,8 +837,7 @@ of that class.
.. method:: Element.removeAttributeNS(namespaceURI, localName)
- Remove an attribute by name. Note that it uses a localName, not a qname. No
- exception is raised if there is no matching attribute.
+ Remove an attribute by name. Note that it uses a localName, not a qname.
.. method:: Element.setAttribute(name, value)
@@ -662,17 +848,18 @@ of that class.
.. method:: Element.setAttributeNode(newAttr)
Add a new attribute node to the element, replacing an existing attribute if
- necessary if the :attr:`name` attribute matches. If a replacement occurs, the
- old attribute node will be returned. If *newAttr* is already in use,
+ necessary if the :attr:`~Attr.name` attribute matches. If a replacement
+ occurs, the old attribute node will be returned. If *newAttr* is already in use,
:exc:`InuseAttributeErr` will be raised.
.. method:: Element.setAttributeNodeNS(newAttr)
Add a new attribute node to the element, replacing an existing attribute if
- necessary if the :attr:`namespaceURI` and :attr:`localName` attributes match.
- If a replacement occurs, the old attribute node will be returned. If *newAttr*
- is already in use, :exc:`InuseAttributeErr` will be raised.
+ necessary if the :attr:`~Node.namespaceURI` and :attr:`~Attr.localName`
+ attributes match. If a replacement occurs, the old attribute node will be
+ returned. If *newAttr* is already in use, :exc:`InuseAttributeErr` will be
+ raised.
.. method:: Element.setAttributeNS(namespaceURI, qname, value)
@@ -686,8 +873,17 @@ of that class.
Attr Objects
^^^^^^^^^^^^
+.. class:: Attr
+ :no-typesetting:
+
:class:`Attr` inherits from :class:`Node`, so inherits all its attributes.
+Attribute nodes are not part of the document tree.
+They are contained in the :attr:`~Node.attributes` map of an element,
+not in its children,
+and their :attr:`~Node.parentNode`, :attr:`~Node.previousSibling`
+and :attr:`~Node.nextSibling` are always ``None``.
+
.. attribute:: Attr.name
@@ -708,10 +904,32 @@ Attr Objects
empty string.
+.. attribute:: Attr.isId
+
+ Whether this attribute is of type ID,
+ either because it is declared as such in the DTD
+ or because :meth:`Element.setIdAttribute` was used.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Attr.ownerElement
+
+ The :class:`Element` node to which this attribute belongs,
+ or ``None`` if it is not used.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Attr.specified
+
+ Whether the value of the attribute was explicitly set in the document,
+ as opposed to being defaulted from the DTD.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
.. attribute:: Attr.value
The text value of the attribute. This is a synonym for the
- :attr:`nodeValue` attribute.
+ :attr:`~Node.nodeValue` attribute.
.. _dom-attributelist-objects:
@@ -719,6 +937,9 @@ Attr Objects
NamedNodeMap Objects
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+.. class:: NamedNodeMap
+ :no-typesetting:
+
:class:`NamedNodeMap` does *not* inherit from :class:`Node`.
@@ -731,11 +952,115 @@ NamedNodeMap Objects
Return an attribute with a particular index. The order you get the attributes
in is arbitrary but will be consistent for the life of a DOM. Each item is an
- attribute node. Get its value with the :attr:`value` attribute.
+ attribute node. Get its value with the :attr:`~Attr.value` attribute.
+
+
+.. method:: NamedNodeMap.getNamedItem(name)
+
+ Return the node with the given :attr:`~Attr.name`,
+ or ``None`` if there is no such node.
+
+
+.. method:: NamedNodeMap.getNamedItemNS(namespaceURI, localName)
+
+ Return the node with the given namespace URI and local name,
+ or ``None`` if there is no such node.
-There are also experimental methods that give this class more mapping behavior.
-You can use them or you can use the standardized :meth:`!getAttribute\*` family
-of methods on the :class:`Element` objects.
+
+.. method:: NamedNodeMap.setNamedItem(node)
+
+ Add *node* to the map, using its :attr:`~Attr.name` as the key.
+ Return the node which it replaces, or ``None`` if it replaces no node.
+
+
+.. method:: NamedNodeMap.setNamedItemNS(node)
+
+ Add *node* to the map,
+ using its namespace URI and local name as the key.
+ Return the node which it replaces, or ``None`` if it replaces no node.
+
+
+.. method:: NamedNodeMap.removeNamedItem(name)
+
+ Remove and return the node with the given :attr:`~Attr.name`.
+ Raise :exc:`NotFoundErr` if there is no such node.
+
+
+.. method:: NamedNodeMap.removeNamedItemNS(namespaceURI, localName)
+
+ Remove and return the node with the given namespace URI and local name.
+ Raise :exc:`NotFoundErr` if there is no such node.
+
+You can also use the standardized :meth:`!getAttribute\*` family of methods
+on the :class:`Element` objects.
+
+
+.. _dom-documentfragment-objects:
+
+DocumentFragment Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: DocumentFragment
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+:class:`DocumentFragment` is a lightweight container of nodes.
+It is a subclass of :class:`Node`.
+When it is inserted into the document tree,
+its children are inserted instead of it,
+and it becomes empty.
+
+
+.. _dom-characterdata-objects:
+
+CharacterData Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: CharacterData
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+:class:`CharacterData` represents text-like data in the XML document.
+It is a subclass of :class:`Node`, and the base class
+of :class:`Text`, :class:`CDATASection` and :class:`Comment`.
+Such nodes cannot have child nodes.
+
+
+.. attribute:: CharacterData.data
+
+ The content of the node as a string.
+
+
+.. attribute:: CharacterData.length
+
+ The number of characters in :attr:`~CharacterData.data`.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. method:: CharacterData.substringData(offset, count)
+
+ Return the substring of :attr:`~CharacterData.data`
+ of *count* characters starting at *offset*.
+
+
+.. method:: CharacterData.appendData(arg)
+
+ Append the string *arg* to :attr:`~CharacterData.data`.
+
+
+.. method:: CharacterData.insertData(offset, arg)
+
+ Insert the string *arg* into :attr:`~CharacterData.data` at *offset*.
+
+
+.. method:: CharacterData.deleteData(offset, count)
+
+ Remove *count* characters from :attr:`~CharacterData.data`
+ starting at *offset*.
+
+
+.. method:: CharacterData.replaceData(offset, count, arg)
+
+ Replace *count* characters of :attr:`~CharacterData.data`
+ starting at *offset* with the string *arg*.
.. _dom-comment-objects:
@@ -743,8 +1068,11 @@ of methods on the :class:`Element` objects.
Comment Objects
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-:class:`Comment` represents a comment in the XML document. It is a subclass of
-:class:`Node`, but cannot have child nodes.
+.. class:: Comment
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+:class:`Comment` represents a comment in the XML document.
+It is a subclass of :class:`CharacterData`.
.. attribute:: Comment.data
@@ -759,20 +1087,47 @@ Comment Objects
Text and CDATASection Objects
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+.. class:: Text
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+.. class:: CDATASection
+ :no-typesetting:
+
The :class:`Text` interface represents text in the XML document. If the parser
and DOM implementation support the DOM's XML extension, portions of the text
enclosed in CDATA marked sections are stored in :class:`CDATASection` objects.
These two interfaces are identical, but provide different values for the
-:attr:`nodeType` attribute.
+:attr:`~Node.nodeType` attribute.
-These interfaces extend the :class:`Node` interface. They cannot have child
-nodes.
+:class:`Text` extends the :class:`CharacterData` interface,
+and :class:`CDATASection` extends :class:`Text`.
.. attribute:: Text.data
The content of the text node as a string.
+
+.. attribute:: Text.wholeText
+
+ The text of all :class:`Text` nodes logically adjacent to this node,
+ concatenated in document order.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. method:: Text.replaceWholeText(content)
+
+ Replace the text of all :class:`Text` nodes logically adjacent
+ to this node with *content*, removing the other nodes.
+ Return this node, or ``None`` if *content* is empty.
+
+
+.. method:: Text.splitText(offset)
+
+ Split this node into two nodes at *offset*,
+ keeping the first part in this node
+ and returning a new sibling node with the rest.
+
.. note::
The use of a :class:`CDATASection` node does not indicate that the node
@@ -787,6 +1142,9 @@ nodes.
ProcessingInstruction Objects
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+.. class:: ProcessingInstruction
+ :no-typesetting:
+
Represents a processing instruction in the XML document; this inherits from the
:class:`Node` interface and cannot have child nodes.
@@ -803,6 +1161,71 @@ Represents a processing instruction in the XML document; this inherits from the
character.
+.. _dom-entity-objects:
+
+Entity Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Entity
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+:class:`Entity` represents a parsed or unparsed entity declared in the DTD.
+It is a subclass of :class:`Node`.
+Entity nodes are contained in :attr:`DocumentType.entities`
+and cannot be inserted into the document tree.
+The name of the entity is its :attr:`~Node.nodeName`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Entity.publicId
+
+ The public identifier of the entity,
+ or ``None`` if it is not specified.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Entity.systemId
+
+ The system identifier of the entity,
+ or ``None`` if it is not specified.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Entity.notationName
+
+ The name of the notation for an unparsed entity,
+ or ``None`` for a parsed entity.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. _dom-notation-objects:
+
+Notation Objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+.. class:: Notation
+ :no-typesetting:
+
+:class:`Notation` represents a notation declared in the DTD.
+It is a subclass of :class:`Node` and cannot have child nodes.
+Notation nodes are contained in :attr:`DocumentType.notations`
+and cannot be inserted into the document tree.
+The name of the notation is its :attr:`~Node.nodeName`.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Notation.publicId
+
+ The public identifier of the notation,
+ or ``None`` if it is not specified.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
+.. attribute:: Notation.systemId
+
+ The system identifier of the notation,
+ or ``None`` if it is not specified.
+ This is a read-only attribute.
+
+
.. _dom-exceptions:
Exceptions
@@ -915,48 +1338,59 @@ attribute.
.. XXX how is this different from InvalidCharacterErr?
+.. exception:: ValidationErr
+
+ Raised when an operation would make the document invalid
+ with respect to partial validity.
+ This is not known to be used in the Python DOM implementations,
+ but may be received from DOM implementations not written in Python.
+
+
.. exception:: WrongDocumentErr
Raised when a node is inserted in a different document than it currently belongs
to, and the implementation does not support migrating the node from one document
to the other.
+
The exception codes defined in the DOM recommendation map to the exceptions
described above according to this table:
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| Constant | Exception |
-+======================================+=================================+
-| :const:`DOMSTRING_SIZE_ERR` | :exc:`DomstringSizeErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| :const:`HIERARCHY_REQUEST_ERR` | :exc:`HierarchyRequestErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| :const:`INDEX_SIZE_ERR` | :exc:`IndexSizeErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| :const:`INUSE_ATTRIBUTE_ERR` | :exc:`InuseAttributeErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| :const:`INVALID_ACCESS_ERR` | :exc:`InvalidAccessErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| :const:`INVALID_CHARACTER_ERR` | :exc:`InvalidCharacterErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| :const:`INVALID_MODIFICATION_ERR` | :exc:`InvalidModificationErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| :const:`INVALID_STATE_ERR` | :exc:`InvalidStateErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| :const:`NAMESPACE_ERR` | :exc:`NamespaceErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| :const:`NOT_FOUND_ERR` | :exc:`NotFoundErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| :const:`NOT_SUPPORTED_ERR` | :exc:`NotSupportedErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| :const:`NO_DATA_ALLOWED_ERR` | :exc:`NoDataAllowedErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| :const:`NO_MODIFICATION_ALLOWED_ERR` | :exc:`NoModificationAllowedErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| :const:`SYNTAX_ERR` | :exc:`SyntaxErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
-| :const:`WRONG_DOCUMENT_ERR` | :exc:`WrongDocumentErr` |
-+--------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| Constant | Exception |
++=======================================+=================================+
+| .. data:: DOMSTRING_SIZE_ERR | :exc:`DomstringSizeErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: HIERARCHY_REQUEST_ERR | :exc:`HierarchyRequestErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: INDEX_SIZE_ERR | :exc:`IndexSizeErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: INUSE_ATTRIBUTE_ERR | :exc:`InuseAttributeErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: INVALID_ACCESS_ERR | :exc:`InvalidAccessErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: INVALID_CHARACTER_ERR | :exc:`InvalidCharacterErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: INVALID_MODIFICATION_ERR | :exc:`InvalidModificationErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: INVALID_STATE_ERR | :exc:`InvalidStateErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: NAMESPACE_ERR | :exc:`NamespaceErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: NOT_FOUND_ERR | :exc:`NotFoundErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: NOT_SUPPORTED_ERR | :exc:`NotSupportedErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: NO_DATA_ALLOWED_ERR | :exc:`NoDataAllowedErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: NO_MODIFICATION_ALLOWED_ERR | :exc:`NoModificationAllowedErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: SYNTAX_ERR | :exc:`SyntaxErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: VALIDATION_ERR | :exc:`ValidationErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
+| .. data:: WRONG_DOCUMENT_ERR | :exc:`WrongDocumentErr` |
++---------------------------------------+---------------------------------+
.. _dom-conformance:
@@ -1005,9 +1439,9 @@ Mapping the IDL declarations ::
readonly attribute string someValue;
attribute string anotherValue;
-yields three accessor functions: a "get" method for :attr:`someValue`
-(:meth:`_get_someValue`), and "get" and "set" methods for :attr:`anotherValue`
-(:meth:`_get_anotherValue` and :meth:`_set_anotherValue`). The mapping, in
+yields three accessor functions: a "get" method for :attr:`!someValue`
+(:meth:`!_get_someValue`), and "get" and "set" methods for :attr:`!anotherValue`
+(:meth:`!_get_anotherValue` and :meth:`!_set_anotherValue`). The mapping, in
particular, does not require that the IDL attributes are accessible as normal
Python attributes: ``object.someValue`` is *not* required to work, and may
raise an :exc:`AttributeError`.
@@ -1028,6 +1462,6 @@ considered unnecessary since the attributes are accessible directly from Python.
The IDL definitions do not fully embody the requirements of the W3C DOM API,
such as the notion of certain objects, such as the return value of
-:meth:`getElementsByTagName`, being "live". The Python DOM API does not require
-implementations to enforce such requirements.
+:meth:`~Element.getElementsByTagName`, being "live". The Python DOM API does
+not require implementations to enforce such requirements.
diff --git a/Doc/library/xml.etree.elementtree.rst b/Doc/library/xml.etree.elementtree.rst
index 30a7b653f940e97..63a9e1e41705932 100644
--- a/Doc/library/xml.etree.elementtree.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/xml.etree.elementtree.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` --- The ElementTree XML API
-========================================================
+:mod:`!xml.etree.ElementTree` --- The ElementTree XML API
+=========================================================
.. module:: xml.etree.ElementTree
:synopsis: Implementation of the ElementTree API.
@@ -17,14 +17,13 @@ for parsing and creating XML data.
This module will use a fast implementation whenever available.
.. deprecated:: 3.3
- The :mod:`!xml.etree.cElementTree` module is deprecated.
+ The :mod:`!xml.etree.cElementTree` alias of this module is deprecated.
-.. warning::
+.. note::
- The :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` module is not secure against
- maliciously constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or
- unauthenticated data see :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities`.
+ If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see
+ :ref:`xml-security`.
Tutorial
--------
@@ -163,8 +162,37 @@ some storage device. In such cases, blocking reads are unacceptable.
Because it's so flexible, :class:`XMLPullParser` can be inconvenient to use for
simpler use-cases. If you don't mind your application blocking on reading XML
data but would still like to have incremental parsing capabilities, take a look
-at :func:`iterparse`. It can be useful when you're reading a large XML document
-and don't want to hold it wholly in memory.
+at :func:`iterparse`.
+
+Note that both parsers build the tree incrementally: it is not freed
+incrementally, so every parsed element is kept until the whole document is
+read. To keep the memory usage low, get rid of the data which is not needed
+any more.
+
+If the processed elements are large, it is enough to clear them.
+This works wherever they are in the tree,
+but the emptied elements are left in it::
+
+ for event, elem in ET.iterparse(source):
+ if elem.tag == 'record':
+ process(elem)
+ elem.clear()
+
+If an element has a large number of children,
+remove the processed children from it::
+
+ for event, elem in ET.iterparse(source, events=('start', 'end')):
+ if event == 'start' and elem.tag == 'parent':
+ parent = elem
+ elif event == 'end' and elem.tag == 'child':
+ process(elem)
+ parent.remove(elem)
+
+These examples are not universal,
+they only give an idea for two common cases.
+If you do not need a tree at all,
+parse with :class:`XMLParser` and a custom target instead;
+it is not built then, and nothing has to be removed.
Where *immediate* feedback through events is wanted, calling method
:meth:`XMLPullParser.flush` can help reduce delay;
@@ -508,7 +536,7 @@ Functions
`C14N 2.0 <https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/>`_ transformation function.
Canonicalization is a way to normalise XML output in a way that allows
- byte-by-byte comparisons and digital signatures. It reduced the freedom
+ byte-by-byte comparisons and digital signatures. It reduces the freedom
that XML serializers have and instead generates a more constrained XML
representation. The main restrictions regard the placement of namespace
declarations, the ordering of attributes, and ignorable whitespace.
@@ -554,10 +582,9 @@ Functions
.. function:: Comment(text=None)
Comment element factory. This factory function creates a special element
- that will be serialized as an XML comment by the standard serializer. The
- comment string can be either a bytestring or a Unicode string. *text* is a
- string containing the comment string. Returns an element instance
- representing a comment.
+ that will be serialized as an XML comment by the standard serializer.
+ *text* is a string containing the comment string.
+ Returns an element instance representing a comment.
Note that :class:`XMLParser` skips over comments in the input
instead of creating comment objects for them. An :class:`ElementTree` will
@@ -624,10 +651,11 @@ Functions
``"pi"``, ``"start-ns"`` and ``"end-ns"``
(the "ns" events are used to get detailed namespace
information). If *events* is omitted, only ``"end"`` events are reported.
- *parser* is an optional parser instance. If not given, the standard
- :class:`XMLParser` parser is used. *parser* must be a subclass of
- :class:`XMLParser` and can only use the default :class:`TreeBuilder` as a
- target. Returns an :term:`iterator` providing ``(event, elem)`` pairs;
+ *parser* is an optional parser instance.
+ If not given, the standard :class:`XMLParser` parser is used.
+ *parser* must be an instance of :class:`XMLParser` or its subclass
+ and can only use the default :class:`TreeBuilder` as a target.
+ Returns an :term:`iterator` providing ``(event, elem)`` pairs;
it has a ``root`` attribute that references the root element of the
resulting XML tree once *source* is fully read.
The iterator has the :meth:`!close` method that closes the internal
@@ -638,6 +666,10 @@ Functions
for applications where blocking reads can't be made. For fully non-blocking
parsing, see :class:`XMLPullParser`.
+ The tree is only built incrementally, it is not freed incrementally:
+ every parsed element is kept until the whole document is read.
+ See :ref:`elementtree-pull-parsing` for how to keep the memory usage low.
+
.. note::
:func:`iterparse` only guarantees that it has seen the ">" character of a
@@ -695,8 +727,7 @@ Functions
Subelement factory. This function creates an element instance, and appends
it to an existing element.
- The element name, attribute names, and attribute values can be either
- bytestrings or Unicode strings. *parent* is the parent element. *tag* is
+ *parent* is the parent element. *tag* is
the subelement name. *attrib* is an optional dictionary, containing element
attributes. *extra* contains additional attributes, given as keyword
arguments. Returns an element instance.
@@ -874,17 +905,28 @@ Element Objects
.. module:: xml.etree.ElementTree
:noindex:
+ :no-index:
.. class:: Element(tag, attrib={}, **extra)
Element class. This class defines the Element interface, and provides a
reference implementation of this interface.
- The element name, attribute names, and attribute values can be either
- bytestrings or Unicode strings. *tag* is the element name. *attrib* is
+ *tag* is the element name. *attrib* is
an optional dictionary, containing element attributes. *extra* contains
additional attributes, given as keyword arguments.
+ The element name and the attribute names and values are strings or
+ :class:`QName` instances, and the text and the tail are strings or
+ ``None``.
+ The element name can also be :func:`Comment` or
+ :func:`ProcessingInstruction`, which are used for special elements.
+ If it is ``None``, the element itself is not serialized: only its text
+ and its children are written, and its attributes are ignored.
+ This can be used for a fragment which contains several elements.
+ With ``method="html"`` the attribute value can also be ``None``,
+ which produces an empty attribute (such as ``checked``).
+ Other objects can be stored in the tree, but they cannot be serialized.
.. attribute:: tag
@@ -944,14 +986,12 @@ Element Objects
.. method:: items()
- Returns the element attributes as a sequence of (name, value) pairs. The
- attributes are returned in an arbitrary order.
+ Returns the element attributes as (name, value) pairs.
.. method:: keys()
- Returns the elements attribute names as a list. The names are returned
- in an arbitrary order.
+ Returns the element attribute names.
.. method:: set(key, value)
@@ -970,7 +1010,7 @@ Element Objects
.. method:: extend(subelements)
- Appends *subelements* from a sequence object with zero or more elements.
+ Appends *subelements* from an iterable of elements.
Raises :exc:`TypeError` if a subelement is not an :class:`Element`.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
@@ -1058,9 +1098,10 @@ Element Objects
:meth:`~object.__getitem__`, :meth:`~object.__setitem__`,
:meth:`~object.__len__`.
- Caution: Elements with no subelements will test as ``False``. Testing the
- truth value of an Element is deprecated and will raise an exception in
- Python 3.14. Use specific ``len(elem)`` or ``elem is None`` test instead.::
+ Caution: Elements with no subelements will test as ``False``. In a future
+ release of Python, all elements will test as ``True`` regardless of whether
+ subelements exist. Instead, prefer explicit ``len(elem)`` or
+ ``elem is not None`` tests.::
element = root.find('foo')
@@ -1281,8 +1322,7 @@ TreeBuilder Objects
.. method:: data(data)
- Adds text to the current element. *data* is a string. This should be
- either a bytestring, or a Unicode string.
+ Adds text to the current element. *data* is a string.
.. method:: end(tag)
@@ -1373,7 +1413,7 @@ XMLParser Objects
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
Parameters are now :ref:`keyword-only <keyword-only_parameter>`.
- The *html* argument no longer supported.
+ The *html* argument is no longer supported.
.. method:: close()
@@ -1385,7 +1425,8 @@ XMLParser Objects
.. method:: feed(data)
- Feeds data to the parser. *data* is encoded data.
+ Feeds data to the parser. *data* is a string
+ or encoded data (:class:`bytes` or a :term:`bytes-like object`).
.. method:: flush()
@@ -1464,7 +1505,8 @@ XMLPullParser Objects
.. method:: feed(data)
- Feed the given bytes data to the parser.
+ Feed the given data to the parser. *data* is a string
+ or encoded data (:class:`bytes` or a :term:`bytes-like object`).
.. method:: flush()
diff --git a/Doc/library/xml.rst b/Doc/library/xml.rst
index d495995398959df..acd8d399fe32fcd 100644
--- a/Doc/library/xml.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/xml.rst
@@ -15,12 +15,10 @@ XML Processing Modules
Python's interfaces for processing XML are grouped in the ``xml`` package.
-.. warning::
+.. note::
- The XML modules are not secure against erroneous or maliciously
- constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or
- unauthenticated data see the :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities` and
- :ref:`defusedxml-package` sections.
+ If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see
+ :ref:`xml-security`.
It is important to note that modules in the :mod:`xml` package require that
there be at least one SAX-compliant XML parser available. The Expat parser is
@@ -47,46 +45,33 @@ The XML handling submodules are:
* :mod:`xml.parsers.expat`: the Expat parser binding
+.. _xml-security:
.. _xml-vulnerabilities:
-XML vulnerabilities
--------------------
+XML security
+------------
-The XML processing modules are not secure against maliciously constructed data.
An attacker can abuse XML features to carry out denial of service attacks,
access local files, generate network connections to other machines, or
-circumvent firewalls.
-
-The following table gives an overview of the known attacks and whether
-the various modules are vulnerable to them.
-
-========================= ================== ================== ================== ================== ==================
-kind sax etree minidom pulldom xmlrpc
-========================= ================== ================== ================== ================== ==================
-billion laughs **Vulnerable** (1) **Vulnerable** (1) **Vulnerable** (1) **Vulnerable** (1) **Vulnerable** (1)
-quadratic blowup **Vulnerable** (1) **Vulnerable** (1) **Vulnerable** (1) **Vulnerable** (1) **Vulnerable** (1)
-external entity expansion Safe (5) Safe (2) Safe (3) Safe (5) Safe (4)
-`DTD`_ retrieval Safe (5) Safe Safe Safe (5) Safe
-decompression bomb Safe Safe Safe Safe **Vulnerable**
-large tokens **Vulnerable** (6) **Vulnerable** (6) **Vulnerable** (6) **Vulnerable** (6) **Vulnerable** (6)
-========================= ================== ================== ================== ================== ==================
-
-1. Expat 2.4.1 and newer is not vulnerable to the "billion laughs" and
- "quadratic blowup" vulnerabilities. Items still listed as vulnerable due to
- potential reliance on system-provided libraries. Check
- :const:`!pyexpat.EXPAT_VERSION`.
-2. :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree` doesn't expand external entities and raises a
- :exc:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError` when an entity occurs.
-3. :mod:`xml.dom.minidom` doesn't expand external entities and simply returns
- the unexpanded entity verbatim.
-4. :mod:`xmlrpc.client` doesn't expand external entities and omits them.
-5. Since Python 3.7.1, external general entities are no longer processed by
- default.
-6. Expat 2.6.0 and newer is not vulnerable to denial of service
- through quadratic runtime caused by parsing large tokens.
- Items still listed as vulnerable due to
- potential reliance on system-provided libraries. Check
- :const:`!pyexpat.EXPAT_VERSION`.
+circumvent firewalls when attacker-controlled XML is being parsed,
+in Python or elsewhere.
+
+The built-in XML parsers of Python rely on the library `libexpat`_, commonly
+called Expat, for parsing XML.
+
+By default, Expat itself does not access local files or create network
+connections.
+
+Expat versions lower than 2.7.2 may be vulnerable to the "billion laughs",
+"quadratic blowup" and "large tokens" vulnerabilities, or to disproportional
+use of dynamic memory.
+Python bundles a copy of Expat, and whether Python uses the bundled or a
+system-wide Expat, depends on how the Python interpreter
+:option:`has been configured <--with-system-expat>` in your environment.
+Python may be vulnerable if it uses such older versions of Expat.
+Check :const:`!pyexpat.EXPAT_VERSION`.
+
+:mod:`xmlrpc` is **vulnerable** to the "decompression bomb" attack.
billion laughs / exponential entity expansion
@@ -103,16 +88,6 @@ quadratic blowup entity expansion
efficient as the exponential case but it avoids triggering parser countermeasures
that forbid deeply nested entities.
-external entity expansion
- Entity declarations can contain more than just text for replacement. They can
- also point to external resources or local files. The XML
- parser accesses the resource and embeds the content into the XML document.
-
-`DTD`_ retrieval
- Some XML libraries like Python's :mod:`xml.dom.pulldom` retrieve document type
- definitions from remote or local locations. The feature has similar
- implications as the external entity expansion issue.
-
decompression bomb
Decompression bombs (aka `ZIP bomb`_) apply to all XML libraries
that can parse compressed XML streams such as gzipped HTTP streams or
@@ -126,21 +101,6 @@ large tokens
be used to cause denial of service in the application parsing XML.
The issue is known as :cve:`2023-52425`.
-The documentation for :pypi:`defusedxml` on PyPI has further information about
-all known attack vectors with examples and references.
-
-.. _defusedxml-package:
-
-The :mod:`!defusedxml` Package
-------------------------------
-
-:pypi:`defusedxml` is a pure Python package with modified subclasses of all stdlib
-XML parsers that prevent any potentially malicious operation. Use of this
-package is recommended for any server code that parses untrusted XML data. The
-package also ships with example exploits and extended documentation on more
-XML exploits such as XPath injection.
-
-
+.. _libexpat: https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat
.. _Billion Laughs: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs
.. _ZIP bomb: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb
-.. _DTD: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_type_definition
diff --git a/Doc/library/xml.sax.handler.rst b/Doc/library/xml.sax.handler.rst
index e2f28e3244cb096..f4ff72dde3be092 100644
--- a/Doc/library/xml.sax.handler.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/xml.sax.handler.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`xml.sax.handler` --- Base classes for SAX handlers
-========================================================
+:mod:`!xml.sax.handler` --- Base classes for SAX handlers
+=========================================================
.. module:: xml.sax.handler
:synopsis: Base classes for SAX event handlers.
@@ -75,12 +75,15 @@ for the feature and property names.
optionally do not report original prefixed names (default).
| access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write
+ The parser based on :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` does not support this feature.
+
.. data:: feature_string_interning
| value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/features/string-interning"``
| true: All element names, prefixes, attribute names, Namespace URIs, and
- local names are interned using the built-in intern function.
+ local names are interned in a dictionary
+ (see :data:`property_interning_dict`).
| false: Names are not necessarily interned, although they may be (default).
| access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write
@@ -93,9 +96,20 @@ for the feature and property names.
| false: Do not report validation errors.
| access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write
+ The parser based on :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` does not support this feature,
+ because Expat is a non-validating parser.
+
.. data:: feature_external_ges
+ .. warning::
+
+ Enabling opens a vulnerability to
+ `external entity attacks <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_external_entity_attack>`_
+ if the parser is used with user-provided XML content.
+ Please reflect on your `threat model <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threat_model>`_
+ before enabling this feature.
+
| value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-general-entities"``
| true: Include all external general (text) entities.
| false: Do not include external general entities.
@@ -111,6 +125,8 @@ for the feature and property names.
DTD subset.
| access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write
+ The parser based on :mod:`xml.parsers.expat` does not support this feature.
+
.. data:: all_features
@@ -120,7 +136,7 @@ for the feature and property names.
.. data:: property_lexical_handler
| value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler"``
- | data type: xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler (not supported in Python 2)
+ | data type: :class:`~xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler`
| description: An optional extension handler for lexical events like
comments.
| access: read/write
@@ -129,20 +145,25 @@ for the feature and property names.
.. data:: property_declaration_handler
| value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/properties/declaration-handler"``
- | data type: xml.sax.sax2lib.DeclHandler (not supported in Python 2)
+ | data type: an object implementing the SAX2 ``DeclHandler`` interface
| description: An optional extension handler for DTD-related events other
than notations and unparsed entities.
| access: read/write
+ No parser in the standard library supports this property,
+ and the standard library provides no such handler.
+
.. data:: property_dom_node
| value: ``"http://xml.org/sax/properties/dom-node"``
- | data type: org.w3c.dom.Node (not supported in Python 2)
+ | data type: :class:`xml.dom.Node`
| description: When parsing, the current DOM node being visited if this is
a DOM iterator; when not parsing, the root DOM node for iteration.
| access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write
+ No parser in the standard library supports this property.
+
.. data:: property_xml_string
@@ -150,7 +171,28 @@ for the feature and property names.
| data type: Bytes
| description: The literal string of characters that was the source for the
current event.
- | access: read-only
+ | access: read-only, and only during a handler callback
+
+
+.. data:: property_encoding
+
+ | value: ``"http://www.python.org/sax/properties/encoding"``
+ | data type: String
+ | description: The name of the encoding to assume for input data.
+ | access: read/write
+
+ No parser in the standard library supports this property.
+
+
+.. data:: property_interning_dict
+
+ | value: ``"http://www.python.org/sax/properties/interning-dict"``
+ | data type: Dictionary
+ | description: The dictionary used to intern names,
+ or ``None`` if names are not interned.
+ Setting it enables interning, as does the
+ :data:`feature_string_interning` feature.
+ | access: read/write
.. data:: all_properties
@@ -248,8 +290,7 @@ events in the input document:
The *name* parameter contains the raw XML 1.0 name of the element type as a
string and the *attrs* parameter holds an object of the
- :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes`
- interface (see :ref:`attributes-objects`) containing the attributes of
+ :ref:`Attributes <attributes-objects>` interface containing the attributes of
the element. The object passed as *attrs* may be re-used by the parser; holding
on to a reference to it is not a reliable way to keep a copy of the attributes.
To keep a copy of the attributes, use the :meth:`copy` method of the *attrs*
@@ -271,8 +312,7 @@ events in the input document:
The *name* parameter contains the name of the element type as a ``(uri,
localname)`` tuple, the *qname* parameter contains the raw XML 1.0 name used in
the source document, and the *attrs* parameter holds an instance of the
- :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS` interface (see
- :ref:`attributes-ns-objects`)
+ :ref:`AttributesNS <attributes-ns-objects>` interface
containing the attributes of the element. If no namespace is associated with
the element, the *uri* component of *name* will be ``None``. The object passed
as *attrs* may be re-used by the parser; holding on to a reference to it is not
diff --git a/Doc/library/xml.sax.reader.rst b/Doc/library/xml.sax.reader.rst
index 113e9e93fb04ff4..5b6ee5ec4748fbe 100644
--- a/Doc/library/xml.sax.reader.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/xml.sax.reader.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`xml.sax.xmlreader` --- Interface for XML parsers
-======================================================
+:mod:`!xml.sax.xmlreader` --- Interface for XML parsers
+=======================================================
.. module:: xml.sax.xmlreader
:synopsis: Interface which SAX-compliant XML parsers must implement.
@@ -219,6 +219,15 @@ Instances of :class:`IncrementalParser` offer the following additional methods:
allocated during parsing.
+.. method:: IncrementalParser.prepareParser(source)
+
+ Prepare the parser for parsing *source*, an
+ :class:`InputSource` instance.
+ It is called by :meth:`~XMLReader.parse` before feeding the data.
+ The parser implementation must override this method;
+ the default implementation raises :exc:`NotImplementedError`.
+
+
.. method:: IncrementalParser.reset()
This method is called after close has been called to reset the parser so that it
diff --git a/Doc/library/xml.sax.rst b/Doc/library/xml.sax.rst
index 6d351dfb4d70722..46ce9c5edda9129 100644
--- a/Doc/library/xml.sax.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/xml.sax.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`xml.sax` --- Support for SAX2 parsers
-===========================================
+:mod:`!xml.sax` --- Support for SAX2 parsers
+============================================
.. module:: xml.sax
:synopsis: Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions.
@@ -18,11 +18,10 @@ SAX exceptions and the convenience functions which will be most used by users of
the SAX API.
-.. warning::
+.. note::
- The :mod:`xml.sax` module is not secure against maliciously
- constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data see
- :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities`.
+ If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see
+ :ref:`xml-security`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.7.1
@@ -33,10 +32,10 @@ the SAX API.
:meth:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader.setFeature` on the parser object
and argument :data:`~xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges`.
-The convenience functions are:
+The convenience functions and data are:
-.. function:: make_parser(parser_list=[])
+.. function:: make_parser(parser_list=())
Create and return a SAX :class:`~xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader` object. The
first parser found will
@@ -48,18 +47,23 @@ The convenience functions are:
The *parser_list* argument can be any iterable, not just a list.
-.. function:: parse(filename_or_stream, handler, error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())
+.. function:: parse(filename_or_stream, handler, errorHandler=handler.ErrorHandler())
Create a SAX parser and use it to parse a document. The document, passed in as
- *filename_or_stream*, can be a filename or a file object. The *handler*
+ *filename_or_stream*, can be a system identifier (a string identifying the
+ input source -- typically a file name or a URL),
+ a :term:`path-like <path-like object>` object, or a file object.
+ A system identifier which does not refer to an existing file
+ is opened with :func:`urllib.request.urlopen`.
+ The *handler*
parameter needs to be a SAX :class:`~handler.ContentHandler` instance. If
- *error_handler* is given, it must be a SAX :class:`~handler.ErrorHandler`
+ *errorHandler* is given, it must be a SAX :class:`~handler.ErrorHandler`
instance; if
omitted, :exc:`SAXParseException` will be raised on all errors. There is no
return value; all work must be done by the *handler* passed in.
-.. function:: parseString(string, handler, error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())
+.. function:: parseString(string, handler, errorHandler=handler.ErrorHandler())
Similar to :func:`parse`, but parses from a buffer *string* received as a
parameter. *string* must be a :class:`str` instance or a
@@ -68,6 +72,15 @@ The convenience functions are:
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
Added support of :class:`str` instances.
+
+.. data:: default_parser_list
+
+ The list of the names of modules which are tried by :func:`make_parser`
+ after the modules named in its *parser_list* argument.
+ It contains ``'xml.sax.expatreader'``, or, if the
+ :envvar:`!PY_SAX_PARSER` environment variable is set and the environment
+ is not ignored, the comma-separated list of module names taken from it.
+
A typical SAX application uses three kinds of objects: readers, handlers and
input sources. "Reader" in this context is another term for parser, i.e. some
piece of code that reads the bytes or characters from the input source, and
@@ -140,6 +153,14 @@ classes.
class for similar purposes.
+.. exception:: SAXReaderNotAvailable(msg, exception=None)
+
+ Subclass of :exc:`SAXNotSupportedException` raised when no parser is
+ available. A parser module raises it when it is imported or during
+ parsing if the parser it provides cannot be used, and :func:`make_parser`
+ raises it if no module from the tried ones provides a usable parser.
+
+
.. seealso::
`SAX: The Simple API for XML <http://www.saxproject.org/>`_
diff --git a/Doc/library/xml.sax.utils.rst b/Doc/library/xml.sax.utils.rst
index 3a524c9c0d5a9fd..1ffb8fb8930831d 100644
--- a/Doc/library/xml.sax.utils.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/xml.sax.utils.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`xml.sax.saxutils` --- SAX Utilities
-=========================================
+:mod:`!xml.sax.saxutils` --- SAX Utilities
+==========================================
.. module:: xml.sax.saxutils
:synopsis: Convenience functions and classes for use with SAX.
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ or as base classes.
You can unescape other strings of data by passing a dictionary as the optional
*entities* parameter. The keys and values must all be strings; each key will be
- replaced with its corresponding value. ``'&'``, ``'<'``, and ``'>'``
+ replaced with its corresponding value. ``'&'``, ``'<'``, and ``'>'``
are always unescaped, even if *entities* is provided.
@@ -84,6 +84,15 @@ or as base classes.
override specific methods to modify the event stream or the configuration
requests as they pass through.
+ .. method:: getParent()
+
+ Return the parent reader, or ``None`` if it is not set.
+
+
+ .. method:: setParent(parent)
+
+ Set the parent reader, which the events are read from.
+
.. function:: prepare_input_source(source, base='')
diff --git a/Doc/library/xmlrpc.client.rst b/Doc/library/xmlrpc.client.rst
index f7f23007fb0522b..f51682bdbbf6b7e 100644
--- a/Doc/library/xmlrpc.client.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/xmlrpc.client.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`xmlrpc.client` --- XML-RPC client access
-==============================================
+:mod:`!xmlrpc.client` --- XML-RPC client access
+===============================================
.. module:: xmlrpc.client
:synopsis: XML-RPC client access.
@@ -24,8 +24,8 @@ between conformable Python objects and XML on the wire.
.. warning::
The :mod:`xmlrpc.client` module is not secure against maliciously
- constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data see
- :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities`.
+ constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data,
+ see :ref:`xml-security`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
@@ -61,23 +61,23 @@ between conformable Python objects and XML on the wire.
The *headers* parameter is an optional sequence of HTTP headers to send with
each request, expressed as a sequence of 2-tuples representing the header
name and value. (e.g. ``[('Header-Name', 'value')]``).
+ If an HTTPS URL is provided, *context* may be :class:`ssl.SSLContext`
+ and configures the SSL settings of the underlying HTTPS connection.
The obsolete *use_datetime* flag is similar to *use_builtin_types* but it
applies only to date/time values.
-.. versionchanged:: 3.3
- The *use_builtin_types* flag was added.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.3
+ The *use_builtin_types* flag was added.
-.. versionchanged:: 3.8
- The *headers* parameter was added.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.8
+ The *headers* parameter was added.
Both the HTTP and HTTPS transports support the URL syntax extension for HTTP
Basic Authentication: ``http://user:pass@host:port/path``. The ``user:pass``
portion will be base64-encoded as an HTTP 'Authorization' header, and sent to
the remote server as part of the connection process when invoking an XML-RPC
method. You only need to use this if the remote server requires a Basic
- Authentication user and password. If an HTTPS URL is provided, *context* may
- be :class:`ssl.SSLContext` and configures the SSL settings of the underlying
- HTTPS connection.
+ Authentication user and password.
The returned instance is a proxy object with methods that can be used to invoke
corresponding RPC calls on the remote server. If the remote server supports the
@@ -165,7 +165,7 @@ between conformable Python objects and XML on the wire.
A good description of XML-RPC operation and client software in several languages.
Contains pretty much everything an XML-RPC client developer needs to know.
- `XML-RPC Introspection <https://xmlrpc-c.sourceforge.net/introspection.html>`_
+ `XML-RPC Introspection <https://xmlrpc-c.sourceforge.io/introspection.html>`_
Describes the XML-RPC protocol extension for introspection.
`XML-RPC Specification <http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/spec.html>`_
@@ -275,12 +275,12 @@ DateTime Objects
A working example follows. The server code::
- import datetime
+ import datetime as dt
from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
import xmlrpc.client
def today():
- today = datetime.datetime.today()
+ today = dt.datetime.today()
return xmlrpc.client.DateTime(today)
server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
@@ -291,14 +291,14 @@ A working example follows. The server code::
The client code for the preceding server::
import xmlrpc.client
- import datetime
+ import datetime as dt
proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
today = proxy.today()
- # convert the ISO8601 string to a datetime object
- converted = datetime.datetime.strptime(today.value, "%Y%m%dT%H:%M:%S")
- print("Today: %s" % converted.strftime("%d.%m.%Y, %H:%M"))
+ # convert the ISO 8601 string to a datetime object
+ converted = dt.datetime.strptime(today.value, "%Y%m%dT%H:%M:%S")
+ print(f"Today: {converted.strftime('%d.%m.%Y, %H:%M')}")
.. _binary-objects:
@@ -524,7 +524,7 @@ Convenience Functions
.. function:: dumps(params, methodname=None, methodresponse=None, encoding=None, allow_none=False)
- Convert *params* into an XML-RPC request. or into a response if *methodresponse*
+ Convert *params* into an XML-RPC request, or into a response if *methodresponse*
is true. *params* can be either a tuple of arguments or an instance of the
:exc:`Fault` exception class. If *methodresponse* is true, only a single value
can be returned, meaning that *params* must be of length 1. *encoding*, if
diff --git a/Doc/library/xmlrpc.rst b/Doc/library/xmlrpc.rst
index 5f0a2cf68d01f9c..a93d08f78cfba76 100644
--- a/Doc/library/xmlrpc.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/xmlrpc.rst
@@ -1,6 +1,9 @@
:mod:`!xmlrpc` --- XMLRPC server and client modules
===================================================
+.. module:: xmlrpc
+ :synopsis: Server and client modules implementing XML-RPC.
+
XML-RPC is a Remote Procedure Call method that uses XML passed via HTTP as a
transport. With it, a client can call methods with parameters on a remote
server (the server is named by a URI) and get back structured data.
diff --git a/Doc/library/xmlrpc.server.rst b/Doc/library/xmlrpc.server.rst
index ca1ea455f0acfce..7aa78fc95650ec3 100644
--- a/Doc/library/xmlrpc.server.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/xmlrpc.server.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`xmlrpc.server` --- Basic XML-RPC servers
-==============================================
+:mod:`!xmlrpc.server` --- Basic XML-RPC servers
+===============================================
.. module:: xmlrpc.server
:synopsis: Basic XML-RPC server implementations.
@@ -20,8 +20,8 @@ servers written in Python. Servers can either be free standing, using
.. warning::
The :mod:`xmlrpc.server` module is not secure against maliciously
- constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data see
- :ref:`xml-vulnerabilities`.
+ constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data,
+ see :ref:`xml-security`.
.. include:: ../includes/wasm-notavail.rst
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ servers written in Python. Servers can either be free standing, using
.. _simple-xmlrpc-servers:
-SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects
+SimpleXMLRPCServer objects
--------------------------
The :class:`SimpleXMLRPCServer` class is based on
@@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ alone XML-RPC servers.
.. _simplexmlrpcserver-example:
-SimpleXMLRPCServer Example
+SimpleXMLRPCServer example
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Server code::
@@ -230,11 +230,11 @@ a server allowing dotted names and registering a multicall function.
Enabling the *allow_dotted_names* option allows intruders to access your
module's global variables and may allow intruders to execute arbitrary code on
- your machine. Only use this example only within a secure, closed network.
+ your machine. Only use this example within a secure, closed network.
::
- import datetime
+ import datetime as dt
class ExampleService:
def getData(self):
@@ -243,7 +243,7 @@ a server allowing dotted names and registering a multicall function.
class currentTime:
@staticmethod
def getCurrentTime():
- return datetime.datetime.now()
+ return dt.datetime.now()
with SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000)) as server:
server.register_function(pow)
@@ -390,7 +390,7 @@ to HTTP GET requests. Servers can either be free standing, using
.. _doc-xmlrpc-servers:
-DocXMLRPCServer Objects
+DocXMLRPCServer objects
-----------------------
The :class:`DocXMLRPCServer` class is derived from :class:`SimpleXMLRPCServer`
diff --git a/Doc/library/zipapp.rst b/Doc/library/zipapp.rst
index c8a059bdb1cb936..cdaba07ab46c8f3 100644
--- a/Doc/library/zipapp.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/zipapp.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`zipapp` --- Manage executable Python zip archives
-=======================================================
+:mod:`!zipapp` --- Manage executable Python zip archives
+========================================================
.. module:: zipapp
:synopsis: Manage executable Python zip archives
@@ -332,7 +332,7 @@ Formally, the Python zip application format is therefore:
interpreter name, and then a newline (``b'\n'``) character. The interpreter
name can be anything acceptable to the OS "shebang" processing, or the Python
launcher on Windows. The interpreter should be encoded in UTF-8 on Windows,
- and in :func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding()` on POSIX.
+ and in :func:`sys.getfilesystemencoding` on POSIX.
2. Standard zipfile data, as generated by the :mod:`zipfile` module. The
zipfile content *must* include a file called ``__main__.py`` (which must be
in the "root" of the zipfile - i.e., it cannot be in a subdirectory). The
diff --git a/Doc/library/zipfile.rst b/Doc/library/zipfile.rst
index 6192689c3a1194d..7e0eae9d6811638 100644
--- a/Doc/library/zipfile.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/zipfile.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`zipfile` --- Work with ZIP archives
-=========================================
+:mod:`!zipfile` --- Work with ZIP archives
+==========================================
.. module:: zipfile
:synopsis: Read and write ZIP-format archive files.
@@ -16,10 +16,10 @@ provides tools to create, read, write, append, and list a ZIP file. Any
advanced use of this module will require an understanding of the format, as
defined in `PKZIP Application Note`_.
-This module does not currently handle multi-disk ZIP files.
+This module does not handle multipart ZIP files.
It can handle ZIP files that use the ZIP64 extensions
(that is ZIP files that are more than 4 GiB in size). It supports
-decryption of encrypted files in ZIP archives, but it currently cannot
+decryption of encrypted files in ZIP archives, but it cannot
create an encrypted file. Decryption is extremely slow as it is
implemented in native Python rather than C.
@@ -140,7 +140,7 @@ The module defines the following items:
.. _zipfile-objects:
-ZipFile Objects
+ZipFile objects
---------------
@@ -208,7 +208,7 @@ ZipFile Objects
.. note::
*metadata_encoding* is an instance-wide setting for the ZipFile.
- It is not currently possible to set this on a per-member basis.
+ It is not possible to set this on a per-member basis.
This attribute is a workaround for legacy implementations which produce
archives with names in the current locale encoding or code page (mostly
@@ -374,9 +374,9 @@ ZipFile Objects
.. warning::
Never extract archives from untrusted sources without prior inspection.
- It is possible that files are created outside of *path*, e.g. members
- that have absolute filenames starting with ``"/"`` or filenames with two
- dots ``".."``. This module attempts to prevent that.
+ It is possible that files are created outside of *path*, for example, members
+ that have absolute filenames or filenames with ".." components.
+ This module attempts to prevent that.
See :meth:`extract` note.
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
@@ -530,7 +530,7 @@ The following data attributes are also available:
.. _path-objects:
-Path Objects
+Path objects
------------
.. class:: Path(root, at='')
@@ -543,6 +543,14 @@ Path Objects
e.g. 'dir/file.txt', 'dir/', or ''. Defaults to the empty string,
indicating the root.
+ .. note::
+ The :class:`Path` class does not sanitize filenames within the ZIP archive. Unlike
+ the :meth:`ZipFile.extract` and :meth:`ZipFile.extractall` methods, it is the
+ caller's responsibility to validate or sanitize filenames to prevent path traversal
+ vulnerabilities (for example, absolute paths or paths with ".." components). When handling
+ untrusted archives, consider resolving filenames using :func:`os.path.abspath`
+ and checking against the target directory with :func:`os.path.commonpath`.
+
Path objects expose the following features of :mod:`pathlib.Path`
objects:
@@ -585,6 +593,15 @@ Path objects are traversable using the ``/`` operator or ``joinpath``.
Return ``True`` if the current context references a file.
+.. method:: Path.is_symlink()
+
+ Return ``True`` if the current context references a symbolic link.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.12
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Previously, ``is_symlink`` would unconditionally return ``False``.
+
.. method:: Path.exists()
Return ``True`` if the current context references a file or
@@ -649,7 +666,7 @@ changes.
.. _pyzipfile-objects:
-PyZipFile Objects
+PyZipFile objects
-----------------
The :class:`PyZipFile` constructor takes the same parameters as the
@@ -726,7 +743,7 @@ The :class:`PyZipFile` constructor takes the same parameters as the
.. _zipinfo-objects:
-ZipInfo Objects
+ZipInfo objects
---------------
Instances of the :class:`ZipInfo` class are returned by the :meth:`.getinfo` and
@@ -782,7 +799,10 @@ Instances have the following methods and attributes:
.. attribute:: ZipInfo.date_time
The time and date of the last modification to the archive member. This is a
- tuple of six values:
+ tuple of six values representing the "last [modified] file time" and "last [modified] file date"
+ fields from the ZIP file's central directory.
+
+ The tuple contains:
+-------+--------------------------+
| Index | Value |
@@ -802,7 +822,15 @@ Instances have the following methods and attributes:
.. note::
- The ZIP file format does not support timestamps before 1980.
+ The ZIP format supports multiple timestamp fields in different locations
+ (central directory, extra fields for NTFS/UNIX systems, etc.). This attribute
+ specifically returns the timestamp from the central directory. The central
+ directory timestamp format in ZIP files does not support timestamps before
+ 1980. While some extra field formats (such as UNIX timestamps) can represent
+ earlier dates, this attribute only returns the central directory timestamp.
+
+ The central directory timestamp is interpreted as representing local
+ time, rather than UTC time, to match the behavior of other zip tools.
.. attribute:: ZipInfo.compress_type
@@ -885,7 +913,7 @@ Instances have the following methods and attributes:
.. _zipfile-commandline:
.. program:: zipfile
-Command-Line Interface
+Command-line interface
----------------------
The :mod:`zipfile` module provides a simple command-line interface to interact
@@ -960,7 +988,7 @@ From file itself
Decompression may fail due to incorrect password / CRC checksum / ZIP format or
unsupported compression method / decryption.
-File System limitations
+File system limitations
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Exceeding limitations on different file systems can cause decompression failed.
diff --git a/Doc/library/zipimport.rst b/Doc/library/zipimport.rst
index 7a8c837307e60af..faaf3b3a3f69b24 100644
--- a/Doc/library/zipimport.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/zipimport.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`zipimport` --- Import modules from Zip archives
-=====================================================
+:mod:`!zipimport` --- Import modules from Zip archives
+======================================================
.. module:: zipimport
:synopsis: Support for importing Python modules from ZIP archives.
@@ -188,17 +188,20 @@ Here is an example that imports a module from a ZIP archive - note that the
.. code-block:: shell-session
- $ unzip -l example.zip
- Archive: example.zip
+ $ unzip -l example_archive.zip
+ Archive: example_archive.zip
Length Date Time Name
-------- ---- ---- ----
- 8467 11-26-02 22:30 jwzthreading.py
+ 8467 01-01-00 12:30 example.py
-------- -------
8467 1 file
- $ ./python
- Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32)
+
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
>>> import sys
- >>> sys.path.insert(0, 'example.zip') # Add .zip file to front of path
- >>> import jwzthreading
- >>> jwzthreading.__file__
- 'example.zip/jwzthreading.py'
+ >>> # Add the archive to the front of the module search path
+ >>> sys.path.insert(0, 'example_archive.zip')
+ >>> import example
+ >>> example.__file__
+ 'example_archive.zip/example.py'
+
diff --git a/Doc/library/zlib.rst b/Doc/library/zlib.rst
index ac179722dee2bee..58afec9cb9c6797 100644
--- a/Doc/library/zlib.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/zlib.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`zlib` --- Compression compatible with :program:`gzip`
-===========================================================
+:mod:`!zlib` --- Compression compatible with :program:`gzip`
+============================================================
.. module:: zlib
:synopsis: Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ earlier than 1.1.3; 1.1.3 has a `security vulnerability <https://zlib.net/zlib_f
zlib's functions have many options and often need to be used in a particular
order. This documentation doesn't attempt to cover all of the permutations;
-consult the zlib manual at http://www.zlib.net/manual.html for authoritative
+consult the `zlib manual <https://www.zlib.net/manual.html>`_ for authoritative
information.
For reading and writing ``.gz`` files see the :mod:`gzip` module.
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ The available exception and functions in this module are:
Exception raised on compression and decompression errors.
-.. function:: adler32(data[, value])
+.. function:: adler32(data, value=1, /)
Computes an Adler-32 checksum of *data*. (An Adler-32 checksum is almost as
reliable as a CRC32 but can be computed much more quickly.) The result
@@ -44,21 +44,20 @@ The available exception and functions in this module are:
.. versionchanged:: 3.0
The result is always unsigned.
-.. function:: compress(data, /, level=-1, wbits=MAX_WBITS)
+.. function:: compress(data, /, level=Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION, wbits=MAX_WBITS)
Compresses the bytes in *data*, returning a bytes object containing compressed data.
*level* is an integer from ``0`` to ``9`` or ``-1`` controlling the level of compression;
- ``1`` (Z_BEST_SPEED) is fastest and produces the least compression, ``9`` (Z_BEST_COMPRESSION)
- is slowest and produces the most. ``0`` (Z_NO_COMPRESSION) is no compression.
- The default value is ``-1`` (Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION). Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION represents a default
- compromise between speed and compression (currently equivalent to level 6).
+ See :const:`Z_BEST_SPEED` (``1``), :const:`Z_BEST_COMPRESSION` (``9``),
+ :const:`Z_NO_COMPRESSION` (``0``), and the default,
+ :const:`Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION` (``-1``) for more information about these values.
.. _compress-wbits:
The *wbits* argument controls the size of the history buffer (or the
"window size") used when compressing data, and whether a header and
trailer is included in the output. It can take several ranges of values,
- defaulting to ``15`` (MAX_WBITS):
+ defaulting to ``15`` (:const:`MAX_WBITS`):
* +9 to +15: The base-two logarithm of the window size, which
therefore ranges between 512 and 32768. Larger values produce
@@ -82,17 +81,15 @@ The available exception and functions in this module are:
The *wbits* parameter is now available to set window bits and
compression type.
-.. function:: compressobj(level=-1, method=DEFLATED, wbits=MAX_WBITS, memLevel=DEF_MEM_LEVEL, strategy=Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY[, zdict])
+.. function:: compressobj(level=Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION, method=DEFLATED, wbits=MAX_WBITS, memLevel=DEF_MEM_LEVEL, strategy=Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY[, zdict])
Returns a compression object, to be used for compressing data streams that won't
fit into memory at once.
*level* is the compression level -- an integer from ``0`` to ``9`` or ``-1``.
- A value of ``1`` (Z_BEST_SPEED) is fastest and produces the least compression,
- while a value of ``9`` (Z_BEST_COMPRESSION) is slowest and produces the most.
- ``0`` (Z_NO_COMPRESSION) is no compression. The default value is ``-1`` (Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION).
- Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION represents a default compromise between speed and compression
- (currently equivalent to level 6).
+ See :const:`Z_BEST_SPEED` (``1``), :const:`Z_BEST_COMPRESSION` (``9``),
+ :const:`Z_NO_COMPRESSION` (``0``), and the default,
+ :const:`Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION` (``-1``) for more information about these values.
*method* is the compression algorithm. Currently, the only supported value is
:const:`DEFLATED`.
@@ -107,7 +104,7 @@ The available exception and functions in this module are:
*strategy* is used to tune the compression algorithm. Possible values are
:const:`Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY`, :const:`Z_FILTERED`, :const:`Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY`,
- :const:`Z_RLE` (zlib 1.2.0.1) and :const:`Z_FIXED` (zlib 1.2.2.2).
+ :const:`Z_RLE` and :const:`Z_FIXED`.
*zdict* is a predefined compression dictionary. This is a sequence of bytes
(such as a :class:`bytes` object) containing subsequences that are expected
@@ -118,7 +115,7 @@ The available exception and functions in this module are:
Added the *zdict* parameter and keyword argument support.
-.. function:: crc32(data[, value])
+.. function:: crc32(data, value=0, /)
.. index::
single: Cyclic Redundancy Check
@@ -182,7 +179,7 @@ The available exception and functions in this module are:
.. versionchanged:: 3.6
*wbits* and *bufsize* can be used as keyword arguments.
-.. function:: decompressobj(wbits=MAX_WBITS[, zdict])
+.. function:: decompressobj(wbits=MAX_WBITS, zdict=b'')
Returns a decompression object, to be used for decompressing data streams that
won't fit into memory at once.
@@ -208,7 +205,7 @@ The available exception and functions in this module are:
Compression objects support the following methods:
-.. method:: Compress.compress(data)
+.. method:: Compress.compress(data, /)
Compress *data*, returning a bytes object containing compressed data for at least
part of the data in *data*. This data should be concatenated to the output
@@ -216,12 +213,12 @@ Compression objects support the following methods:
be kept in internal buffers for later processing.
-.. method:: Compress.flush([mode])
+.. method:: Compress.flush(mode=Z_FINISH, /)
All pending input is processed, and a bytes object containing the remaining compressed
output is returned. *mode* can be selected from the constants
:const:`Z_NO_FLUSH`, :const:`Z_PARTIAL_FLUSH`, :const:`Z_SYNC_FLUSH`,
- :const:`Z_FULL_FLUSH`, :const:`Z_BLOCK` (zlib 1.2.3.4), or :const:`Z_FINISH`,
+ :const:`Z_FULL_FLUSH`, :const:`Z_BLOCK`, or :const:`Z_FINISH`,
defaulting to :const:`Z_FINISH`. Except :const:`Z_FINISH`, all constants
allow compressing further bytestrings of data, while :const:`Z_FINISH` finishes the
compressed stream and prevents compressing any more data. After calling :meth:`flush`
@@ -271,7 +268,7 @@ Decompression objects support the following methods and attributes:
.. versionadded:: 3.3
-.. method:: Decompress.decompress(data, max_length=0)
+.. method:: Decompress.decompress(data, /, max_length=0)
Decompress *data*, returning a bytes object containing the uncompressed data
corresponding to at least part of the data in *string*. This data should be
@@ -290,7 +287,7 @@ Decompression objects support the following methods and attributes:
*max_length* can be used as a keyword argument.
-.. method:: Decompress.flush([length])
+.. method:: Decompress.flush(length=DEF_BUF_SIZE, /)
All pending input is processed, and a bytes object containing the remaining
uncompressed output is returned. After calling :meth:`flush`, the
@@ -312,6 +309,137 @@ Decompression objects support the following methods and attributes:
objects.
+The following constants are available to configure compression and decompression
+behavior:
+
+.. data:: DEFLATED
+
+ The deflate compression method.
+
+
+.. data:: MAX_WBITS
+
+ The maximum window size, expressed as a power of 2.
+ For example, if :const:`!MAX_WBITS` is ``15`` it results in a window size
+ of ``32 KiB``.
+
+
+.. data:: DEF_MEM_LEVEL
+
+ The default memory level for compression objects.
+
+
+.. data:: DEF_BUF_SIZE
+
+ The default buffer size for decompression operations.
+
+
+.. data:: Z_NO_COMPRESSION
+
+ Compression level ``0``; no compression.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. data:: Z_BEST_SPEED
+
+ Compression level ``1``; fastest and produces the least compression.
+
+
+.. data:: Z_BEST_COMPRESSION
+
+ Compression level ``9``; slowest and produces the most compression.
+
+
+.. data:: Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION
+
+ Default compression level (``-1``); a compromise between speed and
+ compression. Currently equivalent to compression level ``6``.
+
+
+.. data:: Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY
+
+ Default compression strategy, for normal data.
+
+
+.. data:: Z_FILTERED
+
+ Compression strategy for data produced by a filter (or predictor).
+
+
+.. data:: Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY
+
+ Compression strategy that forces Huffman coding only.
+
+
+.. data:: Z_RLE
+
+ Compression strategy that limits match distances to one (run-length encoding).
+
+ This constant is only available if Python was compiled with zlib
+ 1.2.0.1 or greater.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. data:: Z_FIXED
+
+ Compression strategy that prevents the use of dynamic Huffman codes.
+
+ This constant is only available if Python was compiled with zlib
+ 1.2.2.2 or greater.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. data:: Z_NO_FLUSH
+
+ Flush mode ``0``. No special flushing behavior.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. data:: Z_PARTIAL_FLUSH
+
+ Flush mode ``1``. Flush as much output as possible.
+
+
+.. data:: Z_SYNC_FLUSH
+
+ Flush mode ``2``. All output is flushed and the output is aligned to a byte boundary.
+
+
+.. data:: Z_FULL_FLUSH
+
+ Flush mode ``3``. All output is flushed and the compression state is reset.
+
+
+.. data:: Z_FINISH
+
+ Flush mode ``4``. All pending input is processed, no more input is expected.
+
+
+.. data:: Z_BLOCK
+
+ Flush mode ``5``. A deflate block is completed and emitted.
+
+ This constant is only available if Python was compiled with zlib
+ 1.2.2.2 or greater.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
+.. data:: Z_TREES
+
+ Flush mode ``6``, for inflate operations. Instructs inflate to return when
+ it gets to the next deflate block boundary.
+
+ This constant is only available if Python was compiled with zlib
+ 1.2.3.4 or greater.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.6
+
+
Information about the version of the zlib library in use is available through
the following constants:
@@ -335,9 +463,14 @@ the following constants:
Module :mod:`gzip`
Reading and writing :program:`gzip`\ -format files.
- http://www.zlib.net
+ https://www.zlib.net
The zlib library home page.
- http://www.zlib.net/manual.html
+ https://www.zlib.net/manual.html
The zlib manual explains the semantics and usage of the library's many
functions.
+
+ In case gzip (de)compression is a bottleneck, the `python-isal`_
+ package speeds up (de)compression with a mostly compatible API.
+
+ .. _python-isal: https://github.com/pycompression/python-isal
diff --git a/Doc/library/zoneinfo.rst b/Doc/library/zoneinfo.rst
index 54f1988375570c3..adf6767cd5815f8 100644
--- a/Doc/library/zoneinfo.rst
+++ b/Doc/library/zoneinfo.rst
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-:mod:`zoneinfo` --- IANA time zone support
-==========================================
+:mod:`!zoneinfo` --- IANA time zone support
+===========================================
.. module:: zoneinfo
:synopsis: IANA time zone support
@@ -40,24 +40,24 @@ the constructor, the :meth:`datetime.replace <datetime.datetime.replace>`
method or :meth:`datetime.astimezone <datetime.datetime.astimezone>`::
>>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
- >>> from datetime import datetime, timedelta
+ >>> import datetime as dt
- >>> dt = datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
- >>> print(dt)
+ >>> when = dt.datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
+ >>> print(when)
2020-10-31 12:00:00-07:00
- >>> dt.tzname()
+ >>> when.tzname()
'PDT'
Datetimes constructed in this way are compatible with datetime arithmetic and
handle daylight saving time transitions with no further intervention::
- >>> dt_add = dt + timedelta(days=1)
+ >>> when_add = when + dt.timedelta(days=1)
- >>> print(dt_add)
+ >>> print(when_add)
2020-11-01 12:00:00-08:00
- >>> dt_add.tzname()
+ >>> when_add.tzname()
'PST'
These time zones also support the :attr:`~datetime.datetime.fold` attribute
@@ -66,26 +66,25 @@ times (such as a daylight saving time to standard time transition), the offset
from *before* the transition is used when ``fold=0``, and the offset *after*
the transition is used when ``fold=1``, for example::
- >>> dt = datetime(2020, 11, 1, 1, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
- >>> print(dt)
+ >>> when = dt.datetime(2020, 11, 1, 1, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
+ >>> print(when)
2020-11-01 01:00:00-07:00
- >>> print(dt.replace(fold=1))
+ >>> print(when.replace(fold=1))
2020-11-01 01:00:00-08:00
When converting from another time zone, the fold will be set to the correct
value::
- >>> from datetime import timezone
>>> LOS_ANGELES = ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles")
- >>> dt_utc = datetime(2020, 11, 1, 8, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
+ >>> when_utc = dt.datetime(2020, 11, 1, 8, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc)
>>> # Before the PDT -> PST transition
- >>> print(dt_utc.astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
+ >>> print(when_utc.astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
2020-11-01 01:00:00-07:00
>>> # After the PDT -> PST transition
- >>> print((dt_utc + timedelta(hours=1)).astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
+ >>> print((when_utc + dt.timedelta(hours=1)).astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
2020-11-01 01:00:00-08:00
Data sources
@@ -195,7 +194,7 @@ The ``ZoneInfo`` class
The ``ZoneInfo`` class has two alternate constructors:
-.. classmethod:: ZoneInfo.from_file(fobj, /, key=None)
+.. classmethod:: ZoneInfo.from_file(file_obj, /, key=None)
Constructs a ``ZoneInfo`` object from a file-like object returning bytes
(e.g. a file opened in binary mode or an :class:`io.BytesIO` object).
@@ -206,6 +205,9 @@ The ``ZoneInfo`` class has two alternate constructors:
Objects created via this constructor cannot be pickled (see `pickling`_).
+ :exc:`ValueError` is raised if the data read from *file_obj* is not a valid
+ TZif file.
+
.. classmethod:: ZoneInfo.no_cache(key)
An alternate constructor that bypasses the constructor's cache. It is
@@ -276,8 +278,8 @@ the note on usage in the attribute documentation)::
>>> str(zone)
'Pacific/Kwajalein'
- >>> dt = datetime(2020, 4, 1, 3, 15, tzinfo=zone)
- >>> f"{dt.isoformat()} [{dt.tzinfo}]"
+ >>> when = dt.datetime(2020, 4, 1, 3, 15, tzinfo=zone)
+ >>> f"{when.isoformat()} [{when.tzinfo}]"
'2020-04-01T03:15:00+12:00 [Pacific/Kwajalein]'
For objects constructed from a file without specifying a ``key`` parameter,
@@ -299,7 +301,7 @@ The behavior of a ``ZoneInfo`` file depends on how it was constructed:
1. ``ZoneInfo(key)``: When constructed with the primary constructor, a
``ZoneInfo`` object is serialized by key, and when deserialized, the
deserializing process uses the primary and thus it is expected that these
- are expected to be the same object as other references to the same time
+ are the same object as other references to the same time
zone. For example, if ``europe_berlin_pkl`` is a string containing a pickle
constructed from ``ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")``, one would expect the
following behavior:
@@ -325,7 +327,7 @@ The behavior of a ``ZoneInfo`` file depends on how it was constructed:
>>> a is b
False
-3. ``ZoneInfo.from_file(fobj, /, key=None)``: When constructed from a file, the
+3. ``ZoneInfo.from_file(file_obj, /, key=None)``: When constructed from a file, the
``ZoneInfo`` object raises an exception on pickling. If an end user wants to
pickle a ``ZoneInfo`` constructed from a file, it is recommended that they
use a wrapper type or a custom serialization function: either serializing by
diff --git a/Doc/license.rst b/Doc/license.rst
index 814b6829f6b2bdc..a5fcef4d58c617e 100644
--- a/Doc/license.rst
+++ b/Doc/license.rst
@@ -11,59 +11,63 @@ History of the software
=======================
Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting
-Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl/) in the Netherlands as a
+Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see https://www.cwi.nl) in the Netherlands as a
successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python's principal author,
although it includes many contributions from others.
In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National
-Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us/) in Reston,
+Research Initiatives (CNRI, see https://www.cnri.reston.va.us) in Reston,
Virginia where he released several versions of the software.
In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to
form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs
-team moved to Digital Creations (now Zope Corporation; see
-https://www.zope.org/). In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see
+team moved to Digital Creations, which became
+Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see
https://www.python.org/psf/) was formed, a non-profit organization created
-specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation is a
+specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a
sponsoring member of the PSF.
-All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org/ for the Open
+All Python releases are Open Source (see https://opensource.org for the Open
Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also
been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases.
-+----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
-| Release | Derived from | Year | Owner | GPL compatible? |
-+================+==============+============+============+=================+
-| 0.9.0 thru 1.2 | n/a | 1991-1995 | CWI | yes |
-+----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
-| 1.3 thru 1.5.2 | 1.2 | 1995-1999 | CNRI | yes |
-+----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
-| 1.6 | 1.5.2 | 2000 | CNRI | no |
-+----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
-| 2.0 | 1.6 | 2000 | BeOpen.com | no |
-+----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
-| 1.6.1 | 1.6 | 2001 | CNRI | no |
-+----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
-| 2.1 | 2.0+1.6.1 | 2001 | PSF | no |
-+----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
-| 2.0.1 | 2.0+1.6.1 | 2001 | PSF | yes |
-+----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
-| 2.1.1 | 2.1+2.0.1 | 2001 | PSF | yes |
-+----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
-| 2.1.2 | 2.1.1 | 2002 | PSF | yes |
-+----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
-| 2.1.3 | 2.1.2 | 2002 | PSF | yes |
-+----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
-| 2.2 and above | 2.1.1 | 2001-now | PSF | yes |
-+----------------+--------------+------------+------------+-----------------+
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+---------------------+
+| Release | Derived from | Year | Owner | GPL-compatible? (1) |
++================+==============+============+============+=====================+
+| 0.9.0 thru 1.2 | n/a | 1991-1995 | CWI | yes |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+---------------------+
+| 1.3 thru 1.5.2 | 1.2 | 1995-1999 | CNRI | yes |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+---------------------+
+| 1.6 | 1.5.2 | 2000 | CNRI | no |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+---------------------+
+| 2.0 | 1.6 | 2000 | BeOpen.com | no |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+---------------------+
+| 1.6.1 | 1.6 | 2001 | CNRI | yes (2) |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+---------------------+
+| 2.1 | 2.0+1.6.1 | 2001 | PSF | no |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+---------------------+
+| 2.0.1 | 2.0+1.6.1 | 2001 | PSF | yes |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+---------------------+
+| 2.1.1 | 2.1+2.0.1 | 2001 | PSF | yes |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+---------------------+
+| 2.1.2 | 2.1.1 | 2002 | PSF | yes |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+---------------------+
+| 2.1.3 | 2.1.2 | 2002 | PSF | yes |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+---------------------+
+| 2.2 and above | 2.1.1 | 2001-now | PSF | yes |
++----------------+--------------+------------+------------+---------------------+
.. note::
- GPL-compatible doesn't mean that we're distributing Python under the GPL. All
- Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without
- making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to
- combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others
- don't.
+ (1) GPL-compatible doesn't mean that we're distributing Python under the GPL.
+ All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version
+ without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make
+ it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under
+ the GPL; the others don't.
+
+ (2) According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license
+ has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman's lawyer has
+ told CNRI's lawyer that 1.6.1 is "not incompatible" with the GPL.
Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido's direction to
make these releases possible.
@@ -73,10 +77,10 @@ Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python
============================================================
Python software and documentation are licensed under the
-:ref:`PSF License Agreement <PSF-license>`.
+Python Software Foundation License Version 2.
Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in
-the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Agreement
+the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2
and the :ref:`Zero-Clause BSD license <BSD0>`.
Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses.
@@ -86,39 +90,38 @@ See :ref:`OtherLicenses` for an incomplete list of these licenses.
.. _PSF-license:
-PSF LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON |release|
-------------------------------------------
+PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2
+--------------------------------------------
.. parsed-literal::
1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and
- the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using Python
- |release| software in source or binary form and its associated documentation.
+ the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this
+ software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation.
2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby
grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
- distribute, and otherwise use Python |release| alone or in any derivative
+ distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative
version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of
copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001-2024 Python Software Foundation; All Rights
- Reserved" are retained in Python |release| alone or in any derivative version
+ Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version
prepared by Licensee.
3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
- incorporates Python |release| or any part thereof, and wants to make the
+ incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the
derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby
- agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python
- |release|.
+ agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python.
- 4. PSF is making Python |release| available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
+ 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF
EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
- USE OF PYTHON |release| WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
+ USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
- 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON |release|
+ 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON
FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
- MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON |release|, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
+ MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.
6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
@@ -130,7 +133,7 @@ PSF LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON |release|
trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
third party.
- 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python |release|, Licensee agrees
+ 8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees
to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.
@@ -205,7 +208,7 @@ CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1
Agreement. This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the
internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle):
1895.22/1013. This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the
- internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013."
+ internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013".
3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative
@@ -273,8 +276,8 @@ CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2
.. _BSD0:
-ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON |release| DOCUMENTATION
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION
+------------------------------------------------------------
.. parsed-literal::
@@ -371,7 +374,7 @@ Project, https://www.wide.ad.jp/. ::
may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
without specific prior written permission.
- THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
+ THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
@@ -580,7 +583,7 @@ interface::
notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
- THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
+ THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
@@ -881,7 +884,7 @@ sources unless the build is configured ``--with-system-libffi``::
Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
- ``Software''), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+ "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
@@ -890,7 +893,7 @@ sources unless the build is configured ``--with-system-libffi``::
The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
- THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED ``AS IS'', WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+ THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT
@@ -1047,27 +1050,27 @@ https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/ and is distributed under the
mimalloc
--------
-MIT License
+MIT License::
-Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen
+ Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen
-Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
-of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
-in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
-to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
-copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
-furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+ Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+ of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
+ in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+ to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+ copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+ furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
-The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
-copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+ The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+ copies or substantial portions of the Software.
-THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
-IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
-FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
-AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
-LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
-OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
-SOFTWARE.
+ THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+ IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+ FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+ AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+ LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+ OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+ SOFTWARE.
asyncio
@@ -1119,7 +1122,7 @@ The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License::
notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
- THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR ``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR
+ THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR
IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES
OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.
IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
@@ -1129,3 +1132,52 @@ The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License::
THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
(INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF
THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
+
+
+Unicode Character Database
+--------------------------
+
+An extract of the `Unicode Character Database <https://www.unicode.org/ucd/>`__,
+converted to an internal format, is used by the :mod:`unicodedata` module and
+for the Unicode support of the :class:`str` type. The original Unicode data
+files are distributed under the `Unicode License <https://www.unicode.org/license.txt>`__::
+
+ UNICODE LICENSE V3
+
+ COPYRIGHT AND PERMISSION NOTICE
+
+ Copyright © 1991-2026 Unicode, Inc.
+
+ NOTICE TO USER: Carefully read the following legal agreement. BY
+ DOWNLOADING, INSTALLING, COPYING OR OTHERWISE USING DATA FILES, AND/OR
+ SOFTWARE, YOU UNEQUIVOCALLY ACCEPT, AND AGREE TO BE BOUND BY, ALL OF THE
+ TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF THIS AGREEMENT. IF YOU DO NOT AGREE, DO NOT
+ DOWNLOAD, INSTALL, COPY, DISTRIBUTE OR USE THE DATA FILES OR SOFTWARE.
+
+ Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a
+ copy of data files and any associated documentation (the "Data Files") or
+ software and any associated documentation (the "Software") to deal in the
+ Data Files or Software without restriction, including without limitation
+ the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, and/or sell
+ copies of the Data Files or Software, and to permit persons to whom the
+ Data Files or Software are furnished to do so, provided that either (a)
+ this copyright and permission notice appear with all copies of the Data
+ Files or Software, or (b) this copyright and permission notice appear in
+ associated Documentation.
+
+ THE DATA FILES AND SOFTWARE ARE PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY
+ KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+ MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT OF
+ THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
+
+ IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR HOLDERS INCLUDED IN THIS NOTICE
+ BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, OR ANY SPECIAL INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES,
+ OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
+ WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION,
+ ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THE DATA
+ FILES OR SOFTWARE.
+
+ Except as contained in this notice, the name of a copyright holder shall
+ not be used in advertising or otherwise to promote the sale, use or other
+ dealings in these Data Files or Software without prior written
+ authorization of the copyright holder.
diff --git a/Doc/make.bat b/Doc/make.bat
index 87d8359ef112bba..99f0d5c44f00985 100644
--- a/Doc/make.bat
+++ b/Doc/make.bat
@@ -127,16 +127,14 @@ goto end
:build
if not exist "%BUILDDIR%" mkdir "%BUILDDIR%"
-rem PY_MISC_NEWS_DIR is also used by our Sphinx extension in tools/extensions/pyspecific.py
-if not defined PY_MISC_NEWS_DIR set PY_MISC_NEWS_DIR=%BUILDDIR%\%1
-if not exist "%PY_MISC_NEWS_DIR%" mkdir "%PY_MISC_NEWS_DIR%"
+if not exist build mkdir build
if exist ..\Misc\NEWS (
- echo.Copying Misc\NEWS to %PY_MISC_NEWS_DIR%\NEWS
- copy ..\Misc\NEWS "%PY_MISC_NEWS_DIR%\NEWS" > nul
+ echo.Copying existing Misc\NEWS file to Doc\build\NEWS
+ copy ..\Misc\NEWS build\NEWS > nul
) else if exist ..\Misc\NEWS.D (
if defined BLURB (
echo.Merging Misc/NEWS with %BLURB%
- %BLURB% merge -f "%PY_MISC_NEWS_DIR%\NEWS"
+ %BLURB% merge -f build\NEWS
) else (
echo.No Misc/NEWS file and Blurb is not available.
exit /B 1
@@ -144,12 +142,12 @@ if exist ..\Misc\NEWS (
)
if defined PAPER (
- set SPHINXOPTS=-D latex_elements.papersize=%PAPER% %SPHINXOPTS%
+ set SPHINXOPTS=--define latex_elements.papersize=%PAPER% %SPHINXOPTS%
)
if "%1" EQU "htmlhelp" (
- set SPHINXOPTS=-D html_theme_options.body_max_width=none %SPHINXOPTS%
+ set SPHINXOPTS=--define html_theme_options.body_max_width=none %SPHINXOPTS%
)
-cmd /S /C "%SPHINXBUILD% %SPHINXOPTS% -b%1 -dbuild\doctrees . "%BUILDDIR%\%1" %2 %3 %4 %5 %6 %7 %8 %9"
+cmd /S /C "%SPHINXBUILD% %SPHINXOPTS% --builder %1 --doctree-dir build\doctrees . "%BUILDDIR%\%1" %2 %3 %4 %5 %6 %7 %8 %9"
if "%1" EQU "htmlhelp" (
"%HTMLHELP%" "%BUILDDIR%\htmlhelp\python%DISTVERSION:.=%.hhp"
diff --git a/Doc/reference/compound_stmts.rst b/Doc/reference/compound_stmts.rst
index 42cca0664df71d5..b55676e8f945e53 100644
--- a/Doc/reference/compound_stmts.rst
+++ b/Doc/reference/compound_stmts.rst
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ The :keyword:`for` statement is used to iterate over the elements of a sequence
(such as a string, tuple or list) or other iterable object:
.. productionlist:: python-grammar
- for_stmt: "for" `target_list` "in" `starred_list` ":" `suite`
+ for_stmt: "for" `target_list` "in" `!starred_list` ":" `suite`
: ["else" ":" `suite`]
The ``starred_list`` expression is evaluated once; it should yield an
@@ -245,13 +245,12 @@ handler is started. This search inspects the :keyword:`!except` clauses in turn
until one is found that matches the exception.
An expression-less :keyword:`!except` clause, if present, must be last;
it matches any exception.
-For an :keyword:`!except` clause with an expression,
-that expression is evaluated, and the clause matches the exception
-if the resulting object is "compatible" with the exception. An object is
-compatible with an exception if the object is the class or a
-:term:`non-virtual base class <abstract base class>` of the exception object,
-or a tuple containing an item that is the class or a non-virtual base class
-of the exception object.
+
+For an :keyword:`!except` clause with an expression, the
+expression must evaluate to an exception type or a tuple of exception types.
+The raised exception matches an :keyword:`!except` clause whose expression evaluates
+to the class or a :term:`non-virtual base class <abstract base class>` of the exception object,
+or to a tuple that contains such a class.
If no :keyword:`!except` clause matches the exception,
the search for an exception handler
@@ -277,12 +276,12 @@ and the exception occurs in the :keyword:`!try` clause of the inner handler,
the outer handler will not handle the exception.)
When an exception has been assigned using ``as target``, it is cleared at the
-end of the :keyword:`!except` clause. This is as if ::
+end of the :keyword:`!except` clause. This is as if::
except E as N:
foo
-was translated to ::
+was translated to::
except E as N:
try:
@@ -333,15 +332,29 @@ stored in the :mod:`sys` module is reset to its previous value::
:keyword:`!except*` clause
--------------------------
-The :keyword:`!except*` clause(s) are used for handling
-:exc:`ExceptionGroup`\s. The exception type for matching is interpreted as in
-the case of :keyword:`except`, but in the case of exception groups we can have
-partial matches when the type matches some of the exceptions in the group.
-This means that multiple :keyword:`!except*` clauses can execute,
-each handling part of the exception group.
-Each clause executes at most once and handles an exception group
-of all matching exceptions. Each exception in the group is handled by at most
-one :keyword:`!except*` clause, the first that matches it. ::
+The :keyword:`!except*` clause(s) specify one or more handlers for groups of
+exceptions (:exc:`BaseExceptionGroup` instances). A :keyword:`try` statement
+can have either :keyword:`except` or :keyword:`!except*` clauses, but not both.
+The exception type for matching is mandatory in the case of :keyword:`!except*`,
+so ``except*:`` is a syntax error. The type is interpreted as in the case of
+:keyword:`!except`, but matching is performed on the exceptions contained in the
+group that is being handled. A :exc:`TypeError` is raised if a matching
+type is a subclass of :exc:`!BaseExceptionGroup`, because that would have
+ambiguous semantics.
+
+When an exception group is raised in the try block, each :keyword:`!except*`
+clause splits (see :meth:`~BaseExceptionGroup.split`) it into the subgroups
+of matching and non-matching exceptions. If the matching subgroup is not empty,
+it becomes the handled exception (the value returned from :func:`sys.exception`)
+and assigned to the target of the :keyword:`!except*` clause (if there is one).
+Then, the body of the :keyword:`!except*` clause executes. If the non-matching
+subgroup is not empty, it is processed by the next :keyword:`!except*` in the
+same manner. This continues until all exceptions in the group have been matched,
+or the last :keyword:`!except*` clause has run.
+
+After all :keyword:`!except*` clauses execute, the group of unhandled exceptions
+is merged with any exceptions that were raised or re-raised from within
+:keyword:`!except*` clauses. This merged exception group propagates on::
>>> try:
... raise ExceptionGroup("eg",
@@ -354,34 +367,26 @@ one :keyword:`!except*` clause, the first that matches it. ::
caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'> with nested (TypeError(2),)
caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'> with nested (OSError(3), OSError(4))
+ Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
- | File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
- | ExceptionGroup: eg
+ | File "<doctest default[0]>", line 2, in <module>
+ | raise ExceptionGroup("eg",
+ | [ValueError(1), TypeError(2), OSError(3), OSError(4)])
+ | ExceptionGroup: eg (1 sub-exception)
+-+---------------- 1 ----------------
| ValueError: 1
+------------------------------------
-
-Any remaining exceptions that were not handled by any :keyword:`!except*`
-clause are re-raised at the end, along with all exceptions that were
-raised from within the :keyword:`!except*` clauses. If this list contains
-more than one exception to reraise, they are combined into an exception
-group.
-
-If the raised exception is not an exception group and its type matches
-one of the :keyword:`!except*` clauses, it is caught and wrapped by an
-exception group with an empty message string. ::
+If the exception raised from the :keyword:`try` block is not an exception group
+and its type matches one of the :keyword:`!except*` clauses, it is caught and
+wrapped by an exception group with an empty message string. This ensures that the
+type of the target ``e`` is consistently :exc:`BaseExceptionGroup`::
>>> try:
... raise BlockingIOError
... except* BlockingIOError as e:
... print(repr(e))
...
- ExceptionGroup('', (BlockingIOError()))
+ ExceptionGroup('', (BlockingIOError(),))
-An :keyword:`!except*` clause must have a matching type,
-and this type cannot be a subclass of :exc:`BaseExceptionGroup`.
-It is not possible to mix :keyword:`except` and :keyword:`!except*`
-in the same :keyword:`try`.
:keyword:`break`, :keyword:`continue` and :keyword:`return`
cannot appear in an :keyword:`!except*` clause.
@@ -412,12 +417,14 @@ clauses.
--------------------------
If :keyword:`!finally` is present, it specifies a 'cleanup' handler. The
-:keyword:`try` clause is executed, including any :keyword:`except` and
-:keyword:`else` clauses. If an exception occurs in any of the clauses and is
-not handled, the exception is temporarily saved. The :keyword:`!finally` clause
-is executed. If there is a saved exception it is re-raised at the end of the
-:keyword:`!finally` clause. If the :keyword:`!finally` clause raises another
-exception, the saved exception is set as the context of the new exception.
+:keyword:`try` clause is executed, including any :keyword:`except`
+and :keyword:`else <except_else>` clauses.
+If an exception occurs in any of the clauses and is not handled,
+the exception is temporarily saved.
+The :keyword:`!finally` clause is executed. If there is a saved exception
+it is re-raised at the end of the :keyword:`!finally` clause.
+If the :keyword:`!finally` clause raises another exception, the saved exception
+is set as the context of the new exception.
If the :keyword:`!finally` clause executes a :keyword:`return`, :keyword:`break`
or :keyword:`continue` statement, the saved exception is discarded::
@@ -530,9 +537,9 @@ The following code::
is semantically equivalent to::
manager = (EXPRESSION)
- enter = type(manager).__enter__
- exit = type(manager).__exit__
- value = enter(manager)
+ enter = manager.__enter__
+ exit = manager.__exit__
+ value = enter()
hit_except = False
try:
@@ -540,11 +547,14 @@ is semantically equivalent to::
SUITE
except:
hit_except = True
- if not exit(manager, *sys.exc_info()):
+ if not exit(*sys.exc_info()):
raise
finally:
if not hit_except:
- exit(manager, None, None, None)
+ exit(None, None, None)
+
+except that implicit :ref:`special method lookup <special-lookup>` is used
+for :meth:`~object.__enter__` and :meth:`~object.__exit__`.
With more than one item, the context managers are processed as if multiple
:keyword:`with` statements were nested::
@@ -580,6 +590,7 @@ the items are surrounded by parentheses. For example::
statement.
.. _match:
+.. _case:
The :keyword:`!match` statement
===============================
@@ -600,9 +611,9 @@ The match statement is used for pattern matching. Syntax:
.. productionlist:: python-grammar
match_stmt: 'match' `subject_expr` ":" NEWLINE INDENT `case_block`+ DEDENT
- subject_expr: `star_named_expression` "," `star_named_expressions`?
- : | `named_expression`
- case_block: 'case' `patterns` [`guard`] ":" `block`
+ subject_expr: `flexible_expression` "," [`flexible_expression_list` [',']]
+ : | `assignment_expression`
+ case_block: 'case' `patterns` [`guard`] ":" `suite`
.. note::
This section uses single quotes to denote
@@ -691,7 +702,7 @@ Guards
.. index:: ! guard
.. productionlist:: python-grammar
- guard: "if" `named_expression`
+ guard: "if" `assignment_expression`
A ``guard`` (which is part of the ``case``) must succeed for code inside
the ``case`` block to execute. It takes the form: :keyword:`if` followed by an
@@ -836,11 +847,11 @@ A literal pattern corresponds to most
literal_pattern: `signed_number`
: | `signed_number` "+" NUMBER
: | `signed_number` "-" NUMBER
- : | `strings`
+ : | `!strings`
: | "None"
: | "True"
: | "False"
- : | `signed_number`: NUMBER | "-" NUMBER
+ signed_number: ["-"] NUMBER
The rule ``strings`` and the token ``NUMBER`` are defined in the
:doc:`standard Python grammar <./grammar>`. Triple-quoted strings are
@@ -1005,8 +1016,8 @@ subject value:
items, as for a fixed-length sequence.
.. note:: The length of the subject sequence is obtained via
- :func:`len` (i.e. via the :meth:`__len__` protocol). This length may be
- cached by the interpreter in a similar manner as
+ :func:`len` (i.e. via the :meth:`~object.__len__` protocol).
+ This length may be cached by the interpreter in a similar manner as
:ref:`value patterns <value-patterns>`.
@@ -1057,8 +1068,8 @@ subject value:
.. note:: Key-value pairs are matched using the two-argument form of the mapping
subject's ``get()`` method. Matched key-value pairs must already be present
- in the mapping, and not created on-the-fly via :meth:`__missing__` or
- :meth:`~object.__getitem__`.
+ in the mapping, and not created on-the-fly via :meth:`~object.__missing__`
+ or :meth:`~object.__getitem__`.
In simple terms ``{KEY1: P1, KEY2: P2, ... }`` matches only if all the following
happens:
@@ -1216,9 +1227,12 @@ A function definition defines a user-defined function object (see section
: | `parameter_list_no_posonly`
parameter_list_no_posonly: `defparameter` ("," `defparameter`)* ["," [`parameter_list_starargs`]]
: | `parameter_list_starargs`
- parameter_list_starargs: "*" [`parameter`] ("," `defparameter`)* ["," ["**" `parameter` [","]]]
- : | "**" `parameter` [","]
+ parameter_list_starargs: "*" `star_parameter` ("," `defparameter`)* ["," [`parameter_star_kwargs`]]
+ : | "*" ("," `defparameter`)+ ["," [`parameter_star_kwargs`]]
+ : | `parameter_star_kwargs`
+ parameter_star_kwargs: "**" `parameter` [","]
parameter: `identifier` [":" `expression`]
+ star_parameter: `identifier` [":" ["*"] `expression`]
defparameter: `parameter` ["=" `expression`]
funcname: `identifier`
@@ -1289,7 +1303,7 @@ mutable object, such as a list or a dictionary: if the function modifies the
object (e.g. by appending an item to a list), the default parameter value is in effect
modified. This is generally not what was intended. A way around this is to use
``None`` as the default, and explicitly test for it in the body of the function,
-e.g.::
+for example::
def whats_on_the_telly(penguin=None):
if penguin is None:
@@ -1325,7 +1339,8 @@ and may only be passed by positional arguments.
Parameters may have an :term:`annotation <function annotation>` of the form "``: expression``"
following the parameter name. Any parameter may have an annotation, even those of the form
-``*identifier`` or ``**identifier``. Functions may have "return" annotation of
+``*identifier`` or ``**identifier``. (As a special case, parameters of the form
+``*identifier`` may have an annotation "``: *expression``".) Functions may have "return" annotation of
the form "``-> expression``" after the parameter list. These annotations can be
any valid Python expression. The presence of annotations does not change the
semantics of a function. The annotation values are available as values of
@@ -1336,6 +1351,10 @@ enables postponed evaluation. Otherwise, they are evaluated when the function
definition is executed. In this case annotations may be evaluated in
a different order than they appear in the source code.
+.. versionchanged:: 3.11
+ Parameters of the form "``*identifier``" may have an annotation
+ "``: *expression``". See :pep:`646`.
+
.. index:: pair: lambda; expression
It is also possible to create anonymous functions (functions not bound to a
@@ -1421,7 +1440,7 @@ dictionary. The class name is bound to this class object in the original local
namespace.
The order in which attributes are defined in the class body is preserved
-in the new class's ``__dict__``. Note that this is reliable only right
+in the new class's :attr:`~type.__dict__`. Note that this is reliable only right
after the class is created and only for classes that were defined using
the definition syntax.
@@ -1452,8 +1471,8 @@ decorators. The result is then bound to the class name.
A list of :ref:`type parameters <type-params>` may be given in square brackets
immediately after the class's name.
This indicates to static type checkers that the class is generic. At runtime,
-the type parameters can be retrieved from the class's ``__type_params__``
-attribute. See :ref:`generic-classes` for more.
+the type parameters can be retrieved from the class's
+:attr:`~type.__type_params__` attribute. See :ref:`generic-classes` for more.
.. versionchanged:: 3.12
Type parameter lists are new in Python 3.12.
@@ -1546,13 +1565,12 @@ The following code::
Is semantically equivalent to::
- iter = (ITER)
- iter = type(iter).__aiter__(iter)
+ iter = (ITER).__aiter__()
running = True
while running:
try:
- TARGET = await type(iter).__anext__(iter)
+ TARGET = await iter.__anext__()
except StopAsyncIteration:
running = False
else:
@@ -1560,7 +1578,8 @@ Is semantically equivalent to::
else:
SUITE2
-See also :meth:`~object.__aiter__` and :meth:`~object.__anext__` for details.
+except that implicit :ref:`special method lookup <special-lookup>` is used
+for :meth:`~object.__aiter__` and :meth:`~object.__anext__`.
It is a :exc:`SyntaxError` to use an ``async for`` statement outside the
body of a coroutine function.
@@ -1586,9 +1605,9 @@ The following code::
is semantically equivalent to::
manager = (EXPRESSION)
- aenter = type(manager).__aenter__
- aexit = type(manager).__aexit__
- value = await aenter(manager)
+ aenter = manager.__aenter__
+ aexit = manager.__aexit__
+ value = await aenter()
hit_except = False
try:
@@ -1596,13 +1615,14 @@ is semantically equivalent to::
SUITE
except:
hit_except = True
- if not await aexit(manager, *sys.exc_info()):
+ if not await aexit(*sys.exc_info()):
raise
finally:
if not hit_except:
- await aexit(manager, None, None, None)
+ await aexit(None, None, None)
-See also :meth:`~object.__aenter__` and :meth:`~object.__aexit__` for details.
+except that implicit :ref:`special method lookup <special-lookup>` is used
+for :meth:`~object.__aenter__` and :meth:`~object.__aexit__`.
It is a :exc:`SyntaxError` to use an ``async with`` statement outside the
body of a coroutine function.
@@ -1666,8 +1686,8 @@ with more precision. The scope of type parameters is modeled with a special
function (technically, an :ref:`annotation scope <annotation-scopes>`) that
wraps the creation of the generic object.
-Generic functions, classes, and type aliases have a :attr:`!__type_params__`
-attribute listing their type parameters.
+Generic functions, classes, and type aliases have a
+:attr:`~definition.__type_params__` attribute listing their type parameters.
Type parameters come in three kinds:
@@ -1891,5 +1911,5 @@ like ``TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet`` are not actually bound at runtime.
therefore the function's :term:`docstring`.
.. [#] A string literal appearing as the first statement in the class body is
- transformed into the namespace's ``__doc__`` item and therefore the class's
- :term:`docstring`.
+ transformed into the namespace's :attr:`~type.__doc__` item and therefore
+ the class's :term:`docstring`.
diff --git a/Doc/reference/datamodel.rst b/Doc/reference/datamodel.rst
index f5e871607320568..3e5b7f1a0f232ff 100644
--- a/Doc/reference/datamodel.rst
+++ b/Doc/reference/datamodel.rst
@@ -16,9 +16,8 @@ Objects, values and types
single: data
:dfn:`Objects` are Python's abstraction for data. All data in a Python program
-is represented by objects or by relations between objects. (In a sense, and in
-conformance to Von Neumann's model of a "stored program computer", code is also
-represented by objects.)
+is represented by objects or by relations between objects. Even code is
+represented by objects.
.. index::
pair: built-in function; id
@@ -29,9 +28,6 @@ represented by objects.)
single: mutable object
single: immutable object
-.. XXX it *is* now possible in some cases to change an object's
- type, under certain controlled conditions
-
Every object has an identity, a type and a value. An object's *identity* never
changes once it has been created; you may think of it as the object's address in
memory. The :keyword:`is` operator compares the identity of two objects; the
@@ -106,12 +102,16 @@ that mutable object is changed.
Types affect almost all aspects of object behavior. Even the importance of
object identity is affected in some sense: for immutable types, operations that
compute new values may actually return a reference to any existing object with
-the same type and value, while for mutable objects this is not allowed. E.g.,
-after ``a = 1; b = 1``, ``a`` and ``b`` may or may not refer to the same object
-with the value one, depending on the implementation, but after ``c = []; d =
-[]``, ``c`` and ``d`` are guaranteed to refer to two different, unique, newly
-created empty lists. (Note that ``c = d = []`` assigns the same object to both
-``c`` and ``d``.)
+the same type and value, while for mutable objects this is not allowed.
+For example, after ``a = 1; b = 1``, *a* and *b* may or may not refer to
+the same object with the value one, depending on the implementation.
+This is because :class:`int` is an immutable type, so the reference to ``1``
+can be reused. This behaviour depends on the implementation used, so should
+not be relied upon, but is something to be aware of when making use of object
+identity tests.
+However, after ``c = []; d = []``, *c* and *d* are guaranteed to refer to two
+different, unique, newly created empty lists. (Note that ``e = f = []`` assigns
+the *same* object to both *e* and *f*.)
.. _types:
@@ -215,7 +215,7 @@ properties:
* A sign is shown only when the number is negative.
-Python distinguishes between integers, floating point numbers, and complex
+Python distinguishes between integers, floating-point numbers, and complex
numbers:
@@ -259,18 +259,18 @@ Booleans (:class:`bool`)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
.. index::
- pair: object; floating point
- pair: floating point; number
+ pair: object; floating-point
+ pair: floating-point; number
pair: C; language
pair: Java; language
-These represent machine-level double precision floating point numbers. You are
+These represent machine-level double precision floating-point numbers. You are
at the mercy of the underlying machine architecture (and C or Java
implementation) for the accepted range and handling of overflow. Python does not
-support single-precision floating point numbers; the savings in processor and
+support single-precision floating-point numbers; the savings in processor and
memory usage that are usually the reason for using these are dwarfed by the
overhead of using objects in Python, so there is no reason to complicate the
-language with two kinds of floating point numbers.
+language with two kinds of floating-point numbers.
:class:`numbers.Complex` (:class:`complex`)
@@ -281,7 +281,7 @@ language with two kinds of floating point numbers.
pair: complex; number
These represent complex numbers as a pair of machine-level double precision
-floating point numbers. The same caveats apply as for floating point numbers.
+floating-point numbers. The same caveats apply as for floating-point numbers.
The real and imaginary parts of a complex number ``z`` can be retrieved through
the read-only attributes ``z.real`` and ``z.imag``.
@@ -373,7 +373,7 @@ Bytes
A bytes object is an immutable array. The items are 8-bit bytes,
represented by integers in the range 0 <= x < 256. Bytes literals
- (like ``b'abc'``) and the built-in :func:`bytes()` constructor
+ (like ``b'abc'``) and the built-in :func:`bytes` constructor
can be used to create bytes objects. Also, bytes objects can be
decoded to strings via the :meth:`~bytes.decode` method.
@@ -492,7 +492,7 @@ in the same order they were added sequentially over the dictionary.
Replacing an existing key does not change the order, however removing a key
and re-inserting it will add it to the end instead of keeping its old place.
-Dictionaries are mutable; they can be created by the ``{...}`` notation (see
+Dictionaries are mutable; they can be created by the ``{}`` notation (see
section :ref:`dict`).
.. index::
@@ -541,6 +541,7 @@ Special read-only attributes
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
.. index::
+ single: __builtins__ (function attribute)
single: __closure__ (function attribute)
single: __globals__ (function attribute)
pair: global; namespace
@@ -551,14 +552,21 @@ Special read-only attributes
* - Attribute
- Meaning
+ * - .. attribute:: function.__builtins__
+ - A reference to the :class:`dictionary <dict>` that holds the function's
+ builtins namespace.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.10
+
* - .. attribute:: function.__globals__
- A reference to the :class:`dictionary <dict>` that holds the function's
:ref:`global variables <naming>` -- the global namespace of the module
in which the function was defined.
* - .. attribute:: function.__closure__
- - ``None`` or a :class:`tuple` of cells that contain bindings for the
- function's free variables.
+ - ``None`` or a :class:`tuple` of cells that contain bindings for the names specified
+ in the :attr:`~codeobject.co_freevars` attribute of the function's
+ :attr:`code object <function.__code__>`.
A cell object has the attribute ``cell_contents``.
This can be used to get the value of the cell, as well as set the value.
@@ -587,7 +595,6 @@ Most of these attributes check the type of the assigned value:
* - .. attribute:: function.__doc__
- The function's documentation string, or ``None`` if unavailable.
- Not inherited by subclasses.
* - .. attribute:: function.__name__
- The function's name.
@@ -727,14 +734,7 @@ When an instance method object is derived from a :class:`classmethod` object, th
itself, so that calling either ``x.f(1)`` or ``C.f(1)`` is equivalent to
calling ``f(C,1)`` where ``f`` is the underlying function.
-Note that the transformation from :ref:`function object <user-defined-funcs>`
-to instance method
-object happens each time the attribute is retrieved from the instance. In
-some cases, a fruitful optimization is to assign the attribute to a local
-variable and call that local variable. Also notice that this
-transformation only happens for user-defined functions; other callable
-objects (and all non-callable objects) are retrieved without
-transformation. It is also important to note that user-defined functions
+It is important to note that user-defined functions
which are attributes of a class instance are not converted to bound
methods; this *only* happens when the function is an attribute of the
class.
@@ -747,12 +747,12 @@ Generator functions
single: generator; function
single: generator; iterator
-A function or method which uses the :keyword:`yield` statement (see section
-:ref:`yield`) is called a :dfn:`generator function`. Such a function, when
+A function or method which contains a :keyword:`yield` expression (see section
+:ref:`yieldexpr`) is called a :dfn:`generator function`. Such a function, when
called, always returns an :term:`iterator` object which can be used to
execute the body of the function: calling the iterator's
:meth:`iterator.__next__` method will cause the function to execute until
-it provides a value using the :keyword:`!yield` statement. When the
+it provides a value using the :keyword:`!yield` expression. When the
function executes a :keyword:`return` statement or falls off the end, a
:exc:`StopIteration` exception is raised and the iterator will have
reached the end of the set of values to be returned.
@@ -779,7 +779,7 @@ Asynchronous generator functions
single: asynchronous generator; asynchronous iterator
A function or method which is defined using :keyword:`async def` and
-which uses the :keyword:`yield` statement is called a
+which contains a :keyword:`yield` expression is called a
:dfn:`asynchronous generator function`. Such a function, when called,
returns an :term:`asynchronous iterator` object which can be used in an
:keyword:`async for` statement to execute the body of the function.
@@ -835,6 +835,7 @@ this case, the special read-only attribute :attr:`!__self__` is set to the objec
denoted by *alist*. (The attribute has the same semantics as it does with
:attr:`other instance methods <method.__self__>`.)
+.. _classes:
Classes
^^^^^^^
@@ -853,6 +854,8 @@ Instances of arbitrary classes can be made callable by defining a
:meth:`~object.__call__` method in their class.
+.. _module-objects:
+
Modules
-------
@@ -878,47 +881,235 @@ Attribute assignment updates the module's namespace dictionary, e.g.,
.. index::
single: __name__ (module attribute)
- single: __doc__ (module attribute)
+ single: __spec__ (module attribute)
+ single: __package__ (module attribute)
+ single: __loader__ (module attribute)
+ single: __path__ (module attribute)
single: __file__ (module attribute)
+ single: __cached__ (module attribute)
+ single: __doc__ (module attribute)
single: __annotations__ (module attribute)
pair: module; namespace
-Predefined (writable) attributes:
+.. _import-mod-attrs:
+
+Import-related attributes on module objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Module objects have the following attributes that relate to the
+:ref:`import system <importsystem>`. When a module is created using the machinery associated
+with the import system, these attributes are filled in based on the module's
+:term:`spec <module spec>`, before the :term:`loader` executes and loads the
+module.
+
+To create a module dynamically rather than using the import system,
+it's recommended to use :func:`importlib.util.module_from_spec`,
+which will set the various import-controlled attributes to appropriate values.
+It's also possible to use the :class:`types.ModuleType` constructor to create
+modules directly, but this technique is more error-prone, as most attributes
+must be manually set on the module object after it has been created when using
+this approach.
+
+.. caution::
+
+ With the exception of :attr:`~module.__name__`, it is **strongly**
+ recommended that you rely on :attr:`~module.__spec__` and its attributes
+ instead of any of the other individual attributes listed in this subsection.
+ Note that updating an attribute on :attr:`!__spec__` will not update the
+ corresponding attribute on the module itself:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> import typing
+ >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
+ ('typing', 'typing')
+ >>> typing.__spec__.name = 'spelling'
+ >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
+ ('typing', 'spelling')
+ >>> typing.__name__ = 'keyboard_smashing'
+ >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
+ ('keyboard_smashing', 'spelling')
+
+.. attribute:: module.__name__
+
+ The name used to uniquely identify the module in the import system.
+ For a directly executed module, this will be set to ``"__main__"``.
+
+ This attribute must be set to the fully qualified name of the module.
+ It is expected to match the value of
+ :attr:`module.__spec__.name <importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.name>`.
+
+.. attribute:: module.__spec__
+
+ A record of the module's import-system-related state.
+
+ Set to the :class:`module spec <importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec>` that was
+ used when importing the module. See :ref:`module-specs` for more details.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.4
+
+.. attribute:: module.__package__
+
+ The :term:`package` a module belongs to.
+
+ If the module is top-level (that is, not a part of any specific package)
+ then the attribute should be set to ``''`` (the empty string). Otherwise,
+ it should be set to the name of the module's package (which can be equal to
+ :attr:`module.__name__` if the module itself is a package). See :pep:`366`
+ for further details.
+
+ This attribute is used instead of :attr:`~module.__name__` to calculate
+ explicit relative imports for main modules. It defaults to ``None`` for
+ modules created dynamically using the :class:`types.ModuleType` constructor;
+ use :func:`importlib.util.module_from_spec` instead to ensure the attribute
+ is set to a :class:`str`.
- :attr:`__name__`
- The module's name.
+ It is **strongly** recommended that you use
+ :attr:`module.__spec__.parent <importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.parent>`
+ instead of :attr:`!module.__package__`. :attr:`__package__` is now only used
+ as a fallback if :attr:`!__spec__.parent` is not set, and this fallback
+ path is deprecated.
- :attr:`__doc__`
- The module's documentation string, or ``None`` if
- unavailable.
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+ This attribute now defaults to ``None`` for modules created dynamically
+ using the :class:`types.ModuleType` constructor.
+ Previously the attribute was optional.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.6
+ The value of :attr:`!__package__` is expected to be the same as
+ :attr:`__spec__.parent <importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.parent>`.
+ :attr:`__package__` is now only used as a fallback during import
+ resolution if :attr:`!__spec__.parent` is not defined.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.10
+ :exc:`ImportWarning` is raised if an import resolution falls back to
+ :attr:`!__package__` instead of
+ :attr:`__spec__.parent <importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.parent>`.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12
+ Raise :exc:`DeprecationWarning` instead of :exc:`ImportWarning` when
+ falling back to :attr:`!__package__` during import resolution.
+
+ .. deprecated-removed:: 3.13 3.15
+ :attr:`!__package__` will cease to be set or taken into consideration
+ by the import system or standard library.
+
+.. attribute:: module.__loader__
+
+ The :term:`loader` object that the import machinery used to load the module.
- :attr:`__file__`
- The pathname of the file from which the
- module was loaded, if it was loaded from a file.
- The :attr:`__file__`
- attribute may be missing for certain types of modules, such as C modules
- that are statically linked into the interpreter. For extension modules
- loaded dynamically from a shared library, it's the pathname of the shared
- library file.
+ This attribute is mostly useful for introspection, but can be used for
+ additional loader-specific functionality, for example getting data
+ associated with a loader.
- :attr:`__annotations__`
- A dictionary containing
- :term:`variable annotations <variable annotation>` collected during
- module body execution. For best practices on working
- with :attr:`__annotations__`, please see :ref:`annotations-howto`.
+ :attr:`!__loader__` defaults to ``None`` for modules created dynamically
+ using the :class:`types.ModuleType` constructor;
+ use :func:`importlib.util.module_from_spec` instead to ensure the attribute
+ is set to a :term:`loader` object.
+
+ It is **strongly** recommended that you use
+ :attr:`module.__spec__.loader <importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.loader>`
+ instead of :attr:`!module.__loader__`.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.4
+ This attribute now defaults to ``None`` for modules created dynamically
+ using the :class:`types.ModuleType` constructor.
+ Previously the attribute was optional.
+
+ .. deprecated-removed:: 3.12 3.16
+ Setting :attr:`!__loader__` on a module while failing to set
+ :attr:`!__spec__.loader` is deprecated. In Python 3.16,
+ :attr:`!__loader__` will cease to be set or taken into consideration by
+ the import system or the standard library.
+
+.. attribute:: module.__path__
+
+ A (possibly empty) :term:`sequence` of strings enumerating the locations
+ where the package's submodules will be found. Non-package modules should
+ not have a :attr:`!__path__` attribute. See :ref:`package-path-rules` for
+ more details.
+
+ It is **strongly** recommended that you use
+ :attr:`module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations <importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.submodule_search_locations>`
+ instead of :attr:`!module.__path__`.
+
+.. attribute:: module.__file__
+.. attribute:: module.__cached__
+
+ :attr:`!__file__` and :attr:`!__cached__` are both optional attributes that
+ may or may not be set. Both attributes should be a :class:`str` when they
+ are available.
+
+ :attr:`!__file__` indicates the pathname of the file from which the module
+ was loaded (if loaded from a file), or the pathname of the shared library
+ file for extension modules loaded dynamically from a shared library.
+ It might be missing for certain types of modules, such as C modules that are
+ statically linked into the interpreter, and the
+ :ref:`import system <importsystem>` may opt to leave it unset if it
+ has no semantic meaning (for example, a module loaded from a database).
+
+ If :attr:`!__file__` is set then the :attr:`!__cached__` attribute might
+ also be set, which is the path to any compiled version of
+ the code (for example, a byte-compiled file). The file does not need to exist
+ to set this attribute; the path can simply point to where the
+ compiled file *would* exist (see :pep:`3147`).
+
+ Note that :attr:`!__cached__` may be set even if :attr:`!__file__` is not
+ set. However, that scenario is quite atypical. Ultimately, the
+ :term:`loader` is what makes use of the module spec provided by the
+ :term:`finder` (from which :attr:`!__file__` and :attr:`!__cached__` are
+ derived). So if a loader can load from a cached module but otherwise does
+ not load from a file, that atypical scenario may be appropriate.
+
+ It is **strongly** recommended that you use
+ :attr:`module.__spec__.cached <importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.cached>`
+ instead of :attr:`!module.__cached__`.
+
+ .. deprecated-removed:: 3.13 3.15
+ Setting :attr:`!__cached__` on a module while failing to set
+ :attr:`!__spec__.cached` is deprecated. In Python 3.15,
+ :attr:`!__cached__` will cease to be set or taken into consideration by
+ the import system or standard library.
+
+Other writable attributes on module objects
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+As well as the import-related attributes listed above, module objects also have
+the following writable attributes:
+
+.. attribute:: module.__doc__
+
+ The module's documentation string, or ``None`` if unavailable.
+ See also: :attr:`__doc__ attributes <definition.__doc__>`.
+
+.. attribute:: module.__annotations__
+
+ A dictionary containing
+ :term:`variable annotations <variable annotation>` collected during module
+ body execution. For best practices on working with :attr:`__annotations__`,
+ please see :ref:`annotations-howto`.
+
+Module dictionaries
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Module objects also have the following special read-only attribute:
.. index:: single: __dict__ (module attribute)
+.. attribute:: module.__dict__
-Special read-only attribute: :attr:`~object.__dict__` is the module's
-namespace as a dictionary object.
+ The module's namespace as a dictionary object. Uniquely among the attributes
+ listed here, :attr:`!__dict__` cannot be accessed as a global variable from
+ within a module; it can only be accessed as an attribute on module objects.
-.. impl-detail::
+ .. impl-detail::
+
+ Because of the way CPython clears module dictionaries, the module
+ dictionary will be cleared when the module falls out of scope even if the
+ dictionary still has live references. To avoid this, copy the dictionary
+ or keep the module around while using its dictionary directly.
- Because of the way CPython clears module dictionaries, the module
- dictionary will be cleared when the module falls out of scope even if the
- dictionary still has live references. To avoid this, copy the dictionary
- or keep the module around while using its dictionary directly.
+.. _class-attrs-and-methods:
Custom classes
--------------
@@ -962,53 +1153,122 @@ of a base class.
A class object can be called (see above) to yield a class instance (see below).
+Special attributes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
.. index::
single: __name__ (class attribute)
single: __module__ (class attribute)
single: __dict__ (class attribute)
single: __bases__ (class attribute)
+ single: __base__ (class attribute)
single: __doc__ (class attribute)
single: __annotations__ (class attribute)
single: __type_params__ (class attribute)
single: __static_attributes__ (class attribute)
single: __firstlineno__ (class attribute)
-Special attributes:
+.. list-table::
+ :header-rows: 1
- :attr:`~definition.__name__`
- The class name.
+ * - Attribute
+ - Meaning
- :attr:`__module__`
- The name of the module in which the class was defined.
+ * - .. attribute:: type.__name__
+ - The class's name.
+ See also: :attr:`__name__ attributes <definition.__name__>`.
- :attr:`~object.__dict__`
- The dictionary containing the class's namespace.
+ * - .. attribute:: type.__qualname__
+ - The class's :term:`qualified name`.
+ See also: :attr:`__qualname__ attributes <definition.__qualname__>`.
- :attr:`~class.__bases__`
- A tuple containing the base classes, in the order of
- their occurrence in the base class list.
+ * - .. attribute:: type.__module__
+ - The name of the module in which the class was defined.
+
+ * - .. attribute:: type.__dict__
+ - A :class:`mapping proxy <types.MappingProxyType>`
+ providing a read-only view of the class's namespace.
+ See also: :attr:`__dict__ attributes <object.__dict__>`.
+
+ * - .. attribute:: type.__bases__
+ - A :class:`tuple` containing the class's bases.
+ In most cases, for a class defined as ``class X(A, B, C)``,
+ ``X.__bases__`` will be exactly equal to ``(A, B, C)``.
+
+ * - .. attribute:: type.__base__
+ - .. impl-detail::
+
+ The single base class in the inheritance chain that is responsible
+ for the memory layout of instances. This attribute corresponds to
+ :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_base` at the C level.
+
+ * - .. attribute:: type.__doc__
+ - The class's documentation string, or ``None`` if undefined.
+ Not inherited by subclasses.
- :attr:`__doc__`
- The class's documentation string, or ``None`` if undefined.
+ * - .. attribute:: type.__annotations__
+ - A dictionary containing
+ :term:`variable annotations <variable annotation>`
+ collected during class body execution. For best practices on working
+ with :attr:`!__annotations__`, please see :ref:`annotations-howto`.
+
+ .. caution::
+
+ Accessing the :attr:`!__annotations__` attribute of a class
+ object directly may yield incorrect results in the presence of
+ metaclasses. In addition, the attribute may not exist for
+ some classes. Use :func:`inspect.get_annotations` to
+ retrieve class annotations safely.
+
+ * - .. attribute:: type.__type_params__
+ - A :class:`tuple` containing the :ref:`type parameters <type-params>` of
+ a :ref:`generic class <generic-classes>`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.12
+
+ * - .. attribute:: type.__static_attributes__
+ - A :class:`tuple` containing names of attributes of this class which are
+ assigned through ``self.X`` from any function in its body.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+ * - .. attribute:: type.__firstlineno__
+ - The line number of the first line of the class definition,
+ including decorators.
+ Setting the :attr:`~type.__module__` attribute removes the
+ :attr:`!__firstlineno__` item from the type's dictionary.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+ * - .. attribute:: type.__mro__
+ - The :class:`tuple` of classes that are considered when looking for
+ base classes during method resolution.
+
+
+Special methods
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
- :attr:`__annotations__`
- A dictionary containing
- :term:`variable annotations <variable annotation>`
- collected during class body execution. For best practices on
- working with :attr:`__annotations__`, please see
- :ref:`annotations-howto`.
+In addition to the special attributes described above, all Python classes also
+have the following two methods available:
- :attr:`__type_params__`
- A tuple containing the :ref:`type parameters <type-params>` of
- a :ref:`generic class <generic-classes>`.
+.. method:: type.mro
- :attr:`~class.__static_attributes__`
- A tuple containing names of attributes of this class which are accessed
- through ``self.X`` from any function in its body.
+ This method can be overridden by a metaclass to customize the method
+ resolution order for its instances. It is called at class instantiation,
+ and its result is stored in :attr:`~type.__mro__`.
- :attr:`__firstlineno__`
- The line number of the first line of the class definition, including decorators.
+.. method:: type.__subclasses__
+ Each class keeps a list of weak references to its immediate subclasses. This
+ method returns a list of all those references still alive. The list is in
+ definition order. Example:
+
+ .. doctest::
+
+ >>> class A: pass
+ >>> class B(A): pass
+ >>> A.__subclasses__()
+ [<class 'B'>]
Class instances
---------------
@@ -1048,12 +1308,22 @@ dictionary directly.
Class instances can pretend to be numbers, sequences, or mappings if they have
methods with certain special names. See section :ref:`specialnames`.
+Special attributes
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
.. index::
single: __dict__ (instance attribute)
single: __class__ (instance attribute)
-Special attributes: :attr:`~object.__dict__` is the attribute dictionary;
-:attr:`~instance.__class__` is the instance's class.
+.. attribute:: object.__class__
+
+ The class to which a class instance belongs.
+
+.. attribute:: object.__dict__
+
+ A dictionary or other mapping object used to store an object's (writable)
+ attributes. Not all instances have a :attr:`!__dict__` attribute; see the
+ section on :ref:`slots` for more details.
I/O objects (also known as file objects)
@@ -1078,12 +1348,28 @@ also :func:`os.popen`, :func:`os.fdopen`, and the
:meth:`~socket.socket.makefile` method of socket objects (and perhaps by
other functions or methods provided by extension modules).
+File objects implement common methods, listed below, to simplify usage in
+generic code. They are expected to be :ref:`context-managers`.
+
The objects ``sys.stdin``, ``sys.stdout`` and ``sys.stderr`` are
initialized to file objects corresponding to the interpreter's standard
input, output and error streams; they are all open in text mode and
therefore follow the interface defined by the :class:`io.TextIOBase`
abstract class.
+.. method:: file.read(size=-1, /)
+
+ Retrieve up to *size* data from the file. As a convenience if *size* is
+ unspecified or -1 retrieve all data available.
+
+.. method:: file.write(data, /)
+
+ Store *data* to the file.
+
+.. method:: file.close()
+
+ Flush any buffers and close the underlying file.
+
Internal types
--------------
@@ -1168,10 +1454,14 @@ Special read-only attributes
* - .. attribute:: codeobject.co_cellvars
- A :class:`tuple` containing the names of :ref:`local variables <naming>`
- that are referenced by nested functions inside the function
+ that are referenced from at least one :term:`nested scope` inside the function
* - .. attribute:: codeobject.co_freevars
- - A :class:`tuple` containing the names of free variables in the function
+ - A :class:`tuple` containing the names of
+ :term:`free (closure) variables <closure variable>` that a :term:`nested scope`
+ references in an outer scope. See also :attr:`function.__closure__`.
+
+ Note: references to global and builtin names are *not* included.
* - .. attribute:: codeobject.co_code
- A string representing the sequence of :term:`bytecode` instructions in
@@ -1197,7 +1487,7 @@ Special read-only attributes
.. deprecated:: 3.12
This attribute of code objects is deprecated, and may be removed in
- Python 3.14.
+ Python 3.15.
* - .. attribute:: codeobject.co_stacksize
- The required stack size of the code object
@@ -1216,11 +1506,9 @@ positional arguments; bit ``0x08`` is set if the function uses the
if the function is a generator. See :ref:`inspect-module-co-flags` for details
on the semantics of each flags that might be present.
-Future feature declarations (``from __future__ import division``) also use bits
+Future feature declarations (for example, ``from __future__ import division``) also use bits
in :attr:`~codeobject.co_flags` to indicate whether a code object was compiled with a
-particular feature enabled: bit ``0x2000`` is set if the function was compiled
-with future division enabled; bits ``0x10`` and ``0x1000`` were used in earlier
-versions of Python.
+particular feature enabled. See :attr:`~__future__._Feature.compiler_flag`.
Other bits in :attr:`~codeobject.co_flags` are reserved for internal use.
@@ -1240,7 +1528,7 @@ Methods on code objects
The iterator returns :class:`tuple`\s containing the ``(start_line, end_line,
start_column, end_column)``. The *i-th* tuple corresponds to the
- position of the source code that compiled to the *i-th* instruction.
+ position of the source code that compiled to the *i-th* code unit.
Column information is 0-indexed utf-8 byte offsets on the given source
line.
@@ -1344,13 +1632,13 @@ Special read-only attributes
``object.__getattr__`` with arguments ``obj`` and ``"f_code"``.
* - .. attribute:: frame.f_locals
- - The dictionary used by the frame to look up
+ - The mapping used by the frame to look up
:ref:`local variables <naming>`.
- If the frame refers to a function or comprehension,
+ If the frame refers to an :term:`optimized scope`,
this may return a write-through proxy object.
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
- Return a proxy for functions and comprehensions.
+ Return a proxy for optimized scopes.
* - .. attribute:: frame.f_globals
- The dictionary used by the frame to look up
@@ -1586,9 +1874,9 @@ falling back to :meth:`~object.__getitem__`). [#]_
When implementing a class that emulates any built-in type, it is important that
the emulation only be implemented to the degree that it makes sense for the
object being modelled. For example, some sequences may work well with retrieval
-of individual elements, but extracting a slice may not make sense. (One example
-of this is the :class:`~xml.dom.NodeList` interface in the W3C's Document
-Object Model.)
+of individual elements, but extracting a slice may not make sense.
+(One example of this is the :ref:`NodeList <dom-nodelist-objects>` interface
+in the W3C's Document Object Model.)
.. _customization:
@@ -1664,6 +1952,8 @@ Basic customization
It is not guaranteed that :meth:`__del__` methods are called for objects
that still exist when the interpreter exits.
+ :class:`weakref.finalize` provides a straightforward way to register
+ a cleanup function to be called when an object is garbage collected.
.. note::
@@ -1721,7 +2011,8 @@ Basic customization
"informal" string representation of instances of that class is required.
This is typically used for debugging, so it is important that the representation
- is information-rich and unambiguous.
+ is information-rich and unambiguous. A default implementation is provided by the
+ :class:`object` class itself.
.. index::
single: string; __str__() (object method)
@@ -1731,10 +2022,10 @@ Basic customization
.. method:: object.__str__(self)
- Called by :func:`str(object) <str>` and the built-in functions
- :func:`format` and :func:`print` to compute the "informal" or nicely
+ Called by :func:`str(object) <str>`, the default :meth:`__format__` implementation,
+ and the built-in function :func:`print`, to compute the "informal" or nicely
printable string representation of an object. The return value must be a
- :ref:`string <textseq>` object.
+ :ref:`str <textseq>` object.
This method differs from :meth:`object.__repr__` in that there is no
expectation that :meth:`__str__` return a valid Python expression: a more
@@ -1751,7 +2042,8 @@ Basic customization
.. index:: pair: built-in function; bytes
Called by :ref:`bytes <func-bytes>` to compute a byte-string representation
- of an object. This should return a :class:`bytes` object.
+ of an object. This should return a :class:`bytes` object. The :class:`object`
+ class itself does not provide this method.
.. index::
single: string; __format__() (object method)
@@ -1775,6 +2067,9 @@ Basic customization
The return value must be a string object.
+ The default implementation by the :class:`object` class should be given
+ an empty *format_spec* string. It delegates to :meth:`__str__`.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.4
The __format__ method of ``object`` itself raises a :exc:`TypeError`
if passed any non-empty string.
@@ -1815,7 +2110,13 @@ Basic customization
:data:`!NotImplemented`. There are no other implied relationships among the
comparison operators or default implementations; for example, the truth of
``(x<y or x==y)`` does not imply ``x<=y``. To automatically generate ordering
- operations from a single root operation, see :func:`functools.total_ordering`.
+ operations from a single root operation, see :deco:`functools.total_ordering`.
+
+ By default, the :class:`object` class provides implementations consistent
+ with :ref:`expressions-value-comparisons`: equality compares according to
+ object identity, and order comparisons raise :exc:`TypeError`. Each default
+ method may generate these results directly, but may also return
+ :data:`NotImplemented`.
See the paragraph on :meth:`__hash__` for
some important notes on creating :term:`hashable` objects which support
@@ -1872,9 +2173,9 @@ Basic customization
bucket).
User-defined classes have :meth:`__eq__` and :meth:`__hash__` methods
- by default; with them, all objects compare unequal (except with themselves)
- and ``x.__hash__()`` returns an appropriate value such that ``x == y``
- implies both that ``x is y`` and ``hash(x) == hash(y)``.
+ by default (inherited from the :class:`object` class); with them, all objects compare
+ unequal (except with themselves) and ``x.__hash__()`` returns an appropriate
+ value such that ``x == y`` implies both that ``x is y`` and ``hash(x) == hash(y)``.
A class that overrides :meth:`__eq__` and does not define :meth:`__hash__`
will have its :meth:`__hash__` implicitly set to ``None``. When the
@@ -1904,7 +2205,7 @@ Basic customization
This is intended to provide protection against a denial-of-service caused
by carefully chosen inputs that exploit the worst case performance of a
dict insertion, *O*\ (*n*\ :sup:`2`) complexity. See
- http://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html for details.
+ https://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html for details.
Changing hash values affects the iteration order of sets.
Python has never made guarantees about this ordering
@@ -1924,8 +2225,8 @@ Basic customization
``bool()``; should return ``False`` or ``True``. When this method is not
defined, :meth:`~object.__len__` is called, if it is defined, and the object is
considered true if its result is nonzero. If a class defines neither
- :meth:`!__len__` nor :meth:`!__bool__`, all its instances are considered
- true.
+ :meth:`!__len__` nor :meth:`!__bool__` (which is true of the :class:`object`
+ class itself), all its instances are considered true.
.. _attribute-access:
@@ -1947,6 +2248,7 @@ access (use of, assignment to, or deletion of ``x.name``) for class instances.
for ``self``; or :meth:`__get__` of a *name* property raises
:exc:`AttributeError`). This method should either return the (computed)
attribute value or raise an :exc:`AttributeError` exception.
+ The :class:`object` class itself does not provide this method.
Note that if the attribute is found through the normal mechanism,
:meth:`__getattr__` is not called. (This is an intentional asymmetry between
@@ -2027,6 +2329,9 @@ Customizing module attribute access
single: __dir__ (module attribute)
single: __class__ (module attribute)
+.. method:: module.__getattr__
+ module.__dir__
+
Special names ``__getattr__`` and ``__dir__`` can be also used to customize
access to module attributes. The ``__getattr__`` function at the module level
should accept one argument which is the name of an attribute and return the
@@ -2040,6 +2345,8 @@ The ``__dir__`` function should accept no arguments, and return an iterable of
strings that represents the names accessible on module. If present, this
function overrides the standard :func:`dir` search on a module.
+.. attribute:: module.__class__
+
For a more fine grained customization of the module behavior (setting
attributes, properties, etc.), one can set the ``__class__`` attribute of
a module object to a subclass of :class:`types.ModuleType`. For example::
@@ -2085,8 +2392,8 @@ method (a so-called *descriptor* class) appears in an *owner* class (the
descriptor must be in either the owner's class dictionary or in the class
dictionary for one of its parents). In the examples below, "the attribute"
refers to the attribute whose name is the key of the property in the owner
-class' :attr:`~object.__dict__`.
-
+class' :attr:`~object.__dict__`. The :class:`object` class itself does not
+implement any of these protocols.
.. method:: object.__get__(self, instance, owner=None)
@@ -2222,12 +2529,12 @@ instance dictionary. In contrast, non-data descriptors can be overridden by
instances.
Python methods (including those decorated with
-:func:`@staticmethod <staticmethod>` and :func:`@classmethod <classmethod>`) are
+:deco:`staticmethod` and :deco:`classmethod`) are
implemented as non-data descriptors. Accordingly, instances can redefine and
override methods. This allows individual instances to acquire behaviors that
differ from other instances of the same class.
-The :func:`property` function is implemented as a data descriptor. Accordingly,
+The :deco:`property` decorator is implemented as a data descriptor. Accordingly,
instances cannot override the behavior of a property.
@@ -2281,9 +2588,9 @@ Notes on using *__slots__*:
* The action of a *__slots__* declaration is not limited to the class
where it is defined. *__slots__* declared in parents are available in
- child classes. However, child subclasses will get a :attr:`~object.__dict__` and
- *__weakref__* unless they also define *__slots__* (which should only
- contain names of any *additional* slots).
+ child classes. However, instances of a child subclass will get a
+ :attr:`~object.__dict__` and *__weakref__* unless the subclass also defines
+ *__slots__* (which should only contain names of any *additional* slots).
* If a class defines a slot also defined in a base class, the instance variable
defined by the base class slot is inaccessible (except by retrieving its
@@ -2302,7 +2609,7 @@ Notes on using *__slots__*:
to provide per-attribute docstrings that will be recognised by
:func:`inspect.getdoc` and displayed in the output of :func:`help`.
-* :attr:`~instance.__class__` assignment works only if both classes have the
+* :attr:`~object.__class__` assignment works only if both classes have the
same *__slots__*.
* :ref:`Multiple inheritance <tut-multiple>` with multiple slotted parent
@@ -2361,7 +2668,7 @@ class defining the method.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
-When a class is created, :meth:`type.__new__` scans the class variables
+When a class is created, :meth:`!type.__new__` scans the class variables
and makes callbacks to those with a :meth:`~object.__set_name__` hook.
.. method:: object.__set_name__(self, owner, name)
@@ -2568,7 +2875,7 @@ in the local namespace as the defined class.
When a new class is created by ``type.__new__``, the object provided as the
namespace parameter is copied to a new ordered mapping and the original
object is discarded. The new copy is wrapped in a read-only proxy, which
-becomes the :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute of the class object.
+becomes the :attr:`~type.__dict__` attribute of the class object.
.. seealso::
@@ -2596,14 +2903,14 @@ order to allow the addition of Abstract Base Classes (ABCs) as "virtual base
classes" to any class or type (including built-in types), including other
ABCs.
-.. method:: class.__instancecheck__(self, instance)
+.. method:: type.__instancecheck__(self, instance)
Return true if *instance* should be considered a (direct or indirect)
instance of *class*. If defined, called to implement ``isinstance(instance,
class)``.
-.. method:: class.__subclasscheck__(self, subclass)
+.. method:: type.__subclasscheck__(self, subclass)
Return true if *subclass* should be considered a (direct or indirect)
subclass of *class*. If defined, called to implement ``issubclass(subclass,
@@ -2619,8 +2926,8 @@ case the instance is itself a class.
:pep:`3119` - Introducing Abstract Base Classes
Includes the specification for customizing :func:`isinstance` and
- :func:`issubclass` behavior through :meth:`~class.__instancecheck__` and
- :meth:`~class.__subclasscheck__`, with motivation for this functionality
+ :func:`issubclass` behavior through :meth:`~type.__instancecheck__` and
+ :meth:`~type.__subclasscheck__`, with motivation for this functionality
in the context of adding Abstract Base Classes (see the :mod:`abc`
module) to the language.
@@ -2655,7 +2962,7 @@ class method ``__class_getitem__()``.
When defined on a class, ``__class_getitem__()`` is automatically a class
method. As such, there is no need for it to be decorated with
- :func:`@classmethod<classmethod>` when it is defined.
+ :deco:`classmethod` when it is defined.
The purpose of *__class_getitem__*
@@ -2778,6 +3085,7 @@ Emulating callable objects
Called when the instance is "called" as a function; if this method is defined,
``x(arg1, arg2, ...)`` roughly translates to ``type(x).__call__(x, arg1, ...)``.
+ The :class:`object` class itself does not provide this method.
.. _sequence-types:
@@ -2785,10 +3093,11 @@ Emulating callable objects
Emulating container types
-------------------------
-The following methods can be defined to implement container objects. Containers
-usually are :term:`sequences <sequence>` (such as :class:`lists <list>` or
+The following methods can be defined to implement container objects. None of them
+are provided by the :class:`object` class itself. Containers usually are
+:term:`sequences <sequence>` (such as :class:`lists <list>` or
:class:`tuples <tuple>`) or :term:`mappings <mapping>` (like
-:class:`dictionaries <dict>`),
+:term:`dictionaries <dictionary>`),
but can represent other containers as well. The first set of methods is used
either to emulate a sequence or to emulate a mapping; the difference is that for
a sequence, the allowable keys should be the integers *k* for which ``0 <= k <
@@ -2802,16 +3111,20 @@ objects. The :mod:`collections.abc` module provides a
:term:`abstract base class` to help create those methods from a base set of
:meth:`~object.__getitem__`, :meth:`~object.__setitem__`,
:meth:`~object.__delitem__`, and :meth:`!keys`.
-Mutable sequences should provide methods :meth:`!append`, :meth:`!count`,
-:meth:`!index`, :meth:`!extend`, :meth:`!insert`, :meth:`!pop`, :meth:`!remove`,
-:meth:`!reverse` and :meth:`!sort`, like Python standard :class:`list`
-objects. Finally,
-sequence types should implement addition (meaning concatenation) and
+
+Mutable sequences should provide methods
+:meth:`~sequence.append`, :meth:`~sequence.clear`, :meth:`~sequence.count`,
+:meth:`~sequence.extend`, :meth:`~sequence.index`, :meth:`~sequence.insert`,
+:meth:`~sequence.pop`, :meth:`~sequence.remove`, and :meth:`~sequence.reverse`,
+like Python standard :class:`list` objects.
+Finally, sequence types should implement addition (meaning concatenation) and
multiplication (meaning repetition) by defining the methods
:meth:`~object.__add__`, :meth:`~object.__radd__`, :meth:`~object.__iadd__`,
:meth:`~object.__mul__`, :meth:`~object.__rmul__` and :meth:`~object.__imul__`
described below; they should not define other numerical
-operators. It is recommended that both mappings and sequences implement the
+operators.
+
+It is recommended that both mappings and sequences implement the
:meth:`~object.__contains__` method to allow efficient use of the ``in``
operator; for
mappings, ``in`` should search the mapping's keys; for sequences, it should
@@ -3151,6 +3464,7 @@ Typical uses of context managers include saving and restoring various kinds of
global state, locking and unlocking resources, closing opened files, etc.
For more information on context managers, see :ref:`typecontextmanager`.
+The :class:`object` class itself does not provide the context manager methods.
.. method:: object.__enter__(self)
@@ -3355,6 +3669,8 @@ are awaitable.
Must return an :term:`iterator`. Should be used to implement
:term:`awaitable` objects. For instance, :class:`asyncio.Future` implements
this method to be compatible with the :keyword:`await` expression.
+ The :class:`object` class itself is not awaitable and does not provide
+ this method.
.. note::
@@ -3386,6 +3702,9 @@ Coroutines also have the methods listed below, which are analogous to
those of generators (see :ref:`generator-methods`). However, unlike
generators, coroutines do not directly support iteration.
+Coroutines are :ref:`generic <generics>` over the types of their yield, send,
+and return values, respectively.
+
.. versionchanged:: 3.5.2
It is a :exc:`RuntimeError` to await on a coroutine more than once.
@@ -3440,6 +3759,9 @@ its ``__anext__`` method.
Asynchronous iterators can be used in an :keyword:`async for` statement.
+The :class:`object` class itself does not provide these methods.
+
+
.. method:: object.__aiter__(self)
Must return an *asynchronous iterator* object.
@@ -3486,6 +3808,8 @@ suspend execution in its ``__aenter__`` and ``__aexit__`` methods.
Asynchronous context managers can be used in an :keyword:`async with` statement.
+The :class:`object` class itself does not provide these methods.
+
.. method:: object.__aenter__(self)
Semantically similar to :meth:`~object.__enter__`, the only
diff --git a/Doc/reference/executionmodel.rst b/Doc/reference/executionmodel.rst
index f24e1537af39ed5..4dd3401345f07f4 100644
--- a/Doc/reference/executionmodel.rst
+++ b/Doc/reference/executionmodel.rst
@@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ If a name is bound in a block, it is a local variable of that block, unless
declared as :keyword:`nonlocal` or :keyword:`global`. If a name is bound at
the module level, it is a global variable. (The variables of the module code
block are local and global.) If a variable is used in a code block but not
-defined there, it is a :dfn:`free variable`.
+defined there, it is a :term:`free variable`.
Each occurrence of a name in the program text refers to the :dfn:`binding` of
that name established by the following name resolution rules.
@@ -225,8 +225,8 @@ Annotation scopes differ from function scopes in the following ways:
statements in inner scopes. This includes only type parameters, as no other
syntactic elements that can appear within annotation scopes can introduce new names.
* While annotation scopes have an internal name, that name is not reflected in the
- :term:`__qualname__ <qualified name>` of objects defined within the scope.
- Instead, the :attr:`!__qualname__`
+ :term:`qualified name` of objects defined within the scope.
+ Instead, the :attr:`~definition.__qualname__`
of such objects is as if the object were defined in the enclosing scope.
.. versionadded:: 3.12
@@ -330,6 +330,9 @@ enclosing namespace, but in the global namespace. [#]_ The :func:`exec` and
:func:`eval` functions have optional arguments to override the global and local
namespace. If only one namespace is specified, it is used for both.
+.. XXX(ncoghlan) above is only accurate for string execution. When executing code objects,
+ closure cells may now be passed explicitly to resolve co_freevars references.
+ Docs issue: https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122826
.. _exceptions:
@@ -388,6 +391,191 @@ See also the description of the :keyword:`try` statement in section :ref:`try`
and :keyword:`raise` statement in section :ref:`raise`.
+.. _execcomponents:
+
+Runtime Components
+==================
+
+General Computing Model
+-----------------------
+
+Python's execution model does not operate in a vacuum. It runs on
+a host machine and through that host's runtime environment, including
+its operating system (OS), if there is one. When a program runs,
+the conceptual layers of how it runs on the host look something
+like this:
+
+ | **host machine**
+ | **process** (global resources)
+ | **thread** (runs machine code)
+
+Each process represents a program running on the host. Think of each
+process itself as the data part of its program. Think of the process'
+threads as the execution part of the program. This distinction will
+be important to understand the conceptual Python runtime.
+
+The process, as the data part, is the execution context in which the
+program runs. It mostly consists of the set of resources assigned to
+the program by the host, including memory, signals, file handles,
+sockets, and environment variables.
+
+Processes are isolated and independent from one another. (The same
+is true for hosts.) The host manages the process' access to its
+assigned resources, in addition to coordinating between processes.
+
+Each thread represents the actual execution of the program's machine
+code, running relative to the resources assigned to the program's
+process. It's strictly up to the host how and when that execution
+takes place.
+
+From the point of view of Python, a program always starts with exactly
+one thread. However, the program may grow to run in multiple
+simultaneous threads. Not all hosts support multiple threads per
+process, but most do. Unlike processes, threads in a process are not
+isolated and independent from one another. Specifically, all threads
+in a process share all of the process' resources.
+
+The fundamental point of threads is that each one does *run*
+independently, at the same time as the others. That may be only
+conceptually at the same time ("concurrently") or physically
+("in parallel"). Either way, the threads effectively run
+at a non-synchronized rate.
+
+.. note::
+
+ That non-synchronized rate means none of the process' memory is
+ guaranteed to stay consistent for the code running in any given
+ thread. Thus multi-threaded programs must take care to coordinate
+ access to intentionally shared resources. Likewise, they must take
+ care to be absolutely diligent about not accessing any *other*
+ resources in multiple threads; otherwise two threads running at the
+ same time might accidentally interfere with each other's use of some
+ shared data. All this is true for both Python programs and the
+ Python runtime.
+
+ The cost of this broad, unstructured requirement is the tradeoff for
+ the kind of raw concurrency that threads provide. The alternative
+ to the required discipline generally means dealing with
+ non-deterministic bugs and data corruption.
+
+Python Runtime Model
+--------------------
+
+The same conceptual layers apply to each Python program, with some
+extra data layers specific to Python:
+
+ | **host machine**
+ | **process** (global resources)
+ | Python global runtime (*state*)
+ | Python interpreter (*state*)
+ | **thread** (runs Python bytecode and "C-API")
+ | Python thread *state*
+
+At the conceptual level: when a Python program starts, it looks exactly
+like that diagram, with one of each. The runtime may grow to include
+multiple interpreters, and each interpreter may grow to include
+multiple thread states.
+
+.. note::
+
+ A Python implementation won't necessarily implement the runtime
+ layers distinctly or even concretely. The only exception is places
+ where distinct layers are directly specified or exposed to users,
+ like through the :mod:`threading` module.
+
+.. note::
+
+ The initial interpreter is typically called the "main" interpreter.
+ Some Python implementations, like CPython, assign special roles
+ to the main interpreter.
+
+ Likewise, the host thread where the runtime was initialized is known
+ as the "main" thread. It may be different from the process' initial
+ thread, though they are often the same. In some cases "main thread"
+ may be even more specific and refer to the initial thread state.
+ A Python runtime might assign specific responsibilities
+ to the main thread, such as handling signals.
+
+As a whole, the Python runtime consists of the global runtime state,
+interpreters, and thread states. The runtime ensures all that state
+stays consistent over its lifetime, particularly when used with
+multiple host threads.
+
+The global runtime, at the conceptual level, is just a set of
+interpreters. While those interpreters are otherwise isolated and
+independent from one another, they may share some data or other
+resources. The runtime is responsible for managing these global
+resources safely. The actual nature and management of these resources
+is implementation-specific. Ultimately, the external utility of the
+global runtime is limited to managing interpreters.
+
+In contrast, an "interpreter" is conceptually what we would normally
+think of as the (full-featured) "Python runtime". When machine code
+executing in a host thread interacts with the Python runtime, it calls
+into Python in the context of a specific interpreter.
+
+.. note::
+
+ The term "interpreter" here is not the same as the "bytecode
+ interpreter", which is what regularly runs in threads, executing
+ compiled Python code.
+
+ In an ideal world, "Python runtime" would refer to what we currently
+ call "interpreter". However, it's been called "interpreter" at least
+ since introduced in 1997 (`CPython:a027efa5b`_).
+
+ .. _CPython:a027efa5b: https://github.com/python/cpython/commit/a027efa5b
+
+Each interpreter completely encapsulates all of the non-process-global,
+non-thread-specific state needed for the Python runtime to work.
+Notably, the interpreter's state persists between uses. It includes
+fundamental data like :data:`sys.modules`. The runtime ensures
+multiple threads using the same interpreter will safely
+share it between them.
+
+A Python implementation may support using multiple interpreters at the
+same time in the same process. They are independent and isolated from
+one another. For example, each interpreter has its own
+:data:`sys.modules`.
+
+For thread-specific runtime state, each interpreter has a set of thread
+states, which it manages, in the same way the global runtime contains
+a set of interpreters. It can have thread states for as many host
+threads as it needs. It may even have multiple thread states for
+the same host thread, though that isn't as common.
+
+Each thread state, conceptually, has all the thread-specific runtime
+data an interpreter needs to operate in one host thread. The thread
+state includes the current raised exception and the thread's Python
+call stack. It may include other thread-specific resources.
+
+.. note::
+
+ The term "Python thread" can sometimes refer to a thread state, but
+ normally it means a thread created using the :mod:`threading` module.
+
+Each thread state, over its lifetime, is always tied to exactly one
+interpreter and exactly one host thread. It will only ever be used in
+that thread and with that interpreter.
+
+Multiple thread states may be tied to the same host thread, whether for
+different interpreters or even the same interpreter. However, for any
+given host thread, only one of the thread states tied to it can be used
+by the thread at a time.
+
+Thread states are isolated and independent from one another and don't
+share any data, except for possibly sharing an interpreter and objects
+or other resources belonging to that interpreter.
+
+Once a program is running, new Python threads can be created using the
+:mod:`threading` module (on platforms and Python implementations that
+support threads). Additional processes can be created using the
+:mod:`os`, :mod:`subprocess`, and :mod:`multiprocessing` modules.
+Coroutines (async) can
+be run using :mod:`asyncio` in each interpreter, typically only
+in a single thread (often the main thread).
+
+
.. rubric:: Footnotes
.. [#] This limitation occurs because the code that is executed by these operations
diff --git a/Doc/reference/expressions.rst b/Doc/reference/expressions.rst
index 00b57effd3e1c01..5744a56a982a1a6 100644
--- a/Doc/reference/expressions.rst
+++ b/Doc/reference/expressions.rst
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ implementation for built-in types works as follows:
* If either argument is a complex number, the other is converted to complex;
-* otherwise, if either argument is a floating point number, the other is
+* otherwise, if either argument is a floating-point number, the other is
converted to floating point;
* otherwise, both must be integers and no conversion is necessary.
@@ -83,18 +83,47 @@ exception.
pair: name; mangling
pair: private; names
-**Private name mangling:** When an identifier that textually occurs in a class
-definition begins with two or more underscore characters and does not end in two
-or more underscores, it is considered a :dfn:`private name` of that class.
-Private names are transformed to a longer form before code is generated for
-them. The transformation inserts the class name, with leading underscores
-removed and a single underscore inserted, in front of the name. For example,
-the identifier ``__spam`` occurring in a class named ``Ham`` will be transformed
-to ``_Ham__spam``. This transformation is independent of the syntactical
-context in which the identifier is used. If the transformed name is extremely
-long (longer than 255 characters), implementation defined truncation may happen.
-If the class name consists only of underscores, no transformation is done.
+Private name mangling
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+When an identifier that textually occurs in a class definition begins with two
+or more underscore characters and does not end in two or more underscores, it
+is considered a :dfn:`private name` of that class.
+
+.. seealso::
+
+ The :ref:`class specifications <class>`.
+
+More precisely, private names are transformed to a longer form before code is
+generated for them. If the transformed name is longer than 255 characters,
+implementation-defined truncation may happen.
+
+The transformation is independent of the syntactical context in which the
+identifier is used but only the following private identifiers are mangled:
+
+- Any name used as the name of a variable that is assigned or read or any
+ name of an attribute being accessed.
+
+ The :attr:`~definition.__name__` attribute of nested functions, classes, and
+ type aliases is however not mangled.
+
+- The name of imported modules, e.g., ``__spam`` in ``import __spam``.
+ If the module is part of a package (i.e., its name contains a dot),
+ the name is *not* mangled, e.g., the ``__foo`` in ``import __foo.bar``
+ is not mangled.
+
+- The name of an imported member, e.g., ``__f`` in ``from spam import __f``.
+
+The transformation rule is defined as follows:
+
+- The class name, with leading underscores removed and a single leading
+ underscore inserted, is inserted in front of the identifier, e.g., the
+ identifier ``__spam`` occurring in a class named ``Foo``, ``_Foo`` or
+ ``__Foo`` is transformed to ``_Foo__spam``.
+
+- If the class name consists only of underscores, the transformation is the
+ identity, e.g., the identifier ``__spam`` occurring in a class named ``_``
+ or ``__`` is left as is.
.. _atom-literals:
@@ -110,8 +139,8 @@ Python supports string and bytes literals and various numeric literals:
: | `integer` | `floatnumber` | `imagnumber`
Evaluation of a literal yields an object of the given type (string, bytes,
-integer, floating point number, complex number) with the given value. The value
-may be approximated in the case of floating point and imaginary (complex)
+integer, floating-point number, complex number) with the given value. The value
+may be approximated in the case of floating-point and imaginary (complex)
literals. See section :ref:`literals` for details.
.. index::
@@ -218,10 +247,12 @@ A comprehension in an :keyword:`!async def` function may consist of either a
:keyword:`!for` or :keyword:`!async for` clause following the leading
expression, may contain additional :keyword:`!for` or :keyword:`!async for`
clauses, and may also use :keyword:`await` expressions.
-If a comprehension contains either :keyword:`!async for` clauses or
-:keyword:`!await` expressions or other asynchronous comprehensions it is called
-an :dfn:`asynchronous comprehension`. An asynchronous comprehension may
-suspend the execution of the coroutine function in which it appears.
+
+If a comprehension contains :keyword:`!async for` clauses, or if it contains
+:keyword:`!await` expressions or other asynchronous comprehensions anywhere except
+the iterable expression in the leftmost :keyword:`!for` clause, it is called an
+:dfn:`asynchronous comprehension`. An asynchronous comprehension may suspend the
+execution of the coroutine function in which it appears.
See also :pep:`530`.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
@@ -253,7 +284,7 @@ A list display is a possibly empty series of expressions enclosed in square
brackets:
.. productionlist:: python-grammar
- list_display: "[" [`starred_list` | `comprehension`] "]"
+ list_display: "[" [`flexible_expression_list` | `comprehension`] "]"
A list display yields a new list object, the contents being specified by either
a list of expressions or a comprehension. When a comma-separated list of
@@ -278,7 +309,7 @@ A set display is denoted by curly braces and distinguishable from dictionary
displays by the lack of colons separating keys and values:
.. productionlist:: python-grammar
- set_display: "{" (`starred_list` | `comprehension`) "}"
+ set_display: "{" (`flexible_expression_list` | `comprehension`) "}"
A set display yields a new mutable set object, the contents being specified by
either a sequence of expressions or a comprehension. When a comma-separated
@@ -376,8 +407,9 @@ brackets or curly braces.
Variables used in the generator expression are evaluated lazily when the
:meth:`~generator.__next__` method is called for the generator object (in the same
fashion as normal generators). However, the iterable expression in the
-leftmost :keyword:`!for` clause is immediately evaluated, so that an error
-produced by it will be emitted at the point where the generator expression
+leftmost :keyword:`!for` clause is immediately evaluated, and the
+:term:`iterator` is immediately created for that iterable, so that an error
+produced while creating the iterator will be emitted at the point where the generator expression
is defined, rather than at the point where the first value is retrieved.
Subsequent :keyword:`!for` clauses and any filter condition in the leftmost
:keyword:`!for` clause cannot be evaluated in the enclosing scope as they may
@@ -423,7 +455,7 @@ Yield expressions
.. productionlist:: python-grammar
yield_atom: "(" `yield_expression` ")"
yield_from: "yield" "from" `expression`
- yield_expression: "yield" `expression_list` | `yield_from`
+ yield_expression: "yield" `yield_list` | `yield_from`
The yield expression is used when defining a :term:`generator` function
or an :term:`asynchronous generator` function and
@@ -454,9 +486,9 @@ When a generator function is called, it returns an iterator known as a
generator. That generator then controls the execution of the generator
function. The execution starts when one of the generator's methods is called.
At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield expression, where it is
-suspended again, returning the value of :token:`~python-grammar:expression_list`
+suspended again, returning the value of :token:`~python-grammar:yield_list`
to the generator's caller,
-or ``None`` if :token:`~python-grammar:expression_list` is omitted.
+or ``None`` if :token:`~python-grammar:yield_list` is omitted.
By suspended, we mean that all local state is
retained, including the current bindings of local variables, the instruction
pointer, the internal evaluation stack, and the state of any exception handling.
@@ -545,7 +577,7 @@ is already executing raises a :exc:`ValueError` exception.
:meth:`~generator.__next__` method, the current yield expression always
evaluates to :const:`None`. The execution then continues to the next yield
expression, where the generator is suspended again, and the value of the
- :token:`~python-grammar:expression_list` is returned to :meth:`__next__`'s
+ :token:`~python-grammar:yield_list` is returned to :meth:`__next__`'s
caller. If the generator exits without yielding another value, a
:exc:`StopIteration` exception is raised.
@@ -595,8 +627,10 @@ is already executing raises a :exc:`ValueError` exception.
.. method:: generator.close()
- Raises a :exc:`GeneratorExit` at the point where the generator function was
- paused. If the generator function catches the exception and returns a
+ Raises a :exc:`GeneratorExit` exception at the point where the generator
+ function was paused (equivalent to calling ``throw(GeneratorExit)``).
+ The exception is raised by the yield expression where the generator was paused.
+ If the generator function catches the exception and returns a
value, this value is returned from :meth:`close`. If the generator function
is already closed, or raises :exc:`GeneratorExit` (by not catching the
exception), :meth:`close` returns :const:`None`. If the generator yields a
@@ -664,7 +698,7 @@ how a generator object would be used in a :keyword:`for` statement.
Calling one of the asynchronous generator's methods returns an :term:`awaitable`
object, and the execution starts when this object is awaited on. At that time,
the execution proceeds to the first yield expression, where it is suspended
-again, returning the value of :token:`~python-grammar:expression_list` to the
+again, returning the value of :token:`~python-grammar:yield_list` to the
awaiting coroutine. As with a generator, suspension means that all local state
is retained, including the current bindings of local variables, the instruction
pointer, the internal evaluation stack, and the state of any exception handling.
@@ -721,14 +755,15 @@ which are used to control the execution of a generator function.
.. index:: pair: exception; StopAsyncIteration
-.. coroutinemethod:: agen.__anext__()
+.. method:: agen.__anext__()
+ :async:
Returns an awaitable which when run starts to execute the asynchronous
generator or resumes it at the last executed yield expression. When an
asynchronous generator function is resumed with an :meth:`~agen.__anext__`
method, the current yield expression always evaluates to :const:`None` in the
returned awaitable, which when run will continue to the next yield
- expression. The value of the :token:`~python-grammar:expression_list` of the
+ expression. The value of the :token:`~python-grammar:yield_list` of the
yield expression is the value of the :exc:`StopIteration` exception raised by
the completing coroutine. If the asynchronous generator exits without
yielding another value, the awaitable instead raises a
@@ -738,10 +773,11 @@ which are used to control the execution of a generator function.
This method is normally called implicitly by a :keyword:`async for` loop.
-.. coroutinemethod:: agen.asend(value)
+.. method:: agen.asend(value)
+ :async:
Returns an awaitable which when run resumes the execution of the
- asynchronous generator. As with the :meth:`~generator.send()` method for a
+ asynchronous generator. As with the :meth:`~generator.send` method for a
generator, this "sends" a value into the asynchronous generator function,
and the *value* argument becomes the result of the current yield expression.
The awaitable returned by the :meth:`asend` method will return the next
@@ -753,8 +789,9 @@ which are used to control the execution of a generator function.
because there is no yield expression that could receive the value.
-.. coroutinemethod:: agen.athrow(value)
- agen.athrow(type[, value[, traceback]])
+.. method:: agen.athrow(value)
+ agen.athrow(type[, value[, traceback]])
+ :async:
Returns an awaitable that raises an exception of type ``type`` at the point
where the asynchronous generator was paused, and returns the next value
@@ -774,7 +811,8 @@ which are used to control the execution of a generator function.
.. index:: pair: exception; GeneratorExit
-.. coroutinemethod:: agen.aclose()
+.. method:: agen.aclose()
+ :async:
Returns an awaitable that when run will throw a :exc:`GeneratorExit` into
the asynchronous generator function at the point where it was paused.
@@ -861,7 +899,7 @@ will generally select an element from the container. The subscription of a
:ref:`GenericAlias <types-genericalias>` object.
.. productionlist:: python-grammar
- subscription: `primary` "[" `expression_list` "]"
+ subscription: `primary` "[" `flexible_expression_list` "]"
When an object is subscripted, the interpreter will evaluate the primary and
the expression list.
@@ -873,9 +911,13 @@ primary is subscripted, the evaluated result of the expression list will be
passed to one of these methods. For more details on when ``__class_getitem__``
is called instead of ``__getitem__``, see :ref:`classgetitem-versus-getitem`.
-If the expression list contains at least one comma, it will evaluate to a
-:class:`tuple` containing the items of the expression list. Otherwise, the
-expression list will evaluate to the value of the list's sole member.
+If the expression list contains at least one comma, or if any of the expressions
+are starred, the expression list will evaluate to a :class:`tuple` containing
+the items of the expression list. Otherwise, the expression list will evaluate
+to the value of the list's sole member.
+
+.. versionchanged:: 3.11
+ Expressions in an expression list may be starred. See :pep:`646`.
For built-in objects, there are two types of objects that support subscription
via :meth:`~object.__getitem__`:
@@ -985,7 +1027,7 @@ series of :term:`arguments <argument>`:
: ["," `keywords_arguments`]
: | `starred_and_keywords` ["," `keywords_arguments`]
: | `keywords_arguments`
- positional_arguments: positional_item ("," positional_item)*
+ positional_arguments: `positional_item` ("," `positional_item`)*
positional_item: `assignment_expression` | "*" `expression`
starred_and_keywords: ("*" `expression` | `keyword_item`)
: ("," "*" `expression` | "," `keyword_item`)*
@@ -1121,7 +1163,8 @@ a user-defined function:
first thing the code block will do is bind the formal parameters to the
arguments; this is described in section :ref:`function`. When the code block
executes a :keyword:`return` statement, this specifies the return value of the
- function call.
+ function call. If execution reaches the end of the code block without
+ executing a :keyword:`return` statement, the return value is ``None``.
a built-in function or method:
.. index::
@@ -1211,7 +1254,8 @@ Raising ``0.0`` to a negative power results in a :exc:`ZeroDivisionError`.
Raising a negative number to a fractional power results in a :class:`complex`
number. (In earlier versions it raised a :exc:`ValueError`.)
-This operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__pow__` method.
+This operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__pow__` and
+:meth:`~object.__rpow__` methods.
.. _unary:
@@ -1299,6 +1343,9 @@ This operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__mul__` and
The ``@`` (at) operator is intended to be used for matrix multiplication. No
builtin Python types implement this operator.
+This operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__matmul__` and
+:meth:`~object.__rmatmul__` methods.
+
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. index::
@@ -1314,8 +1361,10 @@ integer; the result is that of mathematical division with the 'floor' function
applied to the result. Division by zero raises the :exc:`ZeroDivisionError`
exception.
-This operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__truediv__` and
-:meth:`~object.__floordiv__` methods.
+The division operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__truediv__`
+and :meth:`~object.__rtruediv__` methods.
+The floor division operation can be customized using the special
+:meth:`~object.__floordiv__` and :meth:`~object.__rfloordiv__` methods.
.. index::
single: modulo
@@ -1324,7 +1373,7 @@ This operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__truediv__` a
The ``%`` (modulo) operator yields the remainder from the division of the first
argument by the second. The numeric arguments are first converted to a common
type. A zero right argument raises the :exc:`ZeroDivisionError` exception. The
-arguments may be floating point numbers, e.g., ``3.14%0.7`` equals ``0.34``
+arguments may be floating-point numbers, e.g., ``3.14%0.7`` equals ``0.34``
(since ``3.14`` equals ``4*0.7 + 0.34``.) The modulo operator always yields a
result with the same sign as its second operand (or zero); the absolute value of
the result is strictly smaller than the absolute value of the second operand
@@ -1340,11 +1389,12 @@ also overloaded by string objects to perform old-style string formatting (also
known as interpolation). The syntax for string formatting is described in the
Python Library Reference, section :ref:`old-string-formatting`.
-The *modulo* operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__mod__` method.
+The *modulo* operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__mod__`
+and :meth:`~object.__rmod__` methods.
The floor division operator, the modulo operator, and the :func:`divmod`
-function are not defined for complex numbers. Instead, convert to a floating
-point number using the :func:`abs` function if appropriate.
+function are not defined for complex numbers. Instead, convert to a
+floating-point number using the :func:`abs` function if appropriate.
.. index::
single: addition
@@ -1367,7 +1417,8 @@ This operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__add__` and
The ``-`` (subtraction) operator yields the difference of its arguments. The
numeric arguments are first converted to a common type.
-This operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__sub__` method.
+This operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__sub__` and
+:meth:`~object.__rsub__` methods.
.. _shifting:
@@ -1388,8 +1439,10 @@ The shifting operations have lower priority than the arithmetic operations:
These operators accept integers as arguments. They shift the first argument to
the left or right by the number of bits given by the second argument.
-This operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__lshift__` and
-:meth:`~object.__rshift__` methods.
+The left shift operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__lshift__`
+and :meth:`~object.__rlshift__` methods.
+The right shift operation can be customized using the special :meth:`~object.__rshift__`
+and :meth:`~object.__rrshift__` methods.
.. index:: pair: exception; ValueError
@@ -1636,7 +1689,7 @@ some consistency rules, if possible:
The last two expressions apply to totally ordered collections (e.g. to
sequences, but not to sets or mappings). See also the
- :func:`~functools.total_ordering` decorator.
+ :deco:`~functools.total_ordering` decorator.
* The :func:`hash` result should be consistent with equality.
Objects that are equal should either have the same hash value,
@@ -1762,6 +1815,9 @@ returns a boolean value regardless of the type of its argument
single: assignment expression
single: walrus operator
single: named expression
+ pair: assignment; expression
+
+.. _assignment-expressions:
Assignment expressions
======================
@@ -1815,8 +1871,9 @@ Conditional expressions
conditional_expression: `or_test` ["if" `or_test` "else" `expression`]
expression: `conditional_expression` | `lambda_expr`
-Conditional expressions (sometimes called a "ternary operator") have the lowest
-priority of all Python operations.
+A conditional expression (sometimes called a "ternary operator") is an
+alternative to the if-else statement. As it is an expression, it returns a value
+and can appear as a sub-expression.
The expression ``x if C else y`` first evaluates the condition, *C* rather than *x*.
If *C* is true, *x* is evaluated and its value is returned; otherwise, *y* is
@@ -1864,10 +1921,12 @@ Expression lists
single: , (comma); expression list
.. productionlist:: python-grammar
+ starred_expression: ["*"] `or_expr`
+ flexible_expression: `assignment_expression` | `starred_expression`
+ flexible_expression_list: `flexible_expression` ("," `flexible_expression`)* [","]
+ starred_expression_list: `starred_expression` ("," `starred_expression`)* [","]
expression_list: `expression` ("," `expression`)* [","]
- starred_list: `starred_item` ("," `starred_item`)* [","]
- starred_expression: `expression` | (`starred_item` ",")* [`starred_item`]
- starred_item: `assignment_expression` | "*" `or_expr`
+ yield_list: `expression_list` | `starred_expression` "," [`starred_expression_list`]
.. index:: pair: object; tuple
@@ -1888,6 +1947,9 @@ the unpacking.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
Iterable unpacking in expression lists, originally proposed by :pep:`448`.
+.. versionadded:: 3.11
+ Any item in an expression list may be starred. See :pep:`646`.
+
.. index:: pair: trailing; comma
A trailing comma is required only to create a one-item tuple,
diff --git a/Doc/reference/import.rst b/Doc/reference/import.rst
index f8c9724114da9ed..974adb1c3917cfe 100644
--- a/Doc/reference/import.rst
+++ b/Doc/reference/import.rst
@@ -122,6 +122,14 @@ Importing ``parent.one`` will implicitly execute ``parent/__init__.py`` and
``parent.three`` will execute ``parent/two/__init__.py`` and
``parent/three/__init__.py`` respectively.
+A subdirectory inside a regular package that does not contain an
+``__init__.py`` file is treated as an implicit
+:ref:`namespace package <reference-namespace-package>` (a "namespace
+subpackage") rooted in that parent. See :pep:`420` for the underlying
+specification.
+
+
+.. _reference-namespace-package:
Namespace packages
------------------
@@ -151,6 +159,12 @@ physically located next to ``parent/two``. In this case, Python will create a
namespace package for the top-level ``parent`` package whenever it or one of
its subpackages is imported.
+Namespace packages may also be nested inside a regular package. When the
+import system searches a regular package's ``__path__`` and encounters a
+subdirectory that does not contain an ``__init__.py`` file, that
+subdirectory becomes a :term:`portion` contributing to a namespace
+subpackage of the enclosing regular package.
+
See also :pep:`420` for the namespace package specification.
@@ -281,7 +295,7 @@ When the named module is not found in :data:`sys.modules`, Python next
searches :data:`sys.meta_path`, which contains a list of meta path finder
objects. These finders are queried in order to see if they know how to handle
the named module. Meta path finders must implement a method called
-:meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec()` which takes three arguments:
+:meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec` which takes three arguments:
a name, an import path, and (optionally) a target module. The meta path
finder can use any strategy it wants to determine whether it can handle
the named module or not.
@@ -292,7 +306,7 @@ spec object. If it cannot handle the named module, it returns ``None``. If
a spec, then a :exc:`ModuleNotFoundError` is raised. Any other exceptions
raised are simply propagated up, aborting the import process.
-The :meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec()` method of meta path
+The :meth:`~importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec` method of meta path
finders is called with two or three arguments. The first is the fully
qualified name of the module being imported, for example ``foo.bar.baz``.
The second argument is the path entries to use for the module search. For
@@ -513,8 +527,10 @@ holding is that if you have ``sys.modules['spam']`` and
``sys.modules['spam.foo']`` (as you would after the above import), the latter
must appear as the ``foo`` attribute of the former.
-Module spec
------------
+.. _module-specs:
+
+Module specs
+------------
The import machinery uses a variety of information about each module
during import, especially before loading. Most of the information is
@@ -527,155 +543,44 @@ and the loader that executes it. Most importantly, it allows the
import machinery to perform the boilerplate operations of loading,
whereas without a module spec the loader had that responsibility.
-The module's spec is exposed as the ``__spec__`` attribute on a module object.
+The module's spec is exposed as :attr:`module.__spec__`. Setting
+:attr:`!__spec__` appropriately applies equally to
+:ref:`modules initialized during interpreter startup <programs>`.
+The one exception is ``__main__``, where :attr:`!__spec__` is
+:ref:`set to None in some cases <main_spec>`.
+
See :class:`~importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec` for details on the contents of
the module spec.
.. versionadded:: 3.4
-.. _import-mod-attrs:
-
-Import-related module attributes
---------------------------------
-
-The import machinery fills in these attributes on each module object
-during loading, based on the module's spec, before the loader executes
-the module.
-
-It is **strongly** recommended that you rely on :attr:`__spec__` and
-its attributes instead of any of the other individual attributes
-listed below.
-
-.. attribute:: __name__
-
- The ``__name__`` attribute must be set to the fully qualified name of
- the module. This name is used to uniquely identify the module in
- the import system.
-
-.. attribute:: __loader__
-
- The ``__loader__`` attribute must be set to the loader object that
- the import machinery used when loading the module. This is mostly
- for introspection, but can be used for additional loader-specific
- functionality, for example getting data associated with a loader.
-
- It is **strongly** recommended that you rely on :attr:`__spec__`
- instead of this attribute.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.12
- The value of ``__loader__`` is expected to be the same as
- ``__spec__.loader``. The use of ``__loader__`` is deprecated and slated
- for removal in Python 3.14.
-
-.. attribute:: __package__
-
- The module's ``__package__`` attribute may be set. Its value must
- be a string, but it can be the same value as its ``__name__``. When
- the module is a package, its ``__package__`` value should be set to
- its ``__name__``. When the module is not a package, ``__package__``
- should be set to the empty string for top-level modules, or for
- submodules, to the parent package's name. See :pep:`366` for further
- details.
-
- This attribute is used instead of ``__name__`` to calculate explicit
- relative imports for main modules, as defined in :pep:`366`.
-
- It is **strongly** recommended that you rely on :attr:`__spec__`
- instead of this attribute.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.6
- The value of ``__package__`` is expected to be the same as
- ``__spec__.parent``.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.10
- :exc:`ImportWarning` is raised if import falls back to
- ``__package__`` instead of
- :attr:`~importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.parent`.
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.12
- Raise :exc:`DeprecationWarning` instead of :exc:`ImportWarning`
- when falling back to ``__package__``.
-
-
-.. attribute:: __spec__
-
- The ``__spec__`` attribute must be set to the module spec that was
- used when importing the module. Setting ``__spec__``
- appropriately applies equally to :ref:`modules initialized during
- interpreter startup <programs>`. The one exception is ``__main__``,
- where ``__spec__`` is :ref:`set to None in some cases <main_spec>`.
-
- When ``__spec__.parent`` is not set, ``__package__`` is used as
- a fallback.
-
- .. versionadded:: 3.4
-
- .. versionchanged:: 3.6
- ``__spec__.parent`` is used as a fallback when ``__package__`` is
- not defined.
-
-.. attribute:: __path__
-
- If the module is a package (either regular or namespace), the module
- object's ``__path__`` attribute must be set. The value must be
- iterable, but may be empty if ``__path__`` has no further significance.
- If ``__path__`` is not empty, it must produce strings when iterated
- over. More details on the semantics of ``__path__`` are given
- :ref:`below <package-path-rules>`.
-
- Non-package modules should not have a ``__path__`` attribute.
-
-.. attribute:: __file__
-.. attribute:: __cached__
-
- ``__file__`` is optional (if set, value must be a string). It indicates
- the pathname of the file from which the module was loaded (if
- loaded from a file), or the pathname of the shared library file
- for extension modules loaded dynamically from a shared library.
- It might be missing for certain types of modules, such as C
- modules that are statically linked into the interpreter, and the
- import system may opt to leave it unset if it has no semantic
- meaning (e.g. a module loaded from a database).
-
- If ``__file__`` is set then the ``__cached__`` attribute might also
- be set, which is the path to any compiled version of
- the code (e.g. byte-compiled file). The file does not need to exist
- to set this attribute; the path can simply point to where the
- compiled file would exist (see :pep:`3147`).
-
- Note that ``__cached__`` may be set even if ``__file__`` is not
- set. However, that scenario is quite atypical. Ultimately, the
- loader is what makes use of the module spec provided by the finder
- (from which ``__file__`` and ``__cached__`` are derived). So
- if a loader can load from a cached module but otherwise does not load
- from a file, that atypical scenario may be appropriate.
-
- It is **strongly** recommended that you rely on :attr:`__spec__`
- instead of ``__cached__``.
-
.. _package-path-rules:
-module.__path__
----------------
+__path__ attributes on modules
+------------------------------
-By definition, if a module has a ``__path__`` attribute, it is a package.
+The :attr:`~module.__path__` attribute should be a (possibly empty)
+:term:`sequence` of strings enumerating the locations where the package's
+submodules will be found. By definition, if a module has a :attr:`!__path__`
+attribute, it is a :term:`package`.
-A package's ``__path__`` attribute is used during imports of its subpackages.
+A package's :attr:`~module.__path__` attribute is used during imports of its
+subpackages.
Within the import machinery, it functions much the same as :data:`sys.path`,
i.e. providing a list of locations to search for modules during import.
-However, ``__path__`` is typically much more constrained than
-:data:`sys.path`.
+However, :attr:`!__path__` is typically much more constrained than
+:data:`!sys.path`.
-``__path__`` must be an iterable of strings, but it may be empty.
The same rules used for :data:`sys.path` also apply to a package's
-``__path__``, and :data:`sys.path_hooks` (described below) are
-consulted when traversing a package's ``__path__``.
+:attr:`!__path__`. :data:`sys.path_hooks` (described below) are
+consulted when traversing a package's :attr:`!__path__`.
-A package's ``__init__.py`` file may set or alter the package's ``__path__``
+A package's ``__init__.py`` file may set or alter the package's
+:attr:`~module.__path__`
attribute, and this was typically the way namespace packages were implemented
prior to :pep:`420`. With the adoption of :pep:`420`, namespace packages no
-longer need to supply ``__init__.py`` files containing only ``__path__``
-manipulation code; the import machinery automatically sets ``__path__``
+longer need to supply ``__init__.py`` files containing only :attr:`!__path__`
+manipulation code; the import machinery automatically sets :attr:`!__path__`
correctly for the namespace package.
Module reprs
@@ -941,9 +846,7 @@ entirely with a custom meta path hook.
If it is acceptable to only alter the behaviour of import statements
without affecting other APIs that access the import system, then replacing
-the builtin :func:`__import__` function may be sufficient. This technique
-may also be employed at the module level to only alter the behaviour of
-import statements within that module.
+the builtin :func:`__import__` function may be sufficient.
To selectively prevent the import of some modules from a hook early on the
meta path (rather than disabling the standard import system entirely),
diff --git a/Doc/reference/index.rst b/Doc/reference/index.rst
index a66673b17246d7b..9a5b2e631204a55 100644
--- a/Doc/reference/index.rst
+++ b/Doc/reference/index.rst
@@ -4,10 +4,13 @@
The Python Language Reference
#################################
-This reference manual describes the syntax and "core semantics" of the
-language. It is terse, but attempts to be exact and complete. The semantics of
-non-essential built-in object types and of the built-in functions and modules
-are described in :ref:`library-index`. For an informal introduction to the
+This reference manual describes the syntax and core semantics of the
+language. It is terse, but attempts to be exact and complete.
+
+Elsewhere, the built-in object types and functions are described in
+:ref:`builtins-index`. Standard library modules are described in :ref:`library-index`.
+
+For an informal introduction to the
language, see :ref:`tutorial-index`. For C or C++ programmers, two additional
manuals exist: :ref:`extending-index` describes the high-level picture of how to
write a Python extension module, and the :ref:`c-api-index` describes the
diff --git a/Doc/reference/introduction.rst b/Doc/reference/introduction.rst
index cf186705e6e987b..b7b70e6be5a5b7b 100644
--- a/Doc/reference/introduction.rst
+++ b/Doc/reference/introduction.rst
@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ PyPy
and a Just in Time compiler. One of the goals of the project is to encourage
experimentation with the language itself by making it easier to modify the
interpreter (since it is written in Python). Additional information is
- available on `the PyPy project's home page <https://www.pypy.org/>`_.
+ available on `the PyPy project's home page <https://pypy.org/>`_.
Each of these implementations varies in some way from the language as documented
in this manual, or introduces specific information beyond what's covered in the
diff --git a/Doc/reference/lexical_analysis.rst b/Doc/reference/lexical_analysis.rst
index 41ea89fd234122f..0bfd63d5b33b9a7 100644
--- a/Doc/reference/lexical_analysis.rst
+++ b/Doc/reference/lexical_analysis.rst
@@ -8,8 +8,9 @@ Lexical analysis
.. index:: lexical analysis, parser, token
A Python program is read by a *parser*. Input to the parser is a stream of
-*tokens*, generated by the *lexical analyzer*. This chapter describes how the
-lexical analyzer breaks a file into tokens.
+:term:`tokens <token>`, generated by the *lexical analyzer* (also known as
+the *tokenizer*).
+This chapter describes how the lexical analyzer breaks a file into tokens.
Python reads program text as Unicode code points; the encoding of a source file
can be given by an encoding declaration and defaults to UTF-8, see :pep:`3120`
@@ -98,7 +99,7 @@ which is recognized by Bram Moolenaar's VIM.
If no encoding declaration is found, the default encoding is UTF-8. If the
implicit or explicit encoding of a file is UTF-8, an initial UTF-8 byte-order
-mark (b'\xef\xbb\xbf') is ignored rather than being a syntax error.
+mark (``b'\xef\xbb\xbf'``) is ignored rather than being a syntax error.
If an encoding is declared, the encoding name must be recognized by Python
(see :ref:`standard-encodings`). The
@@ -284,11 +285,10 @@ UAX-31, with elaboration and changes as defined below; see also :pep:`3131` for
further details.
Within the ASCII range (U+0001..U+007F), the valid characters for identifiers
-are the same as in Python 2.x: the uppercase and lowercase letters ``A`` through
+include the uppercase and lowercase letters ``A`` through
``Z``, the underscore ``_`` and, except for the first character, the digits
``0`` through ``9``.
-
-Python 3.0 introduces additional characters from outside the ASCII range (see
+Python 3.0 introduced additional characters from outside the ASCII range (see
:pep:`3131`). For these characters, the classification uses the version of the
Unicode Character Database as included in the :mod:`unicodedata` module.
@@ -503,11 +503,10 @@ must be expressed with escapes.
single: r"; raw string literal
Both string and bytes literals may optionally be prefixed with a letter ``'r'``
-or ``'R'``; such strings are called :dfn:`raw strings` and treat backslashes as
-literal characters. As a result, in string literals, ``'\U'`` and ``'\u'``
-escapes in raw strings are not treated specially. Given that Python 2.x's raw
-unicode literals behave differently than Python 3.x's the ``'ur'`` syntax
-is not supported.
+or ``'R'``; such constructs are called :dfn:`raw string literals`
+and :dfn:`raw bytes literals` respectively and treat backslashes as
+literal characters. As a result, in raw string literals, ``'\U'`` and ``'\u'``
+escapes are not treated specially.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
The ``'rb'`` prefix of raw bytes literals has been added as a synonym
@@ -879,10 +878,10 @@ Numeric literals
----------------
.. index:: number, numeric literal, integer literal
- floating point literal, hexadecimal literal
+ floating-point literal, hexadecimal literal
octal literal, binary literal, decimal literal, imaginary literal, complex literal
-There are three types of numeric literals: integers, floating point numbers, and
+There are three types of numeric literals: integers, floating-point numbers, and
imaginary numbers. There are no complex literals (complex numbers can be formed
by adding a real number and an imaginary number).
@@ -943,10 +942,10 @@ Some examples of integer literals::
single: _ (underscore); in numeric literal
.. _floating:
-Floating point literals
+Floating-point literals
-----------------------
-Floating point literals are described by the following lexical definitions:
+Floating-point literals are described by the following lexical definitions:
.. productionlist:: python-grammar
floatnumber: `pointfloat` | `exponentfloat`
@@ -958,10 +957,10 @@ Floating point literals are described by the following lexical definitions:
Note that the integer and exponent parts are always interpreted using radix 10.
For example, ``077e010`` is legal, and denotes the same number as ``77e10``. The
-allowed range of floating point literals is implementation-dependent. As in
+allowed range of floating-point literals is implementation-dependent. As in
integer literals, underscores are supported for digit grouping.
-Some examples of floating point literals::
+Some examples of floating-point literals::
3.14 10. .001 1e100 3.14e-10 0e0 3.14_15_93
@@ -982,9 +981,9 @@ Imaginary literals are described by the following lexical definitions:
imagnumber: (`floatnumber` | `digitpart`) ("j" | "J")
An imaginary literal yields a complex number with a real part of 0.0. Complex
-numbers are represented as a pair of floating point numbers and have the same
+numbers are represented as a pair of floating-point numbers and have the same
restrictions on their range. To create a complex number with a nonzero real
-part, add a floating point number to it, e.g., ``(3+4j)``. Some examples of
+part, add a floating-point number to it, e.g., ``(3+4j)``. Some examples of
imaginary literals::
3.14j 10.j 10j .001j 1e100j 3.14e-10j 3.14_15_93j
@@ -1019,9 +1018,9 @@ The following tokens serve as delimiters in the grammar:
.. code-block:: none
( ) [ ] { }
- , : . ; @ = ->
- += -= *= /= //= %= @=
- &= |= ^= >>= <<= **=
+ , : ! . ; @ =
+ -> += -= *= /= //= %=
+ @= &= |= ^= >>= <<= **=
The period can also occur in floating-point and imaginary literals. A sequence
of three periods has a special meaning as an ellipsis literal. The second half
diff --git a/Doc/reference/simple_stmts.rst b/Doc/reference/simple_stmts.rst
index a253482156d3b4b..92e5ae1ce8d04ae 100644
--- a/Doc/reference/simple_stmts.rst
+++ b/Doc/reference/simple_stmts.rst
@@ -182,7 +182,7 @@ Assignment of an object to a single target is recursively defined as follows.
inst.x = inst.x + 1 # writes inst.x as 4 leaving Cls.x as 3
This description does not necessarily apply to descriptor attributes, such as
- properties created with :func:`property`.
+ properties created with :deco:`property`.
.. index::
pair: subscription; assignment
@@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ statements, cannot be an unpacking) and the expression list, performs the binary
operation specific to the type of assignment on the two operands, and assigns
the result to the original target. The target is only evaluated once.
-An augmented assignment expression like ``x += 1`` can be rewritten as ``x = x +
+An augmented assignment statement like ``x += 1`` can be rewritten as ``x = x +
1`` to achieve a similar, but not exactly equal effect. In the augmented
version, ``x`` is only evaluated once. Also, when possible, the actual operation
is performed *in-place*, meaning that rather than creating a new object and
@@ -333,7 +333,9 @@ statement, of a variable or attribute annotation and an optional assignment stat
The difference from normal :ref:`assignment` is that only a single target is allowed.
-For simple names as assignment targets, if in class or module scope,
+The assignment target is considered "simple" if it consists of a single
+name that is not enclosed in parentheses.
+For simple assignment targets, if in class or module scope,
the annotations are evaluated and stored in a special class or module
attribute :attr:`__annotations__`
that is a dictionary mapping from variable names (mangled if private) to
@@ -341,7 +343,8 @@ evaluated annotations. This attribute is writable and is automatically
created at the start of class or module body execution, if annotations
are found statically.
-For expressions as assignment targets, the annotations are evaluated if
+If the assignment target is not simple (an attribute, subscript node, or
+parenthesized name), the annotation is evaluated if
in class or module scope, but not stored.
If a name is annotated in a function scope, then this name is local for
@@ -403,9 +406,9 @@ The extended form, ``assert expression1, expression2``, is equivalent to ::
These equivalences assume that :const:`__debug__` and :exc:`AssertionError` refer to
the built-in variables with those names. In the current implementation, the
-built-in variable :const:`__debug__` is ``True`` under normal circumstances,
+built-in variable ``__debug__`` is ``True`` under normal circumstances,
``False`` when optimization is requested (command line option :option:`-O`). The current
-code generator emits no code for an assert statement when optimization is
+code generator emits no code for an :keyword:`assert` statement when optimization is
requested at compile time. Note that it is unnecessary to include the source
code for the expression that failed in the error message; it will be displayed
as part of the stack trace.
@@ -460,8 +463,8 @@ Deletion of a target list recursively deletes each target, from left to right.
Deletion of a name removes the binding of that name from the local or global
namespace, depending on whether the name occurs in a :keyword:`global` statement
-in the same code block. If the name is unbound, a :exc:`NameError` exception
-will be raised.
+in the same code block. Trying to delete an unbound name raises a
+:exc:`NameError` exception.
.. index:: pair: attribute; deletion
@@ -528,8 +531,8 @@ The :keyword:`!yield` statement
yield_stmt: `yield_expression`
A :keyword:`yield` statement is semantically equivalent to a :ref:`yield
-expression <yieldexpr>`. The yield statement can be used to omit the parentheses
-that would otherwise be required in the equivalent yield expression
+expression <yieldexpr>`. The ``yield`` statement can be used to omit the
+parentheses that would otherwise be required in the equivalent yield expression
statement. For example, the yield statements ::
yield <expr>
@@ -541,7 +544,7 @@ are equivalent to the yield expression statements ::
(yield from <expr>)
Yield expressions and statements are only used when defining a :term:`generator`
-function, and are only used in the body of the generator function. Using yield
+function, and are only used in the body of the generator function. Using :keyword:`yield`
in a function definition is sufficient to cause that definition to create a
generator function instead of a normal function.
@@ -760,8 +763,9 @@ The basic import statement (no :keyword:`from` clause) is executed in two
steps:
#. find a module, loading and initializing it if necessary
-#. define a name or names in the local namespace for the scope where
- the :keyword:`import` statement occurs.
+#. define a name or names in the current namespace for the scope where
+ the :keyword:`import` statement occurs, just as an assignment statement
+ would (including :keyword:`global` and :keyword:`nonlocal` semantics).
When the statement contains multiple clauses (separated by
commas) the two steps are carried out separately for each clause, just
@@ -806,7 +810,7 @@ The :keyword:`from` form uses a slightly more complex process:
#. if not, attempt to import a submodule with that name and then
check the imported module again for that attribute
#. if the attribute is not found, :exc:`ImportError` is raised.
- #. otherwise, a reference to that value is stored in the local namespace,
+ #. otherwise, a reference to that value is stored in the current namespace,
using the name in the :keyword:`!as` clause if it is present,
otherwise using the attribute name
@@ -826,9 +830,14 @@ where the :keyword:`import` statement occurs.
.. index:: single: __all__ (optional module attribute)
+.. attribute:: module.__all__
+ :no-typesetting:
+
The *public names* defined by a module are determined by checking the module's
namespace for a variable named ``__all__``; if defined, it must be a sequence
-of strings which are names defined or imported by that module. The names
+of strings which are names defined or imported by that module.
+Names containing non-ASCII characters must be in the `normalization form`_
+NFKC. The names
given in ``__all__`` are all considered public and are required to exist. If
``__all__`` is not defined, the set of public names includes all names found
in the module's namespace which do not begin with an underscore character
@@ -862,6 +871,8 @@ determine dynamically the modules to be loaded.
.. audit-event:: import module,filename,sys.path,sys.meta_path,sys.path_hooks import
+.. _normalization form: https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr15/#Norm_Forms
+
.. _future:
Future statements
@@ -961,25 +972,21 @@ The :keyword:`!global` statement
.. productionlist:: python-grammar
global_stmt: "global" `identifier` ("," `identifier`)*
-The :keyword:`global` statement is a declaration which holds for the entire
-current code block. It means that the listed identifiers are to be interpreted
-as globals. It would be impossible to assign to a global variable without
+The :keyword:`global` statement causes the listed identifiers to be interpreted
+as globals. It would be impossible to assign to a global variable without
:keyword:`!global`, although free variables may refer to globals without being
declared global.
-Names listed in a :keyword:`global` statement must not be used in the same code
-block textually preceding that :keyword:`!global` statement.
-
-Names listed in a :keyword:`global` statement must not be defined as formal
-parameters, or as targets in :keyword:`with` statements or :keyword:`except` clauses, or in a :keyword:`for` target list, :keyword:`class`
-definition, function definition, :keyword:`import` statement, or variable
-annotation.
-
-.. impl-detail::
+The :keyword:`!global` statement applies to the entire current scope
+(module, function body or class definition).
+A :exc:`SyntaxError` is raised if a variable is used or
+assigned to prior to its global declaration in the scope.
- The current implementation does not enforce some of these restrictions, but
- programs should not abuse this freedom, as future implementations may enforce
- them or silently change the meaning of the program.
+At the module level, all variables are global, so a :keyword:`!global`
+statement has no effect.
+However, variables must still not be used or
+assigned to prior to their :keyword:`!global` declaration.
+This requirement is relaxed in the interactive prompt (:term:`REPL`).
.. index::
pair: built-in function; exec
@@ -1015,7 +1022,7 @@ identifiers. If a name is bound in more than one nonlocal scope, the
nearest binding is used. If a name is not bound in any nonlocal scope,
or if there is no nonlocal scope, a :exc:`SyntaxError` is raised.
-The nonlocal statement applies to the entire scope of a function or
+The :keyword:`nonlocal` statement applies to the entire scope of a function or
class body. A :exc:`SyntaxError` is raised if a variable is used or
assigned to prior to its nonlocal declaration in the scope.
diff --git a/Doc/requirements-oldest-sphinx.txt b/Doc/requirements-oldest-sphinx.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index fe45c91501a56a7..000000000000000
--- a/Doc/requirements-oldest-sphinx.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,35 +0,0 @@
-# Requirements to build the Python documentation, for the oldest supported
-# Sphinx version.
-#
-# We pin Sphinx and all of its dependencies to ensure a consistent environment.
-
-blurb
-python-docs-theme>=2022.1
-
-# Generated from:
-# pip install "Sphinx~=6.2.1"
-# pip freeze
-#
-# Sphinx 6.2.1 comes from ``needs_sphinx = '6.2.1'`` in ``Doc/conf.py``.
-
-alabaster==0.7.16
-Babel==2.15.0
-certifi==2024.2.2
-charset-normalizer==3.3.2
-docutils==0.19
-idna==3.7
-imagesize==1.4.1
-Jinja2==3.1.4
-MarkupSafe==2.1.5
-packaging==24.0
-Pygments==2.18.0
-requests==2.31.0
-snowballstemmer==2.2.0
-Sphinx==6.2.1
-sphinxcontrib-applehelp==1.0.8
-sphinxcontrib-devhelp==1.0.6
-sphinxcontrib-htmlhelp==2.0.5
-sphinxcontrib-jsmath==1.0.1
-sphinxcontrib-qthelp==1.0.7
-sphinxcontrib-serializinghtml==1.1.10
-urllib3==2.2.1
diff --git a/Doc/requirements.txt b/Doc/requirements.txt
index 15675ab45fea713..8d6c07ec283caa5 100644
--- a/Doc/requirements.txt
+++ b/Doc/requirements.txt
@@ -3,16 +3,18 @@
# Note that when updating this file, you will likely also have to update
# the Doc/constraints.txt file.
-# Sphinx version is pinned so that new versions that introduce new warnings
+# The Sphinx version is pinned so that new versions that introduce new warnings
# won't suddenly cause build failures. Updating the version is fine as long
# as no warnings are raised by doing so.
-sphinx~=7.3.0
+# Keep this version in sync with ``Doc/conf.py``.
+sphinx<9.0.0
blurb
-sphinx-autobuild
-sphinxext-opengraph==0.7.5
-sphinx-notfound-page==1.0.0
+sphinx-linklint
+sphinx-notfound-page~=1.0.0
+sphinxext-opengraph~=0.13.0
+sphinxext-rediraffe
# The theme used by the documentation is stored separately, so we need
# to install that as well.
diff --git a/Doc/tools/.nitignore b/Doc/tools/.nitignore
index 4790136a75cba9b..6f1cea1c682265d 100644
--- a/Doc/tools/.nitignore
+++ b/Doc/tools/.nitignore
@@ -2,91 +2,34 @@
# as tested on the CI via check-warnings.py in reusable-docs.yml.
# Keep lines sorted lexicographically to help avoid merge conflicts.
-Doc/c-api/descriptor.rst
Doc/c-api/float.rst
-Doc/c-api/init.rst
-Doc/c-api/init_config.rst
-Doc/c-api/intro.rst
Doc/c-api/module.rst
-Doc/c-api/stable.rst
-Doc/c-api/type.rst
-Doc/c-api/typeobj.rst
-Doc/extending/extending.rst
-Doc/glossary.rst
-Doc/howto/descriptor.rst
-Doc/howto/enum.rst
Doc/library/ast.rst
Doc/library/asyncio-extending.rst
Doc/library/asyncio-policy.rst
-Doc/library/asyncio-subprocess.rst
-Doc/library/collections.rst
-Doc/library/dbm.rst
-Doc/library/decimal.rst
Doc/library/email.charset.rst
-Doc/library/email.compat32-message.rst
-Doc/library/email.errors.rst
Doc/library/email.parser.rst
-Doc/library/email.policy.rst
-Doc/library/exceptions.rst
-Doc/library/functools.rst
-Doc/library/http.cookiejar.rst
-Doc/library/http.server.rst
Doc/library/importlib.rst
Doc/library/logging.config.rst
Doc/library/logging.handlers.rst
-Doc/library/lzma.rst
Doc/library/mmap.rst
Doc/library/multiprocessing.rst
Doc/library/optparse.rst
Doc/library/os.rst
Doc/library/pickletools.rst
-Doc/library/platform.rst
-Doc/library/plistlib.rst
Doc/library/profile.rst
Doc/library/pyexpat.rst
-Doc/library/readline.rst
-Doc/library/resource.rst
Doc/library/select.rst
-Doc/library/signal.rst
-Doc/library/smtplib.rst
Doc/library/socket.rst
Doc/library/ssl.rst
-Doc/library/stdtypes.rst
Doc/library/subprocess.rst
Doc/library/termios.rst
Doc/library/test.rst
-Doc/library/tkinter.rst
-Doc/library/tkinter.scrolledtext.rst
-Doc/library/tkinter.ttk.rst
-Doc/library/unittest.mock.rst
-Doc/library/unittest.rst
Doc/library/urllib.parse.rst
Doc/library/urllib.request.rst
Doc/library/wsgiref.rst
Doc/library/xml.dom.minidom.rst
-Doc/library/xml.dom.pulldom.rst
-Doc/library/xml.dom.rst
-Doc/library/xml.sax.handler.rst
Doc/library/xml.sax.reader.rst
Doc/library/xml.sax.rst
Doc/library/xmlrpc.client.rst
Doc/library/xmlrpc.server.rst
-Doc/library/zlib.rst
-Doc/reference/compound_stmts.rst
-Doc/reference/datamodel.rst
-Doc/tutorial/datastructures.rst
-Doc/using/windows.rst
-Doc/whatsnew/2.4.rst
-Doc/whatsnew/2.5.rst
-Doc/whatsnew/2.6.rst
-Doc/whatsnew/2.7.rst
-Doc/whatsnew/3.0.rst
-Doc/whatsnew/3.3.rst
-Doc/whatsnew/3.4.rst
-Doc/whatsnew/3.5.rst
-Doc/whatsnew/3.6.rst
-Doc/whatsnew/3.7.rst
-Doc/whatsnew/3.8.rst
-Doc/whatsnew/3.9.rst
-Doc/whatsnew/3.10.rst
-Doc/whatsnew/3.11.rst
diff --git a/Doc/tools/check-epub.py b/Doc/tools/check-epub.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..6a10096c1175428
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/tools/check-epub.py
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+from pathlib import Path
+
+CPYTHON_ROOT = Path(
+ __file__, # cpython/Doc/tools/check-epub.py
+ '..', # cpython/Doc/tools
+ '..', # cpython/Doc
+ '..', # cpython
+).resolve()
+EPUBCHECK_PATH = CPYTHON_ROOT / 'Doc' / 'epubcheck.txt'
+
+
+def main() -> int:
+ lines = EPUBCHECK_PATH.read_text(encoding='utf-8').splitlines()
+ fatal_errors = [line for line in lines if line.startswith('FATAL')]
+
+ if fatal_errors:
+ err_count = len(fatal_errors)
+ s = 's' * (err_count != 1)
+ print()
+ print(f'Error: epubcheck reported {err_count} fatal error{s}:')
+ print()
+ print('\n'.join(fatal_errors))
+ return 1
+
+ print('Success: no fatal errors found.')
+ return 0
+
+
+if __name__ == '__main__':
+ raise SystemExit(main())
diff --git a/Doc/tools/check-warnings.py b/Doc/tools/check-warnings.py
index 809a8d63087e12e..8beb59af7f61d7f 100644
--- a/Doc/tools/check-warnings.py
+++ b/Doc/tools/check-warnings.py
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@
"""
Check the output of running Sphinx in nit-picky mode (missing references).
"""
+
from __future__ import annotations
import argparse
@@ -13,6 +14,9 @@
from pathlib import Path
from typing import TextIO
+# Fail if NEWS nit found before this line number
+NEWS_NIT_THRESHOLD = 4800
+
# Exclude these whether they're dirty or clean,
# because they trigger a rebuild of dirty files.
EXCLUDE_FILES = {
@@ -203,7 +207,9 @@ def annotate_diff(
def fail_if_regression(
- warnings: list[str], files_with_expected_nits: set[str], files_with_nits: set[str]
+ warnings: list[str],
+ files_with_expected_nits: set[str],
+ files_with_nits: set[str],
) -> int:
"""
Ensure some files always pass Sphinx nit-picky mode (no missing references).
@@ -245,6 +251,26 @@ def fail_if_improved(
return 0
+def fail_if_new_news_nit(warnings: list[str], threshold: int) -> int:
+ """
+ Ensure no warnings are found in the NEWS file before a given line number.
+ """
+ news_nits = (warning for warning in warnings if "/build/NEWS:" in warning)
+
+ # Nits found before the threshold line
+ new_news_nits = [
+ nit for nit in news_nits if int(nit.split(":")[1]) <= threshold
+ ]
+
+ if new_news_nits:
+ print("\nError: new NEWS nits:\n")
+ for warning in new_news_nits:
+ print(warning)
+ return -1
+
+ return 0
+
+
def main(argv: list[str] | None = None) -> int:
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument(
@@ -264,6 +290,14 @@ def main(argv: list[str] | None = None) -> int:
action="store_true",
help="Fail if new files with no nits are found",
)
+ parser.add_argument(
+ "--fail-if-new-news-nit",
+ metavar="threshold",
+ type=int,
+ nargs="?",
+ const=NEWS_NIT_THRESHOLD,
+ help="Fail if new NEWS nit found before threshold line number",
+ )
args = parser.parse_args(argv)
if args.annotate_diff is not None and len(args.annotate_diff) > 2:
@@ -274,10 +308,14 @@ def main(argv: list[str] | None = None) -> int:
exit_code = 0
wrong_directory_msg = "Must run this script from the repo root"
- assert Path("Doc").exists() and Path("Doc").is_dir(), wrong_directory_msg
+ if not Path("Doc").exists() or not Path("Doc").is_dir():
+ raise RuntimeError(wrong_directory_msg)
- with Path("Doc/sphinx-warnings.txt").open(encoding="UTF-8") as f:
- warnings = f.read().splitlines()
+ warnings = (
+ Path("Doc/sphinx-warnings.txt")
+ .read_text(encoding="UTF-8")
+ .splitlines()
+ )
cwd = str(Path.cwd()) + os.path.sep
files_with_nits = {
@@ -302,7 +340,12 @@ def main(argv: list[str] | None = None) -> int:
)
if args.fail_if_improved:
- exit_code += fail_if_improved(files_with_expected_nits, files_with_nits)
+ exit_code += fail_if_improved(
+ files_with_expected_nits, files_with_nits
+ )
+
+ if args.fail_if_new_news_nit:
+ exit_code += fail_if_new_news_nit(warnings, args.fail_if_new_news_nit)
return exit_code
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/audit_events.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/audit_events.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..385a58b2145446f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/tools/extensions/audit_events.py
@@ -0,0 +1,264 @@
+"""Support for documenting audit events."""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import re
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+
+from docutils import nodes
+from sphinx.errors import NoUri
+from sphinx.locale import _ as sphinx_gettext
+from sphinx.transforms.post_transforms import SphinxPostTransform
+from sphinx.util import logging
+from sphinx.util.docutils import SphinxDirective
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+ from collections.abc import Iterator, Set
+
+ from sphinx.application import Sphinx
+ from sphinx.builders import Builder
+ from sphinx.environment import BuildEnvironment
+
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
+# This list of sets are allowable synonyms for event argument names.
+# If two names are in the same set, they are treated as equal for the
+# purposes of warning. This won't help if the number of arguments is
+# different!
+_SYNONYMS = [
+ frozenset({"file", "path", "fd"}),
+]
+
+
+class AuditEvents:
+ def __init__(self) -> None:
+ self.events: dict[str, list[str]] = {}
+ self.sources: dict[str, set[tuple[str, str]]] = {}
+
+ def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[tuple[str, list[str], tuple[str, str]]]:
+ for name, args in self.events.items():
+ for source in self.sources[name]:
+ yield name, args, source
+
+ def add_event(
+ self, name, args: list[str], source: tuple[str, str]
+ ) -> None:
+ if name in self.events:
+ self._check_args_match(name, args)
+ else:
+ self.events[name] = args
+ self.sources.setdefault(name, set()).add(source)
+
+ def _check_args_match(self, name: str, args: list[str]) -> None:
+ current_args = self.events[name]
+ msg = (
+ f"Mismatched arguments for audit-event {name}: "
+ f"{current_args!r} != {args!r}"
+ )
+ if current_args == args:
+ return
+ if len(current_args) != len(args):
+ logger.warning(msg)
+ return
+ for a1, a2 in zip(current_args, args, strict=False):
+ if a1 == a2:
+ continue
+ if any(a1 in s and a2 in s for s in _SYNONYMS):
+ continue
+ logger.warning(msg)
+ return
+
+ def id_for(self, name) -> str:
+ source_count = len(self.sources.get(name, set()))
+ name_clean = re.sub(r"\W", "_", name)
+ return f"audit_event_{name_clean}_{source_count}"
+
+ def rows(self) -> Iterator[tuple[str, list[str], Set[tuple[str, str]]]]:
+ for name in sorted(self.events.keys()):
+ yield name, self.events[name], self.sources[name]
+
+
+def initialise_audit_events(app: Sphinx) -> None:
+ """Initialise the audit_events attribute on the environment."""
+ if not hasattr(app.env, "audit_events"):
+ app.env.audit_events = AuditEvents()
+
+
+def audit_events_purge(
+ app: Sphinx, env: BuildEnvironment, docname: str
+) -> None:
+ """This is to remove traces of removed documents from env.audit_events."""
+ fresh_audit_events = AuditEvents()
+ for name, args, (doc, target) in env.audit_events:
+ if doc != docname:
+ fresh_audit_events.add_event(name, args, (doc, target))
+
+
+def audit_events_merge(
+ app: Sphinx,
+ env: BuildEnvironment,
+ docnames: list[str],
+ other: BuildEnvironment,
+) -> None:
+ """In Sphinx parallel builds, this merges audit_events from subprocesses."""
+ for name, args, source in other.audit_events:
+ env.audit_events.add_event(name, args, source)
+
+
+class AuditEvent(SphinxDirective):
+ has_content = True
+ required_arguments = 1
+ optional_arguments = 2
+ final_argument_whitespace = True
+
+ _label = [
+ sphinx_gettext(
+ "Raises an :ref:`auditing event <auditing>` "
+ "{name} with no arguments."
+ ),
+ sphinx_gettext(
+ "Raises an :ref:`auditing event <auditing>` "
+ "{name} with argument {args}."
+ ),
+ sphinx_gettext(
+ "Raises an :ref:`auditing event <auditing>` "
+ "{name} with arguments {args}."
+ ),
+ ]
+
+ def run(self) -> list[nodes.paragraph]:
+ name = self.arguments[0]
+ if len(self.arguments) >= 2 and self.arguments[1]:
+ args = [
+ arg
+ for argument in self.arguments[1].strip("'\"").split(",")
+ if (arg := argument.strip())
+ ]
+ else:
+ args = []
+ ids = []
+ try:
+ target = self.arguments[2].strip("\"'")
+ except (IndexError, TypeError):
+ target = None
+ if not target:
+ target = self.env.audit_events.id_for(name)
+ ids.append(target)
+ self.env.audit_events.add_event(name, args, (self.env.docname, target))
+
+ node = nodes.paragraph("", classes=["audit-hook"], ids=ids)
+ self.set_source_info(node)
+ if self.content:
+ node.rawsource = '\n'.join(self.content) # for gettext
+ self.state.nested_parse(self.content, self.content_offset, node)
+ else:
+ num_args = min(2, len(args))
+ text = self._label[num_args].format(
+ name=f"``{name}``",
+ args=", ".join(f"``{a}``" for a in args),
+ )
+ node.rawsource = text # for gettext
+ parsed, messages = self.state.inline_text(text, self.lineno)
+ node += parsed
+ node += messages
+ return [node]
+
+
+class audit_event_list(nodes.General, nodes.Element): # noqa: N801
+ pass
+
+
+class AuditEventListDirective(SphinxDirective):
+ def run(self) -> list[audit_event_list]:
+ return [audit_event_list()]
+
+
+class AuditEventListTransform(SphinxPostTransform):
+ default_priority = 500
+
+ def run(self) -> None:
+ if self.document.next_node(audit_event_list) is None:
+ return
+
+ table = self._make_table(self.app.builder, self.env.docname)
+ for node in self.document.findall(audit_event_list):
+ node.replace_self(table)
+
+ def _make_table(self, builder: Builder, docname: str) -> nodes.table:
+ table = nodes.table(cols=3)
+ group = nodes.tgroup(
+ "",
+ nodes.colspec(colwidth=30),
+ nodes.colspec(colwidth=55),
+ nodes.colspec(colwidth=15),
+ cols=3,
+ )
+ head = nodes.thead()
+ body = nodes.tbody()
+
+ table += group
+ group += head
+ group += body
+
+ head += nodes.row(
+ "",
+ nodes.entry("", nodes.paragraph("", "Audit event")),
+ nodes.entry("", nodes.paragraph("", "Arguments")),
+ nodes.entry("", nodes.paragraph("", "References")),
+ )
+
+ for name, args, sources in builder.env.audit_events.rows():
+ body += self._make_row(builder, docname, name, args, sources)
+
+ return table
+
+ @staticmethod
+ def _make_row(
+ builder: Builder,
+ docname: str,
+ name: str,
+ args: list[str],
+ sources: Set[tuple[str, str]],
+ ) -> nodes.row:
+ row = nodes.row()
+ name_node = nodes.paragraph("", nodes.Text(name))
+ row += nodes.entry("", name_node)
+
+ args_node = nodes.paragraph()
+ for arg in args:
+ args_node += nodes.literal(arg, arg)
+ args_node += nodes.Text(", ")
+ if len(args_node.children) > 0:
+ args_node.children.pop() # remove trailing comma
+ row += nodes.entry("", args_node)
+
+ backlinks_node = nodes.paragraph()
+ backlinks = enumerate(sorted(sources), start=1)
+ for i, (doc, label) in backlinks:
+ if isinstance(label, str):
+ ref = nodes.reference("", f"[{i}]", internal=True)
+ try:
+ target = (
+ f"{builder.get_relative_uri(docname, doc)}#{label}"
+ )
+ except NoUri:
+ continue
+ else:
+ ref["refuri"] = target
+ backlinks_node += ref
+ row += nodes.entry("", backlinks_node)
+ return row
+
+
+def setup(app: Sphinx):
+ app.add_directive("audit-event", AuditEvent)
+ app.add_directive("audit-event-table", AuditEventListDirective)
+ app.add_post_transform(AuditEventListTransform)
+ app.connect("builder-inited", initialise_audit_events)
+ app.connect("env-purge-doc", audit_events_purge)
+ app.connect("env-merge-info", audit_events_merge)
+ return {
+ "version": "2.0",
+ "parallel_read_safe": True,
+ "parallel_write_safe": True,
+ }
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/availability.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/availability.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..1a2c7b02b444393
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/tools/extensions/availability.py
@@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
+"""Support for documenting platform availability"""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+
+from docutils import nodes
+from sphinx import addnodes
+from sphinx.locale import _ as sphinx_gettext
+from sphinx.util import logging
+from sphinx.util.docutils import SphinxDirective
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+ from sphinx.application import Sphinx
+ from sphinx.util.typing import ExtensionMetadata
+
+logger = logging.getLogger("availability")
+
+# known platform, libc, and threading implementations
+_PLATFORMS = frozenset({
+ "AIX",
+ "Android",
+ "BSD",
+ "DragonFlyBSD",
+ "Emscripten",
+ "FreeBSD",
+ "GNU/kFreeBSD",
+ "iOS",
+ "Linux",
+ "macOS",
+ "NetBSD",
+ "OpenBSD",
+ "POSIX",
+ "Solaris",
+ "Unix",
+ "VxWorks",
+ "WASI",
+ "Windows",
+})
+_LIBC = frozenset({
+ "BSD libc",
+ "glibc",
+ "musl",
+})
+_THREADING = frozenset({
+ # POSIX platforms with pthreads
+ "pthreads",
+})
+KNOWN_PLATFORMS = _PLATFORMS | _LIBC | _THREADING
+
+
+class Availability(SphinxDirective):
+ has_content = True
+ required_arguments = 1
+ optional_arguments = 0
+ final_argument_whitespace = True
+
+ def run(self) -> list[nodes.container]:
+ title = sphinx_gettext("Availability")
+ refnode = addnodes.pending_xref(
+ title,
+ nodes.inline(title, title, classes=["xref", "std", "std-ref"]),
+ refdoc=self.env.docname,
+ refdomain="std",
+ refexplicit=True,
+ reftarget="availability",
+ reftype="ref",
+ refwarn=True,
+ )
+ sep = nodes.Text(": ")
+ parsed, msgs = self.state.inline_text(self.arguments[0], self.lineno)
+ pnode = nodes.paragraph(title, "", refnode, sep, *parsed, *msgs)
+ self.set_source_info(pnode)
+ cnode = nodes.container("", pnode, classes=["availability"])
+ self.set_source_info(cnode)
+ if self.content:
+ self.state.nested_parse(self.content, self.content_offset, cnode)
+ self.parse_platforms()
+
+ return [cnode]
+
+ def parse_platforms(self) -> dict[str, str | bool]:
+ """Parse platform information from arguments
+
+ Arguments is a comma-separated string of platforms. A platform may
+ be prefixed with "not " to indicate that a feature is not available.
+
+ Example::
+
+ .. availability:: Windows, Linux >= 4.2, not WASI
+
+ Arguments like "Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27" are currently not
+ parsed into separate tokens.
+ """
+ platforms = {}
+ for arg in self.arguments[0].rstrip(".").split(","):
+ arg = arg.strip()
+ platform, _, version = arg.partition(" >= ")
+ if platform.startswith("not "):
+ version = False
+ platform = platform.removeprefix("not ")
+ elif not version:
+ version = True
+ platforms[platform] = version
+
+ if unknown := set(platforms).difference(KNOWN_PLATFORMS):
+ logger.warning(
+ "Unknown platform%s or syntax '%s' in '.. availability:: %s', "
+ "see %s:KNOWN_PLATFORMS for a set of known platforms.",
+ "s" if len(platforms) != 1 else "",
+ " ".join(sorted(unknown)),
+ self.arguments[0],
+ __file__,
+ )
+
+ return platforms
+
+
+def setup(app: Sphinx) -> ExtensionMetadata:
+ app.add_directive("availability", Availability)
+
+ return {
+ "version": "1.0",
+ "parallel_read_safe": True,
+ "parallel_write_safe": True,
+ }
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/c_annotations.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/c_annotations.py
index 7916b178f1c0f11..e04a5f144c449bc 100644
--- a/Doc/tools/extensions/c_annotations.py
+++ b/Doc/tools/extensions/c_annotations.py
@@ -1,226 +1,359 @@
-"""
- c_annotations.py
- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-
- Supports annotations for C API elements:
+"""Support annotations for C API elements.
- * reference count annotations for C API functions. Based on
- refcount.py and anno-api.py in the old Python documentation tools.
+* Reference count annotations for C API functions.
+* Stable ABI annotations
+* Limited API annotations
- * stable API annotations
+Configuration:
+* Set ``refcount_file`` to the path to the reference count data file.
+* Set ``stable_abi_file`` to the path to stable ABI list.
+"""
- Usage:
- * Set the `refcount_file` config value to the path to the reference
- count data file.
- * Set the `stable_abi_file` config value to the path to stable ABI list.
+from __future__ import annotations
- :copyright: Copyright 2007-2014 by Georg Brandl.
- :license: Python license.
-"""
+import csv
+import dataclasses
+from pathlib import Path
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
-from os import path
from docutils import nodes
-from docutils.parsers.rst import directives
-from docutils.parsers.rst import Directive
from docutils.statemachine import StringList
-from sphinx.locale import _ as sphinx_gettext
-import csv
-
from sphinx import addnodes
-from sphinx.domains.c import CObject
+from sphinx.locale import _ as sphinx_gettext
+from sphinx.util.docutils import SphinxDirective
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+ from sphinx.application import Sphinx
+ from sphinx.util.typing import ExtensionMetadata
-REST_ROLE_MAP = {
- 'function': 'func',
- 'macro': 'macro',
- 'member': 'member',
- 'type': 'type',
- 'var': 'data',
+ROLE_TO_OBJECT_TYPE = {
+ "func": "function",
+ "macro": "macro",
+ "member": "member",
+ "type": "type",
+ "data": "var",
}
-class RCEntry:
- def __init__(self, name):
- self.name = name
- self.args = []
- self.result_type = ''
- self.result_refs = None
-
-
-class Annotations:
- def __init__(self, refcount_filename, stable_abi_file):
- self.refcount_data = {}
- with open(refcount_filename, encoding='utf8') as fp:
- for line in fp:
- line = line.strip()
- if line[:1] in ("", "#"):
- # blank lines and comments
- continue
- parts = line.split(":", 4)
- if len(parts) != 5:
- raise ValueError(f"Wrong field count in {line!r}")
- function, type, arg, refcount, comment = parts
- # Get the entry, creating it if needed:
- try:
- entry = self.refcount_data[function]
- except KeyError:
- entry = self.refcount_data[function] = RCEntry(function)
- if not refcount or refcount == "null":
- refcount = None
- else:
- refcount = int(refcount)
- # Update the entry with the new parameter or the result
- # information.
- if arg:
- entry.args.append((arg, type, refcount))
- else:
- entry.result_type = type
- entry.result_refs = refcount
-
- self.stable_abi_data = {}
- with open(stable_abi_file, encoding='utf8') as fp:
- for record in csv.DictReader(fp):
- name = record['name']
- self.stable_abi_data[name] = record
-
- def add_annotations(self, app, doctree):
- for node in doctree.findall(addnodes.desc_content):
- par = node.parent
- if par['domain'] != 'c':
- continue
- if not par[0].has_key('ids') or not par[0]['ids']:
- continue
- name = par[0]['ids'][0]
- if name.startswith("c."):
- name = name[2:]
-
- objtype = par['objtype']
-
- # Stable ABI annotation. These have two forms:
- # Part of the [Stable ABI](link).
- # Part of the [Stable ABI](link) since version X.Y.
- # For structs, there's some more info in the message:
- # Part of the [Limited API](link) (as an opaque struct).
- # Part of the [Stable ABI](link) (including all members).
- # Part of the [Limited API](link) (Only some members are part
- # of the stable ABI.).
- # ... all of which can have "since version X.Y" appended.
- record = self.stable_abi_data.get(name)
- if record:
- if record['role'] != objtype:
- raise ValueError(
- f"Object type mismatch in limited API annotation "
- f"for {name}: {record['role']!r} != {objtype!r}")
- stable_added = record['added']
- message = sphinx_gettext('Part of the')
- message = message.center(len(message) + 2)
- emph_node = nodes.emphasis(message, message,
- classes=['stableabi'])
- ref_node = addnodes.pending_xref(
- 'Stable ABI', refdomain="std", reftarget='stable',
- reftype='ref', refexplicit="False")
- struct_abi_kind = record['struct_abi_kind']
- if struct_abi_kind in {'opaque', 'members'}:
- ref_node += nodes.Text(sphinx_gettext('Limited API'))
- else:
- ref_node += nodes.Text(sphinx_gettext('Stable ABI'))
- emph_node += ref_node
- if struct_abi_kind == 'opaque':
- emph_node += nodes.Text(' ' + sphinx_gettext('(as an opaque struct)'))
- elif struct_abi_kind == 'full-abi':
- emph_node += nodes.Text(' ' + sphinx_gettext('(including all members)'))
- if record['ifdef_note']:
- emph_node += nodes.Text(' ' + record['ifdef_note'])
- if stable_added == '3.2':
- # Stable ABI was introduced in 3.2.
- pass
- else:
- emph_node += nodes.Text(' ' + sphinx_gettext('since version %s') % stable_added)
- emph_node += nodes.Text('.')
- if struct_abi_kind == 'members':
- emph_node += nodes.Text(
- ' ' + sphinx_gettext('(Only some members are part of the stable ABI.)'))
- node.insert(0, emph_node)
-
- # Unstable API annotation.
- if name.startswith('PyUnstable'):
- warn_node = nodes.admonition(
- classes=['unstable-c-api', 'warning'])
- message = sphinx_gettext('This is') + ' '
- emph_node = nodes.emphasis(message, message)
- ref_node = addnodes.pending_xref(
- 'Unstable API', refdomain="std",
- reftarget='unstable-c-api',
- reftype='ref', refexplicit="False")
- ref_node += nodes.Text(sphinx_gettext('Unstable API'))
- emph_node += ref_node
- emph_node += nodes.Text(sphinx_gettext('. It may change without warning in minor releases.'))
- warn_node += emph_node
- node.insert(0, warn_node)
-
- # Return value annotation
- if objtype != 'function':
- continue
- entry = self.refcount_data.get(name)
- if not entry:
- continue
- elif not entry.result_type.endswith("Object*"):
- continue
- classes = ['refcount']
- if entry.result_refs is None:
- rc = sphinx_gettext('Return value: Always NULL.')
- classes.append('return_null')
- elif entry.result_refs:
- rc = sphinx_gettext('Return value: New reference.')
- classes.append('return_new_ref')
- else:
- rc = sphinx_gettext('Return value: Borrowed reference.')
- classes.append('return_borrowed_ref')
- node.insert(0, nodes.emphasis(rc, rc, classes=classes))
-
-
-def init_annotations(app):
- annotations = Annotations(
- path.join(app.srcdir, app.config.refcount_file),
- path.join(app.srcdir, app.config.stable_abi_file),
+@dataclasses.dataclass(slots=True)
+class RefCountEntry:
+ # Name of the function.
+ name: str
+ # List of (argument name, type, refcount effect) tuples.
+ # (Currently not used. If it was, a dataclass might work better.)
+ args: list = dataclasses.field(default_factory=list)
+ # Return type of the function.
+ result_type: str = ""
+ # Reference count effect for the return value.
+ result_refs: int | None = None
+
+
+@dataclasses.dataclass(frozen=True, slots=True)
+class StableABIEntry:
+ # Role of the object.
+ # Source: Each [item_kind] in stable_abi.toml is mapped to a C Domain role.
+ role: str
+ # Name of the object.
+ # Source: [<item_kind>.*] in stable_abi.toml.
+ name: str
+ # Version when the object was added to the stable ABI.
+ # (Source: [<item_kind>.*.added] in stable_abi.toml.
+ added: str
+ # An explananatory blurb for the ifdef.
+ # Source: ``feature_macro.*.doc`` in stable_abi.toml.
+ ifdef_note: str
+ # Defines how much of the struct is exposed. Only relevant for structs.
+ # Source: [<item_kind>.*.struct_abi_kind] in stable_abi.toml.
+ struct_abi_kind: str
+
+
+def read_refcount_data(refcount_filename: Path) -> dict[str, RefCountEntry]:
+ refcount_data = {}
+ refcounts = refcount_filename.read_text(encoding="utf8")
+ for line in refcounts.splitlines():
+ line = line.strip()
+ if not line or line.startswith("#"):
+ # blank lines and comments
+ continue
+
+ # Each line is of the form
+ # function ':' type ':' [param name] ':' [refcount effect] ':' [comment]
+ parts = line.split(":", 4)
+ if len(parts) != 5:
+ raise ValueError(f"Wrong field count in {line!r}")
+ function, type, arg, refcount, _comment = parts
+
+ # Get the entry, creating it if needed:
+ try:
+ entry = refcount_data[function]
+ except KeyError:
+ entry = refcount_data[function] = RefCountEntry(function)
+ if not refcount or refcount == "null":
+ refcount = None
+ else:
+ refcount = int(refcount)
+ # Update the entry with the new parameter
+ # or the result information.
+ if arg:
+ entry.args.append((arg, type, refcount))
+ else:
+ entry.result_type = type
+ entry.result_refs = refcount
+
+ return refcount_data
+
+
+def read_stable_abi_data(stable_abi_file: Path) -> dict[str, StableABIEntry]:
+ stable_abi_data = {}
+ with open(stable_abi_file, encoding="utf8") as fp:
+ for record in csv.DictReader(fp):
+ name = record["name"]
+ stable_abi_data[name] = StableABIEntry(**record)
+
+ return stable_abi_data
+
+
+def add_annotations(app: Sphinx, doctree: nodes.document) -> None:
+ state = app.env.domaindata["c_annotations"]
+ refcount_data = state["refcount_data"]
+ stable_abi_data = state["stable_abi_data"]
+ for node in doctree.findall(addnodes.desc_content):
+ par = node.parent
+ if par["domain"] != "c":
+ continue
+ if not par[0].get("ids", None):
+ continue
+ name = par[0]["ids"][0].removeprefix("c.")
+ objtype = par["objtype"]
+
+ # Stable ABI annotation.
+ if record := stable_abi_data.get(name):
+ if ROLE_TO_OBJECT_TYPE[record.role] != objtype:
+ msg = (
+ f"Object type mismatch in limited API annotation for {name}: "
+ f"{ROLE_TO_OBJECT_TYPE[record.role]!r} != {objtype!r}"
+ )
+ raise ValueError(msg)
+ annotation = _stable_abi_annotation(record)
+ node.insert(0, annotation)
+
+ # Unstable API annotation.
+ if name.startswith("PyUnstable"):
+ annotation = _unstable_api_annotation()
+ node.insert(0, annotation)
+
+ # Return value annotation
+ if objtype != "function":
+ continue
+ if name not in refcount_data:
+ continue
+ entry = refcount_data[name]
+ if not entry.result_type.endswith("Object*"):
+ continue
+ annotation = _return_value_annotation(entry.result_refs)
+ node.insert(0, annotation)
+
+
+def _stable_abi_annotation(
+ record: StableABIEntry,
+ is_corresponding_slot: bool = False,
+) -> nodes.emphasis:
+ """Create the Stable ABI annotation.
+
+ These have two forms:
+ Part of the `Stable ABI <link>`_.
+ Part of the `Stable ABI <link>`_ since version X.Y.
+ For structs, there's some more info in the message:
+ Part of the `Limited API <link>`_ (as an opaque struct).
+ Part of the `Stable ABI <link>`_ (including all members).
+ Part of the `Limited API <link>`_ (Only some members are part
+ of the stable ABI.).
+ ... all of which can have "since version X.Y" appended.
+ """
+ stable_added = record.added
+ emph_node = nodes.emphasis('', '', classes=["stableabi"])
+ if is_corresponding_slot:
+ # See "Type slot annotations" in add_annotations
+ ref_node = addnodes.pending_xref(
+ "slot ID",
+ refdomain="c",
+ reftarget="PyType_Slot",
+ reftype="type",
+ refexplicit="True",
+ )
+ ref_node += nodes.Text(sphinx_gettext("slot ID"))
+
+ message = sphinx_gettext("The corresponding")
+ emph_node += nodes.Text(" " + message + " ")
+ emph_node += ref_node
+ emph_node += nodes.Text(" ")
+ emph_node += nodes.literal(record.name, record.name)
+ message = sphinx_gettext("is part of the")
+ emph_node += nodes.Text(" " + message + " ")
+ else:
+ message = sphinx_gettext("Part of the")
+ emph_node += nodes.Text(" " + message + " ")
+ ref_node = addnodes.pending_xref(
+ "Stable ABI",
+ refdomain="std",
+ reftarget="stable",
+ reftype="ref",
+ refexplicit="False",
+ )
+ struct_abi_kind = record.struct_abi_kind
+ if struct_abi_kind in {"opaque", "members"}:
+ ref_node += nodes.Text(sphinx_gettext("Limited API"))
+ else:
+ ref_node += nodes.Text(sphinx_gettext("Stable ABI"))
+ emph_node += ref_node
+ if struct_abi_kind == "opaque":
+ emph_node += nodes.Text(" " + sphinx_gettext("(as an opaque struct)"))
+ elif struct_abi_kind == "full-abi":
+ emph_node += nodes.Text(
+ " " + sphinx_gettext("(including all members)")
+ )
+ if record.ifdef_note:
+ emph_node += nodes.Text(f" {record.ifdef_note}")
+ if stable_added == "3.2":
+ # Stable ABI was introduced in 3.2.
+ pass
+ else:
+ emph_node += nodes.Text(
+ " " + sphinx_gettext("since version %s") % stable_added
+ )
+ emph_node += nodes.Text(".")
+ if struct_abi_kind == "members":
+ msg = " " + sphinx_gettext(
+ "(Only some members are part of the stable ABI.)"
+ )
+ emph_node += nodes.Text(msg)
+ return emph_node
+
+
+def _unstable_api_annotation() -> nodes.admonition:
+ ref_node = addnodes.pending_xref(
+ "Unstable API",
+ nodes.Text(sphinx_gettext("Unstable API")),
+ refdomain="std",
+ reftarget="unstable-c-api",
+ reftype="ref",
+ refexplicit="False",
+ )
+ emph_node = nodes.emphasis(
+ "This is ",
+ sphinx_gettext("This is") + " ",
+ ref_node,
+ nodes.Text(
+ sphinx_gettext(
+ ". It may change without warning in minor releases."
+ )
+ ),
+ )
+ return nodes.admonition(
+ "",
+ emph_node,
+ classes=["unstable-c-api", "warning"],
)
- app.connect('doctree-read', annotations.add_annotations)
- class LimitedAPIList(Directive):
- has_content = False
- required_arguments = 0
- optional_arguments = 0
- final_argument_whitespace = True
+def _return_value_annotation(result_refs: int | None) -> nodes.emphasis:
+ classes = ["refcount"]
+ if result_refs is None:
+ rc = sphinx_gettext("Return value: Always NULL.")
+ classes.append("return_null")
+ elif result_refs:
+ rc = sphinx_gettext("Return value: New reference.")
+ classes.append("return_new_ref")
+ else:
+ rc = sphinx_gettext("Return value: Borrowed reference.")
+ classes.append("return_borrowed_ref")
+ return nodes.emphasis(rc, rc, classes=classes)
- def run(self):
- content = []
- for record in annotations.stable_abi_data.values():
- role = REST_ROLE_MAP[record['role']]
- name = record['name']
- content.append(f'* :c:{role}:`{name}`')
- pnode = nodes.paragraph()
- self.state.nested_parse(StringList(content), 0, pnode)
- return [pnode]
+class LimitedAPIList(SphinxDirective):
+ has_content = False
+ required_arguments = 0
+ optional_arguments = 0
+ final_argument_whitespace = True
- app.add_directive('limited-api-list', LimitedAPIList)
+ def run(self) -> list[nodes.Node]:
+ state = self.env.domaindata["c_annotations"]
+ content = [
+ f"* :c:{record.role}:`{record.name}`"
+ for record in state["stable_abi_data"].values()
+ ]
+ node = nodes.paragraph()
+ self.state.nested_parse(StringList(content), 0, node)
+ return [node]
-def setup(app):
- app.add_config_value('refcount_file', '', True)
- app.add_config_value('stable_abi_file', '', True)
- app.connect('builder-inited', init_annotations)
+class CorrespondingTypeSlot(SphinxDirective):
+ """Type slot annotations
- # monkey-patch C object...
- CObject.option_spec = {
- 'noindex': directives.flag,
- 'stableabi': directives.flag,
- }
- old_handle_signature = CObject.handle_signature
+ Docs for these are with the corresponding field, for example,
+ "Py_tp_repr" is documented under "PyTypeObject.tp_repr", with
+ only a stable ABI note mentioning "Py_tp_repr" (and linking to
+ docs on how this works).
+
+ If there is no corresponding field, these should be documented as normal
+ macros.
+ """
+
+ has_content = False
- def new_handle_signature(self, sig, signode):
- signode.parent['stableabi'] = 'stableabi' in self.options
- return old_handle_signature(self, sig, signode)
- CObject.handle_signature = new_handle_signature
- return {'version': '1.0', 'parallel_read_safe': True}
+ required_arguments = 1
+ optional_arguments = 0
+
+ def run(self) -> list[nodes.Node]:
+ name = self.arguments[0]
+ state = self.env.domaindata["c_annotations"]
+ stable_abi_data = state["stable_abi_data"]
+
+ try:
+ record = stable_abi_data[name]
+ except LookupError as err:
+ raise LookupError(
+ f"{name} is not part of stable ABI. "
+ + "Document it as `c:macro::` rather than "
+ + "`corresponding-type-slot::`."
+ ) from err
+
+ annotation = _stable_abi_annotation(record, is_corresponding_slot=True)
+
+ node = nodes.paragraph()
+ content = [
+ ".. c:namespace:: NULL",
+ "",
+ ".. c:macro:: " + name,
+ " :no-typesetting:",
+ ]
+ self.state.nested_parse(StringList(content), 0, node)
+ node.insert(0, annotation)
+ return [node]
+
+
+def init_annotations(app: Sphinx) -> None:
+ # Using domaindata is a bit hack-ish,
+ # but allows storing state without a global variable or closure.
+ app.env.domaindata["c_annotations"] = state = {}
+ state["refcount_data"] = read_refcount_data(
+ Path(app.srcdir, app.config.refcount_file)
+ )
+ state["stable_abi_data"] = read_stable_abi_data(
+ Path(app.srcdir, app.config.stable_abi_file)
+ )
+
+
+def setup(app: Sphinx) -> ExtensionMetadata:
+ app.add_config_value("refcount_file", "", "env", types={str})
+ app.add_config_value("stable_abi_file", "", "env", types={str})
+ app.add_directive("limited-api-list", LimitedAPIList)
+ app.add_directive("corresponding-type-slot", CorrespondingTypeSlot)
+ app.connect("builder-inited", init_annotations)
+ app.connect("doctree-read", add_annotations)
+
+ return {
+ "version": "1.0",
+ "parallel_read_safe": True,
+ "parallel_write_safe": True,
+ }
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/changes.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/changes.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..e6a912cef8810ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/tools/extensions/changes.py
@@ -0,0 +1,200 @@
+"""Support for documenting version of changes, additions, deprecations."""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import re
+
+from docutils import nodes
+from sphinx import addnodes
+from sphinx.builders.changes import ChangesBuilder
+from sphinx.domains.changeset import (
+ VersionChange,
+ versionlabel_classes,
+ versionlabels,
+)
+from sphinx.locale import _ as sphinx_gettext
+
+TYPE_CHECKING = False
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+ from docutils.nodes import Node
+ from sphinx.application import Sphinx
+ from sphinx.environment import BuildEnvironment
+ from sphinx.util.typing import ExtensionMetadata
+
+
+def expand_version_arg(argument: str, release: str) -> str:
+ """Expand "next" to the current version"""
+ if argument == "next":
+ return sphinx_gettext("{} (unreleased)").format(release)
+ return argument
+
+
+class PyVersionChange(VersionChange):
+ def run(self) -> list[Node]:
+ # Replace the 'next' special token with the current development version
+ self.arguments[0] = expand_version_arg(
+ self.arguments[0], self.config.release
+ )
+ return super().run()
+
+
+class DeprecatedRemoved(VersionChange):
+ required_arguments = 2
+
+ _deprecated_label = sphinx_gettext(
+ "Deprecated since version %s, will be removed in version %s"
+ )
+ _removed_label = sphinx_gettext(
+ "Deprecated since version %s, removed in version %s"
+ )
+
+ def run(self) -> list[Node]:
+ # Replace the first two arguments (deprecated version and removed version)
+ # with a single tuple of both versions.
+ version_deprecated = expand_version_arg(
+ self.arguments[0], self.config.release
+ )
+ version_removed = self.arguments.pop(1)
+ if version_removed == "next":
+ raise ValueError(
+ "deprecated-removed:: second argument cannot be `next`"
+ )
+ self.arguments[0] = version_deprecated, version_removed
+
+ # Set the label based on if we have reached the removal version
+ current_version = tuple(map(int, self.config.version.split(".")))
+ removed_version = tuple(map(int, version_removed.split(".")))
+ if current_version < removed_version:
+ versionlabels[self.name] = self._deprecated_label
+ versionlabel_classes[self.name] = "deprecated"
+ else:
+ versionlabels[self.name] = self._removed_label
+ versionlabel_classes[self.name] = "removed"
+ try:
+ return super().run()
+ finally:
+ # reset versionlabels and versionlabel_classes
+ versionlabels[self.name] = ""
+ versionlabel_classes[self.name] = ""
+
+
+class SoftDeprecated(PyVersionChange):
+ """Directive for soft deprecations that auto-links to the glossary term.
+
+ Usage::
+
+ .. soft-deprecated:: 3.15
+
+ Use :func:`new_thing` instead.
+
+ Renders as: "Soft deprecated since version 3.15: Use new_thing() instead."
+ with "Soft deprecated" linking to the glossary definition.
+ """
+
+ _TERM_RE = re.compile(r":term:`([^`]+)`")
+
+ def run(self) -> list[Node]:
+ versionlabels[self.name] = sphinx_gettext(
+ ":term:`Soft deprecated` since version %s"
+ )
+ versionlabel_classes[self.name] = "soft-deprecated"
+ try:
+ result = super().run()
+ finally:
+ versionlabels[self.name] = ""
+ versionlabel_classes[self.name] = ""
+
+ for node in result:
+ # Add "versionchanged" class so existing theme CSS applies
+ node["classes"] = node.get("classes", []) + ["versionchanged"]
+ # Replace the plain-text "Soft deprecated" with a glossary reference
+ for inline in node.findall(nodes.inline):
+ if "versionmodified" in inline.get("classes", []):
+ self._add_glossary_link(inline)
+
+ return result
+
+ @classmethod
+ def _add_glossary_link(cls, inline: nodes.inline) -> None:
+ """Replace :term:`soft deprecated` text with a cross-reference to the
+ 'Soft deprecated' glossary entry."""
+ for child in inline.children:
+ if not isinstance(child, nodes.Text):
+ continue
+
+ text = str(child)
+ match = cls._TERM_RE.search(text)
+ if match is None:
+ continue
+
+ ref = addnodes.pending_xref(
+ "",
+ nodes.Text(match.group(1)),
+ refdomain="std",
+ reftype="term",
+ reftarget="soft deprecated",
+ refwarn=True,
+ )
+
+ start, end = match.span()
+ new_nodes: list[nodes.Node] = []
+ if start > 0:
+ new_nodes.append(nodes.Text(text[:start]))
+ new_nodes.append(ref)
+ if end < len(text):
+ new_nodes.append(nodes.Text(text[end:]))
+
+ child.parent.replace(child, new_nodes)
+ break
+
+
+def _fixup_changesets(app: Sphinx, env: BuildEnvironment) -> None:
+ changesets = env.get_domain("changeset").changesets
+
+ # The changeset domain records each entry's plain text before SoftDeprecated
+ # replaces the :term:, so strip the markup before the changes builder renders it.
+ for entries in changesets.values():
+ for i, entry in enumerate(entries):
+ if entry.type == "soft-deprecated":
+ entries[i] = entry._replace(
+ content=SoftDeprecated._TERM_RE.sub(r"\1", entry.content)
+ )
+
+ # DeprecatedRemoved entries are recorded under their (deprecated,
+ # removed) version tuple, which the changes builder ignores.
+ # Re-file them under both versions.
+ for versions in [v for v in changesets if isinstance(v, tuple)]:
+ deprecated, removed = versions
+ for entry in changesets.pop(versions):
+ changesets.setdefault(deprecated, []).append(
+ entry._replace(type="deprecated")
+ )
+ changesets.setdefault(removed, []).append(
+ entry._replace(type="versionremoved")
+ )
+
+
+def setup(app: Sphinx) -> ExtensionMetadata:
+ # Override Sphinx's directives with support for 'next'
+ app.add_directive("versionadded", PyVersionChange, override=True)
+ app.add_directive("versionchanged", PyVersionChange, override=True)
+ app.add_directive("versionremoved", PyVersionChange, override=True)
+ app.add_directive("deprecated", PyVersionChange, override=True)
+
+ # Register the ``.. deprecated-removed::`` directive
+ app.add_directive("deprecated-removed", DeprecatedRemoved)
+ # _fixup_changesets() changes these entries to 'deprecated'/'versionremoved'
+ ChangesBuilder.typemap["deprecated-removed"] = "deprecated-removed"
+
+ # Register the ``.. soft-deprecated::`` directive
+ app.add_directive("soft-deprecated", SoftDeprecated)
+ ChangesBuilder.typemap["soft-deprecated"] = "soft deprecated"
+
+ # Repair the recorded changesets for the couple of custom directives above
+ app.connect("env-updated", _fixup_changesets)
+
+ return {
+ "version": "1.0",
+ "parallel_read_safe": True,
+ "parallel_write_safe": True,
+ }
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/escape4chm.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/escape4chm.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 89970975b9032bc..000000000000000
--- a/Doc/tools/extensions/escape4chm.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,58 +0,0 @@
-"""
-Escape the `body` part of .chm source file to 7-bit ASCII, to fix visual
-effect on some MBCS Windows systems.
-
-https://bugs.python.org/issue32174
-"""
-
-import pathlib
-import re
-from html.entities import codepoint2name
-
-from sphinx.util.logging import getLogger
-
-# escape the characters which codepoint > 0x7F
-def _process(string):
- def escape(matchobj):
- codepoint = ord(matchobj.group(0))
-
- name = codepoint2name.get(codepoint)
- if name is None:
- return '&#%d;' % codepoint
- else:
- return '&%s;' % name
-
- return re.sub(r'[^\x00-\x7F]', escape, string)
-
-def escape_for_chm(app, pagename, templatename, context, doctree):
- # only works for .chm output
- if getattr(app.builder, 'name', '') != 'htmlhelp':
- return
-
- # escape the `body` part to 7-bit ASCII
- body = context.get('body')
- if body is not None:
- context['body'] = _process(body)
-
-def fixup_keywords(app, exception):
- # only works for .chm output
- if getattr(app.builder, 'name', '') != 'htmlhelp' or exception:
- return
-
- getLogger(__name__).info('fixing HTML escapes in keywords file...')
- outdir = pathlib.Path(app.builder.outdir)
- outname = app.builder.config.htmlhelp_basename
- with open(outdir / (outname + '.hhk'), 'rb') as f:
- index = f.read()
- with open(outdir / (outname + '.hhk'), 'wb') as f:
- f.write(index.replace(b''', b'''))
-
-def setup(app):
- # `html-page-context` event emitted when the HTML builder has
- # created a context dictionary to render a template with.
- app.connect('html-page-context', escape_for_chm)
- # `build-finished` event emitted when all the files have been
- # output.
- app.connect('build-finished', fixup_keywords)
-
- return {'version': '1.0', 'parallel_read_safe': True}
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/glossary_search.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/glossary_search.py
index 59a6862ea3d3f46..bcda4b7b4355935 100644
--- a/Doc/tools/extensions/glossary_search.py
+++ b/Doc/tools/extensions/glossary_search.py
@@ -1,63 +1,63 @@
-# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
-"""
- glossary_search.py
- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+"""Feature search results for glossary items prominently."""
- Feature search results for glossary items prominently.
+from __future__ import annotations
- :license: Python license.
-"""
import json
-import os.path
-from docutils.nodes import definition_list_item
+from pathlib import Path
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+
+from docutils import nodes
from sphinx.addnodes import glossary
from sphinx.util import logging
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+ from sphinx.application import Sphinx
+ from sphinx.util.typing import ExtensionMetadata
logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
-STATIC_DIR = '_static'
-JSON = 'glossary.json'
-def process_glossary_nodes(app, doctree, fromdocname):
- if app.builder.format != 'html':
+def process_glossary_nodes(
+ app: Sphinx,
+ doctree: nodes.document,
+ _docname: str,
+) -> None:
+ if app.builder.format != 'html' or app.builder.embedded:
return
- terms = {}
+ if hasattr(app.env, 'glossary_terms'):
+ terms = app.env.glossary_terms
+ else:
+ terms = app.env.glossary_terms = {}
- for node in doctree.traverse(glossary):
- for glossary_item in node.traverse(definition_list_item):
- term = glossary_item[0].astext().lower()
- definition = glossary_item[1]
+ for node in doctree.findall(glossary):
+ for glossary_item in node.findall(nodes.definition_list_item):
+ term = glossary_item[0].astext()
+ definition = glossary_item[-1]
rendered = app.builder.render_partial(definition)
- terms[term] = {
- 'title': glossary_item[0].astext(),
- 'body': rendered['html_body']
+ terms[term.lower()] = {
+ 'title': term,
+ 'body': rendered['fragment'],
}
- if hasattr(app.env, 'glossary_terms'):
- app.env.glossary_terms.update(terms)
- else:
- app.env.glossary_terms = terms
-def on_build_finish(app, exc):
- if not hasattr(app.env, 'glossary_terms'):
- return
- if not app.env.glossary_terms:
+def write_glossary_json(app: Sphinx, _exc: Exception) -> None:
+ if not getattr(app.env, 'glossary_terms', None):
return
- logger.info(f'Writing {JSON}', color='green')
-
- dest_dir = os.path.join(app.outdir, STATIC_DIR)
- os.makedirs(dest_dir, exist_ok=True)
-
- with open(os.path.join(dest_dir, JSON), 'w') as f:
- json.dump(app.env.glossary_terms, f)
+ logger.info('Writing glossary.json', color='green')
+ dest = Path(app.outdir, '_static', 'glossary.json')
+ dest.parent.mkdir(exist_ok=True)
+ dest.write_text(json.dumps(app.env.glossary_terms), encoding='utf-8')
-def setup(app):
+def setup(app: Sphinx) -> ExtensionMetadata:
app.connect('doctree-resolved', process_glossary_nodes)
- app.connect('build-finished', on_build_finish)
+ app.connect('build-finished', write_glossary_json)
- return {'version': '0.1', 'parallel_read_safe': True}
+ return {
+ 'version': '1.0',
+ 'parallel_read_safe': True,
+ 'parallel_write_safe': True,
+ }
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/implementation_detail.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/implementation_detail.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..fce8375e40d5655
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/tools/extensions/implementation_detail.py
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+"""Support for marking up implementation details."""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+
+from docutils import nodes
+from sphinx.locale import _ as sphinx_gettext
+from sphinx.util.docutils import SphinxDirective
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+ from sphinx.application import Sphinx
+ from sphinx.util.typing import ExtensionMetadata
+
+
+class ImplementationDetail(SphinxDirective):
+ has_content = True
+ final_argument_whitespace = True
+
+ # This text is copied to templates/dummy.html
+ label_text = sphinx_gettext("CPython implementation detail:")
+
+ def run(self):
+ self.assert_has_content()
+ content_nodes = self.parse_content_to_nodes()
+
+ # insert our prefix at the start of the first paragraph
+ first_node = content_nodes[0]
+ first_node[:0] = [
+ nodes.strong(self.label_text, self.label_text),
+ nodes.Text(" "),
+ ]
+
+ # create a new compound container node
+ cnode = nodes.compound("", *content_nodes, classes=["impl-detail"])
+ self.set_source_info(cnode)
+ return [cnode]
+
+
+def setup(app: Sphinx) -> ExtensionMetadata:
+ app.add_directive("impl-detail", ImplementationDetail)
+
+ return {
+ "version": "1.0",
+ "parallel_read_safe": True,
+ "parallel_write_safe": True,
+ }
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/issue_role.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/issue_role.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..477b3a4b2d23b4e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/tools/extensions/issue_role.py
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+"""Support for referencing issues in the tracker."""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+
+from docutils import nodes
+from sphinx.util.docutils import SphinxRole
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+ from docutils.nodes import Element
+ from sphinx.application import Sphinx
+ from sphinx.util.typing import ExtensionMetadata
+
+
+class BPOIssue(SphinxRole):
+ ISSUE_URI = "https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo={0}"
+
+ def run(self) -> tuple[list[Element], list[nodes.system_message]]:
+ issue = self.text
+
+ # sanity check: there are no bpo issues within these two values
+ if 47_261 < int(issue) < 400_000:
+ msg = self.inliner.reporter.error(
+ f"The BPO ID {issue!r} seems too high. "
+ "Use :gh:`...` for GitHub IDs.",
+ line=self.lineno,
+ )
+ prb = self.inliner.problematic(self.rawtext, self.rawtext, msg)
+ return [prb], [msg]
+
+ issue_url = self.ISSUE_URI.format(issue)
+ refnode = nodes.reference(issue, f"bpo-{issue}", refuri=issue_url)
+ self.set_source_info(refnode)
+ return [refnode], []
+
+
+class GitHubIssue(SphinxRole):
+ ISSUE_URI = "https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/{0}"
+
+ def run(self) -> tuple[list[Element], list[nodes.system_message]]:
+ issue = self.text
+
+ # sanity check: all GitHub issues have ID >= 32426
+ # even though some of them are also valid BPO IDs
+ if int(issue) < 32_426:
+ msg = self.inliner.reporter.error(
+ f"The GitHub ID {issue!r} seems too low. "
+ "Use :issue:`...` for BPO IDs.",
+ line=self.lineno,
+ )
+ prb = self.inliner.problematic(self.rawtext, self.rawtext, msg)
+ return [prb], [msg]
+
+ issue_url = self.ISSUE_URI.format(issue)
+ refnode = nodes.reference(issue, f"gh-{issue}", refuri=issue_url)
+ self.set_source_info(refnode)
+ return [refnode], []
+
+
+def setup(app: Sphinx) -> ExtensionMetadata:
+ app.add_role("issue", BPOIssue())
+ app.add_role("gh", GitHubIssue())
+
+ return {
+ "version": "1.0",
+ "parallel_read_safe": True,
+ "parallel_write_safe": True,
+ }
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/lexers/__init__.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/lexers/__init__.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..e12ac5be8139cc2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/tools/extensions/lexers/__init__.py
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+from .asdl_lexer import ASDLLexer
+from .peg_lexer import PEGLexer
+
+
+def setup(app):
+ # Used for highlighting Parser/Python.asdl in library/ast.rst
+ app.add_lexer("asdl", ASDLLexer)
+ # Used for highlighting Grammar/python.gram in reference/grammar.rst
+ app.add_lexer("peg", PEGLexer)
+
+ return {
+ "version": "1.0",
+ "parallel_read_safe": True,
+ "parallel_write_safe": True,
+ }
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/asdl_highlight.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/lexers/asdl_lexer.py
similarity index 62%
rename from Doc/tools/extensions/asdl_highlight.py
rename to Doc/tools/extensions/lexers/asdl_lexer.py
index 42863a4b3bcd6a4..3a74174a1f7dfb4 100644
--- a/Doc/tools/extensions/asdl_highlight.py
+++ b/Doc/tools/extensions/lexers/asdl_lexer.py
@@ -1,15 +1,6 @@
-import sys
-from pathlib import Path
+from pygments.lexer import RegexLexer, bygroups, include
+from pygments.token import Comment, Keyword, Name, Operator, Punctuation, Text
-CPYTHON_ROOT = Path(__file__).resolve().parent.parent.parent.parent
-sys.path.append(str(CPYTHON_ROOT / "Parser"))
-
-from pygments.lexer import RegexLexer, bygroups, include, words
-from pygments.token import (Comment, Keyword, Name, Operator,
- Punctuation, Text)
-
-from asdl import builtin_types
-from sphinx.highlighting import lexers
class ASDLLexer(RegexLexer):
name = "ASDL"
@@ -34,7 +25,10 @@ class ASDLLexer(RegexLexer):
r"(\w+)(\*\s|\?\s|\s)(\w+)",
bygroups(Name.Builtin.Pseudo, Operator, Name),
),
- (words(builtin_types), Name.Builtin),
+ # Keep in line with ``builtin_types`` from Parser/asdl.py.
+ # ASDL's 4 builtin types are
+ # constant, identifier, int, string
+ ("constant|identifier|int|string", Name.Builtin),
(r"attributes", Name.Builtin),
(
_name + _text_ws + "(=)",
@@ -46,8 +40,3 @@ class ASDLLexer(RegexLexer):
(r".", Text),
],
}
-
-
-def setup(app):
- lexers["asdl"] = ASDLLexer()
- return {'version': '1.0', 'parallel_read_safe': True}
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/peg_highlight.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/lexers/peg_lexer.py
similarity index 94%
rename from Doc/tools/extensions/peg_highlight.py
rename to Doc/tools/extensions/lexers/peg_lexer.py
index 5ab5530d2699012..06f9f8eb3121255 100644
--- a/Doc/tools/extensions/peg_highlight.py
+++ b/Doc/tools/extensions/lexers/peg_lexer.py
@@ -1,8 +1,6 @@
from pygments.lexer import RegexLexer, bygroups, include
from pygments.token import Comment, Keyword, Name, Operator, Punctuation, Text
-from sphinx.highlighting import lexers
-
class PEGLexer(RegexLexer):
"""Pygments Lexer for PEG grammar (.gram) files
@@ -81,8 +79,3 @@ class PEGLexer(RegexLexer):
(r".", Text),
],
}
-
-
-def setup(app):
- lexers["peg"] = PEGLexer()
- return {"version": "1.0", "parallel_read_safe": True}
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/misc_news.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/misc_news.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..a24c440595ee92f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/tools/extensions/misc_news.py
@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+"""Support for including Misc/NEWS."""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import re
+from pathlib import Path
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+
+from docutils import nodes
+from sphinx.locale import _ as sphinx_gettext
+from sphinx.util.docutils import SphinxDirective
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+ from typing import Final
+
+ from docutils.nodes import Node
+ from sphinx.application import Sphinx
+ from sphinx.util.typing import ExtensionMetadata
+
+
+BLURB_HEADER = """\
++++++++++++
+Python News
++++++++++++
+"""
+
+bpo_issue_re: Final[re.Pattern[str]] = re.compile(
+ "(?:issue #|bpo-)([0-9]+)", re.ASCII
+)
+gh_issue_re: Final[re.Pattern[str]] = re.compile(
+ "gh-(?:issue-)?([0-9]+)", re.ASCII | re.IGNORECASE
+)
+whatsnew_re: Final[re.Pattern[str]] = re.compile(
+ r"^what's new in (.*?)\??$", re.ASCII | re.IGNORECASE | re.MULTILINE
+)
+
+
+class MiscNews(SphinxDirective):
+ has_content = False
+ required_arguments = 1
+ optional_arguments = 0
+ final_argument_whitespace = False
+ option_spec = {}
+
+ def run(self) -> list[Node]:
+ # Get content of NEWS file
+ source, _ = self.get_source_info()
+ news_file = Path(source).resolve().parent / self.arguments[0]
+ self.env.note_dependency(news_file)
+ try:
+ news_text = news_file.read_text(encoding="utf-8")
+ except (OSError, UnicodeError):
+ text = sphinx_gettext("The NEWS file is not available.")
+ return [nodes.strong(text, text)]
+
+ # remove first 3 lines as they are the main heading
+ news_text = news_text.removeprefix(BLURB_HEADER)
+
+ news_text = bpo_issue_re.sub(r":issue:`\1`", news_text)
+ # Fallback handling for GitHub issues
+ news_text = gh_issue_re.sub(r":gh:`\1`", news_text)
+ news_text = whatsnew_re.sub(r"\1", news_text)
+
+ self.state_machine.insert_input(news_text.splitlines(), str(news_file))
+ return []
+
+
+def setup(app: Sphinx) -> ExtensionMetadata:
+ app.add_directive("miscnews", MiscNews)
+
+ return {
+ "version": "1.0",
+ "parallel_read_safe": True,
+ "parallel_write_safe": True,
+ }
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/patchlevel.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/patchlevel.py
index 617f28c2527ddff..9ccaec3dd5ce0fd 100644
--- a/Doc/tools/extensions/patchlevel.py
+++ b/Doc/tools/extensions/patchlevel.py
@@ -1,68 +1,81 @@
-# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
-"""
- patchlevel.py
- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+"""Extract version information from Include/patchlevel.h."""
- Extract version info from Include/patchlevel.h.
- Adapted from Doc/tools/getversioninfo.
+import re
+import sys
+from pathlib import Path
+from typing import Literal, NamedTuple
- :copyright: 2007-2008 by Georg Brandl.
- :license: Python license.
-"""
+CPYTHON_ROOT = Path(
+ __file__, # cpython/Doc/tools/extensions/patchlevel.py
+ "..", # cpython/Doc/tools/extensions
+ "..", # cpython/Doc/tools
+ "..", # cpython/Doc
+ "..", # cpython
+).resolve()
+PATCHLEVEL_H = CPYTHON_ROOT / "Include" / "patchlevel.h"
-from __future__ import print_function
+RELEASE_LEVELS = {
+ "PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_ALPHA": "alpha",
+ "PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_BETA": "beta",
+ "PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_GAMMA": "candidate",
+ "PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_FINAL": "final",
+}
-import os
-import re
-import sys
-def get_header_version_info(srcdir):
- patchlevel_h = os.path.join(srcdir, '..', 'Include', 'patchlevel.h')
+class version_info(NamedTuple): # noqa: N801
+ major: int #: Major release number
+ minor: int #: Minor release number
+ micro: int #: Patch release number
+ releaselevel: Literal["alpha", "beta", "candidate", "final"]
+ serial: int #: Serial release number
- # This won't pick out all #defines, but it will pick up the ones we
- # care about.
- rx = re.compile(r'\s*#define\s+([a-zA-Z][a-zA-Z_0-9]*)\s+([a-zA-Z_0-9]+)')
- d = {}
- with open(patchlevel_h) as f:
- for line in f:
- m = rx.match(line)
- if m is not None:
- name, value = m.group(1, 2)
- d[name] = value
+def get_header_version_info() -> version_info:
+ # Capture PY_ prefixed #defines.
+ pat = re.compile(r"\s*#define\s+(PY_\w*)\s+(\w+)", re.ASCII)
- release = version = '%s.%s' % (d['PY_MAJOR_VERSION'], d['PY_MINOR_VERSION'])
- micro = int(d['PY_MICRO_VERSION'])
- release += '.' + str(micro)
+ defines = {}
+ patchlevel_h = PATCHLEVEL_H.read_text(encoding="utf-8")
+ for line in patchlevel_h.splitlines():
+ if (m := pat.match(line)) is not None:
+ name, value = m.groups()
+ defines[name] = value
- level = d['PY_RELEASE_LEVEL']
- suffixes = {
- 'PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_ALPHA': 'a',
- 'PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_BETA': 'b',
- 'PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_GAMMA': 'rc',
- }
- if level != 'PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_FINAL':
- release += suffixes[level] + str(int(d['PY_RELEASE_SERIAL']))
- return version, release
+ return version_info(
+ major=int(defines["PY_MAJOR_VERSION"]),
+ minor=int(defines["PY_MINOR_VERSION"]),
+ micro=int(defines["PY_MICRO_VERSION"]),
+ releaselevel=RELEASE_LEVELS[defines["PY_RELEASE_LEVEL"]],
+ serial=int(defines["PY_RELEASE_SERIAL"]),
+ )
-def get_sys_version_info():
- major, minor, micro, level, serial = sys.version_info
- release = version = '%s.%s' % (major, minor)
- release += '.%s' % micro
- if level != 'final':
- release += '%s%s' % (level[0], serial)
+def format_version_info(info: version_info) -> tuple[str, str]:
+ version = f"{info.major}.{info.minor}"
+ release = f"{info.major}.{info.minor}.{info.micro}"
+ if info.releaselevel != "final":
+ suffix = {"alpha": "a", "beta": "b", "candidate": "rc"}
+ release += f"{suffix[info.releaselevel]}{info.serial}"
return version, release
def get_version_info():
try:
- return get_header_version_info('.')
- except (IOError, OSError):
- version, release = get_sys_version_info()
- print('Can\'t get version info from Include/patchlevel.h, ' \
- 'using version of this interpreter (%s).' % release, file=sys.stderr)
+ info = get_header_version_info()
+ return format_version_info(info)
+ except OSError:
+ version, release = format_version_info(sys.version_info)
+ print(
+ f"Failed to get version info from Include/patchlevel.h, "
+ f"using version of this interpreter ({release}).",
+ file=sys.stderr,
+ )
return version, release
-if __name__ == '__main__':
- print(get_header_version_info('.')[1])
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+ short_ver, full_ver = format_version_info(get_header_version_info())
+ if sys.argv[1:2] == ["--short"]:
+ print(short_ver)
+ else:
+ print(full_ver)
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/pydoc_topics.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/pydoc_topics.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..84c29f9e782af19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/tools/extensions/pydoc_topics.py
@@ -0,0 +1,215 @@
+"""Support for building "topic help" for pydoc."""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from time import asctime
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+
+from sphinx.builders.text import TextBuilder
+from sphinx.util import logging
+from sphinx.util.display import status_iterator
+from sphinx.util.docutils import new_document
+from sphinx.writers.text import TextTranslator
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+ from collections.abc import Sequence, Set
+
+ from sphinx.application import Sphinx
+ from sphinx.util.typing import ExtensionMetadata
+
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
+_PYDOC_TOPIC_LABELS: Sequence[str] = sorted({
+ "assert",
+ "assignment",
+ "assignment-expressions",
+ "async",
+ "atom-identifiers",
+ "atom-literals",
+ "attribute-access",
+ "attribute-references",
+ "augassign",
+ "await",
+ "binary",
+ "bitwise",
+ "bltin-code-objects",
+ "bltin-ellipsis-object",
+ "bltin-null-object",
+ "bltin-type-objects",
+ "booleans",
+ "break",
+ "callable-types",
+ "calls",
+ "class",
+ "comparisons",
+ "compound",
+ "context-managers",
+ "continue",
+ "conversions",
+ "customization",
+ "debugger",
+ "del",
+ "dict",
+ "dynamic-features",
+ "else",
+ "exceptions",
+ "execmodel",
+ "exprlists",
+ "floating",
+ "for",
+ "formatstrings",
+ "function",
+ "global",
+ "id-classes",
+ "identifiers",
+ "if",
+ "imaginary",
+ "import",
+ "in",
+ "integers",
+ "lambda",
+ "lists",
+ "match",
+ "naming",
+ "nonlocal",
+ "numbers",
+ "numeric-types",
+ "objects",
+ "operator-summary",
+ "pass",
+ "power",
+ "raise",
+ "return",
+ "sequence-types",
+ "shifting",
+ "slicings",
+ "specialattrs",
+ "specialnames",
+ "string-methods",
+ "strings",
+ "subscriptions",
+ "truth",
+ "try",
+ "types",
+ "typesfunctions",
+ "typesmapping",
+ "typesmethods",
+ "typesmodules",
+ "typesseq",
+ "typesseq-mutable",
+ "unary",
+ "while",
+ "with",
+ "yield",
+})
+
+
+class PydocTopicsBuilder(TextBuilder):
+ name = "pydoc-topics"
+
+ def init(self) -> None:
+ super().init()
+ self.topics: dict[str, str] = {}
+ self.module_docs: dict[str, str] = {}
+
+ def get_outdated_docs(self) -> str:
+ # Return a string describing what an update build will build.
+ return "all pydoc topics"
+
+ def write_documents(self, _docnames: Set[str]) -> None:
+ env = self.env
+
+ labels: dict[str, tuple[str, str, str]]
+ labels = env.domains.standard_domain.labels
+
+ # docname -> list of (topic_label, label_id) pairs
+ doc_labels: dict[str, list[tuple[str, str]]] = {}
+ for topic_label in _PYDOC_TOPIC_LABELS:
+ try:
+ docname, label_id, _section_name = labels[topic_label]
+ except KeyError:
+ logger.warning("label %r not in documentation", topic_label)
+ continue
+ doc_labels.setdefault(docname, []).append((topic_label, label_id))
+
+ py_domain = env.domains['py']
+ for module_name, module_info in py_domain.data['modules'].items():
+ docname = module_info[0]
+ if docname.startswith('library/'):
+ doc_file = docname.replace('library/', '')
+ self.module_docs[module_name] = (
+ f"{doc_file}#module-{module_name}"
+ )
+
+ for docname, label_ids in status_iterator(
+ doc_labels.items(),
+ "building topics... ",
+ length=len(doc_labels),
+ stringify_func=_display_labels,
+ ):
+ doctree = env.get_and_resolve_doctree(docname, builder=self)
+ doc_ids = doctree.ids
+ for topic_label, label_id in label_ids:
+ document = new_document("<section node>")
+ document.append(doc_ids[label_id])
+ visitor = TextTranslator(document, builder=self)
+ document.walkabout(visitor)
+ body = "\n".join(map(str.rstrip, visitor.body.splitlines()))
+ self.topics[topic_label] = body + "\n"
+
+ def finish(self) -> None:
+ topics_repr = "\n".join(
+ f" '{topic}': {_repr(self.topics[topic])},"
+ for topic in sorted(self.topics)
+ )
+ topics = f"""\
+# Autogenerated by Sphinx on {asctime()}
+# as part of the release process.
+
+topics = {{
+{topics_repr}
+}}
+"""
+ self.outdir.joinpath("topics.py").write_text(topics, encoding="utf-8")
+
+ module_docs_repr = "\n".join(
+ f" '{module}': '{doc_file}',"
+ for module, doc_file in sorted(self.module_docs.items())
+ )
+ module_docs = f"""\
+# Autogenerated by Sphinx on {asctime()}
+# as part of the release process.
+
+module_docs = {{
+{module_docs_repr}
+}}
+"""
+ self.outdir.joinpath("module_docs.py").write_text(
+ module_docs, encoding="utf-8"
+ )
+
+
+def _display_labels(item: tuple[str, Sequence[tuple[str, str]]]) -> str:
+ _docname, label_ids = item
+ labels = [name for name, _id in label_ids]
+ if len(labels) > 4:
+ return f"{labels[0]}, {labels[1]}, ..., {labels[-2]}, {labels[-1]}"
+ return ", ".join(labels)
+
+
+def _repr(text: str, /) -> str:
+ """Return a triple-single-quoted representation of text."""
+ if "'''" not in text:
+ return f"r'''{text}'''"
+ text = text.replace("\\", "\\\\").replace("'''", r"\'\'\'")
+ return f"'''{text}'''"
+
+
+def setup(app: Sphinx) -> ExtensionMetadata:
+ app.add_builder(PydocTopicsBuilder)
+
+ return {
+ "version": "1.0",
+ "parallel_read_safe": True,
+ "parallel_write_safe": True,
+ }
diff --git a/Doc/tools/extensions/pyspecific.py b/Doc/tools/extensions/pyspecific.py
index b35bedcb0901f19..9b335f2976a2fa3 100644
--- a/Doc/tools/extensions/pyspecific.py
+++ b/Doc/tools/extensions/pyspecific.py
@@ -10,343 +10,9 @@
"""
import re
-import io
-from os import getenv, path
-from time import asctime
-from pprint import pformat
-from docutils import nodes, utils
-from docutils.io import StringOutput
-from docutils.parsers.rst import Directive
-from docutils.utils import new_document
from sphinx import addnodes
-from sphinx.builders import Builder
from sphinx.domains.python import PyFunction, PyMethod
-from sphinx.errors import NoUri
-from sphinx.locale import _ as sphinx_gettext
-from sphinx.util import logging
-from sphinx.util.docutils import SphinxDirective
-from sphinx.writers.text import TextWriter, TextTranslator
-from sphinx.util.display import status_iterator
-
-
-ISSUE_URI = 'https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=%s'
-GH_ISSUE_URI = 'https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/%s'
-# Used in conf.py and updated here by python/release-tools/run_release.py
-SOURCE_URI = 'https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/%s'
-
-# monkey-patch reST parser to disable alphabetic and roman enumerated lists
-from docutils.parsers.rst.states import Body
-Body.enum.converters['loweralpha'] = \
- Body.enum.converters['upperalpha'] = \
- Body.enum.converters['lowerroman'] = \
- Body.enum.converters['upperroman'] = lambda x: None
-
-# monkey-patch the productionlist directive to allow hyphens in group names
-# https://github.com/sphinx-doc/sphinx/issues/11854
-from sphinx.domains import std
-
-std.token_re = re.compile(r'`((~?[\w-]*:)?\w+)`')
-
-
-# Support for marking up and linking to bugs.python.org issues
-
-def issue_role(typ, rawtext, text, lineno, inliner, options={}, content=[]):
- issue = utils.unescape(text)
- # sanity check: there are no bpo issues within these two values
- if 47261 < int(issue) < 400000:
- msg = inliner.reporter.error(f'The BPO ID {text!r} seems too high -- '
- 'use :gh:`...` for GitHub IDs', line=lineno)
- prb = inliner.problematic(rawtext, rawtext, msg)
- return [prb], [msg]
- text = 'bpo-' + issue
- refnode = nodes.reference(text, text, refuri=ISSUE_URI % issue)
- return [refnode], []
-
-
-# Support for marking up and linking to GitHub issues
-
-def gh_issue_role(typ, rawtext, text, lineno, inliner, options={}, content=[]):
- issue = utils.unescape(text)
- # sanity check: all GitHub issues have ID >= 32426
- # even though some of them are also valid BPO IDs
- if int(issue) < 32426:
- msg = inliner.reporter.error(f'The GitHub ID {text!r} seems too low -- '
- 'use :issue:`...` for BPO IDs', line=lineno)
- prb = inliner.problematic(rawtext, rawtext, msg)
- return [prb], [msg]
- text = 'gh-' + issue
- refnode = nodes.reference(text, text, refuri=GH_ISSUE_URI % issue)
- return [refnode], []
-
-
-# Support for marking up implementation details
-
-class ImplementationDetail(Directive):
-
- has_content = True
- final_argument_whitespace = True
-
- # This text is copied to templates/dummy.html
- label_text = sphinx_gettext('CPython implementation detail:')
-
- def run(self):
- self.assert_has_content()
- pnode = nodes.compound(classes=['impl-detail'])
- content = self.content
- add_text = nodes.strong(self.label_text, self.label_text)
- self.state.nested_parse(content, self.content_offset, pnode)
- content = nodes.inline(pnode[0].rawsource, translatable=True)
- content.source = pnode[0].source
- content.line = pnode[0].line
- content += pnode[0].children
- pnode[0].replace_self(nodes.paragraph(
- '', '', add_text, nodes.Text(' '), content, translatable=False))
- return [pnode]
-
-
-# Support for documenting platform availability
-
-class Availability(SphinxDirective):
-
- has_content = True
- required_arguments = 1
- optional_arguments = 0
- final_argument_whitespace = True
-
- # known platform, libc, and threading implementations
- known_platforms = frozenset({
- "AIX", "Android", "BSD", "DragonFlyBSD", "Emscripten", "FreeBSD",
- "GNU/kFreeBSD", "Linux", "NetBSD", "OpenBSD", "POSIX", "Solaris",
- "Unix", "VxWorks", "WASI", "Windows", "macOS", "iOS",
- # libc
- "BSD libc", "glibc", "musl",
- # POSIX platforms with pthreads
- "pthreads",
- })
-
- def run(self):
- availability_ref = ':ref:`Availability <availability>`: '
- avail_nodes, avail_msgs = self.state.inline_text(
- availability_ref + self.arguments[0],
- self.lineno)
- pnode = nodes.paragraph(availability_ref + self.arguments[0],
- '', *avail_nodes, *avail_msgs)
- self.set_source_info(pnode)
- cnode = nodes.container("", pnode, classes=["availability"])
- self.set_source_info(cnode)
- if self.content:
- self.state.nested_parse(self.content, self.content_offset, cnode)
- self.parse_platforms()
-
- return [cnode]
-
- def parse_platforms(self):
- """Parse platform information from arguments
-
- Arguments is a comma-separated string of platforms. A platform may
- be prefixed with "not " to indicate that a feature is not available.
-
- Example::
-
- .. availability:: Windows, Linux >= 4.2, not WASI
-
- Arguments like "Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27" are currently not
- parsed into separate tokens.
- """
- platforms = {}
- for arg in self.arguments[0].rstrip(".").split(","):
- arg = arg.strip()
- platform, _, version = arg.partition(" >= ")
- if platform.startswith("not "):
- version = False
- platform = platform[4:]
- elif not version:
- version = True
- platforms[platform] = version
-
- unknown = set(platforms).difference(self.known_platforms)
- if unknown:
- cls = type(self)
- logger = logging.getLogger(cls.__qualname__)
- logger.warning(
- f"Unknown platform(s) or syntax '{' '.join(sorted(unknown))}' "
- f"in '.. availability:: {self.arguments[0]}', see "
- f"{__file__}:{cls.__qualname__}.known_platforms for a set "
- "known platforms."
- )
-
- return platforms
-
-
-# Support for documenting audit event
-
-def audit_events_purge(app, env, docname):
- """This is to remove from env.all_audit_events old traces of removed
- documents.
- """
- if not hasattr(env, 'all_audit_events'):
- return
- fresh_all_audit_events = {}
- for name, event in env.all_audit_events.items():
- event["source"] = [(d, t) for d, t in event["source"] if d != docname]
- if event["source"]:
- # Only keep audit_events that have at least one source.
- fresh_all_audit_events[name] = event
- env.all_audit_events = fresh_all_audit_events
-
-
-def audit_events_merge(app, env, docnames, other):
- """In Sphinx parallel builds, this merges env.all_audit_events from
- subprocesses.
-
- all_audit_events is a dict of names, with values like:
- {'source': [(docname, target), ...], 'args': args}
- """
- if not hasattr(other, 'all_audit_events'):
- return
- if not hasattr(env, 'all_audit_events'):
- env.all_audit_events = {}
- for name, value in other.all_audit_events.items():
- if name in env.all_audit_events:
- env.all_audit_events[name]["source"].extend(value["source"])
- else:
- env.all_audit_events[name] = value
-
-
-class AuditEvent(Directive):
-
- has_content = True
- required_arguments = 1
- optional_arguments = 2
- final_argument_whitespace = True
-
- _label = [
- sphinx_gettext("Raises an :ref:`auditing event <auditing>` {name} with no arguments."),
- sphinx_gettext("Raises an :ref:`auditing event <auditing>` {name} with argument {args}."),
- sphinx_gettext("Raises an :ref:`auditing event <auditing>` {name} with arguments {args}."),
- ]
-
- @property
- def logger(self):
- cls = type(self)
- return logging.getLogger(cls.__module__ + "." + cls.__name__)
-
- def run(self):
- name = self.arguments[0]
- if len(self.arguments) >= 2 and self.arguments[1]:
- args = (a.strip() for a in self.arguments[1].strip("'\"").split(","))
- args = [a for a in args if a]
- else:
- args = []
-
- label = self._label[min(2, len(args))]
- text = label.format(name="``{}``".format(name),
- args=", ".join("``{}``".format(a) for a in args if a))
-
- env = self.state.document.settings.env
- if not hasattr(env, 'all_audit_events'):
- env.all_audit_events = {}
-
- new_info = {
- 'source': [],
- 'args': args
- }
- info = env.all_audit_events.setdefault(name, new_info)
- if info is not new_info:
- if not self._do_args_match(info['args'], new_info['args']):
- self.logger.warning(
- "Mismatched arguments for audit-event {}: {!r} != {!r}"
- .format(name, info['args'], new_info['args'])
- )
-
- ids = []
- try:
- target = self.arguments[2].strip("\"'")
- except (IndexError, TypeError):
- target = None
- if not target:
- target = "audit_event_{}_{}".format(
- re.sub(r'\W', '_', name),
- len(info['source']),
- )
- ids.append(target)
-
- info['source'].append((env.docname, target))
-
- pnode = nodes.paragraph(text, classes=["audit-hook"], ids=ids)
- pnode.line = self.lineno
- if self.content:
- self.state.nested_parse(self.content, self.content_offset, pnode)
- else:
- n, m = self.state.inline_text(text, self.lineno)
- pnode.extend(n + m)
-
- return [pnode]
-
- # This list of sets are allowable synonyms for event argument names.
- # If two names are in the same set, they are treated as equal for the
- # purposes of warning. This won't help if number of arguments is
- # different!
- _SYNONYMS = [
- {"file", "path", "fd"},
- ]
-
- def _do_args_match(self, args1, args2):
- if args1 == args2:
- return True
- if len(args1) != len(args2):
- return False
- for a1, a2 in zip(args1, args2):
- if a1 == a2:
- continue
- if any(a1 in s and a2 in s for s in self._SYNONYMS):
- continue
- return False
- return True
-
-
-class audit_event_list(nodes.General, nodes.Element):
- pass
-
-
-class AuditEventListDirective(Directive):
-
- def run(self):
- return [audit_event_list('')]
-
-
-# Support for documenting decorators
-
-class PyDecoratorMixin(object):
- def handle_signature(self, sig, signode):
- ret = super(PyDecoratorMixin, self).handle_signature(sig, signode)
- signode.insert(0, addnodes.desc_addname('@', '@'))
- return ret
-
- def needs_arglist(self):
- return False
-
-
-class PyDecoratorFunction(PyDecoratorMixin, PyFunction):
- def run(self):
- # a decorator function is a function after all
- self.name = 'py:function'
- return PyFunction.run(self)
-
-
-# TODO: Use sphinx.domains.python.PyDecoratorMethod when possible
-class PyDecoratorMethod(PyDecoratorMixin, PyMethod):
- def run(self):
- self.name = 'py:method'
- return PyMethod.run(self)
-
-
-class PyCoroutineMixin(object):
- def handle_signature(self, sig, signode):
- ret = super(PyCoroutineMixin, self).handle_signature(sig, signode)
- signode.insert(0, addnodes.desc_annotation('coroutine ', 'coroutine '))
- return ret
class PyAwaitableMixin(object):
@@ -356,18 +22,6 @@ def handle_signature(self, sig, signode):
return ret
-class PyCoroutineFunction(PyCoroutineMixin, PyFunction):
- def run(self):
- self.name = 'py:function'
- return PyFunction.run(self)
-
-
-class PyCoroutineMethod(PyCoroutineMixin, PyMethod):
- def run(self):
- self.name = 'py:method'
- return PyMethod.run(self)
-
-
class PyAwaitableFunction(PyAwaitableMixin, PyFunction):
def run(self):
self.name = 'py:function'
@@ -380,178 +34,6 @@ def run(self):
return PyMethod.run(self)
-class PyAbstractMethod(PyMethod):
-
- def handle_signature(self, sig, signode):
- ret = super(PyAbstractMethod, self).handle_signature(sig, signode)
- signode.insert(0, addnodes.desc_annotation('abstractmethod ',
- 'abstractmethod '))
- return ret
-
- def run(self):
- self.name = 'py:method'
- return PyMethod.run(self)
-
-
-# Support for documenting version of removal in deprecations
-
-class DeprecatedRemoved(Directive):
- has_content = True
- required_arguments = 2
- optional_arguments = 1
- final_argument_whitespace = True
- option_spec = {}
-
- _deprecated_label = sphinx_gettext('Deprecated since version {deprecated}, will be removed in version {removed}')
- _removed_label = sphinx_gettext('Deprecated since version {deprecated}, removed in version {removed}')
-
- def run(self):
- node = addnodes.versionmodified()
- node.document = self.state.document
- node['type'] = 'deprecated-removed'
- version = (self.arguments[0], self.arguments[1])
- node['version'] = version
- env = self.state.document.settings.env
- current_version = tuple(int(e) for e in env.config.version.split('.'))
- removed_version = tuple(int(e) for e in self.arguments[1].split('.'))
- if current_version < removed_version:
- label = self._deprecated_label
- else:
- label = self._removed_label
-
- text = label.format(deprecated=self.arguments[0], removed=self.arguments[1])
- if len(self.arguments) == 3:
- inodes, messages = self.state.inline_text(self.arguments[2],
- self.lineno+1)
- para = nodes.paragraph(self.arguments[2], '', *inodes, translatable=False)
- node.append(para)
- else:
- messages = []
- if self.content:
- self.state.nested_parse(self.content, self.content_offset, node)
- if len(node):
- if isinstance(node[0], nodes.paragraph) and node[0].rawsource:
- content = nodes.inline(node[0].rawsource, translatable=True)
- content.source = node[0].source
- content.line = node[0].line
- content += node[0].children
- node[0].replace_self(nodes.paragraph('', '', content, translatable=False))
- node[0].insert(0, nodes.inline('', '%s: ' % text,
- classes=['versionmodified']))
- else:
- para = nodes.paragraph('', '',
- nodes.inline('', '%s.' % text,
- classes=['versionmodified']),
- translatable=False)
- node.append(para)
- env = self.state.document.settings.env
- env.get_domain('changeset').note_changeset(node)
- return [node] + messages
-
-
-# Support for including Misc/NEWS
-
-issue_re = re.compile('(?:[Ii]ssue #|bpo-)([0-9]+)', re.I)
-gh_issue_re = re.compile('(?:gh-issue-|gh-)([0-9]+)', re.I)
-whatsnew_re = re.compile(r"(?im)^what's new in (.*?)\??$")
-
-
-class MiscNews(Directive):
- has_content = False
- required_arguments = 1
- optional_arguments = 0
- final_argument_whitespace = False
- option_spec = {}
-
- def run(self):
- fname = self.arguments[0]
- source = self.state_machine.input_lines.source(
- self.lineno - self.state_machine.input_offset - 1)
- source_dir = getenv('PY_MISC_NEWS_DIR')
- if not source_dir:
- source_dir = path.dirname(path.abspath(source))
- fpath = path.join(source_dir, fname)
- self.state.document.settings.record_dependencies.add(fpath)
- try:
- with io.open(fpath, encoding='utf-8') as fp:
- content = fp.read()
- except Exception:
- text = 'The NEWS file is not available.'
- node = nodes.strong(text, text)
- return [node]
- content = issue_re.sub(r':issue:`\1`', content)
- # Fallback handling for the GitHub issue
- content = gh_issue_re.sub(r':gh:`\1`', content)
- content = whatsnew_re.sub(r'\1', content)
- # remove first 3 lines as they are the main heading
- lines = ['.. default-role:: obj', ''] + content.splitlines()[3:]
- self.state_machine.insert_input(lines, fname)
- return []
-
-
-# Support for building "topic help" for pydoc
-
-pydoc_topic_labels = [
- 'assert', 'assignment', 'async', 'atom-identifiers', 'atom-literals',
- 'attribute-access', 'attribute-references', 'augassign', 'await',
- 'binary', 'bitwise', 'bltin-code-objects', 'bltin-ellipsis-object',
- 'bltin-null-object', 'bltin-type-objects', 'booleans',
- 'break', 'callable-types', 'calls', 'class', 'comparisons', 'compound',
- 'context-managers', 'continue', 'conversions', 'customization', 'debugger',
- 'del', 'dict', 'dynamic-features', 'else', 'exceptions', 'execmodel',
- 'exprlists', 'floating', 'for', 'formatstrings', 'function', 'global',
- 'id-classes', 'identifiers', 'if', 'imaginary', 'import', 'in', 'integers',
- 'lambda', 'lists', 'naming', 'nonlocal', 'numbers', 'numeric-types',
- 'objects', 'operator-summary', 'pass', 'power', 'raise', 'return',
- 'sequence-types', 'shifting', 'slicings', 'specialattrs', 'specialnames',
- 'string-methods', 'strings', 'subscriptions', 'truth', 'try', 'types',
- 'typesfunctions', 'typesmapping', 'typesmethods', 'typesmodules',
- 'typesseq', 'typesseq-mutable', 'unary', 'while', 'with', 'yield'
-]
-
-
-class PydocTopicsBuilder(Builder):
- name = 'pydoc-topics'
-
- default_translator_class = TextTranslator
-
- def init(self):
- self.topics = {}
- self.secnumbers = {}
-
- def get_outdated_docs(self):
- return 'all pydoc topics'
-
- def get_target_uri(self, docname, typ=None):
- return '' # no URIs
-
- def write(self, *ignored):
- writer = TextWriter(self)
- for label in status_iterator(pydoc_topic_labels,
- 'building topics... ',
- length=len(pydoc_topic_labels)):
- if label not in self.env.domaindata['std']['labels']:
- self.env.logger.warning(f'label {label!r} not in documentation')
- continue
- docname, labelid, sectname = self.env.domaindata['std']['labels'][label]
- doctree = self.env.get_and_resolve_doctree(docname, self)
- document = new_document('<section node>')
- document.append(doctree.ids[labelid])
- destination = StringOutput(encoding='utf-8')
- writer.write(document, destination)
- self.topics[label] = writer.output
-
- def finish(self):
- f = open(path.join(self.outdir, 'topics.py'), 'wb')
- try:
- f.write('# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-\n'.encode('utf-8'))
- f.write(('# Autogenerated by Sphinx on %s\n' % asctime()).encode('utf-8'))
- f.write('# as part of the release process.\n'.encode('utf-8'))
- f.write(('topics = ' + pformat(self.topics) + '\n').encode('utf-8'))
- finally:
- f.close()
-
-
# Support for documenting Opcodes
opcode_sig_re = re.compile(r'(\w+(?:\+\d)?)(?:\s*\((.*)\))?')
@@ -603,70 +85,6 @@ def parse_monitoring_event(env, sig, signode):
return sig
-def process_audit_events(app, doctree, fromdocname):
- for node in doctree.traverse(audit_event_list):
- break
- else:
- return
-
- env = app.builder.env
-
- table = nodes.table(cols=3)
- group = nodes.tgroup(
- '',
- nodes.colspec(colwidth=30),
- nodes.colspec(colwidth=55),
- nodes.colspec(colwidth=15),
- cols=3,
- )
- head = nodes.thead()
- body = nodes.tbody()
-
- table += group
- group += head
- group += body
-
- row = nodes.row()
- row += nodes.entry('', nodes.paragraph('', nodes.Text('Audit event')))
- row += nodes.entry('', nodes.paragraph('', nodes.Text('Arguments')))
- row += nodes.entry('', nodes.paragraph('', nodes.Text('References')))
- head += row
-
- for name in sorted(getattr(env, "all_audit_events", ())):
- audit_event = env.all_audit_events[name]
-
- row = nodes.row()
- node = nodes.paragraph('', nodes.Text(name))
- row += nodes.entry('', node)
-
- node = nodes.paragraph()
- for i, a in enumerate(audit_event['args']):
- if i:
- node += nodes.Text(", ")
- node += nodes.literal(a, nodes.Text(a))
- row += nodes.entry('', node)
-
- node = nodes.paragraph()
- backlinks = enumerate(sorted(set(audit_event['source'])), start=1)
- for i, (doc, label) in backlinks:
- if isinstance(label, str):
- ref = nodes.reference("", nodes.Text("[{}]".format(i)), internal=True)
- try:
- ref['refuri'] = "{}#{}".format(
- app.builder.get_relative_uri(fromdocname, doc),
- label,
- )
- except NoUri:
- continue
- node += ref
- row += nodes.entry('', node)
-
- body += row
-
- for node in doctree.traverse(audit_event_list):
- node.replace_self(table)
-
-
def patch_pairindextypes(app, _env) -> None:
"""Remove all entries from ``pairindextypes`` before writing POT files.
@@ -692,27 +110,10 @@ def patch_pairindextypes(app, _env) -> None:
def setup(app):
- app.add_role('issue', issue_role)
- app.add_role('gh', gh_issue_role)
- app.add_directive('impl-detail', ImplementationDetail)
- app.add_directive('availability', Availability)
- app.add_directive('audit-event', AuditEvent)
- app.add_directive('audit-event-table', AuditEventListDirective)
- app.add_directive('deprecated-removed', DeprecatedRemoved)
- app.add_builder(PydocTopicsBuilder)
app.add_object_type('opcode', 'opcode', '%s (opcode)', parse_opcode_signature)
app.add_object_type('pdbcommand', 'pdbcmd', '%s (pdb command)', parse_pdb_command)
app.add_object_type('monitoring-event', 'monitoring-event', '%s (monitoring event)', parse_monitoring_event)
- app.add_directive_to_domain('py', 'decorator', PyDecoratorFunction)
- app.add_directive_to_domain('py', 'decoratormethod', PyDecoratorMethod)
- app.add_directive_to_domain('py', 'coroutinefunction', PyCoroutineFunction)
- app.add_directive_to_domain('py', 'coroutinemethod', PyCoroutineMethod)
app.add_directive_to_domain('py', 'awaitablefunction', PyAwaitableFunction)
app.add_directive_to_domain('py', 'awaitablemethod', PyAwaitableMethod)
- app.add_directive_to_domain('py', 'abstractmethod', PyAbstractMethod)
- app.add_directive('miscnews', MiscNews)
app.connect('env-check-consistency', patch_pairindextypes)
- app.connect('doctree-resolved', process_audit_events)
- app.connect('env-merge-info', audit_events_merge)
- app.connect('env-purge-doc', audit_events_purge)
return {'version': '1.0', 'parallel_read_safe': True}
diff --git a/Doc/tools/static/glossary_search.js b/Doc/tools/static/glossary_search.js
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..13d728dc027f1d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/tools/static/glossary_search.js
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+"use strict";
+
+const GLOSSARY_PAGE = "glossary.html";
+
+const glossary_search = async () => {
+ const response = await fetch("_static/glossary.json");
+ if (!response.ok) {
+ throw new Error("Failed to fetch glossary.json");
+ }
+ const glossary = await response.json();
+
+ const params = new URLSearchParams(document.location.search).get("q");
+ if (!params) {
+ return;
+ }
+
+ const searchParam = params.toLowerCase();
+ const glossaryItem = glossary[searchParam];
+ if (!glossaryItem) {
+ return;
+ }
+
+ // set up the title text with a link to the glossary page
+ const glossaryTitle = document.getElementById("glossary-title");
+ glossaryTitle.textContent = "Glossary: " + glossaryItem.title;
+ const linkTarget = searchParam.replace(/ /g, "-");
+ glossaryTitle.href = GLOSSARY_PAGE + "#term-" + linkTarget;
+
+ // rewrite any anchor links (to other glossary terms)
+ // to have a full reference to the glossary page
+ const glossaryBody = document.getElementById("glossary-body");
+ glossaryBody.innerHTML = glossaryItem.body;
+ const anchorLinks = glossaryBody.querySelectorAll('a[href^="#"]');
+ anchorLinks.forEach(function (link) {
+ const currentUrl = link.getAttribute("href");
+ link.href = GLOSSARY_PAGE + currentUrl;
+ });
+
+ const glossaryResult = document.getElementById("glossary-result");
+ glossaryResult.style.display = "";
+};
+
+if (document.readyState !== "loading") {
+ glossary_search().catch(console.error);
+} else {
+ document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded", glossary_search);
+}
diff --git a/Doc/tools/static/rtd_switcher.js b/Doc/tools/static/rtd_switcher.js
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..2bf01a002db90c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/tools/static/rtd_switcher.js
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+ function onSwitch(event) {
+ const option = event.target.selectedIndex;
+ const item = event.target.options[option];
+ window.location.href = item.dataset.url;
+ }
+
+ document.addEventListener("readthedocs-addons-data-ready", function(event) {
+ const config = event.detail.data()
+ const versionSelect = `
+ <select id="version_select" aria-label="Python version">
+ ${ config.versions.active.map(
+ (version) => `
+ <option
+ value="${ version.slug }"
+ ${ config.versions.current.slug === version.slug ? 'selected="selected"' : '' }
+ data-url="${ version.urls.documentation }">
+ ${ version.slug }
+ </option>`
+ ).join("\n") }
+ </select>
+ `;
+
+ // Prepend the current language to the options on the selector
+ let languages = config.projects.translations.concat(config.projects.current);
+ languages = languages.sort((a, b) => a.language.name.localeCompare(b.language.name));
+
+ const languageSelect = `
+ <select id="language_select" aria-label="Language">
+ ${ languages.map(
+ (translation) => `
+ <option
+ value="${ translation.slug }"
+ ${ config.projects.current.slug === translation.slug ? 'selected="selected"' : '' }
+ data-url="${ translation.urls.documentation }">
+ ${ translation.language.name }
+ </option>`
+ ).join("\n") }
+ </select>
+ `;
+
+ // Query all the placeholders because there are different ones for Desktop/Mobile
+ const versionPlaceholders = document.querySelectorAll(".version_switcher_placeholder");
+ for (placeholder of versionPlaceholders) {
+ placeholder.innerHTML = versionSelect;
+ let selectElement = placeholder.querySelector("select");
+ selectElement.addEventListener("change", onSwitch);
+ }
+
+ const languagePlaceholders = document.querySelectorAll(".language_switcher_placeholder");
+ for (placeholder of languagePlaceholders) {
+ placeholder.innerHTML = languageSelect;
+ let selectElement = placeholder.querySelector("select");
+ selectElement.addEventListener("change", onSwitch);
+ }
+ });
diff --git a/Doc/tools/templates/_docs_by_version.html b/Doc/tools/templates/_docs_by_version.html
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..1a84cfbf229207d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/tools/templates/_docs_by_version.html
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+{#
+This file is only used in indexsidebar.html, where it is included in the docs
+by version list. For non-end-of-life branches, build_docs.py overwrites this
+list with the full list of versions.
+
+Keep the following two files synchronised:
+* cpython/Doc/tools/templates/_docs_by_version.html
+* docsbuild-scripts/templates/_docs_by_version.html
+#}
+<li><a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://docs.python.org/3/">{% trans %}Stable{% endtrans %}</a></li>
+<li><a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://docs.python.org/dev/">{% trans %}In development{% endtrans %}</a></li>
diff --git a/Doc/tools/templates/customsourcelink.html b/Doc/tools/templates/customsourcelink.html
index eb9db9e341bd752..4ef373c1dd6c39c 100644
--- a/Doc/tools/templates/customsourcelink.html
+++ b/Doc/tools/templates/customsourcelink.html
@@ -1,13 +1,19 @@
-{%- if show_source and has_source and sourcename %}
+{%- if page_source_suffix is defined %}
<div role="note" aria-label="source link">
- <h3>{{ _('This Page') }}</h3>
+ <h3>{{ _('This page') }}</h3>
<ul class="this-page-menu">
- <li><a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ pathto("bugs') }}">{% trans %}Report a Bug{% endtrans %}</a></li>
+ <li><a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ pathto("bugs') }}">{% trans %}Report a bug{% endtrans %}</a></li>
<li>
- <a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Doc/{{ sourcename|replace(".rst.txt', '.rst') }}"
- rel="nofollow">{{ _('Show Source') }}
+ <a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/{{ source_branch }}/Doc/{{ pagename }}.rst?plain=1"
+ rel="nofollow">{{ _('Show source') }}
</a>
</li>
+ {% if language != "en" and source_branch != "main" %}
+ <li>
+ <a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com/python/python-docs-{{ language | replace("_', '-') | lower }}/blob/{{ source_branch }}/{{ pagename }}.po?plain=1"
+ rel="nofollow">{{ _('Show translation source') }}</a>
+ </li>
+ {% endif %}
</ul>
</div>
{%- endif %}
diff --git a/Doc/tools/templates/download.html b/Doc/tools/templates/download.html
index b5353d6fb77ab46..b7b25fdadf5d45a 100644
--- a/Doc/tools/templates/download.html
+++ b/Doc/tools/templates/download.html
@@ -1,64 +1,82 @@
{% extends "layout.html" %}
-{% set title = 'Download' %}
+{% set title = _('Download') %}
{% if daily is defined %}
- {% set dlbase = pathto('archives', 1) %}
+ {% set dl_base = pathto('archives', resource=True) %}
+ {% set dl_version = version %}
{% else %}
{#
The link below returns HTTP 404 until the first related alpha release.
This is expected; use daily documentation builds for CPython development.
#}
- {% set dlbase = 'https://docs.python.org/ftp/python/doc/' + release %}
+ {% set dl_base = 'https://www.python.org/ftp/python/doc/' + release %}
+ {% set dl_version = release %}
{% endif %}
+{%- block extrahead -%}
+ {{ super() }}
+ <meta property="og:title" content="Download — Python {{ dl_version }} documentation">
+ <meta property="og:type" content="website">
+ <meta property="og:url" content="https://docs.python.org/3/download.html">
+ <meta property="og:site_name" content="Python documentation">
+ <meta property="og:description" content="Download Python documentation.">
+ <meta property="og:image" content="https://docs.python.org/3/_static/og-image.png">
+ <meta name="description" content="Download Python documentation.">
+ <meta property="og:image:width" content="200">
+ <meta property="og:image:height" content="200">
+ <meta name="theme-color" content="#3776ab">
+{%- endblock -%}
+
{% block body %}
-<h1>Download Python {{ release }} Documentation</h1>
+<h1>{% trans %}Download Python {{ dl_version }} documentation{% endtrans %}</h1>
-{% if last_updated %}<p><b>Last updated on: {{ last_updated }}.</b></p>{% endif %}
+{% if last_updated %}<p><b>{% trans %}Last updated on: {{ last_updated }}.{% endtrans %}</b></p>{% endif %}
-<p>To download an archive containing all the documents for this version of
-Python in one of various formats, follow one of links in this table.</p>
+<p>{% trans %}Download an archive containing all the documentation for this version of Python:{% endtrans %}</p>
<table class="docutils">
- <tr><th>Format</th><th>Packed as .zip</th><th>Packed as .tar.bz2</th></tr>
- <tr><td>PDF (US-Letter paper size)</td>
- <td><a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dlbase }}/python-{{ release }}-docs-pdf-letter.zip">Download</a> (ca. 13 MiB)</td>
- <td><a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dlbase }}/python-{{ release }}-docs-pdf-letter.tar.bz2">Download</a> (ca. 13 MiB)</td>
- </tr>
- <tr><td>PDF (A4 paper size)</td>
- <td><a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dlbase }}/python-{{ release }}-docs-pdf-a4.zip">Download</a> (ca. 13 MiB)</td>
- <td><a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dlbase }}/python-{{ release }}-docs-pdf-a4.tar.bz2">Download</a> (ca. 13 MiB)</td>
+ <tr>
+ <th>{% trans %}Format{% endtrans %}</th>
+ <th>{% trans %}Packed as .zip{% endtrans %}</th>
+ <th>{% trans %}Packed as .tar.bz2{% endtrans %}</th>
</tr>
- <tr><td>HTML</td>
- <td><a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dlbase }}/python-{{ release }}-docs-html.zip">Download</a> (ca. 9 MiB)</td>
- <td><a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dlbase }}/python-{{ release }}-docs-html.tar.bz2">Download</a> (ca. 6 MiB)</td>
+ <tr>
+ <td>{% trans %}HTML{% endtrans %}</td>
+ <td>{% trans %}<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dl_base }}/python-{{ dl_version }}-docs-html.zip">Download</a>{% endtrans %}</td>
+ <td>{% trans %}<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dl_base }}/python-{{ dl_version }}-docs-html.tar.bz2">Download</a>{% endtrans %}</td>
</tr>
- <tr><td>Plain Text</td>
- <td><a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dlbase }}/python-{{ release }}-docs-text.zip">Download</a> (ca. 3 MiB)</td>
- <td><a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dlbase }}/python-{{ release }}-docs-text.tar.bz2">Download</a> (ca. 2 MiB)</td>
+ <tr>
+ <td>{% trans %}Plain text{% endtrans %}</td>
+ <td>{% trans %}<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dl_base }}/python-{{ dl_version }}-docs-text.zip">Download</a>{% endtrans %}</td>
+ <td>{% trans %}<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dl_base }}/python-{{ dl_version }}-docs-text.tar.bz2">Download</a>{% endtrans %}</td>
</tr>
- <tr><td>EPUB</td>
- <td><a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dlbase }}/python-{{ release }}-docs.epub">Download</a> (ca. 5 MiB)</td>
+ <tr>
+ <td>{% trans %}Texinfo{% endtrans %}</td>
+ <td>{% trans %}<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dl_base }}/python-{{ dl_version }}-docs-texinfo.zip">Download</a>{% endtrans %}</td>
+ <td>{% trans %}<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dl_base }}/python-{{ dl_version }}-docs-texinfo.tar.bz2">Download</a>{% endtrans %}</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>{% trans %}EPUB{% endtrans %}</td>
+ <td>{% trans %}<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dl_base }}/python-{{ dl_version }}-docs.epub">Download</a>{% endtrans %}</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</table>
-<p>These archives contain all the content in the documentation.</p>
-
-
-<h2>Unpacking</h2>
-
-<p>Unix users should download the .tar.bz2 archives; these are bzipped tar
-archives and can be handled in the usual way using tar and the bzip2
-program. The <a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://infozip.sourceforge.net">Info-ZIP</a> unzip program can be
-used to handle the ZIP archives if desired. The .tar.bz2 archives provide the
-best compression and fastest download times.</p>
-
-<p>Windows users can use the ZIP archives since those are customary on that
-platform. These are created on Unix using the Info-ZIP zip program.</p>
-
+<p>{% trans %}
+We no longer provide updates to the pre-built PDFs of the documentation.
+The previously-built archives are still available and may be of use:
+<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dl_base }}/python-{{ dl_version }}-docs-pdf-a4.zip">PDF (.zip archive)</a>;
+<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ dl_base }}/python-{{ dl_version }}-docs-pdf-a4.tar.bz2">PDF (.tar.bz2 archive)</a>.
+To build a PDF archive, follow the instructions in the
+<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://devguide.python.org/documentation/start-documenting/#building-the-documentation">Developer's Guide</a>
+and run <code>make dist-pdf</code> in the <code>Doc/</code> directory of a copy of the CPython repository.
+{% endtrans %}</p>
-<h2>Problems</h2>
+<p>{% trans %}
+See the <a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://docs.python.org/{{ version }}/archives/">directory listing</a>
+for file sizes.{% endtrans %}</p>
-<p>If you have comments or suggestions for the Python documentation, please send
-email to <a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.commailto:docs@python.org">docs@python.org</a>.</p>
+<h2>{% trans %}Problems{% endtrans %}</h2>
+{% set bugs = pathto('bugs') %}
+<p>{% trans bugs = bugs %}<a href="/web-api/iframe-proxy?url=https://github.com{{ bugs }}">Open an issue</a>
+if you have comments or suggestions for the Python documentation.{% endtrans %}</p>
{% endblock %}
diff --git a/Doc/tools/templates/dummy.html b/Doc/tools/templates/dummy.html
index 49c2a71a5e40cfa..699e518801cbcd7 100644
--- a/Doc/tools/templates/dummy.html
+++ b/Doc/tools/templates/dummy.html
@@ -1,11 +1,9 @@
This file is not an actual template, but used to add some
texts in extensions to sphinx.pot file.
-In extensions/pyspecific.py:
+In extensions/availability.py:
-{% trans %}CPython implementation detail:{% endtrans %}
-{% trans %}Deprecated since version {deprecated}, will be removed in version {removed}{% endtrans %}
-{% trans %}Deprecated since version {deprecated}, removed in version {removed}{% endtrans %}
+{% trans %}Availability{% endtrans %}
In extensions/c_annotations.py:
@@ -23,6 +21,16 @@
{% trans %}Return value: New reference.{% endtrans %}
{% trans %}Return value: Borrowed reference.{% endtrans %}
+In extensions/implementation_detail.py:
+
+{% trans %}CPython implementation detail:{% endtrans %}
+
+In extensions/changes.py:
+
+{% trans %}Deprecated since version %s, will be removed in version %s{% endtrans %}
+{% trans %}Deprecated since version %s, removed in version %s{% endtrans %}
+{% trans %}:term:`Soft deprecated` since version %s{% endtrans %}
+
In docsbuild-scripts, when rewriting indexsidebar.html with actual versions:
{% trans %}in development{% endtrans %}
diff --git a/Doc/tools/templates/indexcontent.html b/Doc/tools/templates/indexcontent.html
index 6f854e86ab8ef19..59a693c00003c45 100644
--- a/Doc/tools/templates/indexcontent.html
+++ b/Doc/tools/templates/indexcontent.html
@@ -2,67 +2,132 @@
{%- block htmltitle -%}
<title>{{ shorttitle }}
{%- endblock -%}
+{%- block extrahead -%}
+ {{ super() }}
+ {{ docstitle|e }}
{% trans %}Welcome! This is the official documentation for Python {{ release }}.{% endtrans %}
{% trans %}Documentation sections:{% endtrans %}
-
-
- {% trans %}What's new in Python {{ version }}?{% endtrans %} {% trans whatsnew_index=pathto("whatsnew/index") %}Or all "What's new" documents since Python 2.0 {% endtrans %}
- {% trans %}Tutorial{% endtrans %} {% trans %}Start here: a tour of Python's syntax and features{% endtrans %}
- {% trans %}Library reference{% endtrans %} {% trans %}Standard library and builtins{% endtrans %}
- {% trans %}Language reference{% endtrans %} {% trans %}Syntax and language elements{% endtrans %}
- {% trans %}Python setup and usage{% endtrans %} {% trans %}How to install, configure, and use Python{% endtrans %}
- {% trans %}Python HOWTOs{% endtrans %} {% trans %}In-depth topic manuals{% endtrans %}
-
- {% trans %}Installing Python modules{% endtrans %} {% trans %}Third-party modules and PyPI.org{% endtrans %}
- {% trans %}Distributing Python modules{% endtrans %} {% trans %}Publishing modules for use by other people{% endtrans %}
- {% trans %}Extending and embedding{% endtrans %} {% trans %}For C/C++ programmers{% endtrans %}
- {% trans %}Python's C API{% endtrans %} {% trans %}C API reference{% endtrans %}
- {% trans %}FAQs{% endtrans %} {% trans %}Frequently asked questions (with answers!){% endtrans %}
-
-
+
+
+ {% trans %}Other resources:{% endtrans %}
+
{% trans %}Indices, glossary, and search:{% endtrans %}
-
-
- {% trans %}Global module index{% endtrans %} {% trans %}All modules and libraries{% endtrans %}
- {% trans %}General index{% endtrans %} {% trans %}All functions, classes, and terms{% endtrans %}
- {% trans %}Glossary{% endtrans %} {% trans %}Terms explained{% endtrans %}
-
- {% trans %}Search page{% endtrans %} {% trans %}Search this documentation{% endtrans %}
- {% trans %}Complete table of contents{% endtrans %} {% trans %}Lists all sections and subsections{% endtrans %}
-
-
+
{% trans %}Project information:{% endtrans %}
-
+
{% endblock %}
diff --git a/Doc/tools/templates/indexsidebar.html b/Doc/tools/templates/indexsidebar.html
index 5986204256f4bc4..3fd707babd782bb 100644
--- a/Doc/tools/templates/indexsidebar.html
+++ b/Doc/tools/templates/indexsidebar.html
@@ -1,18 +1,8 @@
{% trans %}Download{% endtrans %}
-{% trans %}Download these documents{% endtrans %}
+{% trans %}Download the documentation{% endtrans %}
{% trans %}Docs by version{% endtrans %}
-
-{% trans %}Other resources{% endtrans %}
-
diff --git a/Doc/tools/templates/layout.html b/Doc/tools/templates/layout.html
index 3c12b01b558f839..54c6eb9b5ef7e47 100644
--- a/Doc/tools/templates/layout.html
+++ b/Doc/tools/templates/layout.html
@@ -26,8 +26,11 @@
{% endblock %}
{% block extrahead %}
-
+ {# For glossary_search.js #}
+
+
`
+ for details and special cases.
+
Name mangling is helpful for letting subclasses override methods without
breaking intraclass method calls. For example::
@@ -931,6 +932,6 @@ Examples::
.. [#] Except for one thing. Module objects have a secret read-only attribute called
:attr:`~object.__dict__` which returns the dictionary used to implement the module's
- namespace; the name :attr:`~object.__dict__` is an attribute but not a global name.
+ namespace; the name ``__dict__`` is an attribute but not a global name.
Obviously, using this violates the abstraction of namespace implementation, and
should be restricted to things like post-mortem debuggers.
diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/controlflow.rst b/Doc/tutorial/controlflow.rst
index 77444f9cb8358d8..4e5d8e1ae2d55a7 100644
--- a/Doc/tutorial/controlflow.rst
+++ b/Doc/tutorial/controlflow.rst
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ they appear in the sequence. For example (no pun intended):
::
>>> # Measure some strings:
- ... words = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
+ >>> words = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
>>> for w in words:
... print(w, len(w))
...
@@ -155,26 +155,65 @@ that takes an iterable is :func:`sum`::
6
Later we will see more functions that return iterables and take iterables as
-arguments. In chapter :ref:`tut-structures`, we will discuss in more detail about
-:func:`list`.
+arguments. In chapter :ref:`tut-structures`, we will discuss :func:`list` in more
+detail.
.. _tut-break:
-:keyword:`!break` and :keyword:`!continue` Statements, and :keyword:`!else` Clauses on Loops
-============================================================================================
+:keyword:`!break` and :keyword:`!continue` Statements
+=====================================================
The :keyword:`break` statement breaks out of the innermost enclosing
-:keyword:`for` or :keyword:`while` loop.
+:keyword:`for` or :keyword:`while` loop::
-A :keyword:`!for` or :keyword:`!while` loop can include an :keyword:`!else` clause.
+ >>> for n in range(2, 10):
+ ... for x in range(2, n):
+ ... if n % x == 0:
+ ... print(f"{n} equals {x} * {n//x}")
+ ... break
+ ...
+ 4 equals 2 * 2
+ 6 equals 2 * 3
+ 8 equals 2 * 4
+ 9 equals 3 * 3
+
+The :keyword:`continue` statement continues with the next
+iteration of the loop::
+
+ >>> for num in range(2, 10):
+ ... if num % 2 == 0:
+ ... print(f"Found an even number {num}")
+ ... continue
+ ... print(f"Found an odd number {num}")
+ ...
+ Found an even number 2
+ Found an odd number 3
+ Found an even number 4
+ Found an odd number 5
+ Found an even number 6
+ Found an odd number 7
+ Found an even number 8
+ Found an odd number 9
+
+.. _tut-for-else:
+.. _break-and-continue-statements-and-else-clauses-on-loops:
+
+:keyword:`!else` Clauses on Loops
+=================================
+
+In a :keyword:`!for` or :keyword:`!while` loop the :keyword:`!break` statement
+may be paired with an :keyword:`!else` clause. If the loop finishes without
+executing the :keyword:`!break`, the :keyword:`!else` clause executes.
In a :keyword:`for` loop, the :keyword:`!else` clause is executed
-after the loop reaches its final iteration.
+after the loop finishes its final iteration, that is, if no break occurred.
In a :keyword:`while` loop, it's executed after the loop's condition becomes false.
-In either kind of loop, the :keyword:`!else` clause is **not** executed
-if the loop was terminated by a :keyword:`break`.
+In either kind of loop, the :keyword:`!else` clause is **not** executed if the
+loop was terminated by a :keyword:`break`. Of course, other ways of ending the
+loop early, such as a :keyword:`return` or a raised exception, will also skip
+execution of the :keyword:`else` clause.
This is exemplified in the following :keyword:`!for` loop,
which searches for prime numbers::
@@ -198,33 +237,21 @@ which searches for prime numbers::
9 equals 3 * 3
(Yes, this is the correct code. Look closely: the ``else`` clause belongs to
-the :keyword:`for` loop, **not** the :keyword:`if` statement.)
-
-When used with a loop, the ``else`` clause has more in common with the
-``else`` clause of a :keyword:`try` statement than it does with that of
-:keyword:`if` statements: a :keyword:`try` statement's ``else`` clause runs
-when no exception occurs, and a loop's ``else`` clause runs when no ``break``
-occurs. For more on the :keyword:`!try` statement and exceptions, see
-:ref:`tut-handling`.
+the ``for`` loop, **not** the ``if`` statement.)
-The :keyword:`continue` statement, also borrowed from C, continues with the next
-iteration of the loop::
+One way to think of the else clause is to imagine it paired with the ``if``
+inside the loop. As the loop executes, it will run a sequence like
+if/if/if/else. The ``if`` is inside the loop, encountered a number of times. If
+the condition is ever true, a ``break`` will happen. If the condition is never
+true, the ``else`` clause outside the loop will execute.
- >>> for num in range(2, 10):
- ... if num % 2 == 0:
- ... print("Found an even number", num)
- ... continue
- ... print("Found an odd number", num)
- ...
- Found an even number 2
- Found an odd number 3
- Found an even number 4
- Found an odd number 5
- Found an even number 6
- Found an odd number 7
- Found an even number 8
- Found an odd number 9
+When used with a loop, the ``else`` clause has more in common with the ``else``
+clause of a :keyword:`try` statement than it does with that of ``if``
+statements: a ``try`` statement's ``else`` clause runs when no exception
+occurs, and a loop's ``else`` clause runs when no ``break`` occurs. For more on
+the ``try`` statement and exceptions, see :ref:`tut-handling`.
+.. index:: single: ...; ellipsis literal
.. _tut-pass:
:keyword:`!pass` Statements
@@ -251,6 +278,12 @@ at a more abstract level. The :keyword:`!pass` is silently ignored::
... pass # Remember to implement this!
...
+For this last case, many people use the ellipsis literal :code:`...` instead of
+:code:`pass`. This use has no special meaning to Python, and is not part of
+the language definition (you could use any constant expression here), but
+:code:`...` is used conventionally as a placeholder body as well.
+See :ref:`bltin-ellipsis-object`.
+
.. _tut-match:
@@ -407,7 +440,7 @@ Several other key features of this statement:
``False`` and ``None`` are compared by identity.
- Patterns may use named constants. These must be dotted names
- to prevent them from being interpreted as capture variable::
+ to prevent them from being interpreted as capture variables::
from enum import Enum
class Color(Enum):
@@ -436,8 +469,8 @@ Defining Functions
We can create a function that writes the Fibonacci series to an arbitrary
boundary::
- >>> def fib(n): # write Fibonacci series up to n
- ... """Print a Fibonacci series up to n."""
+ >>> def fib(n): # write Fibonacci series less than n
+ ... """Print a Fibonacci series less than n."""
... a, b = 0, 1
... while a < n:
... print(a, end=' ')
@@ -445,7 +478,7 @@ boundary::
... print()
...
>>> # Now call the function we just defined:
- ... fib(2000)
+ >>> fib(2000)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597
.. index::
@@ -534,7 +567,7 @@ This example, as usual, demonstrates some new Python features:
Different types define different methods. Methods of different types may have
the same name without causing ambiguity. (It is possible to define your own
object types and methods, using *classes*, see :ref:`tut-classes`)
- The method :meth:`!append` shown in the example is defined for list objects; it
+ The method :meth:`~list.append` shown in the example is defined for list objects; it
adds a new element at the end of the list. In this example it is equivalent to
``result = result + [a]``, but more efficient.
@@ -807,7 +840,7 @@ parameters as there is a ``/`` in the function definition::
File "", line 1, in
TypeError: pos_only_arg() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'arg'
-The third function ``kwd_only_args`` only allows keyword arguments as indicated
+The third function ``kwd_only_arg`` only allows keyword arguments as indicated
by a ``*`` in the function definition::
>>> kwd_only_arg(3)
@@ -972,7 +1005,8 @@ scope::
43
The above example uses a lambda expression to return a function. Another use
-is to pass a small function as an argument::
+is to pass a small function as an argument. For instance, :meth:`list.sort`
+takes a sorting key function *key* which can be a lambda function::
>>> pairs = [(1, 'one'), (2, 'two'), (3, 'three'), (4, 'four')]
>>> pairs.sort(key=lambda pair: pair[1])
@@ -1004,31 +1038,28 @@ blank, visually separating the summary from the rest of the description. The
following lines should be one or more paragraphs describing the object's calling
conventions, its side effects, etc.
-The Python parser does not strip indentation from multi-line string literals in
-Python, so tools that process documentation have to strip indentation if
-desired. This is done using the following convention. The first non-blank line
-*after* the first line of the string determines the amount of indentation for
-the entire documentation string. (We can't use the first line since it is
-generally adjacent to the string's opening quotes so its indentation is not
-apparent in the string literal.) Whitespace "equivalent" to this indentation is
-then stripped from the start of all lines of the string. Lines that are
-indented less should not occur, but if they occur all their leading whitespace
-should be stripped. Equivalence of whitespace should be tested after expansion
-of tabs (to 8 spaces, normally).
+The Python parser strips indentation from multi-line string literals when they
+serve as module, class, or function docstrings.
Here is an example of a multi-line docstring::
>>> def my_function():
... """Do nothing, but document it.
...
- ... No, really, it doesn't do anything.
+ ... No, really, it doesn't do anything:
+ ...
+ ... >>> my_function()
+ ... >>>
... """
... pass
...
>>> print(my_function.__doc__)
Do nothing, but document it.
- No, really, it doesn't do anything.
+ No, really, it doesn't do anything:
+
+ >>> my_function()
+ >>>
.. _tut-annotations:
@@ -1075,7 +1106,7 @@ Intermezzo: Coding Style
Now that you are about to write longer, more complex pieces of Python, it is a
good time to talk about *coding style*. Most languages can be written (or more
-concise, *formatted*) in different styles; some are more readable than others.
+concisely, *formatted*) in different styles; some are more readable than others.
Making it easy for others to read your code is always a good idea, and adopting
a nice coding style helps tremendously for that.
diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/datastructures.rst b/Doc/tutorial/datastructures.rst
index de2827461e2f241..db9b4cae1d489da 100644
--- a/Doc/tutorial/datastructures.rst
+++ b/Doc/tutorial/datastructures.rst
@@ -12,24 +12,23 @@ and adds some new things as well.
More on Lists
=============
-The list data type has some more methods. Here are all of the methods of list
-objects:
+The :ref:`list ` data type has some more methods. Here are all
+of the methods of list objects:
-
-.. method:: list.append(x)
+.. method:: list.append(value, /)
:noindex:
- Add an item to the end of the list. Equivalent to ``a[len(a):] = [x]``.
+ Add an item to the end of the list. Similar to ``a[len(a):] = [x]``.
-.. method:: list.extend(iterable)
+.. method:: list.extend(iterable, /)
:noindex:
- Extend the list by appending all the items from the iterable. Equivalent to
+ Extend the list by appending all the items from the iterable. Similar to
``a[len(a):] = iterable``.
-.. method:: list.insert(i, x)
+.. method:: list.insert(index, value, /)
:noindex:
Insert an item at a given position. The first argument is the index of the
@@ -37,14 +36,14 @@ objects:
the list, and ``a.insert(len(a), x)`` is equivalent to ``a.append(x)``.
-.. method:: list.remove(x)
+.. method:: list.remove(value, /)
:noindex:
- Remove the first item from the list whose value is equal to *x*. It raises a
+ Remove the first item from the list whose value is equal to *value*. It raises a
:exc:`ValueError` if there is no such item.
-.. method:: list.pop([i])
+.. method:: list.pop(index=-1, /)
:noindex:
Remove the item at the given position in the list, and return it. If no index
@@ -56,13 +55,13 @@ objects:
.. method:: list.clear()
:noindex:
- Remove all items from the list. Equivalent to ``del a[:]``.
+ Remove all items from the list. Similar to ``del a[:]``.
-.. method:: list.index(x[, start[, end]])
+.. method:: list.index(value[, start[, stop]])
:noindex:
- Return zero-based index in the list of the first item whose value is equal to *x*.
+ Return zero-based index of the first occurrence of *value* in the list.
Raises a :exc:`ValueError` if there is no such item.
The optional arguments *start* and *end* are interpreted as in the slice
@@ -71,10 +70,10 @@ objects:
sequence rather than the *start* argument.
-.. method:: list.count(x)
+.. method:: list.count(value, /)
:noindex:
- Return the number of times *x* appears in the list.
+ Return the number of times *value* appears in the list.
.. method:: list.sort(*, key=None, reverse=False)
@@ -93,7 +92,7 @@ objects:
.. method:: list.copy()
:noindex:
- Return a shallow copy of the list. Equivalent to ``a[:]``.
+ Return a shallow copy of the list. Similar to ``a[:]``.
An example that uses most of the list methods::
@@ -126,7 +125,7 @@ Python.
Another thing you might notice is that not all data can be sorted or
compared. For instance, ``[None, 'hello', 10]`` doesn't sort because
-integers can't be compared to strings and *None* can't be compared to
+integers can't be compared to strings and ``None`` can't be compared to
other types. Also, there are some types that don't have a defined
ordering relation. For example, ``3+4j < 5+7j`` isn't a valid
comparison.
@@ -383,16 +382,16 @@ A tuple consists of a number of values separated by commas, for instance::
>>> t
(12345, 54321, 'hello!')
>>> # Tuples may be nested:
- ... u = t, (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
+ >>> u = t, (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
>>> u
((12345, 54321, 'hello!'), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5))
>>> # Tuples are immutable:
- ... t[0] = 88888
+ >>> t[0] = 88888
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 1, in
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
>>> # but they can contain mutable objects:
- ... v = ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
+ >>> v = ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
>>> v
([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
@@ -445,15 +444,19 @@ packing and sequence unpacking.
Sets
====
-Python also includes a data type for *sets*. A set is an unordered collection
-with no duplicate elements. Basic uses include membership testing and
-eliminating duplicate entries. Set objects also support mathematical operations
-like union, intersection, difference, and symmetric difference.
+Python also includes a data type for :ref:`sets `. A set is
+an unordered collection with no duplicate elements. Basic uses include
+membership testing and eliminating duplicate entries. Set objects also
+support mathematical operations like union, intersection, difference, and
+symmetric difference.
Curly braces or the :func:`set` function can be used to create sets. Note: to
create an empty set you have to use ``set()``, not ``{}``; the latter creates an
empty dictionary, a data structure that we discuss in the next section.
+Because sets are unordered, iterating over them or printing them can
+produce the elements in a different order than you expect.
+
Here is a brief demonstration::
>>> basket = {'apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana'}
@@ -465,7 +468,7 @@ Here is a brief demonstration::
False
>>> # Demonstrate set operations on unique letters from two words
- ...
+ >>>
>>> a = set('abracadabra')
>>> b = set('alacazam')
>>> a # unique letters in a
@@ -512,8 +515,12 @@ dictionary; this is also the way dictionaries are written on output.
The main operations on a dictionary are storing a value with some key and
extracting the value given the key. It is also possible to delete a key:value
pair with ``del``. If you store using a key that is already in use, the old
-value associated with that key is forgotten. It is an error to extract a value
-using a non-existent key.
+value associated with that key is forgotten.
+
+Extracting a value for a non-existent key by subscripting (``d[key]``) raises a
+:exc:`KeyError`. To avoid getting this error when trying to access a possibly
+non-existent key, use the :meth:`~dict.get` method instead, which returns
+``None`` (or a specified default value) if the key is not in the dictionary.
Performing ``list(d)`` on a dictionary returns a list of all the keys
used in the dictionary, in insertion order (if you want it sorted, just use
@@ -528,6 +535,12 @@ Here is a small example using a dictionary::
{'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127}
>>> tel['jack']
4098
+ >>> tel['irv']
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "", line 1, in
+ KeyError: 'irv'
+ >>> print(tel.get('irv'))
+ None
>>> del tel['sape']
>>> tel['irv'] = 4127
>>> tel
diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/errors.rst b/Doc/tutorial/errors.rst
index 981b14f5a4212b1..c56aeb0398eaf92 100644
--- a/Doc/tutorial/errors.rst
+++ b/Doc/tutorial/errors.rst
@@ -23,12 +23,13 @@ complaint you get while you are still learning Python::
^^^^^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
-The parser repeats the offending line and displays little 'arrow's pointing
-at the token in the line where the error was detected. The error may be
-caused by the absence of a token *before* the indicated token. In the
-example, the error is detected at the function :func:`print`, since a colon
-(``':'``) is missing before it. File name and line number are printed so you
-know where to look in case the input came from a script.
+The parser repeats the offending line and displays little arrows pointing
+at the place where the error was detected. Note that this is not always the
+place that needs to be fixed. In the example, the error is detected at the
+function :func:`print`, since a colon (``':'``) is missing just before it.
+
+The file name (```` in our example) and line number are printed so you
+know where to look in case the input came from a file.
.. _tut-exceptions:
@@ -45,14 +46,20 @@ programs, however, and result in error messages as shown here::
>>> 10 * (1/0)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 1, in
+ 10 * (1/0)
+ ~^~
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
>>> 4 + spam*3
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 1, in
+ 4 + spam*3
+ ^^^^
NameError: name 'spam' is not defined
>>> '2' + 2
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 1, in
+ '2' + 2
+ ~~~~^~~
TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "int") to str
The last line of the error message indicates what happened. Exceptions come in
@@ -252,6 +259,7 @@ exception to occur. For example::
>>> raise NameError('HiThere')
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 1, in
+ raise NameError('HiThere')
NameError: HiThere
The sole argument to :keyword:`raise` indicates the exception to be raised.
@@ -275,6 +283,7 @@ re-raise the exception::
An exception flew by!
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 2, in
+ raise NameError('HiThere')
NameError: HiThere
@@ -294,12 +303,15 @@ message::
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 2, in
+ open("database.sqlite")
+ ~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
FileNotFoundError: [Errno 2] No such file or directory: 'database.sqlite'
During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 4, in
+ raise RuntimeError("unable to handle error")
RuntimeError: unable to handle error
To indicate that an exception is a direct consequence of another, the
@@ -320,6 +332,8 @@ This can be useful when you are transforming exceptions. For example::
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 2, in
+ func()
+ ~~~~^^
File "", line 2, in func
ConnectionError
@@ -327,6 +341,7 @@ This can be useful when you are transforming exceptions. For example::
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 4, in
+ raise RuntimeError('Failed to open database') from exc
RuntimeError: Failed to open database
It also allows disabling automatic exception chaining using the ``from None``
@@ -339,6 +354,7 @@ idiom::
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 4, in
+ raise RuntimeError from None
RuntimeError
For more information about chaining mechanics, see :ref:`bltin-exceptions`.
@@ -381,6 +397,7 @@ example::
Goodbye, world!
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 2, in
+ raise KeyboardInterrupt
KeyboardInterrupt
If a :keyword:`finally` clause is present, the :keyword:`!finally`
@@ -448,7 +465,11 @@ A more complicated example::
executing finally clause
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 1, in
+ divide("2", "1")
+ ~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^
File "", line 3, in divide
+ result = x / y
+ ~~^~~
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'str' and 'str'
As you can see, the :keyword:`finally` clause is executed in any event. The
@@ -511,8 +532,11 @@ caught like any other exception. ::
>>> f()
+ Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
| File "", line 1, in
+ | f()
+ | ~^^
| File "", line 3, in f
- | ExceptionGroup: there were problems
+ | raise ExceptionGroup('there were problems', excs)
+ | ExceptionGroup: there were problems (2 sub-exceptions)
+-+---------------- 1 ----------------
| OSError: error 1
+---------------- 2 ----------------
@@ -521,9 +545,9 @@ caught like any other exception. ::
>>> try:
... f()
... except Exception as e:
- ... print(f'caught {type(e)}: e')
+ ... print(f'caught {type(e)}: {e}')
...
- caught : e
+ caught : there were problems (2 sub-exceptions)
>>>
By using ``except*`` instead of ``except``, we can selectively
@@ -560,10 +584,15 @@ other clauses and eventually to be reraised. ::
There were SystemErrors
+ Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
| File "", line 2, in
+ | f()
+ | ~^^
| File "", line 2, in f
- | ExceptionGroup: group1
+ | raise ExceptionGroup(
+ | ...<12 lines>...
+ | )
+ | ExceptionGroup: group1 (1 sub-exception)
+-+---------------- 1 ----------------
- | ExceptionGroup: group2
+ | ExceptionGroup: group2 (1 sub-exception)
+-+---------------- 1 ----------------
| RecursionError: 4
+------------------------------------
@@ -607,6 +636,7 @@ includes all notes, in the order they were added, after the exception. ::
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 2, in
+ raise TypeError('bad type')
TypeError: bad type
Add some information
Add some more information
@@ -630,23 +660,33 @@ exception in the group has a note indicating when this error has occurred. ::
>>> raise ExceptionGroup('We have some problems', excs)
+ Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
| File "", line 1, in
+ | raise ExceptionGroup('We have some problems', excs)
| ExceptionGroup: We have some problems (3 sub-exceptions)
+-+---------------- 1 ----------------
| Traceback (most recent call last):
| File "", line 3, in
+ | f()
+ | ~^^
| File "", line 2, in f
+ | raise OSError('operation failed')
| OSError: operation failed
| Happened in Iteration 1
+---------------- 2 ----------------
| Traceback (most recent call last):
| File "", line 3, in
+ | f()
+ | ~^^
| File "", line 2, in f
+ | raise OSError('operation failed')
| OSError: operation failed
| Happened in Iteration 2
+---------------- 3 ----------------
| Traceback (most recent call last):
| File "", line 3, in
+ | f()
+ | ~^^
| File "", line 2, in f
+ | raise OSError('operation failed')
| OSError: operation failed
| Happened in Iteration 3
+------------------------------------
diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/floatingpoint.rst b/Doc/tutorial/floatingpoint.rst
index 0795e2fef98830b..dfe2d1d3a8378fa 100644
--- a/Doc/tutorial/floatingpoint.rst
+++ b/Doc/tutorial/floatingpoint.rst
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
.. _tut-fp-issues:
**************************************************
-Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations
+Floating-Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations
**************************************************
.. sectionauthor:: Tim Peters
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ the one with 17 significant digits, ``0.10000000000000001``. Starting with
Python 3.1, Python (on most systems) is now able to choose the shortest of
these and simply display ``0.1``.
-Note that this is in the very nature of binary floating-point: this is not a bug
+Note that this is in the very nature of binary floating point: this is not a bug
in Python, and it is not a bug in your code either. You'll see the same kind of
thing in all languages that support your hardware's floating-point arithmetic
(although some languages may not *display* the difference by default, or in all
@@ -148,13 +148,13 @@ Binary floating-point arithmetic holds many surprises like this. The problem
with "0.1" is explained in precise detail below, in the "Representation Error"
section. See `Examples of Floating Point Problems
`_
for a more complete account of other common surprises.
As that says near the end, "there are no easy answers." Still, don't be unduly
-wary of floating-point! The errors in Python float operations are inherited
+wary of floating point! The errors in Python float operations are inherited
from the floating-point hardware, and on most machines are on the order of no
more than 1 part in 2\*\*53 per operation. That's more than adequate for most
tasks, but you do need to keep in mind that it's not decimal arithmetic and
@@ -230,7 +230,7 @@ accumulate to the point where they affect the final total:
>>> sum([0.1] * 10) == 1.0
True
-The :func:`math.fsum()` goes further and tracks all of the "lost digits"
+The :func:`math.fsum` goes further and tracks all of the "lost digits"
as values are added onto a running total so that the result has only a
single rounding. This is slower than :func:`sum` but will be more
accurate in uncommon cases where large magnitude inputs mostly cancel
diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/index.rst b/Doc/tutorial/index.rst
index 96791f88c867ab0..c3ae5eefdfb6693 100644
--- a/Doc/tutorial/index.rst
+++ b/Doc/tutorial/index.rst
@@ -4,6 +4,10 @@
The Python Tutorial
######################
+.. Tip:: This tutorial is designed for
+ *programmers* that are new to the Python language,
+ **not** *beginners* who are new to programming.
+
Python is an easy to learn, powerful programming language. It has efficient
high-level data structures and a simple but effective approach to
object-oriented programming. Python's elegant syntax and dynamic typing,
@@ -11,7 +15,7 @@ together with its interpreted nature, make it an ideal language for scripting
and rapid application development in many areas on most platforms.
The Python interpreter and the extensive standard library are freely available
-in source or binary form for all major platforms from the Python web site,
+in source or binary form for all major platforms from the Python website,
https://www.python.org/, and may be freely distributed. The same site also
contains distributions of and pointers to many free third party Python modules,
programs and tools, and additional documentation.
@@ -21,13 +25,14 @@ implemented in C or C++ (or other languages callable from C). Python is also
suitable as an extension language for customizable applications.
This tutorial introduces the reader informally to the basic concepts and
-features of the Python language and system. It helps to have a Python
+features of the Python language and system. Be aware that it expects you to
+have a basic understanding of programming in general. It helps to have a Python
interpreter handy for hands-on experience, but all examples are self-contained,
so the tutorial can be read off-line as well.
-For a description of standard objects and modules, see :ref:`library-index`.
-:ref:`reference-index` gives a more formal definition of the language. To write
-extensions in C or C++, read :ref:`extending-index` and
+For a description of standard objects and modules, see :ref:`builtins-index` and
+:ref:`library-index`. :ref:`reference-index` gives a more formal definition of
+the language. To write extensions in C or C++, read :ref:`extending-index` and
:ref:`c-api-index`. There are also several books covering Python in depth.
This tutorial does not attempt to be comprehensive and cover every single
diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/inputoutput.rst b/Doc/tutorial/inputoutput.rst
index fe9ca9ccb9c7e0d..35b8c7cd8eb0498 100644
--- a/Doc/tutorial/inputoutput.rst
+++ b/Doc/tutorial/inputoutput.rst
@@ -37,16 +37,23 @@ printing space-separated values. There are several ways to format output.
* The :meth:`str.format` method of strings requires more manual
effort. You'll still use ``{`` and ``}`` to mark where a variable
will be substituted and can provide detailed formatting directives,
- but you'll also need to provide the information to be formatted.
+ but you'll also need to provide the information to be formatted. In the following code
+ block there are two examples of how to format variables:
+
::
>>> yes_votes = 42_572_654
- >>> no_votes = 43_132_495
- >>> percentage = yes_votes / (yes_votes + no_votes)
+ >>> total_votes = 85_705_149
+ >>> percentage = yes_votes / total_votes
>>> '{:-9} YES votes {:2.2%}'.format(yes_votes, percentage)
' 42572654 YES votes 49.67%'
+ Notice how the ``yes_votes`` are padded with spaces and a negative sign only for negative numbers.
+ The example also prints ``percentage`` multiplied by 100, with 2 decimal
+ places and followed by a percent sign (see :ref:`formatspec` for details).
+
+
* Finally, you can do all the string handling yourself by using string slicing and
concatenation operations to create any layout you can imagine. The
string type has some methods that perform useful operations for padding
@@ -80,12 +87,12 @@ Some examples::
>>> print(s)
The value of x is 32.5, and y is 40000...
>>> # The repr() of a string adds string quotes and backslashes:
- ... hello = 'hello, world\n'
+ >>> hello = 'hello, world\n'
>>> hellos = repr(hello)
>>> print(hellos)
'hello, world\n'
>>> # The argument to repr() may be any Python object:
- ... repr((x, y, ('spam', 'eggs')))
+ >>> repr((x, y, ('spam', 'eggs')))
"(32.5, 40000, ('spam', 'eggs'))"
The :mod:`string` module contains a :class:`~string.Template` class that offers
@@ -93,6 +100,13 @@ yet another way to substitute values into strings, using placeholders like
``$x`` and replacing them with values from a dictionary, but offers much less
control of the formatting.
+.. index::
+ single: formatted string literal
+ single: interpolated string literal
+ single: string; formatted literal
+ single: string; interpolated literal
+ single: f-string
+ single: fstring
.. _tut-f-strings:
@@ -197,7 +211,12 @@ notation. ::
Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678
This is particularly useful in combination with the built-in function
-:func:`vars`, which returns a dictionary containing all local variables.
+:func:`vars`, which returns a dictionary containing all local variables::
+
+ >>> table = {k: str(v) for k, v in vars().items()}
+ >>> message = " ".join([f'{k}: ' + '{' + k +'};' for k in table.keys()])
+ >>> print(message.format(**table))
+ __name__: __main__; __doc__: None; __package__: None; __loader__: ...
As an example, the following lines produce a tidily aligned
set of columns giving integers and their squares and cubes::
@@ -267,9 +286,11 @@ left with zeros. It understands about plus and minus signs::
Old string formatting
---------------------
-The % operator (modulo) can also be used for string formatting. Given ``'string'
-% values``, instances of ``%`` in ``string`` are replaced with zero or more
-elements of ``values``. This operation is commonly known as string
+The % operator (modulo) can also be used for string formatting.
+Given ``format % values`` (where *format* is a string),
+``%`` conversion specifications in *format* are replaced with
+zero or more elements of *values*.
+This operation is commonly known as string
interpolation. For example::
>>> import math
diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/interactive.rst b/Doc/tutorial/interactive.rst
index 4e054c4e6c2c326..00e705f999f4b2a 100644
--- a/Doc/tutorial/interactive.rst
+++ b/Doc/tutorial/interactive.rst
@@ -37,10 +37,10 @@ Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter
This facility is an enormous step forward compared to earlier versions of the
interpreter; however, some wishes are left: It would be nice if the proper
-indentation were suggested on continuation lines (the parser knows if an indent
-token is required next). The completion mechanism might use the interpreter's
-symbol table. A command to check (or even suggest) matching parentheses,
-quotes, etc., would also be useful.
+indentation were suggested on continuation lines (the parser knows if an
+:data:`~token.INDENT` token is required next). The completion mechanism might
+use the interpreter's symbol table. A command to check (or even suggest)
+matching parentheses, quotes, etc., would also be useful.
One alternative enhanced interactive interpreter that has been around for quite
some time is IPython_, which features tab completion, object exploration and
diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/interpreter.rst b/Doc/tutorial/interpreter.rst
index 299b6c2777adc0e..09b18786ddbd9ce 100644
--- a/Doc/tutorial/interpreter.rst
+++ b/Doc/tutorial/interpreter.rst
@@ -34,13 +34,13 @@ status. If that doesn't work, you can exit the interpreter by typing the
following command: ``quit()``.
The interpreter's line-editing features include interactive editing, history
-substitution and code completion on systems that support the `GNU Readline
-`_ library.
+substitution and code completion on most systems.
Perhaps the quickest check to see whether command line editing is supported is
-typing :kbd:`Control-P` to the first Python prompt you get. If it beeps, you
-have command line editing; see Appendix :ref:`tut-interacting` for an
-introduction to the keys. If nothing appears to happen, or if ``^P`` is
-echoed, command line editing isn't available; you'll only be able to use
+typing a word in on the Python prompt, then pressing Left arrow (or :kbd:`Control-b`).
+If the cursor moves, you have command line editing; see Appendix
+:ref:`tut-interacting` for an introduction to the keys.
+If nothing appears to happen, or if a sequence like ``^[[D`` or ``^B`` appears,
+command line editing isn't available; you'll only be able to use
backspace to remove characters from the current line.
The interpreter operates somewhat like the Unix shell: when called with standard
diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/introduction.rst b/Doc/tutorial/introduction.rst
index 0f16dae8b1418fd..7778e37a9adaa95 100644
--- a/Doc/tutorial/introduction.rst
+++ b/Doc/tutorial/introduction.rst
@@ -13,10 +13,9 @@ end a multi-line command.
.. only:: html
- You can toggle the display of prompts and output by clicking on ``>>>``
- in the upper-right corner of an example box. If you hide the prompts
- and output for an example, then you can easily copy and paste the input
- lines into your interpreter.
+ You can use the "Copy" button (it appears in the upper-right corner
+ when hovering over or tapping a code example), which strips prompts
+ and omits output, to copy and paste the input lines into your interpreter.
.. index:: single: # (hash); comment
@@ -50,7 +49,7 @@ primary prompt, ``>>>``. (It shouldn't take long.)
Numbers
-------
-The interpreter acts as a simple calculator: you can type an expression at it
+The interpreter acts as a simple calculator: you can type an expression into it
and it will write the value. Expression syntax is straightforward: the
operators ``+``, ``-``, ``*`` and ``/`` can be used to perform
arithmetic; parentheses (``()``) can be used for grouping.
@@ -62,7 +61,7 @@ For example::
20
>>> (50 - 5*6) / 4
5.0
- >>> 8 / 5 # division always returns a floating point number
+ >>> 8 / 5 # division always returns a floating-point number
1.6
The integer numbers (e.g. ``2``, ``4``, ``20``) have type :class:`int`,
@@ -147,6 +146,8 @@ Python can manipulate text (represented by type :class:`str`, so-called
"``Yay! :)``". They can be enclosed in single quotes (``'...'``) or double
quotes (``"..."``) with the same result [#]_.
+.. code-block:: pycon
+
>>> 'spam eggs' # single quotes
'spam eggs'
>>> "Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!" # double quotes
@@ -183,11 +184,11 @@ If you don't want characters prefaced by ``\`` to be interpreted as
special characters, you can use *raw strings* by adding an ``r`` before
the first quote::
- >>> print('C:\some\name') # here \n means newline!
- C:\some
+ >>> print('C:\this\name') # here \t means tab, \n means newline
+ C: his
ame
- >>> print(r'C:\some\name') # note the r before the quote
- C:\some\name
+ >>> print(r'C:\this\name') # note the r before the quote
+ C:\this\name
There is one subtle aspect to raw strings: a raw string may not end in
an odd number of ``\`` characters; see
@@ -195,23 +196,21 @@ an odd number of ``\`` characters; see
and workarounds.
String literals can span multiple lines. One way is using triple-quotes:
-``"""..."""`` or ``'''...'''``. End of lines are automatically
+``"""..."""`` or ``'''...'''``. End-of-line characters are automatically
included in the string, but it's possible to prevent this by adding a ``\`` at
-the end of the line. The following example::
-
- print("""\
+the end of the line. In the following example, the initial newline is not
+included::
+
+ >>> print("""\
+ ... Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
+ ... -h Display this usage message
+ ... -H hostname Hostname to connect to
+ ... """)
Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
-h Display this usage message
-H hostname Hostname to connect to
- """)
-
-produces the following output (note that the initial newline is not included):
-
-.. code-block:: text
- Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
- -h Display this usage message
- -H hostname Hostname to connect to
+ >>>
Strings can be concatenated (glued together) with the ``+`` operator, and
repeated with ``*``::
@@ -421,7 +420,7 @@ type, i.e. it is possible to change their content::
[1, 8, 27, 64, 125]
You can also add new items at the end of the list, by using
-the :meth:`!list.append` *method* (we will see more about methods later)::
+the :meth:`list.append` *method* (we will see more about methods later)::
>>> cubes.append(216) # add the cube of 6
>>> cubes.append(7 ** 3) # and the cube of 7
@@ -501,8 +500,8 @@ together. For instance, we can write an initial sub-sequence of the
as follows::
>>> # Fibonacci series:
- ... # the sum of two elements defines the next
- ... a, b = 0, 1
+ >>> # the sum of two elements defines the next
+ >>> a, b = 0, 1
>>> while a < 10:
... print(a)
... a, b = b, a+b
@@ -544,7 +543,7 @@ This example introduces several new features.
* The :func:`print` function writes the value of the argument(s) it is given.
It differs from just writing the expression you want to write (as we did
earlier in the calculator examples) in the way it handles multiple arguments,
- floating point quantities, and strings. Strings are printed without quotes,
+ floating-point quantities, and strings. Strings are printed without quotes,
and a space is inserted between items, so you can format things nicely, like
this::
diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/modules.rst b/Doc/tutorial/modules.rst
index 0316239e776a95b..46a226be606aeba 100644
--- a/Doc/tutorial/modules.rst
+++ b/Doc/tutorial/modules.rst
@@ -27,14 +27,16 @@ called :file:`fibo.py` in the current directory with the following contents::
# Fibonacci numbers module
- def fib(n): # write Fibonacci series up to n
+ def fib(n):
+ """Write Fibonacci series up to n."""
a, b = 0, 1
while a < n:
print(a, end=' ')
a, b = b, a+b
print()
- def fib2(n): # return Fibonacci series up to n
+ def fib2(n):
+ """Return Fibonacci series up to n."""
result = []
a, b = 0, 1
while a < n:
@@ -577,24 +579,11 @@ module for example, you might use::
from .. import formats
from ..filters import equalizer
-Note that relative imports are based on the name of the current module. Since
-the name of the main module is always ``"__main__"``, modules intended for use
+Note that relative imports are based on the name of the current module's package.
+Since the main module does not have a package, modules intended for use
as the main module of a Python application must always use absolute imports.
-Packages in Multiple Directories
---------------------------------
-
-Packages support one more special attribute, :attr:`__path__`. This is
-initialized to be a list containing the name of the directory holding the
-package's :file:`__init__.py` before the code in that file is executed. This
-variable can be modified; doing so affects future searches for modules and
-subpackages contained in the package.
-
-While this feature is not often needed, it can be used to extend the set of
-modules found in a package.
-
-
.. rubric:: Footnotes
.. [#] In fact function definitions are also 'statements' that are 'executed'; the
diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/stdlib.rst b/Doc/tutorial/stdlib.rst
index 9def2a5714950bc..148f6eadb771078 100644
--- a/Doc/tutorial/stdlib.rst
+++ b/Doc/tutorial/stdlib.rst
@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
.. _tut-brieftour:
**********************************
-Brief Tour of the Standard Library
+Brief tour of the standard library
**********************************
.. _tut-os-interface:
-Operating System Interface
+Operating system interface
==========================
The :mod:`os` module provides dozens of functions for interacting with the
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ aids for working with large modules like :mod:`os`::
For daily file and directory management tasks, the :mod:`shutil` module provides
-a higher level interface that is easier to use::
+a higher-level interface that is easier to use::
>>> import shutil
>>> shutil.copyfile('data.db', 'archive.db')
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ a higher level interface that is easier to use::
.. _tut-file-wildcards:
-File Wildcards
+File wildcards
==============
The :mod:`glob` module provides a function for making file lists from directory
@@ -60,10 +60,10 @@ wildcard searches::
.. _tut-command-line-arguments:
-Command Line Arguments
+Command-line arguments
======================
-Common utility scripts often need to process command line arguments. These
+Common utility scripts often need to process command-line arguments. These
arguments are stored in the :mod:`sys` module's *argv* attribute as a list. For
instance, let's take the following :file:`demo.py` file::
@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ line::
['demo.py', 'one', 'two', 'three']
The :mod:`argparse` module provides a more sophisticated mechanism to process
-command line arguments. The following script extracts one or more filenames
+command-line arguments. The following script extracts one or more filenames
and an optional number of lines to be displayed::
import argparse
@@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ to ``['alpha.txt', 'beta.txt']``.
.. _tut-stderr:
-Error Output Redirection and Program Termination
+Error output redirection and program termination
================================================
The :mod:`sys` module also has attributes for *stdin*, *stdout*, and *stderr*.
@@ -112,7 +112,7 @@ The most direct way to terminate a script is to use ``sys.exit()``.
.. _tut-string-pattern-matching:
-String Pattern Matching
+String pattern matching
=======================
The :mod:`re` module provides regular expression tools for advanced string
@@ -138,7 +138,7 @@ Mathematics
===========
The :mod:`math` module gives access to the underlying C library functions for
-floating point math::
+floating-point math::
>>> import math
>>> math.cos(math.pi / 4)
@@ -175,7 +175,7 @@ computations.
.. _tut-internet-access:
-Internet Access
+Internet access
===============
There are a number of modules for accessing the internet and processing internet
@@ -183,13 +183,13 @@ protocols. Two of the simplest are :mod:`urllib.request` for retrieving data
from URLs and :mod:`smtplib` for sending mail::
>>> from urllib.request import urlopen
- >>> with urlopen('http://worldtimeapi.org/api/timezone/etc/UTC.txt') as response:
+ >>> with urlopen('https://docs.python.org/3/') as response:
... for line in response:
... line = line.decode() # Convert bytes to a str
- ... if line.startswith('datetime'):
+ ... if 'updated' in line:
... print(line.rstrip()) # Remove trailing newline
...
- datetime: 2022-01-01T01:36:47.689215+00:00
+ Last updated on Nov 11, 2025 (20:11 UTC).
>>> import smtplib
>>> server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
@@ -206,7 +206,7 @@ from URLs and :mod:`smtplib` for sending mail::
.. _tut-dates-and-times:
-Dates and Times
+Dates and times
===============
The :mod:`datetime` module supplies classes for manipulating dates and times in
@@ -216,15 +216,15 @@ formatting and manipulation. The module also supports objects that are timezone
aware. ::
>>> # dates are easily constructed and formatted
- >>> from datetime import date
- >>> now = date.today()
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> now = dt.date.today()
>>> now
datetime.date(2003, 12, 2)
>>> now.strftime("%m-%d-%y. %d %b %Y is a %A on the %d day of %B.")
'12-02-03. 02 Dec 2003 is a Tuesday on the 02 day of December.'
>>> # dates support calendar arithmetic
- >>> birthday = date(1964, 7, 31)
+ >>> birthday = dt.date(1964, 7, 31)
>>> age = now - birthday
>>> age.days
14368
@@ -232,7 +232,7 @@ aware. ::
.. _tut-data-compression:
-Data Compression
+Data compression
================
Common data archiving and compression formats are directly supported by modules
@@ -254,7 +254,7 @@ including: :mod:`zlib`, :mod:`gzip`, :mod:`bz2`, :mod:`lzma`, :mod:`zipfile` and
.. _tut-performance-measurement:
-Performance Measurement
+Performance measurement
=======================
Some Python users develop a deep interest in knowing the relative performance of
@@ -278,7 +278,7 @@ larger blocks of code.
.. _tut-quality-control:
-Quality Control
+Quality control
===============
One approach for developing high quality software is to write tests for each
@@ -324,7 +324,7 @@ file::
.. _tut-batteries-included:
-Batteries Included
+Batteries included
==================
Python has a "batteries included" philosophy. This is best seen through the
@@ -335,7 +335,7 @@ sophisticated and robust capabilities of its larger packages. For example:
names, no direct knowledge or handling of XML is needed.
* The :mod:`email` package is a library for managing email messages, including
- MIME and other :rfc:`2822`-based message documents. Unlike :mod:`smtplib` and
+ MIME and other :rfc:`5322`-based message documents. Unlike :mod:`smtplib` and
:mod:`poplib` which actually send and receive messages, the email package has
a complete toolset for building or decoding complex message structures
(including attachments) and for implementing internet encoding and header
diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/stdlib2.rst b/Doc/tutorial/stdlib2.rst
index 09b6f3d91bcfed7..7c2e191da8ac4e7 100644
--- a/Doc/tutorial/stdlib2.rst
+++ b/Doc/tutorial/stdlib2.rst
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
.. _tut-brieftourtwo:
**********************************************
-Brief Tour of the Standard Library --- Part II
+Brief tour of the standard library --- part II
**********************************************
This second tour covers more advanced modules that support professional
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ programming needs. These modules rarely occur in small scripts.
.. _tut-output-formatting:
-Output Formatting
+Output formatting
=================
The :mod:`reprlib` module provides a version of :func:`repr` customized for
@@ -130,7 +130,7 @@ templates for XML files, plain text reports, and HTML web reports.
.. _tut-binary-formats:
-Working with Binary Data Record Layouts
+Working with binary data record layouts
=======================================
The :mod:`struct` module provides :func:`~struct.pack` and
@@ -178,14 +178,13 @@ tasks in background while the main program continues to run::
class AsyncZip(threading.Thread):
def __init__(self, infile, outfile):
- threading.Thread.__init__(self)
+ super().__init__()
self.infile = infile
self.outfile = outfile
def run(self):
- f = zipfile.ZipFile(self.outfile, 'w', zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED)
- f.write(self.infile)
- f.close()
+ with zipfile.ZipFile(self.outfile, 'w', zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED) as f:
+ f.write(self.infile)
print('Finished background zip of:', self.infile)
background = AsyncZip('mydata.txt', 'myarchive.zip')
@@ -245,7 +244,7 @@ application.
.. _tut-weak-references:
-Weak References
+Weak references
===============
Python does automatic memory management (reference counting for most objects and
@@ -286,14 +285,14 @@ applications include caching objects that are expensive to create::
.. _tut-list-tools:
-Tools for Working with Lists
+Tools for working with lists
============================
Many data structure needs can be met with the built-in list type. However,
sometimes there is a need for alternative implementations with different
performance trade-offs.
-The :mod:`array` module provides an :class:`~array.array()` object that is like
+The :mod:`array` module provides an :class:`~array.array` object that is like
a list that stores only homogeneous data and stores it more compactly. The
following example shows an array of numbers stored as two byte unsigned binary
numbers (typecode ``"H"``) rather than the usual 16 bytes per entry for regular
@@ -306,7 +305,7 @@ lists of Python int objects::
>>> a[1:3]
array('H', [10, 700])
-The :mod:`collections` module provides a :class:`~collections.deque()` object
+The :mod:`collections` module provides a :class:`~collections.deque` object
that is like a list with faster appends and pops from the left side but slower
lookups in the middle. These objects are well suited for implementing queues
and breadth first tree searches::
@@ -352,11 +351,11 @@ not want to run a full list sort::
.. _tut-decimal-fp:
-Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic
+Decimal floating-point arithmetic
=================================
The :mod:`decimal` module offers a :class:`~decimal.Decimal` datatype for
-decimal floating point arithmetic. Compared to the built-in :class:`float`
+decimal floating-point arithmetic. Compared to the built-in :class:`float`
implementation of binary floating point, the class is especially helpful for
* financial applications and other uses which require exact decimal
diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/venv.rst b/Doc/tutorial/venv.rst
index a6dead2eac11f68..4eee4ac5f5facd1 100644
--- a/Doc/tutorial/venv.rst
+++ b/Doc/tutorial/venv.rst
@@ -36,10 +36,10 @@ Creating Virtual Environments
=============================
The module used to create and manage virtual environments is called
-:mod:`venv`. :mod:`venv` will usually install the most recent version of
-Python that you have available. If you have multiple versions of Python on your
-system, you can select a specific Python version by running ``python3`` or
-whichever version you want.
+:mod:`venv`. :mod:`venv` will install the Python version from which
+the command was run (as reported by the :option:`--version` option).
+For instance, executing the command with ``python3.12`` will install
+version 3.12.
To create a virtual environment, decide upon a directory where you want to
place it, and run the :mod:`venv` module as a script with the directory path::
@@ -88,6 +88,11 @@ For example:
'~/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.5/site-packages']
>>>
+Note that the activated virtual environment does not alter the ``PYTHONPATH`` variable in any way.
+This may lead to unexpected results if the path includes references to code which is incompatible with
+the Python version the virtual environment is using. The best practice is to ``unset PYTHONPATH``
+in bash or the equivalent for the shell you are using.
+
To deactivate a virtual environment, type::
deactivate
diff --git a/Doc/tutorial/whatnow.rst b/Doc/tutorial/whatnow.rst
index dbe2d7fc09927e2..6f4d1329682be3f 100644
--- a/Doc/tutorial/whatnow.rst
+++ b/Doc/tutorial/whatnow.rst
@@ -11,9 +11,10 @@ should you go to learn more?
This tutorial is part of Python's documentation set. Some other documents in
the set are:
-* :ref:`library-index`:
+* :ref:`builtins-index`: gives details about Python's built-in types and
+ functions.
- You should browse through this manual, which gives complete (though terse)
+* :ref:`library-index`: gives complete (though terse)
reference material about types, functions, and the modules in the standard
library. The standard Python distribution includes a *lot* of additional code.
There are modules to read Unix mailboxes, retrieve documents via HTTP, generate
@@ -30,7 +31,7 @@ the set are:
More Python resources:
-* https://www.python.org: The major Python web site. It contains code,
+* https://www.python.org: The major Python website. It contains code,
documentation, and pointers to Python-related pages around the web.
* https://docs.python.org: Fast access to Python's documentation.
@@ -68,6 +69,6 @@ already contain the solution for your problem.
.. rubric:: Footnotes
-.. [#] "Cheese Shop" is a Monty Python's sketch: a customer enters a cheese shop,
+.. [#] "Cheese Shop" is a Monty Python sketch: a customer enters a cheese shop,
but whatever cheese he asks for, the clerk says it's missing.
diff --git a/Doc/using/android.rst b/Doc/using/android.rst
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000000..f013817932d7864
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Doc/using/android.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+.. _using-android:
+
+=======================
+Using Python on Android
+=======================
+
+Python on Android is unlike Python on desktop platforms. On a desktop platform,
+Python is generally installed as a system resource that can be used by any user
+of that computer. Users then interact with Python by running a :program:`python`
+executable and entering commands at an interactive prompt, or by running a
+Python script.
+
+On Android, there is no concept of installing as a system resource. The only unit
+of software distribution is an "app". There is also no console where you could
+run a :program:`python` executable, or interact with a Python REPL.
+
+As a result, the only way you can use Python on Android is in embedded mode – that
+is, by writing a native Android application, embedding a Python interpreter
+using ``libpython``, and invoking Python code using the :ref:`Python embedding
+API `. The full Python interpreter, the standard library, and all
+your Python code is then packaged into your app for its own private use.
+
+The Python standard library has some notable omissions and restrictions on
+Android. See the :ref:`API availability guide ` for
+details.
+
+Adding Python to an Android app
+-------------------------------
+
+Most app developers should use one of the following tools, which will provide a
+much easier experience:
+
+* `Briefcase `__, from the BeeWare project
+* `Buildozer `__, from the Kivy project
+* `Chaquopy `__
+* `pyqtdeploy ` as a guide; each step below contains a
+link to the relevant file.
+
+* Build Python by following the instructions in :source:`Android/README.md`.
+ This will create the directory ``cross-build/HOST/prefix``.
+
+* Add code to your :source:`build.gradle `
+ file to copy the following items into your project. All except your own Python
+ code can be copied from ``prefix/lib``:
+
+ * In your JNI libraries:
+
+ * ``libpython*.*.so``
+ * ``lib*_python.so`` (external libraries such as OpenSSL)
+
+ * In your assets:
+
+ * ``python*.*`` (the Python standard library)
+ * ``python*.*/site-packages`` (your own Python code)
+
+* Add code to your app to :source:`extract the assets to the filesystem
+ `.
+
+* Add code to your app to :source:`start Python in embedded mode
+ `. This will need to be C code
+ called via JNI.
+
+Building a Python package for Android
+-------------------------------------
+
+Python packages can be built for Android as wheels and released on PyPI. The
+recommended tool for doing this is `cibuildwheel
+`__, which automates
+all the details of setting up a cross-compilation environment, building the
+wheel, and testing it on an emulator.
diff --git a/Doc/using/cmdline.rst b/Doc/using/cmdline.rst
index 2d95fa9474033f5..738ffac5c6e8b56 100644
--- a/Doc/using/cmdline.rst
+++ b/Doc/using/cmdline.rst
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ Command line
When invoking Python, you may specify any of these options::
- python [-bBdEhiIOqsSuvVWx?] [-c command | -m module-name | script | - ] [args]
+ python [-bBdEhiIOPqRsSuvVWx?] [-c command | -m module-name | script | - ] [args]
The most common use case is, of course, a simple invocation of a script::
@@ -50,8 +50,8 @@ additional methods of invocation:
* When called with ``-c command``, it executes the Python statement(s) given as
*command*. Here *command* may contain multiple statements separated by
newlines. Leading whitespace is significant in Python statements!
-* When called with ``-m module-name``, the given module is located on the
- Python module path and executed as a script.
+* When called with ``-m module-name``, the given module is located using the standard
+ import mechanism and executed as a script.
In non-interactive mode, the entire input is parsed before it is executed.
@@ -75,8 +75,8 @@ source.
.. option:: -m
- Search :data:`sys.path` for the named module and execute its contents as
- the :mod:`__main__` module.
+ Locate the module using the standard import mechanism and execute its contents
+ as the :mod:`__main__` module.
Since the argument is a *module* name, you must not give a file extension
(``.py``). The module name should be a valid absolute Python module name, but
@@ -290,9 +290,15 @@ Miscellaneous options
.. option:: -i
- When a script is passed as first argument or the :option:`-c` option is used,
- enter interactive mode after executing the script or the command, even when
- :data:`sys.stdin` does not appear to be a terminal. The
+ Enter interactive mode after execution.
+
+ Using the :option:`-i` option will enter interactive mode in any of the following circumstances\:
+
+ * When a script is passed as first argument
+ * When the :option:`-c` option is used
+ * When the :option:`-m` option is used
+
+ Interactive mode will start even when :data:`sys.stdin` does not appear to be a terminal. The
:envvar:`PYTHONSTARTUP` file is not read.
This can be useful to inspect global variables or a stack trace when a script
@@ -360,8 +366,8 @@ Miscellaneous options
.. option:: -R
Turn on hash randomization. This option only has an effect if the
- :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED` environment variable is set to ``0``, since hash
- randomization is enabled by default.
+ :envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED` environment variable is set to anything other
+ than ``random``, since hash randomization is enabled by default.
On previous versions of Python, this option turns on hash randomization,
so that the :meth:`~object.__hash__` values of str and bytes objects
@@ -372,7 +378,7 @@ Miscellaneous options
Hash randomization is intended to provide protection against a
denial-of-service caused by carefully chosen inputs that exploit the worst
case performance of a dict construction, *O*\ (*n*\ :sup:`2`) complexity. See
- http://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html for details.
+ https://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html for details.
:envvar:`PYTHONHASHSEED` allows you to set a fixed value for the hash
seed secret.
@@ -441,6 +447,7 @@ Miscellaneous options
-Wdefault # Warn once per call location
-Werror # Convert to exceptions
-Walways # Warn every time
+ -Wall # Same as -Walways
-Wmodule # Warn once per calling module
-Wonce # Warn once per Python process
-Wignore # Never warn
@@ -491,7 +498,25 @@ Miscellaneous options
.. option:: -x
Skip the first line of the source, allowing use of non-Unix forms of
- ``#!cmd``. This is intended for a DOS specific hack only.
+ ``#!cmd``.
+
+ This can be used to turn a Python script into a Windows batch file.
+ Similarly to adding a shebang line and setting the executable bit on Unix,
+ the extension of the Python script can be changed to ``.bat`` and the
+ following line can be added at the start of the script:
+
+ .. code-block:: batch
+
+ @py -x "%~f0" %* & exit /b
+
+ Or, to specify the path to the Python interpreter explicitly:
+
+ .. code-block:: batch
+
+ @"C:\Path\to\python.exe" -x "%~f0" %* & exit /b
+
+ Unlike a shebang line which is a Python comment, this line is not valid
+ Python syntax, and the :option:`-x` option is needed to skip it.
.. option:: -X
@@ -615,8 +640,9 @@ Miscellaneous options
.. versionadded:: 3.13
* :samp:`-X gil={0,1}` forces the GIL to be disabled or enabled,
- respectively. Only available in builds configured with
- :option:`--disable-gil`. See also :envvar:`PYTHON_GIL`.
+ respectively. Setting to ``0`` is only available in builds configured with
+ :option:`--disable-gil`. See also :envvar:`PYTHON_GIL` and
+ :ref:`whatsnew313-free-threaded-cpython`.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
@@ -785,6 +811,15 @@ conflict.
This variable can also be modified by Python code using :data:`os.environ`
to force inspect mode on program termination.
+ .. audit-event:: cpython.run_stdin "" ""
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.12.5 (also 3.11.10, 3.10.15, 3.9.20, and 3.8.20)
+ Emits audit events.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 3.13
+ Uses PyREPL if possible, in which case :envvar:`PYTHONSTARTUP` is
+ also executed. Emits audit events.
+
.. envvar:: PYTHONUNBUFFERED
@@ -908,6 +943,7 @@ conflict.
PYTHONWARNINGS=default # Warn once per call location
PYTHONWARNINGS=error # Convert to exceptions
PYTHONWARNINGS=always # Warn every time
+ PYTHONWARNINGS=all # Same as PYTHONWARNINGS=always
PYTHONWARNINGS=module # Warn once per calling module
PYTHONWARNINGS=once # Warn once per Python process
PYTHONWARNINGS=ignore # Never warn
@@ -1013,7 +1049,7 @@ conflict.
'surrogatepass' are used.
This may also be enabled at runtime with
- :func:`sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding()`.
+ :func:`sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding`.
.. availability:: Windows.
@@ -1185,7 +1221,7 @@ conflict.
.. envvar:: PYTHON_BASIC_REPL
- If this variable is set to ``1``, the interpreter will not attempt to
+ If this variable is set to any value, the interpreter will not attempt to
load the Python-based :term:`REPL` that requires :mod:`curses` and
:mod:`readline`, and will instead use the traditional parser-based
:term:`REPL`.
@@ -1203,12 +1239,19 @@ conflict.
.. envvar:: PYTHON_GIL
If this variable is set to ``1``, the global interpreter lock (GIL) will be
- forced on. Setting it to ``0`` forces the GIL off.
+ forced on. Setting it to ``0`` forces the GIL off (needs Python configured with
+ the :option:`--disable-gil` build option).
See also the :option:`-X gil <-X>` command-line option, which takes
- precedence over this variable.
+ precedence over this variable, and :ref:`whatsnew313-free-threaded-cpython`.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
+.. envvar:: PYTHON_JIT
- Needs Python configured with the :option:`--disable-gil` build option.
+ On builds where experimental just-in-time compilation is available, this
+ variable can force the JIT to be disabled (``0``) or enabled (``1``) at
+ interpreter startup.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
diff --git a/Doc/using/configure.rst b/Doc/using/configure.rst
index d30356d2058effb..fde0ddba9f9d295 100644
--- a/Doc/using/configure.rst
+++ b/Doc/using/configure.rst
@@ -16,20 +16,23 @@ Features and minimum versions required to build CPython:
* On Windows, Microsoft Visual Studio 2017 or later is required.
-* Support for `IEEE 754 `_ floating
- point numbers and `floating point Not-a-Number (NaN)
+* Support for `IEEE 754 `_
+ floating-point numbers and `floating-point Not-a-Number (NaN)
`_.
* Support for threads.
-* OpenSSL 1.1.1 is the minimum version and OpenSSL 3.0.9 is the recommended
+* OpenSSL 1.1.1 is the minimum version and OpenSSL 3.0.18 is the recommended
minimum version for the :mod:`ssl` and :mod:`hashlib` extension modules.
* SQLite 3.15.2 for the :mod:`sqlite3` extension module.
* Tcl/Tk 8.5.12 for the :mod:`tkinter` module.
-* Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.4 are required to regenerate the
+* `libmpdec `.
+
+ * ``no`` - build the interpreter without the JIT.
+ * ``yes`` - build the interpreter with the JIT.
+ * ``yes-off`` - build the interpreter with the JIT but disable it by default.
+ * ``interpreter`` - build the interpreter without the JIT, but with the tier 2 enabled interpreter.
+
+ By convention, ``--enable-experimental-jit`` is a shorthand for ``--enable-experimental-jit=yes``.
+
+ .. note::
+
+ When building CPython with JIT enabled, ensure that your system has Python 3.11 or later installed.
.. versionadded:: 3.13
@@ -427,7 +447,7 @@ Options for third-party dependencies
.. option:: PANEL_CFLAGS
.. option:: PANEL_LIBS
- C compiler and Linker flags for PANEL, overriding ``pkg-config``.
+ C compiler and linker flags for PANEL, overriding ``pkg-config``.
C compiler and linker flags for ``libpanel`` or ``libpanelw``, used by
:mod:`curses.panel` module, overriding ``pkg-config``.
@@ -615,7 +635,7 @@ also be used to improve performance.
.. option:: --without-mimalloc
- Disable the fast mimalloc allocator :ref:`mimalloc `
+ Disable the fast :ref:`mimalloc ` allocator
(enabled by default).
See also :envvar:`PYTHONMALLOC` environment variable.
@@ -688,9 +708,11 @@ See also the :ref:`Python Development Mode ` and the
:option:`--with-trace-refs` configure option.
.. versionchanged:: 3.8
- Release builds and debug builds are now ABI compatible: defining the
+ Release builds are now ABI compatible with debug builds: defining the
``Py_DEBUG`` macro no longer implies the ``Py_TRACE_REFS`` macro (see the
- :option:`--with-trace-refs` option).
+ :option:`--with-trace-refs` option). However, debug builds still expose
+ more symbols than release builds and code built against a debug build is not
+ necessarily compatible with a release build.
Debug options
@@ -708,7 +730,7 @@ Debug options
Effects:
* Define the ``Py_TRACE_REFS`` macro.
- * Add :func:`!sys.getobjects` function.
+ * Add :func:`sys.getobjects` function.
* Add :envvar:`PYTHONDUMPREFS` environment variable.
The :envvar:`PYTHONDUMPREFS` environment variable can be used to dump
@@ -751,6 +773,9 @@ Debug options
.. option:: --with-address-sanitizer
Enable AddressSanitizer memory error detector, ``asan`` (default is no).
+ To improve ASan detection capabilities you may also want to combine this
+ with :option:`--without-pymalloc` to disable the specialized small-object
+ allocator whose allocations are not tracked by ASan.
.. versionadded:: 3.6
@@ -812,9 +837,9 @@ Libraries options
.. versionchanged:: 3.13
Default to using the installed ``mpdecimal`` library.
- .. deprecated-removed:: 3.13 3.15
+ .. deprecated-removed:: 3.13 3.16
A copy of the ``mpdecimal`` library sources will no longer be distributed
- with Python 3.15.
+ with Python 3.16.
.. seealso:: :option:`LIBMPDEC_CFLAGS` and :option:`LIBMPDEC_LIBS`.
@@ -931,20 +956,37 @@ See :source:`Mac/README.rst`.
Options:
- * ``universal2``;
- * ``32-bit``;
- * ``64-bit``;
- * ``3-way``;
- * ``intel``;
- * ``intel-32``;
- * ``intel-64``;
- * ``all``.
+ * ``universal2`` (x86-64 and arm64);
+ * ``32-bit`` (PPC and i386);
+ * ``64-bit`` (PPC64 and x86-64);
+ * ``3-way`` (i386, PPC and x86-64);
+ * ``intel`` (i386 and x86-64);
+ * ``intel-32`` (i386);
+ * ``intel-64`` (x86-64);
+ * ``all`` (PPC, i386, PPC64 and x86-64).
+
+ Note that values for this configuration item are *not* the same as the
+ identifiers used for universal binary wheels on macOS. See the Python
+ Packaging User Guide for details on the `packaging platform compatibility
+ tags used on macOS
+ `_
.. option:: --with-framework-name=FRAMEWORK
Specify the name for the python framework on macOS only valid when
:option:`--enable-framework` is set (default: ``Python``).
+.. option:: --with-app-store-compliance
+.. option:: --with-app-store-compliance=PATCH-FILE
+
+ The Python standard library contains strings that are known to trigger
+ automated inspection tool errors when submitted for distribution by
+ the macOS and iOS App Stores. If enabled, this option will apply the list of
+ patches that are known to correct app store compliance. A custom patch
+ file can also be specified. This option is disabled by default.
+
+ .. versionadded:: 3.13
+
iOS Options
-----------
@@ -1090,7 +1132,7 @@ Remove built files.
make distclean
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-In addition to the the work done by ``make clean``, remove files
+In addition to the work done by ``make clean``, remove files
created by the configure script. ``configure`` will have to be run
before building again. [#]_
diff --git a/Doc/using/editors.rst b/Doc/using/editors.rst
index f36f570125c119a..10b1780bda58f44 100644
--- a/Doc/using/editors.rst
+++ b/Doc/using/editors.rst
@@ -9,6 +9,19 @@
There are a number of IDEs that support Python programming language.
Many editors and IDEs provide syntax highlighting, debugging tools, and :pep:`8` checks.
+
+IDLE --- Python editor and shell
+================================
+
+IDLE is Python’s Integrated Development and Learning Environment and is generally bundled with Python installs.
+If you are on Linux and do not have IDLE installed see :ref:`Installing IDLE on Linux `.
+For more information see the :ref:`IDLE docs `.
+
+
+Other Editors and IDEs
+======================
+
+Python's community wiki has information submitted by the community on Editors and IDEs.
Please go to `Python Editors `_ and
`Integrated Development Environments `_
for a comprehensive list.
diff --git a/Doc/using/index.rst b/Doc/using/index.rst
index f55a12f1ab8a0db..90fdfc0bec05831 100644
--- a/Doc/using/index.rst
+++ b/Doc/using/index.rst
@@ -12,11 +12,13 @@ interpreter and things that make working with Python easier.
.. toctree::
:numbered:
+ :maxdepth: 2
cmdline.rst
unix.rst
configure.rst
windows.rst
mac.rst
+ android.rst
ios.rst
editors.rst
diff --git a/Doc/using/ios.rst b/Doc/using/ios.rst
index da8f42048c0fafc..9921fd6114bdc75 100644
--- a/Doc/using/ios.rst
+++ b/Doc/using/ios.rst
@@ -33,6 +33,17 @@ running, so you only need to deal with the Python code itself.
Python at runtime on iOS
========================
+iOS version compatibility
+-------------------------
+
+The minimum supported iOS version is specified at compile time, using the
+:option:`--host` option to ``configure``. By default, when compiled for iOS,
+Python will be compiled with a minimum supported iOS version of 13.0. To use a
+different minimum iOS version, provide the version number as part of the
+:option:`!--host` argument - for example,
+``--host=arm64-apple-ios15.4-simulator`` would compile an ARM64 simulator build
+with a deployment target of 15.4.
+
Platform identification
-----------------------
@@ -42,17 +53,17 @@ the simulator or a physical device.
Information about the specific runtime environment, including the iOS version,
device model, and whether the device is a simulator, can be obtained using
-:func:`platform.ios_ver()`. :func:`platform.system()` will report ``iOS`` or
+:func:`platform.ios_ver`. :func:`platform.system` will report ``iOS`` or
``iPadOS``, depending on the device.
-:func:`os.uname()` reports kernel-level details; it will report a name of
+:func:`os.uname` reports kernel-level details; it will report a name of
``Darwin``.
Standard library availability
-----------------------------
The Python standard library has some notable omissions and restrictions on
-iOS. See the :ref:`API availability guide for iOS ` for
+iOS. See the :ref:`API availability guide for iOS ` for
details.
Binary extension modules
@@ -281,13 +292,13 @@ To add Python to an iOS Xcode project:
10. Add Objective C code to initialize and use a Python interpreter in embedded
mode. You should ensure that:
- * :c:member:`UTF-8 mode ` is *enabled*;
- * :c:member:`Buffered stdio ` is *disabled*;
- * :c:member:`Writing bytecode ` is *disabled*;
- * :c:member:`Signal handlers ` are *enabled*;
- * ``PYTHONHOME`` for the interpreter is configured to point at the
+ * UTF-8 mode (:c:member:`PyPreConfig.utf8_mode`) is *enabled*;
+ * Buffered stdio (:c:member:`PyConfig.buffered_stdio`) is *disabled*;
+ * Writing bytecode (:c:member:`PyConfig.write_bytecode`) is *disabled*;
+ * Signal handlers (:c:member:`PyConfig.install_signal_handlers`) are *enabled*;
+ * :envvar:`PYTHONHOME` for the interpreter is configured to point at the
``python`` subfolder of your app's bundle; and
- * The ``PYTHONPATH`` for the interpreter includes:
+ * The :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` for the interpreter includes:
- the ``python/lib/python3.X`` subfolder of your app's bundle,
- the ``python/lib/python3.X/lib-dynload`` subfolder of your app's bundle, and
@@ -303,12 +314,89 @@ modules in your app, some additional steps will be required:
* You need to ensure that any folders containing third-party binaries are
either associated with the app target, or copied in as part of step 8. Step 8
should also purge any binaries that are not appropriate for the platform a
- specific build is targetting (i.e., delete any device binaries if you're
- building app app targeting the simulator).
+ specific build is targeting (i.e., delete any device binaries if you're
+ building an app targeting the simulator).
* Any folders that contain third-party binaries must be processed into
framework form by step 9. The invocation of ``install_dylib`` that processes
the ``lib-dynload`` folder can be copied and adapted for this purpose.
* If you're using a separate folder for third-party packages, ensure that folder
- is included as part of the ``PYTHONPATH`` configuration in step 10.
+ is included as part of the :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` configuration in step 10.
+
+* If any of the folders that contain third-party packages will contain ``.pth``
+ files, you should add that folder as a *site directory* (using
+ :meth:`site.addsitedir`), rather than adding to :envvar:`PYTHONPATH` or
+ :attr:`sys.path` directly.
+
+Testing a Python package
+------------------------
+
+The CPython source tree contains :source:`a testbed project ` that
+is used to run the CPython test suite on the iOS simulator. This testbed can also
+be used as a testbed project for running your Python library's test suite on iOS.
+
+After building or obtaining an iOS XCFramework (See :source:`iOS/README.rst`
+for details), create a clone of the Python iOS testbed project by running:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+ $ python iOS/testbed clone --framework --app --app app-testbed
+
+You will need to modify the ``iOS/testbed`` reference to point to that
+directory in the CPython source tree; any folders specified with the ``--app``
+flag will be copied into the cloned testbed project. The resulting testbed will
+be created in the ``app-testbed`` folder. In this example, the ``module1`` and
+``module2`` would be importable modules at runtime. If your project has
+additional dependencies, they can be installed into the
+``app-testbed/iOSTestbed/app_packages`` folder (using ``pip install --target
+app-testbed/iOSTestbed/app_packages`` or similar).
+
+You can then use the ``app-testbed`` folder to run the test suite for your app,
+For example, if ``module1.tests`` was the entry point to your test suite, you
+could run:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+ $ python app-testbed run -- module1.tests
+
+This is the equivalent of running ``python -m module1.tests`` on a desktop
+Python build. Any arguments after the ``--`` will be passed to the testbed as
+if they were arguments to ``python -m`` on a desktop machine.
+
+You can also open the testbed project in Xcode by running:
+
+.. code-block:: bash
+
+ $ open app-testbed/iOSTestbed.xcodeproj
+
+This will allow you to use the full Xcode suite of tools for debugging.
+
+The arguments used to run the test suite are defined as part of the test plan.
+To modify the test plan, select the test plan node of the project tree (it
+should be the first child of the root node), and select the "Configurations"
+tab. Modify the "Arguments Passed On Launch" value to change the testing
+arguments.
+
+The test plan also disables parallel testing, and specifies the use of the
+``iOSTestbed.lldbinit`` file for providing configuration of the debugger. The
+default debugger configuration disables automatic breakpoints on the
+``SIGINT``, ``SIGUSR1``, ``SIGUSR2``, and ``SIGXFSZ`` signals.
+
+App Store Compliance
+====================
+
+The only mechanism for distributing apps to third-party iOS devices is to
+submit the app to the iOS App Store; apps submitted for distribution must pass
+Apple's app review process. This process includes a set of automated validation
+rules that inspect the submitted application bundle for problematic code.
+
+The Python standard library contains some code that is known to violate these
+automated rules. While these violations appear to be false positives, Apple's
+review rules cannot be challenged; so, it is necessary to modify the Python
+standard library for an app to pass App Store review.
+
+The Python source tree contains
+:source:`a patch file ` that will remove
+all code that is known to cause issues with the App Store review process. This
+patch is applied automatically when building for iOS.
diff --git a/Doc/using/mac.rst b/Doc/using/mac.rst
index 31d37aad2a7408e..66cf755eb392d3a 100644
--- a/Doc/using/mac.rst
+++ b/Doc/using/mac.rst
@@ -1,141 +1,218 @@
+.. highlight:: none
.. _using-on-mac:
*********************
-Using Python on a Mac
+Using Python on macOS
*********************
-:Author: Bob Savage
+.. sectionauthor:: Bob Savage
+.. sectionauthor:: Ned Deily
+This document aims to give an overview of macOS-specific behavior you should
+know about to get started with Python on Mac computers.
+Python on a Mac running macOS is very similar to Python on other Unix-derived platforms,
+but there are some differences in installation and some features.
-Python on a Mac running macOS is in principle very similar to Python on
-any other Unix platform, but there are a number of additional features such as
-the integrated development environment (IDE) and the Package Manager that are
-worth pointing out.
-
+There are various ways to obtain and install Python for macOS.
+Pre-built versions of the most recent versions of Python are available
+from a number of distributors. Much of this document describes use of
+the Pythons provided by the CPython release team for download from
+the `python.org website `_ build
+of Python which runs natively on all Macs (Apple Silicon and Intel) that are
+supported by a wide range of macOS versions,
+currently typically from at least **macOS 10.13 High Sierra** on.
+
+The downloaded file is a standard macOS installer package file (``.pkg``).
+File integrity information (checksum, size, sigstore signature, etc) for each file is included
+on the release download page. Installer packages and their contents are signed and notarized
+with ``Python Software Foundation`` Apple Developer ID certificates
+to meet `macOS Gatekeeper requirements `_.
+
+For a default installation, double-click on the downloaded installer package file.
+This should launch the standard macOS Installer app and display the first of several
+installer windows steps.
+
+.. image:: mac_installer_01_introduction.png
+
+Clicking on the **Continue** button brings up the **Read Me** for this installer.
+Besides other important information, the **Read Me** documents which Python version is
+going to be installed and on what versions of macOS it is supported. You may need
+to scroll through to read the whole file. By default, this **Read Me** will also be
+installed in |applications_python_version_literal| and available to read anytime.
+
+.. image:: mac_installer_02_readme.png
+
+Clicking on **Continue** proceeds to display the license for Python and for
+other included software. You will then need to **Agree** to the license terms
+before proceeding to the next step. This license file will also be installed
+and available to be read later.
+
+.. image:: mac_installer_03_license.png
+
+After the license terms are accepted, the next step is the **Installation Type**
+display. For most uses, the standard set of installation operations is appropriate.
+
+.. image:: mac_installer_04_installation_type.png
-macOS used to come with Python 2.7 pre-installed between versions
-10.8 and `12.3 `_.
-You are invited to install the most recent version of Python 3 from the `Python
-website `_.
* A framework :file:`/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework`, which includes the
Python executable and libraries. The installer adds this location to your shell
- path. To uninstall Python, you can remove these three things. A
- symlink to the Python executable is placed in :file:`/usr/local/bin/`.
+ path. To uninstall Python, you can remove these three things.
+ Symlinks to the Python executable are placed in :file:`/usr/local/bin/`.
.. note::
- On macOS 10.8-12.3, the Apple-provided build of Python is installed in
- :file:`/System/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework` and :file:`/usr/bin/python`,
- respectively. You should never modify or delete these, as they are
- Apple-controlled and are used by Apple- or third-party software. Remember that
- if you choose to install a newer Python version from python.org, you will have
- two different but functional Python installations on your computer, so it will
- be important that your paths and usages are consistent with what you want to do.
-
-IDLE includes a Help menu that allows you to access Python documentation. If you
-are completely new to Python you should start reading the tutorial introduction
-in that document.
-
-If you are familiar with Python on other Unix platforms you should read the
-section on running Python scripts from the Unix shell.
-
+ Recent versions of macOS include a :command:`python3` command in :file:`/usr/bin/python3`
+ that links to a usually older and incomplete version of Python provided by and for use by
+ the Apple development tools, :program:`Xcode` or the :program:`Command Line Tools for Xcode`.
+ You should never modify or attempt to delete this installation, as it is
+ Apple-controlled and is used by Apple-provided or third-party software. If
+ you choose to install a newer Python version from ``python.org``, you will have
+ two different but functional Python installations on your computer that
+ can co-exist. The default installer options should ensure that its :command:`python3`
+ will be used instead of the system :command:`python3`.
How to run a Python script
--------------------------
-Your best way to get started with Python on macOS is through the IDLE
-integrated development environment; see section :ref:`ide` and use the Help menu
-when the IDE is running.
+There are two ways to invoke the Python interpreter.
+If you are familiar with using a Unix shell in a terminal
+window, you can invoke |python_x_dot_y_literal| or ``python3`` optionally
+followed by one or more command line options (described in :ref:`using-on-general`).
+The Python tutorial also has a useful section on
+:ref:`using Python interactively from a shell `.
+
+You can also invoke the interpreter through an integrated
+development environment.
+:ref:`idle` is a basic editor and interpreter environment
+which is included with the standard distribution of Python.
+:program:`IDLE` includes a Help menu that allows you to access Python documentation. If you
+are completely new to Python, you can read the tutorial introduction
+in that document.
+
+There are many other editors and IDEs available, see :ref:`editors`
+for more information.
-If you want to run Python scripts from the Terminal window command line or from
-the Finder you first need an editor to create your script. macOS comes with a
-number of standard Unix command line editors, :program:`vim`
-:program:`nano` among them. If you want a more Mac-like editor,
-:program:`BBEdit` from Bare Bones Software (see
-https://www.barebones.com/products/bbedit/index.html) are good choices, as is
-:program:`TextMate` (see https://macromates.com). Other editors include
-:program:`MacVim` (https://macvim.org) and :program:`Aquamacs`
-(https://aquamacs.org).
+To run a Python script file from the terminal window, you can
+invoke the interpreter with the name of the script file:
-To run your script from the Terminal window you must make sure that
-:file:`/usr/local/bin` is in your shell search path.
+ |python_x_dot_y_literal| ``myscript.py``
-To run your script from the Finder you have two options:
+To run your script from the Finder, you can either:
* Drag it to :program:`Python Launcher`.
* Select :program:`Python Launcher` as the default application to open your
- script (or any ``.py`` script) through the finder Info window and double-click it.
+ script (or any ``.py`` script) through the Finder Info window and double-click it.
:program:`Python Launcher` has various preferences to control how your script is
launched. Option-dragging allows you to change these for one invocation, or use
- its Preferences menu to change things globally.
-
-
-.. _osx-gui-scripts:
+ its ``Preferences`` menu to change things globally.
-Running scripts with a GUI
---------------------------
-
-With older versions of Python, there is one macOS quirk that you need to be
-aware of: programs that talk to the Aqua window manager (in other words,
-anything that has a GUI) need to be run in a special way. Use :program:`pythonw`
-instead of :program:`python` to start such scripts.
-
-With Python 3.9, you can use either :program:`python` or :program:`pythonw`.
+Be aware that running the script directly from the macOS Finder might
+produce different results than when running from a terminal window as
+the script will not be run in the usual shell environment including
+any setting of environment variables in shell profiles.
+And, as with any other script or program,
+be certain of what you are about to run.
+.. _alternative_bundles:
-Configuration
--------------
+Alternative Distributions
+=========================
-Python on macOS honors all standard Unix environment variables such as
-:envvar:`PYTHONPATH`, but setting these variables for programs started from the
-Finder is non-standard as the Finder does not read your :file:`.profile` or
-:file:`.cshrc` at startup. You need to create a file
-:file:`~/.MacOSX/environment.plist`. See Apple's
-`Technical Q&A QA1067 `__
-for details.
+Besides the standard ``python.org`` for macOS installer, there are third-party
+distributions for macOS that may include additional functionality.
+Some popular distributions and their key features:
-For more information on installation Python packages, see section
-:ref:`mac-package-manager`.
+`ActivePython `_
+ Package manager for macOS including multiple versions of Python and many
+ third-party Python-based packages (including numpy, scipy, and pandas).
-The IDE
-=======
-
-Python ships with the standard IDLE development environment. A good
-introduction to using IDLE can be found at
-https://www.hashcollision.org/hkn/python/idle_intro/index.html.
+`MacPorts `_
+ Another package manager for macOS including multiple versions of Python and many
+ third-party Python-based packages. May include pre-built versions of Python and
+ many packages for older versions of macOS.
+Note that distributions might not include the latest versions of Python or
+other libraries, and are not maintained or supported by the core Python team.
.. _mac-package-manager:
Installing Additional Python Packages
=====================================
-This section has moved to the `Python Packaging User Guide`_.
+Refer to the `Python Packaging User Guide`_ for more information.
.. _Python Packaging User Guide: https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/
+.. _osx-gui-scripts:
+
.. _gui-programming-on-the-mac:
GUI Programming
@@ -143,36 +220,217 @@ GUI Programming
There are several options for building GUI applications on the Mac with Python.
-*PyObjC* is a Python binding to Apple's Objective-C/Cocoa framework, which is
-the foundation of most modern Mac development. Information on PyObjC is
-available from :pypi:`pyobjc`.
-
The standard Python GUI toolkit is :mod:`tkinter`, based on the cross-platform
-Tk toolkit (https://www.tcl.tk). An Aqua-native version of Tk is bundled with
-macOS by Apple, and the latest version can be downloaded and installed from
-https://www.activestate.com; it can also be built from source.
+Tk toolkit (https://www.tcl.tk). A macOS-native version of Tk is included with
+the installer.
+
+*PyObjC* is a Python binding to Apple's Objective-C/Cocoa framework.
+Information on PyObjC is available from :pypi:`pyobjc`.
-A number of alternative macOS GUI toolkits are available:
+A number of alternative macOS GUI toolkits are available including:
-* `PySide `__: Official Python bindings to the
- `Qt GUI toolkit `__.
+* `PySide `_: Official Python bindings to the
+ `Qt GUI toolkit `_.
-* `PyQt `__: Alternative
+* `PyQt `__: A cross-platform GUI toolkit that supports
+* `Kivy `_: A cross-platform GUI toolkit that supports
desktop and mobile platforms.
-* `Toga `__: Part of the `BeeWare Project
- `__; supports desktop, mobile, web and console apps.
+* `Toga `_: Part of the `BeeWare Project
+ `_; supports desktop, mobile, web and console apps.
-* `wxPython `__: A cross-platform toolkit that
+* `wxPython `_: A cross-platform toolkit that
supports desktop operating systems.
+
+Advanced Topics
+===============
+
+.. _install-freethreaded-macos:
+
+Installing Free-threaded Binaries
+---------------------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 3.13 (Experimental)
+
+.. note::
+
+ Everything described in this section is considered experimental,
+ and should be expected to change in future releases.
+
+The ``python.org`` :ref:`Python for macOS `
+installer package can optionally install an additional build of
+Python |version| that supports :pep:`703`, the experimental free-threading feature
+(running with the :term:`global interpreter lock` disabled).
+Check the release page on ``python.org`` for possible updated information.
+
+Because this feature is still considered experimental, the support for it
+is not installed by default. It is packaged as a separate install option,
+available by clicking the **Customize** button on the **Installation Type**
+step of the installer as described above.
+
+.. image:: mac_installer_09_custom_install_free_threaded.png
+
+If the box next to the **Free-threaded Python** package name is checked,
+a separate :file:`PythonT.framework` will also be installed
+alongside the normal :file:`Python.framework` in :file:`/Library/Frameworks`.
+This configuration allows a free-threaded Python |version| build to co-exist
+on your system with a traditional (GIL only) Python |version| build with
+minimal risk while installing or testing. This installation layout is itself
+experimental and is subject to change in future releases.
+
+Known cautions and limitations:
+
+- The **UNIX command-line tools** package, which is selected by default,
+ will install links in :file:`/usr/local/bin` for |python_x_dot_y_t_literal|,
+ the free-threaded interpreter, and |python_x_dot_y_t_literal_config|,
+ a configuration utility which may be useful for package builders.
+ Since :file:`/usr/local/bin` is typically included in your shell ``PATH``,
+ in most cases no changes to your ``PATH`` environment variables should
+ be needed to use |python_x_dot_y_t_literal|.
+
+- For this release, the **Shell profile updater** package and the
+ :file:`Update Shell Profile.command` in |applications_python_version_literal|
+ do not support the free-threaded package.
+
+- The free-threaded build and the traditional build have separate search
+ paths and separate :file:`site-packages` directories so, by default,
+ if you need a package available in both builds, it may need to be installed in both.
+ The free-threaded package will install a separate instance of :program:`pip` for use
+ with |python_x_dot_y_t_literal|.
+
+ - To install a package using :command:`pip` without a :command:`venv`:
+
+ .. parsed-literal::
+
+ python\ |version|\ t -m pip install
+
+- When working with multiple Python environments, it is usually safest and easiest
+ to :ref:`create and use virtual environments `.
+ This can avoid possible command name conflicts and confusion about which Python is in use:
+
+ .. parsed-literal::
+
+ python\ |version|\ t -m venv
+
+
+ then :command:`activate`.
+
+- To run a free-threaded version of IDLE:
+
+ .. parsed-literal::
+
+ python\ |version|\ t -m idlelib
+
+
+- The interpreters in both builds respond to the same
+ :ref:`PYTHON environment variables `
+ which may have unexpected results, for example, if you have ``PYTHONPATH``
+ set in a shell profile. If necessary, there are
+ :ref:`command line options ` like ``-E``
+ to ignore these environment variables.
+
+- The free-threaded build links to the third-party shared libraries,
+ such as ``OpenSSL`` and ``Tk``, installed in the traditional framework.
+ This means that both builds also share one set of trust certificates
+ as installed by the :command:`Install Certificates.command` script,
+ thus it only needs to be run once.
+
+- If you cannot depend on the link in ``/usr/local/bin`` pointing to the
+ ``python.org`` free-threaded |python_x_dot_y_t_literal| (for example, if you want
+ to install your own version there or some other distribution does),
+ you can explicitly set your shell ``PATH`` environment variable to
+ include the ``PythonT`` framework ``bin`` directory:
+
+ .. parsed-literal::
+
+ export PATH="/Library/Frameworks/PythonT.framework/Versions/\ |version|\ /bin":"$PATH"
+
+ The traditional framework installation by default does something similar,
+ except for :file:`Python.framework`. Be aware that having both framework ``bin``
+ directories in ``PATH`` can lead to confusion if there are duplicate names
+ like |python_x_dot_y_literal| in both; which one is actually used depends on the order
+ they appear in ``PATH``. The ``which python3.x`` or ``which python3.xt``
+ commands can show which path is being used. Using virtual environments
+ can help avoid such ambiguities. Another option might be to create
+ a shell :command:`alias` to the desired interpreter, like:
+
+ .. parsed-literal::
+
+ alias py\ |version|\ ="/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/\ |version|\ /bin/python\ |version|\ "
+ alias py\ |version|\ t="/Library/Frameworks/PythonT.framework/Versions/\ |version|\ /bin/python\ |version|\ t"
+
+Installing using the command line
+---------------------------------
+
+If you want to use automation to install the ``python.org`` installer package
+(rather than by using the familiar macOS :program:`Installer` GUI app),
+the macOS command line :command:`installer` utility lets you select non-default
+options, too. If you are not familiar with :command:`installer`, it can be
+somewhat cryptic (see :command:`man installer` for more information).
+As an example, the following shell snippet shows one way to do it,
+using the |x_dot_y_b2_literal| release and selecting the free-threaded interpreter
+option:
+
+.. parsed-literal::
+
+ RELEASE="python-\ |version|\ 0b2-macos11.pkg"
+
+ # download installer pkg
+ curl -O \https://www.python.org/ftp/python/\ |version|\ .0/${RELEASE}
+
+ # create installer choicechanges to customize the install:
+ # enable the PythonTFramework-\ |version|\ package
+ # while accepting the other defaults (install all other packages)
+ cat > ./choicechanges.plist <
+
+
+
+
+ attributeSetting
+ 1
+ choiceAttribute
+ selected
+ choiceIdentifier
+ org.python.Python.PythonTFramework-\ |version|\
+
+
+
+ EOF
+
+ sudo installer -pkg ./${RELEASE} -applyChoiceChangesXML ./choicechanges.plist -target /
+
+
+You can then test that both installer builds are now available with something like:
+
+.. parsed-literal::
+
+ $ # test that the free-threaded interpreter was installed if the Unix Command Tools package was enabled
+ $ /usr/local/bin/python\ |version|\ t -VV
+ Python \ |version|\ .0b2 experimental free-threading build (v\ |version|\ .0b2:3a83b172af, Jun 5 2024, 12:57:31) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
+ $ # and the traditional interpreter
+ $ /usr/local/bin/python\ |version|\ -VV
+ Python \ |version|\ .0b2 (v\ |version|\ .0b2:3a83b172af, Jun 5 2024, 12:50:24) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
+ $ # test that they are also available without the prefix if /usr/local/bin is on $PATH
+ $ python\ |version|\ t -VV
+ Python \ |version|\ .0b2 experimental free-threading build (v\ |version|\ .0b2:3a83b172af, Jun 5 2024, 12:57:31) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
+ $ python\ |version|\ -VV
+ Python \ |version|\ .0b2 (v\ |version|\ .0b2:3a83b172af, Jun 5 2024, 12:50:24) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
+
+.. note::
+
+ Current ``python.org`` installers only install to fixed locations like
+ :file:`/Library/Frameworks/`, :file:`/Applications`, and :file:`/usr/local/bin`.
+ You cannot use the :command:`installer` ``-domain`` option to install to
+ other locations.
+
.. _distributing-python-applications-on-the-mac:
Distributing Python Applications
-================================
+--------------------------------
A range of tools exist for converting your Python code into a standalone
distributable application:
@@ -180,22 +438,39 @@ distributable application:
* :pypi:`py2app`: Supports creating macOS ``.app``
bundles from a Python project.
-* `Briefcase `__: Part of the `BeeWare Project
- `__; a cross-platform packaging tool that supports
+* `Briefcase `_: Part of the `BeeWare Project
+ `_; a cross-platform packaging tool that supports
creation of ``.app`` bundles on macOS, as well as managing signing and
notarization.
-* `PyInstaller ` that will remove
+all code that is known to cause issues with the App Store review process. This
+patch is applied automatically when CPython is configured with the
+:option:`--with-app-store-compliance` option.
-https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/pythonmac-sig/
+This patch is not normally required to use CPython on a Mac; nor is it required
+if you are distributing an app *outside* the macOS App Store. It is *only*
+required if you are using the macOS App Store as a distribution channel.
-Another useful resource is the MacPython wiki:
+Other Resources
+===============
-https://wiki.python.org/moin/MacPython
+The `python.org Help page ` is done by executing the
-command ``venv``::
-
- python -m venv /path/to/new/virtual/environment
-
-Running this command creates the target directory (creating any parent
-directories that don't exist already) and places a ``pyvenv.cfg`` file in it
-with a ``home`` key pointing to the Python installation from which the command
-was run (a common name for the target directory is ``.venv``). It also creates
-a ``bin`` (or ``Scripts`` on Windows) subdirectory containing a copy/symlink
-of the Python binary/binaries (as appropriate for the platform or arguments
-used at environment creation time). It also creates an (initially empty)
-``lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages`` subdirectory (on Windows, this is
-``Lib\site-packages``). If an existing directory is specified, it will be
-re-used.
-
-.. versionchanged:: 3.5
- The use of ``venv`` is now recommended for creating virtual environments.
-
-.. deprecated:: 3.6
- ``pyvenv`` was the recommended tool for creating virtual environments for
- Python 3.3 and 3.4, and is
- :ref:`deprecated in Python 3.6 `.
-
-.. highlight:: none
-
-On Windows, invoke the ``venv`` command as follows::
-
- c:\>Python35\python -m venv c:\path\to\myenv
-
-Alternatively, if you configured the ``PATH`` and ``PATHEXT`` variables for
-your :ref:`Python installation `::
-
- c:\>python -m venv c:\path\to\myenv
-
-The command, if run with ``-h``, will show the available options::
-
- usage: venv [-h] [--system-site-packages] [--symlinks | --copies] [--clear]
- [--upgrade] [--without-pip] [--prompt PROMPT] [--upgrade-deps]
- [--without-scm-ignore-file]
- ENV_DIR [ENV_DIR ...]
-
- Creates virtual Python environments in one or more target directories.
-
- positional arguments:
- ENV_DIR A directory to create the environment in.
-
- options:
- -h, --help show this help message and exit
- --system-site-packages
- Give the virtual environment access to the system
- site-packages dir.
- --symlinks Try to use symlinks rather than copies, when
- symlinks are not the default for the platform.
- --copies Try to use copies rather than symlinks, even when
- symlinks are the default for the platform.
- --clear Delete the contents of the environment directory if
- it already exists, before environment creation.
- --upgrade Upgrade the environment directory to use this
- version of Python, assuming Python has been upgraded
- in-place.
- --without-pip Skips installing or upgrading pip in the virtual
- environment (pip is bootstrapped by default)
- --prompt PROMPT Provides an alternative prompt prefix for this
- environment.
- --upgrade-deps Upgrade core dependencies (pip) to the latest
- version in PyPI
- --without-scm-ignore-file
- Skips adding the default SCM ignore file to the
- environment directory (the default is a .gitignore
- file).
-
- Once an environment has been created, you may wish to activate it, e.g. by
- sourcing an activate script in its bin directory.
-
-.. versionchanged:: 3.13
-
- ``--without-scm-ignore-file`` was added along with creating an ignore file
- for ``git`` by default.
-
-.. versionchanged:: 3.12
-
- ``setuptools`` is no longer a core venv dependency.
-
-.. versionchanged:: 3.9
- Add ``--upgrade-deps`` option to upgrade pip + setuptools to the latest on PyPI
-
-.. versionchanged:: 3.4
- Installs pip by default, added the ``--without-pip`` and ``--copies``
- options
-
-.. versionchanged:: 3.4
- In earlier versions, if the target directory already existed, an error was
- raised, unless the ``--clear`` or ``--upgrade`` option was provided.
-
-.. note::
- While symlinks are supported on Windows, they are not recommended. Of
- particular note is that double-clicking ``python.exe`` in File Explorer
- will resolve the symlink eagerly and ignore the virtual environment.
-
-.. note::
- On Microsoft Windows, it may be required to enable the ``Activate.ps1``
- script by setting the execution policy for the user. You can do this by
- issuing the following PowerShell command:
-
- PS C:\> Set-ExecutionPolicy -ExecutionPolicy RemoteSigned -Scope CurrentUser
-
- See `About Execution Policies
- `_
- for more information.
-
-The created ``pyvenv.cfg`` file also includes the
-``include-system-site-packages`` key, set to ``true`` if ``venv`` is
-run with the ``--system-site-packages`` option, ``false`` otherwise.
-
-Unless the ``--without-pip`` option is given, :mod:`ensurepip` will be
-invoked to bootstrap ``pip`` into the virtual environment.
-
-Multiple paths can be given to ``venv``, in which case an identical virtual
-environment will be created, according to the given options, at each provided
-path.
diff --git a/Doc/using/win_install_freethreaded.png b/Doc/using/win_install_freethreaded.png
index 0aa01c1df6e051b..12b89c0165d994d 100644
Binary files a/Doc/using/win_install_freethreaded.png and b/Doc/using/win_install_freethreaded.png differ
diff --git a/Doc/using/win_installer.png b/Doc/using/win_installer.png
index 03bf2d7b16c599b..fc9605a79cfcc51 100644
Binary files a/Doc/using/win_installer.png and b/Doc/using/win_installer.png differ
diff --git a/Doc/using/windows.rst b/Doc/using/windows.rst
index ef98d32e8674ec8..c62d0d5530d63d2 100644
--- a/Doc/using/windows.rst
+++ b/Doc/using/windows.rst
@@ -407,7 +407,7 @@ Instead, it will write to a private copy. If your scripts must modify the
shared locations, you will need to install the full installer.
At runtime, Python will use a private copy of well-known Windows folders and the registry.
-For example, if the environment variable :envvar:`%APPDATA%` is :file:`c:\\Users\\\\AppData\\`,
+For example, if the environment variable :envvar:`!%APPDATA%` is :file:`c:\\Users\\\\AppData\\`,
then when writing to :file:`C:\\Users\\\\AppData\\Local` will write to
:file:`C:\\Users\\\\AppData\\Local\\Packages\\PythonSoftwareFoundation.Python.3.8_qbz5n2kfra8p0\\LocalCache\\Local\\`.
@@ -434,7 +434,7 @@ When writing to the Windows Registry, the following behaviors exist:
For more detail on the technical basis for these limitations, please consult
Microsoft's documentation on packaged full-trust apps, currently available at
`docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/msix/desktop/desktop-to-uwp-behind-the-scenes
-`_
+`_
.. _windows-nuget:
@@ -454,9 +454,9 @@ on using nuget. What follows is a summary that is sufficient for Python
developers.
The ``nuget.exe`` command line tool may be downloaded directly from
-``https://aka.ms/nugetclidl``, for example, using curl or PowerShell. With the
-tool, the latest version of Python for 64-bit or 32-bit machines is installed
-using::
+``https://dist.nuget.org/win-x86-commandline/latest/nuget.exe``, for example,
+using curl or PowerShell. With the tool, the latest version of Python for
+64-bit or 32-bit machines is installed using::
nuget.exe install python -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .
nuget.exe install pythonx86 -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .
@@ -535,7 +535,7 @@ dependents, such as Idle), pip and the Python documentation are not included.
.. note::
The embedded distribution does not include the `Microsoft C Runtime
- `_ and it is
+ `_ and it is
the responsibility of the application installer to provide this. The
runtime may have already been installed on a user's system previously or
automatically via Windows Update, and can be detected by finding
@@ -608,7 +608,7 @@ key features:
Popular scientific modules (such as numpy, scipy and pandas) and the
``conda`` package manager.
-`Enthought Deployment Manager `_
+ `_
(COM)
* Win32 API calls
* Registry
* Event log
* `Microsoft Foundation Classes
- `_
+ `_
(MFC) user interfaces
`PythonWin `_
+ `Win32 How Do I...? `_
by Tim Golden
`Python and COM `_
diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/2.0.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/2.0.rst
index 1a949ec40358072..c157c0337a13427 100644
--- a/Doc/whatsnew/2.0.rst
+++ b/Doc/whatsnew/2.0.rst
@@ -656,7 +656,8 @@ break.
The change which will probably break the most code is tightening up the
arguments accepted by some methods. Some methods would take multiple arguments
and treat them as a tuple, particularly various list methods such as
-:meth:`!append` and :meth:`!insert`. In earlier versions of Python, if ``L`` is
+:meth:`~list.append` and :meth:`~list.insert`.
+In earlier versions of Python, if ``L`` is
a list, ``L.append( 1,2 )`` appends the tuple ``(1,2)`` to the list. In Python
2.0 this causes a :exc:`TypeError` exception to be raised, with the message:
'append requires exactly 1 argument; 2 given'. The fix is to simply add an
diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/2.1.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/2.1.rst
index b4002f06e92adc2..f23f27c994d717b 100644
--- a/Doc/whatsnew/2.1.rst
+++ b/Doc/whatsnew/2.1.rst
@@ -443,8 +443,8 @@ Python syntax::
f.grammar = "A ::= B (C D)*"
The dictionary containing attributes can be accessed as the function's
-:attr:`~object.__dict__`. Unlike the :attr:`~object.__dict__` attribute of class instances, in
-functions you can actually assign a new dictionary to :attr:`~object.__dict__`, though
+:attr:`~function.__dict__`. Unlike the :attr:`~type.__dict__` attribute of class instances, in
+functions you can actually assign a new dictionary to :attr:`~function.__dict__`, though
the new value is restricted to a regular Python dictionary; you *can't* be
tricky and set it to a :class:`!UserDict` instance, or any other random object
that behaves like a mapping.
@@ -644,9 +644,9 @@ New and Improved Modules
lists the function arguments and the local variables for each frame.
* Various functions in the :mod:`time` module, such as :func:`~time.asctime` and
- :func:`~time.localtime`, require a floating point argument containing the time in
+ :func:`~time.localtime`, require a floating-point argument containing the time in
seconds since the epoch. The most common use of these functions is to work with
- the current time, so the floating point argument has been made optional; when a
+ the current time, so the floating-point argument has been made optional; when a
value isn't provided, the current time will be used. For example, log file
entries usually need a string containing the current time; in Python 2.1,
``time.asctime()`` can be used, instead of the lengthier
diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/2.2.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/2.2.rst
index e6c13f957b8d54a..856be5ecfa56ad3 100644
--- a/Doc/whatsnew/2.2.rst
+++ b/Doc/whatsnew/2.2.rst
@@ -171,7 +171,7 @@ attributes of their own:
* :attr:`~definition.__name__` is the attribute's name.
-* :attr:`!__doc__` is the attribute's docstring.
+* :attr:`~definition.__doc__` is the attribute's docstring.
* ``__get__(object)`` is a method that retrieves the attribute value from
*object*.
@@ -186,7 +186,8 @@ are::
descriptor = obj.__class__.x
descriptor.__get__(obj)
-For methods, :meth:`!descriptor.__get__` returns a temporary object that's
+For methods, :meth:`descriptor.__get__ ` returns a temporary
+object that's
callable, and wraps up the instance and the method to be called on it. This is
also why static methods and class methods are now possible; they have
descriptors that wrap up just the method, or the method and the class. As a
@@ -1062,7 +1063,7 @@ code, none of the changes described here will affect you very much.
simply been changed to use the new C-level interface. (Contributed by Fred L.
Drake, Jr.)
-* Another low-level API, primarily of interest to implementors of Python
+* Another low-level API, primarily of interest to implementers of Python
debuggers and development tools, was added. :c:func:`PyInterpreterState_Head` and
:c:func:`PyInterpreterState_Next` let a caller walk through all the existing
interpreter objects; :c:func:`PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead` and
@@ -1249,7 +1250,7 @@ Some of the more notable changes are:
* The :func:`pow` built-in function no longer supports 3 arguments when
floating-point numbers are supplied. ``pow(x, y, z)`` returns ``(x**y) % z``,
- but this is never useful for floating point numbers, and the final result varies
+ but this is never useful for floating-point numbers, and the final result varies
unpredictably depending on the platform. A call such as ``pow(2.0, 8.0, 7.0)``
will now raise a :exc:`TypeError` exception.
diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/2.3.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/2.3.rst
index 8adf36e316c6fb7..43ab19037d26273 100644
--- a/Doc/whatsnew/2.3.rst
+++ b/Doc/whatsnew/2.3.rst
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ Here's a simple example::
The union and intersection of sets can be computed with the :meth:`~frozenset.union` and
:meth:`~frozenset.intersection` methods; an alternative notation uses the bitwise operators
``&`` and ``|``. Mutable sets also have in-place versions of these methods,
-:meth:`!union_update` and :meth:`~frozenset.intersection_update`. ::
+:meth:`!union_update` and :meth:`~set.intersection_update`. ::
>>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
>>> S2 = sets.Set([4,5,6])
@@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ It's also possible to take the symmetric difference of two sets. This is the
set of all elements in the union that aren't in the intersection. Another way
of putting it is that the symmetric difference contains all elements that are in
exactly one set. Again, there's an alternative notation (``^``), and an
-in-place version with the ungainly name :meth:`~frozenset.symmetric_difference_update`. ::
+in-place version with the ungainly name :meth:`~set.symmetric_difference_update`. ::
>>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3,4])
>>> S2 = sets.Set([3,4,5,6])
@@ -353,7 +353,7 @@ convert them to Unicode using the ``mbcs`` encoding.
Other systems also allow Unicode strings as file names but convert them to byte
strings before passing them to the system, which can cause a :exc:`UnicodeError`
to be raised. Applications can test whether arbitrary Unicode strings are
-supported as file names by checking :attr:`os.path.supports_unicode_filenames`,
+supported as file names by checking :const:`os.path.supports_unicode_filenames`,
a Boolean value.
Under MacOS, :func:`os.listdir` may now return Unicode filenames.
@@ -1113,10 +1113,10 @@ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.3 makes to the core Python language.
* One of the noted incompatibilities between old- and new-style classes has been
- removed: you can now assign to the :attr:`~definition.__name__` and :attr:`~class.__bases__`
+ removed: you can now assign to the :attr:`~type.__name__` and :attr:`~type.__bases__`
attributes of new-style classes. There are some restrictions on what can be
- assigned to :attr:`~class.__bases__` along the lines of those relating to assigning to
- an instance's :attr:`~instance.__class__` attribute.
+ assigned to :attr:`!__bases__` along the lines of those relating to assigning to
+ an instance's :attr:`~object.__class__` attribute.
.. ======================================================================
@@ -1382,7 +1382,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.
In Python 2.4, the default will change to always returning floats.
Application developers should enable this feature only if all their libraries
- work properly when confronted with floating point time stamps, or if they use
+ work properly when confronted with floating-point time stamps, or if they use
the tuple API. If used, the feature should be activated on an application level
instead of trying to enable it on a per-use basis.
@@ -1698,8 +1698,8 @@ current local date.
Once created, instances of the date/time classes are all immutable. There are a
number of methods for producing formatted strings from objects::
- >>> import datetime
- >>> now = datetime.datetime.now()
+ >>> import datetime as dt
+ >>> now = dt.datetime.now()
>>> now.isoformat()
'2002-12-30T21:27:03.994956'
>>> now.ctime() # Only available on date, datetime
@@ -1710,10 +1710,10 @@ number of methods for producing formatted strings from objects::
The :meth:`~datetime.datetime.replace` method allows modifying one or more fields of a
:class:`~datetime.date` or :class:`~datetime.datetime` instance, returning a new instance::
- >>> d = datetime.datetime.now()
+ >>> d = dt.datetime.now()
>>> d
datetime.datetime(2002, 12, 30, 22, 15, 38, 827738)
- >>> d.replace(year=2001, hour = 12)
+ >>> d.replace(year=2001, hour=12)
datetime.datetime(2001, 12, 30, 12, 15, 38, 827738)
>>>
@@ -1925,8 +1925,8 @@ Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
dependence on a system version or local installation of Expat.
* If you dynamically allocate type objects in your extension, you should be
- aware of a change in the rules relating to the :attr:`!__module__` and
- :attr:`~definition.__name__` attributes. In summary, you will want to ensure the type's
+ aware of a change in the rules relating to the :attr:`~type.__module__` and
+ :attr:`~type.__name__` attributes. In summary, you will want to ensure the type's
dictionary contains a ``'__module__'`` key; making the module name the part of
the type name leading up to the final period will no longer have the desired
effect. For more detail, read the API reference documentation or the source.
diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/2.4.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/2.4.rst
index 7e235d4370edaa9..87c7b6b17477b50 100644
--- a/Doc/whatsnew/2.4.rst
+++ b/Doc/whatsnew/2.4.rst
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ implementation and design rationale.
PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
=============================
-Python 2.3 introduced the :mod:`sets` module. C implementations of set data
+Python 2.3 introduced the :mod:`!sets` module. C implementations of set data
types have now been added to the Python core as two new built-in types,
``set(iterable)`` and ``frozenset(iterable)``. They provide high speed
operations for membership testing, for eliminating duplicates from sequences,
@@ -72,8 +72,8 @@ The :func:`frozenset` type is an immutable version of :func:`set`. Since it is
immutable and hashable, it may be used as a dictionary key or as a member of
another set.
-The :mod:`sets` module remains in the standard library, and may be useful if you
-wish to subclass the :class:`Set` or :class:`ImmutableSet` classes. There are
+The :mod:`!sets` module remains in the standard library, and may be useful if you
+wish to subclass the :class:`!Set` or :class:`!ImmutableSet` classes. There are
currently no plans to deprecate the module.
@@ -189,7 +189,7 @@ aren't aware of the Python language. The format string's syntax is complicated
to explain to such users, and if they make a mistake, it's difficult to provide
helpful feedback to them.
-PEP 292 adds a :class:`Template` class to the :mod:`string` module that uses
+PEP 292 adds a :class:`~string.Template` class to the :mod:`string` module that uses
``$`` to indicate a substitution::
>>> import string
@@ -197,9 +197,9 @@ PEP 292 adds a :class:`Template` class to the :mod:`string` module that uses
>>> t.substitute({'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'})
'2: The Best of Times'
-If a key is missing from the dictionary, the :meth:`substitute` method will
-raise a :exc:`KeyError`. There's also a :meth:`safe_substitute` method that
-ignores missing keys::
+If a key is missing from the dictionary, the :meth:`~string.Template.substitute`
+method will raise a :exc:`KeyError`. There's also a
+:meth:`~string.Template.safe_substitute` method that ignores missing keys::
>>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
>>> t.safe_substitute({'page':3})
@@ -430,14 +430,14 @@ The constructor has a number of handy options:
* *universal_newlines* opens the child's input and output using Python's
:term:`universal newlines` feature.
-Once you've created the :class:`Popen` instance, you can call its :meth:`wait`
-method to pause until the subprocess has exited, :meth:`poll` to check if it's
+Once you've created the :class:`~subprocess.Popen` instance, you can call its :meth:`~subprocess.Popen.wait`
+method to pause until the subprocess has exited, :meth:`~subprocess.Popen.poll` to check if it's
exited without pausing, or ``communicate(data)`` to send the string *data*
to the subprocess's standard input. ``communicate(data)`` then reads any
data that the subprocess has sent to its standard output or standard error,
returning a tuple ``(stdout_data, stderr_data)``.
-:func:`call` is a shortcut that passes its arguments along to the :class:`Popen`
+:func:`~subprocess.call` is a shortcut that passes its arguments along to the :class:`~subprocess.Popen`
constructor, waits for the command to complete, and returns the status code of
the subprocess. It can serve as a safer analog to :func:`os.system`::
@@ -476,7 +476,7 @@ Python has always supported floating-point (FP) numbers, based on the underlying
C :c:expr:`double` type, as a data type. However, while most programming
languages provide a floating-point type, many people (even programmers) are
unaware that floating-point numbers don't represent certain decimal fractions
-accurately. The new :class:`Decimal` type can represent these fractions
+accurately. The new :class:`~decimal.Decimal` type can represent these fractions
accurately, up to a user-specified precision limit.
@@ -531,20 +531,20 @@ decimal places, the error is never apparent. However, for applications where it
does matter, it's a lot of work to implement your own custom arithmetic
routines.
-Hence, the :class:`Decimal` type was created.
+Hence, the :class:`~decimal.Decimal` type was created.
-The :class:`Decimal` type
--------------------------
+The :class:`~decimal.Decimal` type
+----------------------------------
A new module, :mod:`decimal`, was added to Python's standard library. It
-contains two classes, :class:`Decimal` and :class:`Context`. :class:`Decimal`
-instances represent numbers, and :class:`Context` instances are used to wrap up
+contains two classes, :class:`~decimal.Decimal` and :class:`~decimal.Context`. :class:`~decimal.Decimal`
+instances represent numbers, and :class:`~decimal.Context` instances are used to wrap up
various settings such as the precision and default rounding mode.
-:class:`Decimal` instances are immutable, like regular Python integers and FP
+:class:`~decimal.Decimal` instances are immutable, like regular Python integers and FP
numbers; once it's been created, you can't change the value an instance
-represents. :class:`Decimal` instances can be created from integers or
+represents. :class:`~decimal.Decimal` instances can be created from integers or
strings::
>>> import decimal
@@ -567,7 +567,7 @@ number representing 1.1 turn into the decimal number for exactly 1.1, or for 1.1
plus whatever inaccuracies are introduced? The decision was to dodge the issue
and leave such a conversion out of the API. Instead, you should convert the
floating-point number into a string using the desired precision and pass the
-string to the :class:`Decimal` constructor::
+string to the :class:`~decimal.Decimal` constructor::
>>> f = 1.1
>>> decimal.Decimal(str(f))
@@ -575,7 +575,7 @@ string to the :class:`Decimal` constructor::
>>> decimal.Decimal('%.12f' % f)
Decimal("1.100000000000")
-Once you have :class:`Decimal` instances, you can perform the usual mathematical
+Once you have :class:`~decimal.Decimal` instances, you can perform the usual mathematical
operations on them. One limitation: exponentiation requires an integer
exponent::
@@ -596,7 +596,7 @@ exponent::
...
decimal.InvalidOperation: x ** (non-integer)
-You can combine :class:`Decimal` instances with integers, but not with
+You can combine :class:`~decimal.Decimal` instances with integers, but not with
floating-point numbers::
>>> a + 4
@@ -607,11 +607,11 @@ floating-point numbers::
TypeError: You can interact Decimal only with int, long or Decimal data types.
>>>
-:class:`Decimal` numbers can be used with the :mod:`math` and :mod:`cmath`
+:class:`~decimal.Decimal` numbers can be used with the :mod:`math` and :mod:`cmath`
modules, but note that they'll be immediately converted to floating-point
numbers before the operation is performed, resulting in a possible loss of
precision and accuracy. You'll also get back a regular floating-point number
-and not a :class:`Decimal`. ::
+and not a :class:`~decimal.Decimal`. ::
>>> import math, cmath
>>> d = decimal.Decimal('123456789012.345')
@@ -620,32 +620,33 @@ and not a :class:`Decimal`. ::
>>> cmath.sqrt(-d)
351364.18288201344j
-:class:`Decimal` instances have a :meth:`sqrt` method that returns a
-:class:`Decimal`, but if you need other things such as trigonometric functions
+:class:`~decimal.Decimal` instances have a :meth:`~decimal.Decimal.sqrt` method that returns a
+:class:`~decimal.Decimal`, but if you need other things such as trigonometric functions
you'll have to implement them. ::
>>> d.sqrt()
Decimal("351364.1828820134592177245001")
-The :class:`Context` type
--------------------------
+The :class:`~decimal.Context` type
+----------------------------------
-Instances of the :class:`Context` class encapsulate several settings for
+Instances of the :class:`~decimal.Context` class encapsulate several settings for
decimal operations:
-* :attr:`prec` is the precision, the number of decimal places.
+* :attr:`~decimal.Context.prec` is the precision, the number of decimal places.
-* :attr:`rounding` specifies the rounding mode. The :mod:`decimal` module has
- constants for the various possibilities: :const:`ROUND_DOWN`,
- :const:`ROUND_CEILING`, :const:`ROUND_HALF_EVEN`, and various others.
+* :attr:`~decimal.Context.rounding` specifies the rounding mode. The
+ :mod:`decimal` module has constants for the various possibilities:
+ :const:`~decimal.ROUND_DOWN`, :const:`~decimal.ROUND_CEILING`,
+ :const:`~decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN`, and various others.
-* :attr:`traps` is a dictionary specifying what happens on encountering certain
+* :attr:`~decimal.Context.traps` is a dictionary specifying what happens on encountering certain
error conditions: either an exception is raised or a value is returned. Some
examples of error conditions are division by zero, loss of precision, and
overflow.
-There's a thread-local default context available by calling :func:`getcontext`;
+There's a thread-local default context available by calling :func:`~decimal.getcontext`;
you can change the properties of this context to alter the default precision,
rounding, or trap handling. The following example shows the effect of changing
the precision of the default context::
@@ -671,8 +672,8 @@ raised::
Decimal("Infinity")
>>>
-The :class:`Context` instance also has various methods for formatting numbers
-such as :meth:`to_eng_string` and :meth:`to_sci_string`.
+The :class:`~decimal.Context` instance also has various methods for formatting numbers
+such as :meth:`~decimal.Context.to_eng_string` and :meth:`~decimal.Context.to_sci_string`.
For more information, see the documentation for the :mod:`decimal` module, which
includes a quick-start tutorial and a reference.
@@ -684,11 +685,11 @@ includes a quick-start tutorial and a reference.
Written by Facundo Batista and implemented by Facundo Batista, Eric Price,
Raymond Hettinger, Aahz, and Tim Peters.
- http://www.lahey.com/float.htm
+ `http://www.lahey.com/float.htm `__
The article uses Fortran code to illustrate many of the problems that
floating-point inaccuracy can cause.
- http://speleotrove.com/decimal/
+ https://speleotrove.com/decimal/
A description of a decimal-based representation. This representation is being
proposed as a standard, and underlies the new Python decimal type. Much of this
material was written by Mike Cowlishaw, designer of the Rexx language.
@@ -740,7 +741,7 @@ display conventions that are localized to a particular country or language.
However, the module was careful to not change the numeric locale because various
functions in Python's implementation required that the numeric locale remain set
to the ``'C'`` locale. Often this was because the code was using the C
-library's :c:func:`atof` function.
+library's :c:func:`!atof` function.
Not setting the numeric locale caused trouble for extensions that used third-party
C libraries, however, because they wouldn't have the correct locale set.
@@ -757,7 +758,7 @@ API that perform ASCII-only conversions, ignoring the locale setting:
:c:expr:`double` to an ASCII string.
The code for these functions came from the GLib library
-(https://developer-old.gnome.org/glib/2.26/), whose developers kindly
+(`https://developer-old.gnome.org/glib/2.26/ ` module now contains constants for HTTP status codes defined
in various HTTP-related RFC documents. Constants have names such as
- :const:`OK`, :const:`CREATED`, :const:`CONTINUE`, and
- :const:`MOVED_PERMANENTLY`; use pydoc to get a full list. (Contributed by
+ :const:`!OK`, :const:`!CREATED`, :const:`!CONTINUE`, and
+ :const:`!MOVED_PERMANENTLY`; use pydoc to get a full list. (Contributed by
Andrew Eland.)
* The :mod:`imaplib` module now supports IMAP's THREAD command (contributed by
- Yves Dionne) and new :meth:`deleteacl` and :meth:`myrights` methods (contributed
- by Arnaud Mazin).
+ Yves Dionne) and new :meth:`~imaplib.IMAP4.deleteacl` and
+ :meth:`~imaplib.IMAP4.myrights` methods (contributed by Arnaud Mazin).
* The :mod:`itertools` module gained a ``groupby(iterable[, *func*])``
function. *iterable* is something that can be iterated over to return a stream
of elements, and the optional *func* parameter is a function that takes an
element and returns a key value; if omitted, the key is simply the element
- itself. :func:`groupby` then groups the elements into subsequences which have
+ itself. :func:`~itertools.groupby` then groups the elements into subsequences which have
matching values of the key, and returns a series of 2-tuples containing the key
value and an iterator over the subsequence.
Here's an example to make this clearer. The *key* function simply returns
- whether a number is even or odd, so the result of :func:`groupby` is to return
+ whether a number is even or odd, so the result of :func:`~itertools.groupby` is to return
consecutive runs of odd or even numbers. ::
>>> import itertools
@@ -1115,8 +1116,8 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.
0 [12, 14]
>>>
- :func:`groupby` is typically used with sorted input. The logic for
- :func:`groupby` is similar to the Unix ``uniq`` filter which makes it handy for
+ :func:`~itertools.groupby` is typically used with sorted input. The logic for
+ :func:`~itertools.groupby` is similar to the Unix ``uniq`` filter which makes it handy for
eliminating, counting, or identifying duplicate elements::
>>> word = 'abracadabra'
@@ -1153,22 +1154,22 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.
>>> list(i2) # Run the second iterator to exhaustion
[1, 2, 3]
- Note that :func:`tee` has to keep copies of the values returned by the
+ Note that :func:`~itertools.tee` has to keep copies of the values returned by the
iterator; in the worst case, it may need to keep all of them. This should
therefore be used carefully if the leading iterator can run far ahead of the
trailing iterator in a long stream of inputs. If the separation is large, then
you might as well use :func:`list` instead. When the iterators track closely
- with one another, :func:`tee` is ideal. Possible applications include
+ with one another, :func:`~itertools.tee` is ideal. Possible applications include
bookmarking, windowing, or lookahead iterators. (Contributed by Raymond
Hettinger.)
* A number of functions were added to the :mod:`locale` module, such as
- :func:`bind_textdomain_codeset` to specify a particular encoding and a family of
+ :func:`~locale.bind_textdomain_codeset` to specify a particular encoding and a family of
:func:`!l\*gettext` functions that return messages in the chosen encoding.
(Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)
* Some keyword arguments were added to the :mod:`logging` package's
- :func:`basicConfig` function to simplify log configuration. The default
+ :func:`~logging.basicConfig` function to simplify log configuration. The default
behavior is to log messages to standard error, but various keyword arguments can
be specified to log to a particular file, change the logging format, or set the
logging level. For example::
@@ -1179,10 +1180,10 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.
format='%(levelname):%(process):%(thread):%(message)')
Other additions to the :mod:`logging` package include a ``log(level, msg)``
- convenience method, as well as a :class:`TimedRotatingFileHandler` class that
+ convenience method, as well as a :class:`~logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler` class that
rotates its log files at a timed interval. The module already had
- :class:`RotatingFileHandler`, which rotated logs once the file exceeded a
- certain size. Both classes derive from a new :class:`BaseRotatingHandler` class
+ :class:`~logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler`, which rotated logs once the file exceeded a
+ certain size. Both classes derive from a new :class:`~logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler` class
that can be used to implement other rotating handlers.
(Changes implemented by Vinay Sajip.)
@@ -1192,8 +1193,8 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.
effect is to make :file:`.pyc` files significantly smaller. (Contributed by
Martin von Löwis.)
-* The :mod:`!nntplib` module's :class:`NNTP` class gained :meth:`description` and
- :meth:`descriptions` methods to retrieve newsgroup descriptions for a single
+* The :mod:`!nntplib` module's :class:`!NNTP` class gained :meth:`!description` and
+ :meth:`!descriptions` methods to retrieve newsgroup descriptions for a single
group or for a range of groups. (Contributed by Jürgen A. Erhard.)
* Two new functions were added to the :mod:`operator` module,
@@ -1235,7 +1236,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.
*path* is a symlink that points to a destination that doesn't exist.
(Contributed by Beni Cherniavsky.)
-* A new :func:`getsid` function was added to the :mod:`posix` module that
+* A new :func:`~os.getsid` function was added to the :mod:`posix` module that
underlies the :mod:`os` module. (Contributed by J. Raynor.)
* The :mod:`poplib` module now supports POP over SSL. (Contributed by Hector
@@ -1245,8 +1246,8 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.
by Nick Bastin.)
* The :mod:`random` module has a new method called ``getrandbits(N)`` that
- returns a long integer *N* bits in length. The existing :meth:`randrange`
- method now uses :meth:`getrandbits` where appropriate, making generation of
+ returns a long integer *N* bits in length. The existing :meth:`~random.randrange`
+ method now uses :meth:`~random.getrandbits` where appropriate, making generation of
arbitrarily large random numbers more efficient. (Contributed by Raymond
Hettinger.)
@@ -1269,24 +1270,24 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.
* The :mod:`signal` module now performs tighter error-checking on the parameters
to the :func:`signal.signal` function. For example, you can't set a handler on
- the :const:`SIGKILL` signal; previous versions of Python would quietly accept
+ the :const:`~signal.SIGKILL` signal; previous versions of Python would quietly accept
this, but 2.4 will raise a :exc:`RuntimeError` exception.
-* Two new functions were added to the :mod:`socket` module. :func:`socketpair`
+* Two new functions were added to the :mod:`socket` module. :func:`~socket.socketpair`
returns a pair of connected sockets and ``getservbyport(port)`` looks up the
service name for a given port number. (Contributed by Dave Cole and Barry
Warsaw.)
-* The :func:`sys.exitfunc` function has been deprecated. Code should be using
+* The :func:`!sys.exitfunc` function has been deprecated. Code should be using
the existing :mod:`atexit` module, which correctly handles calling multiple exit
- functions. Eventually :func:`sys.exitfunc` will become a purely internal
+ functions. Eventually :func:`!sys.exitfunc` will become a purely internal
interface, accessed only by :mod:`atexit`.
* The :mod:`tarfile` module now generates GNU-format tar files by default.
(Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)
* The :mod:`threading` module now has an elegantly simple way to support
- thread-local data. The module contains a :class:`local` class whose attribute
+ thread-local data. The module contains a :class:`~threading.local` class whose attribute
values are local to different threads. ::
import threading
@@ -1295,8 +1296,8 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.
data.number = 42
data.url = ('www.python.org', 80)
- Other threads can assign and retrieve their own values for the :attr:`number`
- and :attr:`url` attributes. You can subclass :class:`local` to initialize
+ Other threads can assign and retrieve their own values for the :attr:`!number`
+ and :attr:`!url` attributes. You can subclass :class:`~threading.local` to initialize
attributes or to add methods. (Contributed by Jim Fulton.)
* The :mod:`timeit` module now automatically disables periodic garbage
@@ -1312,7 +1313,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.
transmitting multiple XML-RPC calls in a single HTTP operation. (Contributed by
Brian Quinlan.)
-* The :mod:`mpz`, :mod:`rotor`, and :mod:`xreadlines` modules have been
+* The :mod:`!mpz`, :mod:`!rotor`, and :mod:`!xreadlines` modules have been
removed.
.. ======================================================================
@@ -1336,7 +1337,7 @@ use the Mozilla or Lynx cookie files, and one that stores cookies in the same
format as the Perl libwww library.
:mod:`urllib2 ` has been changed to interact with :mod:`cookielib `:
-:class:`HTTPCookieProcessor` manages a cookie jar that is used when accessing
+:class:`~urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor` manages a cookie jar that is used when accessing
URLs.
This module was contributed by John J. Lee.
@@ -1352,7 +1353,7 @@ Loper and Tim Peters. Testing can still be as simple as running
:func:`doctest.testmod`, but the refactorings allow customizing the module's
operation in various ways
-The new :class:`DocTestFinder` class extracts the tests from a given object's
+The new :class:`~doctest.DocTestFinder` class extracts the tests from a given object's
docstrings::
def f (x, y):
@@ -1368,7 +1369,7 @@ docstrings::
# Get list of DocTest instances
tests = finder.find(f)
-The new :class:`DocTestRunner` class then runs individual tests and can produce
+The new :class:`~doctest.DocTestRunner` class then runs individual tests and can produce
a summary of the results::
runner = doctest.DocTestRunner()
@@ -1385,10 +1386,10 @@ The above example produces the following output::
2 passed and 0 failed.
Test passed.
-:class:`DocTestRunner` uses an instance of the :class:`OutputChecker` class to
+:class:`~doctest.DocTestRunner` uses an instance of the :class:`~doctest.OutputChecker` class to
compare the expected output with the actual output. This class takes a number
of different flags that customize its behaviour; ambitious users can also write
-a completely new subclass of :class:`OutputChecker`.
+a completely new subclass of :class:`~doctest.OutputChecker`.
The default output checker provides a number of handy features. For example,
with the :const:`doctest.ELLIPSIS` option flag, an ellipsis (``...``) in the
@@ -1465,7 +1466,7 @@ Some of the changes to Python's build process and to the C API are:
lookups without masking exceptions raised during the look-up process.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
-* The :c:expr:`Py_IS_NAN(X)` macro returns 1 if its float or double argument
+* The :c:macro:`Py_IS_NAN` macro returns 1 if its float or double argument
*X* is a NaN. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)
* C code can avoid unnecessary locking by using the new
@@ -1479,7 +1480,7 @@ Some of the changes to Python's build process and to the C API are:
* A new method flag, :c:macro:`METH_COEXIST`, allows a function defined in slots
to co-exist with a :c:type:`PyCFunction` having the same name. This can halve
- the access time for a method such as :meth:`set.__contains__`. (Contributed by
+ the access time for a method such as :meth:`!set.__contains__`. (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger.)
* Python can now be built with additional profiling for the interpreter itself,
@@ -1493,7 +1494,7 @@ Some of the changes to Python's build process and to the C API are:
register". (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)
* The :c:type:`!tracebackobject` type has been renamed to
- :c:type:`PyTracebackObject`.
+ :c:type:`!PyTracebackObject`.
.. ======================================================================
@@ -1517,14 +1518,14 @@ code:
trigger a :exc:`FutureWarning` and return a value limited to 32 or 64 bits;
instead they return a long integer.
-* Integer operations will no longer trigger an :exc:`OverflowWarning`. The
- :exc:`OverflowWarning` warning will disappear in Python 2.5.
+* Integer operations will no longer trigger an :exc:`!OverflowWarning`. The
+ :exc:`!OverflowWarning` warning will disappear in Python 2.5.
-* The :func:`zip` built-in function and :func:`itertools.izip` now return an
+* The :func:`zip` built-in function and :func:`!itertools.izip` now return an
empty list instead of raising a :exc:`TypeError` exception if called with no
arguments.
-* You can no longer compare the :class:`date` and :class:`~datetime.datetime` instances
+* You can no longer compare the :class:`~datetime.date` and :class:`~datetime.datetime` instances
provided by the :mod:`datetime` module. Two instances of different classes
will now always be unequal, and relative comparisons (``<``, ``>``) will raise
a :exc:`TypeError`.
@@ -1532,7 +1533,8 @@ code:
* :func:`!dircache.listdir` now passes exceptions to the caller instead of
returning empty lists.
-* :func:`LexicalHandler.startDTD` used to receive the public and system IDs in
+* :meth:`LexicalHandler.startDTD `
+ used to receive the public and system IDs in
the wrong order. This has been corrected; applications relying on the wrong
order need to be fixed.
@@ -1547,9 +1549,9 @@ code:
* :const:`None` is now a constant; code that binds a new value to the name
``None`` is now a syntax error.
-* The :func:`signals.signal` function now raises a :exc:`RuntimeError` exception
+* The :func:`signal.signal` function now raises a :exc:`RuntimeError` exception
for certain illegal values; previously these errors would pass silently. For
- example, you can no longer set a handler on the :const:`SIGKILL` signal.
+ example, you can no longer set a handler on the :const:`~signal.SIGKILL` signal.
.. ======================================================================
diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/2.5.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/2.5.rst
index 2ae26e7a106a0bf..0449644833b7e9c 100644
--- a/Doc/whatsnew/2.5.rst
+++ b/Doc/whatsnew/2.5.rst
@@ -16,8 +16,8 @@ release schedule. Python 2.5 was released on September 19, 2006.
The changes in Python 2.5 are an interesting mix of language and library
improvements. The library enhancements will be more important to Python's user
community, I think, because several widely useful packages were added. New
-modules include ElementTree for XML processing (:mod:`xml.etree`),
-the SQLite database module (:mod:`sqlite`), and the :mod:`ctypes`
+modules include ElementTree for XML processing (:mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree`),
+the SQLite database module (:mod:`sqlite3`), and the :mod:`ctypes`
module for calling C functions.
The language changes are of middling significance. Some pleasant new features
@@ -134,14 +134,14 @@ PEP 309: Partial Function Application
The :mod:`functools` module is intended to contain tools for functional-style
programming.
-One useful tool in this module is the :func:`partial` function. For programs
+One useful tool in this module is the :func:`~functools.partial` function. For programs
written in a functional style, you'll sometimes want to construct variants of
existing functions that have some of the parameters filled in. Consider a
Python function ``f(a, b, c)``; you could create a new function ``g(b, c)`` that
was equivalent to ``f(1, b, c)``. This is called "partial function
application".
-:func:`partial` takes the arguments ``(function, arg1, arg2, ... kwarg1=value1,
+:func:`~functools.partial` takes the arguments ``(function, arg1, arg2, ... kwarg1=value1,
kwarg2=value2)``. The resulting object is callable, so you can just call it to
invoke *function* with the filled-in arguments.
@@ -159,7 +159,7 @@ Here's a small but realistic example::
Here's another example, from a program that uses PyGTK. Here a context-sensitive
pop-up menu is being constructed dynamically. The callback provided
-for the menu option is a partially applied version of the :meth:`open_item`
+for the menu option is a partially applied version of the ``open_item()``
method, where the first argument has been provided. ::
...
@@ -172,7 +172,7 @@ method, where the first argument has been provided. ::
Another function in the :mod:`functools` module is the
``update_wrapper(wrapper, wrapped)`` function that helps you write
-well-behaved decorators. :func:`update_wrapper` copies the name, module, and
+well-behaved decorators. :func:`~functools.update_wrapper` copies the name, module, and
docstring attribute to a wrapper function so that tracebacks inside the wrapped
function are easier to understand. For example, you might write::
@@ -183,7 +183,7 @@ function are easier to understand. For example, you might write::
functools.update_wrapper(wrapper, f)
return wrapper
-:func:`wraps` is a decorator that can be used inside your own decorators to copy
+:func:`~functools.wraps` is a decorator that can be used inside your own decorators to copy
the wrapped function's information. An alternate version of the previous
example would be::
@@ -209,7 +209,7 @@ example would be::
PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
===================================================
-Some simple dependency support was added to Distutils. The :func:`setup`
+Some simple dependency support was added to Distutils. The :func:`!setup`
function now has ``requires``, ``provides``, and ``obsoletes`` keyword
parameters. When you build a source distribution using the ``sdist`` command,
the dependency information will be recorded in the :file:`PKG-INFO` file.
@@ -271,26 +271,26 @@ Let's say you have a package directory like this::
pkg/main.py
pkg/string.py
-This defines a package named :mod:`pkg` containing the :mod:`pkg.main` and
-:mod:`pkg.string` submodules.
+This defines a package named ``pkg`` containing the ``pkg.main`` and
+``pkg.string`` submodules.
Consider the code in the :file:`main.py` module. What happens if it executes
the statement ``import string``? In Python 2.4 and earlier, it will first look
in the package's directory to perform a relative import, finds
:file:`pkg/string.py`, imports the contents of that file as the
-:mod:`pkg.string` module, and that module is bound to the name ``string`` in the
-:mod:`pkg.main` module's namespace.
+``pkg.string`` module, and that module is bound to the name ``string`` in the
+``pkg.main`` module's namespace.
-That's fine if :mod:`pkg.string` was what you wanted. But what if you wanted
+That's fine if ``pkg.string`` was what you wanted. But what if you wanted
Python's standard :mod:`string` module? There's no clean way to ignore
-:mod:`pkg.string` and look for the standard module; generally you had to look at
+``pkg.string`` and look for the standard module; generally you had to look at
the contents of ``sys.modules``, which is slightly unclean. Holger Krekel's
-:mod:`py.std` package provides a tidier way to perform imports from the standard
+:mod:`!py.std` package provides a tidier way to perform imports from the standard
library, ``import py; py.std.string.join()``, but that package isn't available
on all Python installations.
Reading code which relies on relative imports is also less clear, because a
-reader may be confused about which module, :mod:`string` or :mod:`pkg.string`,
+reader may be confused about which module, :mod:`string` or ``pkg.string``,
is intended to be used. Python users soon learned not to duplicate the names of
standard library modules in the names of their packages' submodules, but you
can't protect against having your submodule's name being used for a new module
@@ -313,9 +313,9 @@ name when using the ``from ... import`` form::
from . import string
This imports the :mod:`string` module relative to the current package, so in
-:mod:`pkg.main` this will import *name1* and *name2* from :mod:`pkg.string`.
+``pkg.main`` this will import *name1* and *name2* from ``pkg.string``.
Additional leading periods perform the relative import starting from the parent
-of the current package. For example, code in the :mod:`A.B.C` module can do::
+of the current package. For example, code in the ``A.B.C`` module can do::
from . import D # Imports A.B.D
from .. import E # Imports A.E
@@ -331,7 +331,7 @@ statement, only the ``from ... import`` form.
PEP written by Aahz; implemented by Thomas Wouters.
https://pylib.readthedocs.io/
- The py library by Holger Krekel, which contains the :mod:`py.std` package.
+ The py library by Holger Krekel, which contains the :mod:`!py.std` package.
.. ======================================================================
@@ -347,7 +347,7 @@ Python interpreter, the switch now uses an implementation in a new module,
:mod:`runpy`.
The :mod:`runpy` module implements a more sophisticated import mechanism so that
-it's now possible to run modules in a package such as :mod:`pychecker.checker`.
+it's now possible to run modules in a package such as :mod:`!pychecker.checker`.
The module also supports alternative import mechanisms such as the
:mod:`zipimport` module. This means you can add a .zip archive's path to
``sys.path`` and then use the :option:`-m` switch to execute code from the
@@ -392,8 +392,8 @@ write::
The code in *block-1* is executed. If the code raises an exception, the various
:keyword:`except` blocks are tested: if the exception is of class
-:class:`Exception1`, *handler-1* is executed; otherwise if it's of class
-:class:`Exception2`, *handler-2* is executed, and so forth. If no exception is
+``Exception1``, *handler-1* is executed; otherwise if it's of class
+``Exception2``, *handler-2* is executed, and so forth. If no exception is
raised, the *else-block* is executed.
No matter what happened previously, the *final-block* is executed once the code
@@ -492,21 +492,21 @@ And here's an example of changing the counter::
:keyword:`yield` will usually return :const:`None`, so you should always check
for this case. Don't just use its value in expressions unless you're sure that
-the :meth:`send` method will be the only method used to resume your generator
+the :meth:`~generator.send` method will be the only method used to resume your generator
function.
-In addition to :meth:`send`, there are two other new methods on generators:
+In addition to :meth:`~generator.send`, there are two other new methods on generators:
* ``throw(type, value=None, traceback=None)`` is used to raise an exception
inside the generator; the exception is raised by the :keyword:`yield` expression
where the generator's execution is paused.
-* :meth:`close` raises a new :exc:`GeneratorExit` exception inside the generator
+* :meth:`~generator.close` raises a new :exc:`GeneratorExit` exception inside the generator
to terminate the iteration. On receiving this exception, the generator's code
must either raise :exc:`GeneratorExit` or :exc:`StopIteration`. Catching the
:exc:`GeneratorExit` exception and returning a value is illegal and will trigger
a :exc:`RuntimeError`; if the function raises some other exception, that
- exception is propagated to the caller. :meth:`close` will also be called by
+ exception is propagated to the caller. :meth:`~generator.close` will also be called by
Python's garbage collector when the generator is garbage-collected.
If you need to run cleanup code when a :exc:`GeneratorExit` occurs, I suggest
@@ -521,8 +521,8 @@ function, and a :keyword:`return` statement), but coroutines can be entered,
exited, and resumed at many different points (the :keyword:`yield` statements).
We'll have to figure out patterns for using coroutines effectively in Python.
-The addition of the :meth:`close` method has one side effect that isn't obvious.
-:meth:`close` is called when a generator is garbage-collected, so this means the
+The addition of the :meth:`~generator.close` method has one side effect that isn't obvious.
+:meth:`~generator.close` is called when a generator is garbage-collected, so this means the
generator's code gets one last chance to run before the generator is destroyed.
This last chance means that ``try...finally`` statements in generators can now
be guaranteed to work; the :keyword:`finally` clause will now always get a
@@ -534,8 +534,8 @@ seems like a minor bit of language trivia, but using generators and
in the following section.
Another even more esoteric effect of this change: previously, the
-:attr:`gi_frame` attribute of a generator was always a frame object. It's now
-possible for :attr:`gi_frame` to be ``None`` once the generator has been
+:attr:`!gi_frame` attribute of a generator was always a frame object. It's now
+possible for :attr:`!gi_frame` to be ``None`` once the generator has been
exhausted.
@@ -622,7 +622,7 @@ The :mod:`threading` module's locks and condition variables also support the
The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released once the
block is complete.
-The new :func:`localcontext` function in the :mod:`decimal` module makes it easy
+The new :func:`~decimal.localcontext` function in the :mod:`decimal` module makes it easy
to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates the desired
precision and rounding characteristics for computations::
@@ -692,7 +692,7 @@ be to let the user write code like this::
The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs flawlessly or
rolled back if there's an exception. Here's the basic interface for
-:class:`DatabaseConnection` that I'll assume::
+``DatabaseConnection`` that I'll assume::
class DatabaseConnection:
# Database interface
@@ -745,7 +745,7 @@ The contextlib module
The new :mod:`contextlib` module provides some functions and a decorator that
are useful for writing objects for use with the ':keyword:`with`' statement.
-The decorator is called :func:`contextmanager`, and lets you write a single
+The decorator is called :deco:`~contextlib.contextmanager`, and lets you write a single
generator function instead of defining a new class. The generator should yield
exactly one value. The code up to the :keyword:`yield` will be executed as the
:meth:`~object.__enter__` method, and the value yielded will be the method's return
@@ -910,7 +910,7 @@ may therefore need to have some variables changed to :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`.
The :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple` and :c:func:`Py_BuildValue` functions have a new
conversion code, ``n``, for :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`. :c:func:`PyArg_ParseTuple`'s
``s#`` and ``t#`` still output :c:expr:`int` by default, but you can define the
-macro :c:macro:`PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN` before including :file:`Python.h` to make
+macro :c:macro:`!PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN` before including :file:`Python.h` to make
them return :c:type:`Py_ssize_t`.
:pep:`353` has a section on conversion guidelines that extension authors should
@@ -931,19 +931,19 @@ PEP 357: The '__index__' method
===============================
The NumPy developers had a problem that could only be solved by adding a new
-special method, :meth:`__index__`. When using slice notation, as in
+special method, :meth:`~object.__index__`. When using slice notation, as in
``[start:stop:step]``, the values of the *start*, *stop*, and *step* indexes
must all be either integers or long integers. NumPy defines a variety of
specialized integer types corresponding to unsigned and signed integers of 8,
16, 32, and 64 bits, but there was no way to signal that these types could be
used as slice indexes.
-Slicing can't just use the existing :meth:`__int__` method because that method
+Slicing can't just use the existing :meth:`~object.__int__` method because that method
is also used to implement coercion to integers. If slicing used
-:meth:`__int__`, floating-point numbers would also become legal slice indexes
+:meth:`~object.__int__`, floating-point numbers would also become legal slice indexes
and that's clearly an undesirable behaviour.
-Instead, a new special method called :meth:`__index__` was added. It takes no
+Instead, a new special method called :meth:`~object.__index__` was added. It takes no
arguments and returns an integer giving the slice index to use. For example::
class C:
@@ -957,7 +957,7 @@ interpreter will check that the type returned is correct, and raises a
A corresponding :c:member:`~PyNumberMethods.nb_index` slot was added to the C-level
:c:type:`PyNumberMethods` structure to let C extensions implement this protocol.
``PyNumber_Index(obj)`` can be used in extension code to call the
-:meth:`__index__` function and retrieve its result.
+:meth:`~object.__index__` function and retrieve its result.
.. seealso::
@@ -978,7 +978,7 @@ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python language.
* The :class:`dict` type has a new hook for letting subclasses provide a default
value when a key isn't contained in the dictionary. When a key isn't found, the
dictionary's ``__missing__(key)`` method will be called. This hook is used
- to implement the new :class:`defaultdict` class in the :mod:`collections`
+ to implement the new :class:`~collections.defaultdict` class in the :mod:`collections`
module. The following example defines a dictionary that returns zero for any
missing key::
@@ -1017,7 +1017,7 @@ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python language.
(Implemented by Fredrik Lundh following a suggestion by Raymond Hettinger.)
-* The :meth:`startswith` and :meth:`endswith` methods of string types now accept
+* The :meth:`~str.startswith` and :meth:`~str.endswith` methods of string types now accept
tuples of strings to check for. ::
def is_image_file (filename):
@@ -1028,7 +1028,7 @@ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python language.
.. RFE #1491485
* The :func:`min` and :func:`max` built-in functions gained a ``key`` keyword
- parameter analogous to the ``key`` argument for :meth:`sort`. This parameter
+ parameter analogous to the ``key`` argument for :meth:`~list.sort`. This parameter
supplies a function that takes a single argument and is called for every value
in the list; :func:`min`/:func:`max` will return the element with the
smallest/largest return value from this function. For example, to find the
@@ -1049,12 +1049,12 @@ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python language.
returned by the iterator evaluate as true. (Suggested by Guido van Rossum, and
implemented by Raymond Hettinger.)
-* The result of a class's :meth:`__hash__` method can now be either a long
+* The result of a class's :meth:`~object.__hash__` method can now be either a long
integer or a regular integer. If a long integer is returned, the hash of that
value is taken. In earlier versions the hash value was required to be a
regular integer, but in 2.5 the :func:`id` built-in was changed to always
return non-negative numbers, and users often seem to use ``id(self)`` in
- :meth:`__hash__` methods (though this is discouraged).
+ :meth:`~object.__hash__` methods (though this is discouraged).
.. Bug #1536021
@@ -1166,7 +1166,7 @@ marked in the following list.
.. Patch 1442927
* It's now illegal to mix iterating over a file with ``for line in file`` and
- calling the file object's :meth:`read`/:meth:`readline`/:meth:`readlines`
+ calling the file object's :meth:`!read`/:meth:`!readline`/:meth:`!readlines`
methods. Iteration uses an internal buffer and the :meth:`!read\*` methods
don't use that buffer. Instead they would return the data following the
buffer, causing the data to appear out of order. Mixing iteration and these
@@ -1204,7 +1204,7 @@ marked in the following list.
Sean Reifschneider at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)
* Importing now caches the paths tried, recording whether they exist or not so
- that the interpreter makes fewer :c:func:`open` and :c:func:`stat` calls on
+ that the interpreter makes fewer :c:func:`!open` and :c:func:`!stat` calls on
startup. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Georg Brandl.)
.. Patch 921466
@@ -1226,23 +1226,24 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
u-LAW encoding has been improved. (Contributed by Lars Immisch.)
* The :mod:`codecs` module gained support for incremental codecs. The
- :func:`codec.lookup` function now returns a :class:`CodecInfo` instance instead
- of a tuple. :class:`CodecInfo` instances behave like a 4-tuple to preserve
- backward compatibility but also have the attributes :attr:`encode`,
- :attr:`decode`, :attr:`incrementalencoder`, :attr:`incrementaldecoder`,
- :attr:`streamwriter`, and :attr:`streamreader`. Incremental codecs can receive
+ :func:`codecs.lookup` function now returns a :class:`~codecs.CodecInfo` instance instead
+ of a tuple. :class:`~codecs.CodecInfo` instances behave like a 4-tuple to preserve
+ backward compatibility but also have the attributes :attr:`~codecs.CodecInfo.encode`,
+ :attr:`~codecs.CodecInfo.decode`, :attr:`~codecs.CodecInfo.incrementalencoder`,
+ :attr:`~codecs.CodecInfo.incrementaldecoder`, :attr:`~codecs.CodecInfo.streamwriter`,
+ and :attr:`~codecs.CodecInfo.streamreader`. Incremental codecs can receive
input and produce output in multiple chunks; the output is the same as if the
entire input was fed to the non-incremental codec. See the :mod:`codecs` module
documentation for details. (Designed and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)
.. Patch 1436130
-* The :mod:`collections` module gained a new type, :class:`defaultdict`, that
+* The :mod:`collections` module gained a new type, :class:`~collections.defaultdict`, that
subclasses the standard :class:`dict` type. The new type mostly behaves like a
dictionary but constructs a default value when a key isn't present,
automatically adding it to the dictionary for the requested key value.
- The first argument to :class:`defaultdict`'s constructor is a factory function
+ The first argument to :class:`~collections.defaultdict`'s constructor is a factory function
that gets called whenever a key is requested but not found. This factory
function receives no arguments, so you can use built-in type constructors such
as :func:`list` or :func:`int`. For example, you can make an index of words
@@ -1268,7 +1269,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
(Contributed by Guido van Rossum.)
-* The :class:`deque` double-ended queue type supplied by the :mod:`collections`
+* The :class:`~collections.deque` double-ended queue type supplied by the :mod:`collections`
module now has a ``remove(value)`` method that removes the first occurrence
of *value* in the queue, raising :exc:`ValueError` if the value isn't found.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
@@ -1287,15 +1288,15 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
Also, the :mod:`pstats` module for analyzing the data measured by the profiler
now supports directing the output to any file object by supplying a *stream*
- argument to the :class:`Stats` constructor. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)
+ argument to the :class:`~pstats.Stats` constructor. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)
* The :mod:`csv` module, which parses files in comma-separated value format,
received several enhancements and a number of bugfixes. You can now set the
maximum size in bytes of a field by calling the
``csv.field_size_limit(new_limit)`` function; omitting the *new_limit*
- argument will return the currently set limit. The :class:`reader` class now has
- a :attr:`line_num` attribute that counts the number of physical lines read from
- the source; records can span multiple physical lines, so :attr:`line_num` is not
+ argument will return the currently set limit. The :class:`~csv.reader` class now has
+ a :attr:`~csv.csvreader.line_num` attribute that counts the number of physical lines read from
+ the source; records can span multiple physical lines, so :attr:`~csv.csvreader.line_num` is not
the same as the number of records read.
The CSV parser is now stricter about multi-line quoted fields. Previously, if a
@@ -1313,12 +1314,12 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
by Josh Spoerri. It uses the same format characters as :func:`time.strptime` and
:func:`time.strftime`::
- from datetime import datetime
+ import datetime as dt
- ts = datetime.strptime('10:13:15 2006-03-07',
- '%H:%M:%S %Y-%m-%d')
+ ts = dt.datetime.strptime('10:13:15 2006-03-07',
+ '%H:%M:%S %Y-%m-%d')
-* The :meth:`SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks` method in the :mod:`difflib`
+* The :meth:`difflib.SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks` method in the :mod:`difflib`
module now guarantees to return a minimal list of blocks describing matching
subsequences. Previously, the algorithm would occasionally break a block of
matching elements into two list entries. (Enhancement by Tim Peters.)
@@ -1327,8 +1328,8 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
being executed at all. This is intended for code snippets that are usage
examples intended for the reader and aren't actually test cases.
- An *encoding* parameter was added to the :func:`testfile` function and the
- :class:`DocFileSuite` class to specify the file's encoding. This makes it
+ An *encoding* parameter was added to the :func:`~doctest.testfile` function and the
+ :class:`~doctest.DocFileSuite` class to specify the file's encoding. This makes it
easier to use non-ASCII characters in tests contained within a docstring.
(Contributed by Bjorn Tillenius.)
@@ -1347,20 +1348,20 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
:func:`input` function to allow opening files in binary or :term:`universal
newlines` mode. Another new parameter, *openhook*, lets you use a function
other than :func:`open` to open the input files. Once you're iterating over
- the set of files, the :class:`FileInput` object's new :meth:`~fileinput.fileno` returns
+ the set of files, the :class:`~fileinput.FileInput` object's new :meth:`~fileinput.fileno` returns
the file descriptor for the currently opened file. (Contributed by Georg
Brandl.)
-* In the :mod:`gc` module, the new :func:`get_count` function returns a 3-tuple
+* In the :mod:`gc` module, the new :func:`~gc.get_count` function returns a 3-tuple
containing the current collection counts for the three GC generations. This is
accounting information for the garbage collector; when these counts reach a
specified threshold, a garbage collection sweep will be made. The existing
:func:`gc.collect` function now takes an optional *generation* argument of 0, 1,
or 2 to specify which generation to collect. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)
-* The :func:`nsmallest` and :func:`nlargest` functions in the :mod:`heapq`
+* The :func:`~heapq.nsmallest` and :func:`~heapq.nlargest` functions in the :mod:`heapq`
module now support a ``key`` keyword parameter similar to the one provided by
- the :func:`min`/:func:`max` functions and the :meth:`sort` methods. For
+ the :func:`min`/:func:`max` functions and the :meth:`~list.sort` methods. For
example::
>>> import heapq
@@ -1382,7 +1383,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
* The :func:`format` function in the :mod:`locale` module has been modified and
- two new functions were added, :func:`format_string` and :func:`currency`.
+ two new functions were added, :func:`~locale.format_string` and :func:`~locale.currency`.
The :func:`format` function's *val* parameter could previously be a string as
long as no more than one %char specifier appeared; now the parameter must be
@@ -1391,10 +1392,10 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
formatting currency in placing a separator between groups of three digits.
To format strings with multiple %char specifiers, use the new
- :func:`format_string` function that works like :func:`format` but also supports
+ :func:`~locale.format_string` function that works like :func:`format` but also supports
mixing %char specifiers with arbitrary text.
- A new :func:`currency` function was also added that formats a number according
+ A new :func:`~locale.currency` function was also added that formats a number according
to the current locale's settings.
(Contributed by Georg Brandl.)
@@ -1403,9 +1404,11 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
* The :mod:`mailbox` module underwent a massive rewrite to add the capability to
modify mailboxes in addition to reading them. A new set of classes that include
- :class:`mbox`, :class:`MH`, and :class:`Maildir` are used to read mailboxes, and
+ :class:`~mailbox.mbox`, :class:`~mailbox.MH`, and :class:`~mailbox.Maildir`
+ are used to read mailboxes, and
have an ``add(message)`` method to add messages, ``remove(key)`` to
- remove messages, and :meth:`lock`/:meth:`unlock` to lock/unlock the mailbox.
+ remove messages, and :meth:`~mailbox.Mailbox.lock`/:meth:`~mailbox.Mailbox.unlock`
+ to lock/unlock the mailbox.
The following example converts a maildir-format mailbox into an mbox-format
one::
@@ -1430,19 +1433,19 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
default domain by supplying a *domain* argument to the :func:`!nis.match` and
:func:`!nis.maps` functions. (Contributed by Ben Bell.)
-* The :mod:`operator` module's :func:`itemgetter` and :func:`attrgetter`
+* The :mod:`operator` module's :func:`~operator.itemgetter` and :func:`~operator.attrgetter`
functions now support multiple fields. A call such as
``operator.attrgetter('a', 'b')`` will return a function that retrieves the
- :attr:`a` and :attr:`b` attributes. Combining this new feature with the
- :meth:`sort` method's ``key`` parameter lets you easily sort lists using
+ ``a`` and ``b`` attributes. Combining this new feature with the
+ :meth:`~list.sort` method's ``key`` parameter lets you easily sort lists using
multiple fields. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
* The :mod:`optparse` module was updated to version 1.5.1 of the Optik library.
- The :class:`OptionParser` class gained an :attr:`epilog` attribute, a string
- that will be printed after the help message, and a :meth:`destroy` method to
+ The :class:`~optparse.OptionParser` class gained an :attr:`!epilog` attribute, a string
+ that will be printed after the help message, and a :meth:`!destroy` method to
break reference cycles created by the object. (Contributed by Greg Ward.)
-* The :mod:`os` module underwent several changes. The :attr:`stat_float_times`
+* The :mod:`os` module underwent several changes. The :attr:`!stat_float_times`
variable now defaults to true, meaning that :func:`os.stat` will now return time
values as floats. (This doesn't necessarily mean that :func:`os.stat` will
return times that are precise to fractions of a second; not all systems support
@@ -1453,19 +1456,20 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
:func:`os.lseek` function. Two new constants for locking are
:const:`os.O_SHLOCK` and :const:`os.O_EXLOCK`.
- Two new functions, :func:`wait3` and :func:`wait4`, were added. They're similar
- the :func:`waitpid` function which waits for a child process to exit and returns
- a tuple of the process ID and its exit status, but :func:`wait3` and
- :func:`wait4` return additional information. :func:`wait3` doesn't take a
+ Two new functions, :func:`~os.wait3` and :func:`~os.wait4`, were added. They're similar
+ the :func:`~os.waitpid` function which waits for a child process to exit and returns
+ a tuple of the process ID and its exit status, but :func:`~os.wait3` and
+ :func:`~os.wait4` return additional information. :func:`~os.wait3` doesn't take a
process ID as input, so it waits for any child process to exit and returns a
3-tuple of *process-id*, *exit-status*, *resource-usage* as returned from the
:func:`resource.getrusage` function. ``wait4(pid)`` does take a process ID.
(Contributed by Chad J. Schroeder.)
On FreeBSD, the :func:`os.stat` function now returns times with nanosecond
- resolution, and the returned object now has :attr:`st_gen` and
- :attr:`st_birthtime`. The :attr:`st_flags` attribute is also available, if the
- platform supports it. (Contributed by Antti Louko and Diego Pettenò.)
+ resolution, and the returned object now has :attr:`~os.stat_result.st_gen` and
+ :attr:`~os.stat_result.st_birthtime`. The :attr:`~os.stat_result.st_flags`
+ attribute is also available, if the platform supports it.
+ (Contributed by Antti Louko and Diego Pettenò.)
.. (Patch 1180695, 1212117)
@@ -1495,21 +1499,21 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
instead of performing many different operations and reducing the result to a
single number as :file:`pystone.py` does.
-* The :mod:`pyexpat` module now uses version 2.0 of the Expat parser.
+* The :mod:`!pyexpat` module now uses version 2.0 of the Expat parser.
(Contributed by Trent Mick.)
-* The :class:`~queue.Queue` class provided by the :mod:`Queue` module gained two new
- methods. :meth:`join` blocks until all items in the queue have been retrieved
+* The :class:`~queue.Queue` class provided by the :mod:`queue` module gained two new
+ methods. :meth:`~queue.Queue.join` blocks until all items in the queue have been retrieved
and all processing work on the items have been completed. Worker threads call
- the other new method, :meth:`task_done`, to signal that processing for an item
+ the other new method, :meth:`~queue.Queue.task_done`, to signal that processing for an item
has been completed. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
-* The old :mod:`regex` and :mod:`regsub` modules, which have been deprecated
+* The old :mod:`!regex` and :mod:`!regsub` modules, which have been deprecated
ever since Python 2.0, have finally been deleted. Other deleted modules:
- :mod:`statcache`, :mod:`tzparse`, :mod:`whrandom`.
+ :mod:`!statcache`, :mod:`!tzparse`, :mod:`!whrandom`.
* Also deleted: the :file:`lib-old` directory, which includes ancient modules
- such as :mod:`dircmp` and :mod:`ni`, was removed. :file:`lib-old` wasn't on the
+ such as :mod:`!dircmp` and :mod:`!ni`, was removed. :file:`lib-old` wasn't on the
default ``sys.path``, so unless your programs explicitly added the directory to
``sys.path``, this removal shouldn't affect your code.
@@ -1519,14 +1523,16 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
.. Patch #1472854
-* The :mod:`SimpleXMLRPCServer ` and :mod:`DocXMLRPCServer ` classes now have a
- :attr:`rpc_paths` attribute that constrains XML-RPC operations to a limited set
+* The :mod:`SimpleXMLRPCServer ` and :mod:`DocXMLRPCServer
+ ` classes now have a :attr:`~xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths`
+ attribute that constrains XML-RPC operations to a limited set
of URL paths; the default is to allow only ``'/'`` and ``'/RPC2'``. Setting
- :attr:`rpc_paths` to ``None`` or an empty tuple disables this path checking.
+ :attr:`~xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths` to ``None`` or an
+ empty tuple disables this path checking.
.. Bug #1473048
-* The :mod:`socket` module now supports :const:`AF_NETLINK` sockets on Linux,
+* The :mod:`socket` module now supports :const:`!AF_NETLINK` sockets on Linux,
thanks to a patch from Philippe Biondi. Netlink sockets are a Linux-specific
mechanism for communications between a user-space process and kernel code; an
introductory article about them is at https://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7356.
@@ -1538,19 +1544,19 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
supports the buffer protocol instead of returning the data as a string. This
means you can put the data directly into an array or a memory-mapped file.
- Socket objects also gained :meth:`getfamily`, :meth:`gettype`, and
- :meth:`getproto` accessor methods to retrieve the family, type, and protocol
+ Socket objects also gained :meth:`!getfamily`, :meth:`!gettype`, and
+ :meth:`!getproto` accessor methods to retrieve the family, type, and protocol
values for the socket.
* New module: the :mod:`!spwd` module provides functions for accessing the shadow
password database on systems that support shadow passwords.
* The :mod:`struct` is now faster because it compiles format strings into
- :class:`Struct` objects with :meth:`pack` and :meth:`unpack` methods. This is
+ :class:`~struct.Struct` objects with :meth:`~struct.Struct.pack` and :meth:`~struct.Struct.unpack` methods. This is
similar to how the :mod:`re` module lets you create compiled regular expression
- objects. You can still use the module-level :func:`pack` and :func:`unpack`
- functions; they'll create :class:`Struct` objects and cache them. Or you can
- use :class:`Struct` instances directly::
+ objects. You can still use the module-level :func:`~struct.pack` and :func:`~struct.unpack`
+ functions; they'll create :class:`~struct.Struct` objects and cache them. Or you can
+ use :class:`~struct.Struct` instances directly::
s = struct.Struct('ih3s')
@@ -1562,7 +1568,7 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
offset)`` methods. This lets you store data directly into an array or a
memory-mapped file.
- (:class:`Struct` objects were implemented by Bob Ippolito at the NeedForSpeed
+ (:class:`~struct.Struct` objects were implemented by Bob Ippolito at the NeedForSpeed
sprint. Support for buffer objects was added by Martin Blais, also at the
NeedForSpeed sprint.)
@@ -1582,8 +1588,8 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
topmost stack frame currently active in that thread at the time the function is
called. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)
-* The :class:`TarFile` class in the :mod:`tarfile` module now has an
- :meth:`extractall` method that extracts all members from the archive into the
+* The :class:`~tarfile.TarFile` class in the :mod:`tarfile` module now has an
+ :meth:`~tarfile.TarFile.extractall` method that extracts all members from the archive into the
current working directory. It's also possible to set a different directory as
the extraction target, and to unpack only a subset of the archive's members.
@@ -1607,8 +1613,8 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
* New module: the :mod:`uuid` module generates universally unique identifiers
(UUIDs) according to :rfc:`4122`. The RFC defines several different UUID
versions that are generated from a starting string, from system properties, or
- purely randomly. This module contains a :class:`UUID` class and functions
- named :func:`uuid1`, :func:`uuid3`, :func:`uuid4`, and :func:`uuid5` to
+ purely randomly. This module contains a :class:`~uuid.UUID` class and functions
+ named :func:`~uuid.uuid1`, :func:`~uuid.uuid3`, :func:`~uuid.uuid4`, and :func:`~uuid.uuid5` to
generate different versions of UUID. (Version 2 UUIDs are not specified in
:rfc:`4122` and are not supported by this module.) ::
@@ -1631,18 +1637,18 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
(Contributed by Ka-Ping Yee.)
-* The :mod:`weakref` module's :class:`WeakKeyDictionary` and
- :class:`WeakValueDictionary` types gained new methods for iterating over the
- weak references contained in the dictionary. :meth:`iterkeyrefs` and
- :meth:`keyrefs` methods were added to :class:`WeakKeyDictionary`, and
- :meth:`itervaluerefs` and :meth:`valuerefs` were added to
- :class:`WeakValueDictionary`. (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)
+* The :mod:`weakref` module's :class:`~weakref.WeakKeyDictionary` and
+ :class:`~weakref.WeakValueDictionary` types gained new methods for iterating over the
+ weak references contained in the dictionary. :meth:`!iterkeyrefs` and
+ :meth:`~weakref.WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs` methods were added to :class:`~weakref.WeakKeyDictionary`, and
+ :meth:`!itervaluerefs` and :meth:`~weakref.WeakValueDictionary.valuerefs` were added to
+ :class:`~weakref.WeakValueDictionary`. (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)
* The :mod:`webbrowser` module received a number of enhancements. It's now
usable as a script with ``python -m webbrowser``, taking a URL as the argument;
there are a number of switches to control the behaviour (:option:`!-n` for a new
browser window, :option:`!-t` for a new tab). New module-level functions,
- :func:`open_new` and :func:`open_new_tab`, were added to support this. The
+ :func:`~webbrowser.open_new` and :func:`~webbrowser.open_new_tab`, were added to support this. The
module's :func:`open` function supports an additional feature, an *autoraise*
parameter that signals whether to raise the open window when possible. A number
of additional browsers were added to the supported list such as Firefox, Opera,
@@ -1663,9 +1669,9 @@ complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.
.. Patch 1446489
-* The :mod:`zlib` module's :class:`Compress` and :class:`Decompress` objects now
+* The :mod:`zlib` module's :class:`!Compress` and :class:`!Decompress` objects now
support a :meth:`copy` method that makes a copy of the object's internal state
- and returns a new :class:`Compress` or :class:`Decompress` object.
+ and returns a new :class:`!Compress` or :class:`!Decompress` object.
(Contributed by Chris AtLee.)
.. Patch 1435422
@@ -1685,34 +1691,34 @@ provides functions for loading shared libraries and calling functions in them.
The :mod:`ctypes` package is much fancier.
To load a shared library or DLL, you must create an instance of the
-:class:`CDLL` class and provide the name or path of the shared library or DLL.
+:class:`~ctypes.CDLL` class and provide the name or path of the shared library or DLL.
Once that's done, you can call arbitrary functions by accessing them as
-attributes of the :class:`CDLL` object. ::
+attributes of the :class:`~ctypes.CDLL` object. ::
import ctypes
libc = ctypes.CDLL('libc.so.6')
result = libc.printf("Line of output\n")
-Type constructors for the various C types are provided: :func:`c_int`,
-:func:`c_float`, :func:`c_double`, :func:`c_char_p` (equivalent to :c:expr:`char
+Type constructors for the various C types are provided: :func:`~ctypes.c_int`,
+:func:`~ctypes.c_float`, :func:`~ctypes.c_double`, :func:`~ctypes.c_char_p` (equivalent to :c:expr:`char
\*`), and so forth. Unlike Python's types, the C versions are all mutable; you
-can assign to their :attr:`value` attribute to change the wrapped value. Python
+can assign to their :attr:`~ctypes._SimpleCData.value` attribute to change the wrapped value. Python
integers and strings will be automatically converted to the corresponding C
types, but for other types you must call the correct type constructor. (And I
mean *must*; getting it wrong will often result in the interpreter crashing
with a segmentation fault.)
-You shouldn't use :func:`c_char_p` with a Python string when the C function will
+You shouldn't use :func:`~ctypes.c_char_p` with a Python string when the C function will
be modifying the memory area, because Python strings are supposed to be
immutable; breaking this rule will cause puzzling bugs. When you need a
-modifiable memory area, use :func:`create_string_buffer`::
+modifiable memory area, use :func:`~ctypes.create_string_buffer`::
s = "this is a string"
buf = ctypes.create_string_buffer(s)
libc.strfry(buf)
-C functions are assumed to return integers, but you can set the :attr:`restype`
+C functions are assumed to return integers, but you can set the :attr:`~ctypes._CFuncPtr.restype`
attribute of the function object to change this::
>>> libc.atof('2.71828')
@@ -1724,7 +1730,7 @@ attribute of the function object to change this::
:mod:`ctypes` also provides a wrapper for Python's C API as the
``ctypes.pythonapi`` object. This object does *not* release the global
interpreter lock before calling a function, because the lock must be held when
-calling into the interpreter's code. There's a :class:`py_object()` type
+calling into the interpreter's code. There's a :class:`~ctypes.py_object` type
constructor that will create a :c:expr:`PyObject *` pointer. A simple usage::
import ctypes
@@ -1734,7 +1740,7 @@ constructor that will create a :c:expr:`PyObject *` pointer. A simple usage::
ctypes.py_object("abc"), ctypes.py_object(1))
# d is now {'abc', 1}.
-Don't forget to use :class:`py_object()`; if it's omitted you end up with a
+Don't forget to use :func:`~ctypes.py_object`; if it's omitted you end up with a
segmentation fault.
:mod:`ctypes` has been around for a while, but people still write and
@@ -1760,9 +1766,9 @@ The ElementTree package
-----------------------
A subset of Fredrik Lundh's ElementTree library for processing XML has been
-added to the standard library as :mod:`xml.etree`. The available modules are
-:mod:`ElementTree`, :mod:`ElementPath`, and :mod:`ElementInclude` from
-ElementTree 1.2.6. The :mod:`cElementTree` accelerator module is also
+added to the standard library as :mod:`!xml.etree`. The available modules are
+:mod:`!ElementTree`, :mod:`!ElementPath`, and :mod:`!ElementInclude` from
+ElementTree 1.2.6. The :mod:`!cElementTree` accelerator module is also
included.
The rest of this section will provide a brief overview of using ElementTree.
@@ -1770,14 +1776,15 @@ Full documentation for ElementTree is available at
https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm.
ElementTree represents an XML document as a tree of element nodes. The text
-content of the document is stored as the :attr:`text` and :attr:`tail`
+content of the document is stored as the :attr:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.text`
+and :attr:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.tail`
attributes of (This is one of the major differences between ElementTree and
the Document Object Model; in the DOM there are many different types of node,
-including :class:`TextNode`.)
+including :class:`!TextNode`.)
-The most commonly used parsing function is :func:`parse`, that takes either a
+The most commonly used parsing function is :func:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.parse`, that takes either a
string (assumed to contain a filename) or a file-like object and returns an
-:class:`ElementTree` instance::
+:class:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree` instance::
from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET
@@ -1787,11 +1794,13 @@ string (assumed to contain a filename) or a file-like object and returns an
'http://planet.python.org/rss10.xml')
tree = ET.parse(feed)
-Once you have an :class:`ElementTree` instance, you can call its :meth:`getroot`
-method to get the root :class:`Element` node.
+Once you have an :class:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree` instance, you can
+call its :meth:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.getroot`
+method to get the root :class:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.Element` node.
-There's also an :func:`XML` function that takes a string literal and returns an
-:class:`Element` node (not an :class:`ElementTree`). This function provides a
+There's also an :func:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.XML` function that takes a string
+literal and returns an :class:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.Element` node (not an
+:class:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree`). This function provides a
tidy way to incorporate XML fragments, approaching the convenience of an XML
literal::
@@ -1834,7 +1843,7 @@ list-like operations are used to access child nodes.
| ``del elem.attrib[name]`` | Deletes attribute *name*. |
+-------------------------------+--------------------------------------------+
-Comments and processing instructions are also represented as :class:`Element`
+Comments and processing instructions are also represented as :class:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.Element`
nodes. To check if a node is a comment or processing instructions::
if elem.tag is ET.Comment:
@@ -1842,8 +1851,8 @@ nodes. To check if a node is a comment or processing instructions::
elif elem.tag is ET.ProcessingInstruction:
...
-To generate XML output, you should call the :meth:`ElementTree.write` method.
-Like :func:`parse`, it can take either a string or a file-like object::
+To generate XML output, you should call the :meth:`xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write` method.
+Like :func:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.parse`, it can take either a string or a file-like object::
# Encoding is US-ASCII
tree.write('output.xml')
@@ -1913,7 +1922,7 @@ differently. ::
Once a hash object has been created, its methods are the same as before:
``update(string)`` hashes the specified string into the current digest
-state, :meth:`digest` and :meth:`hexdigest` return the digest value as a binary
+state, :meth:`~hashlib.hash.digest` and :meth:`~hashlib.hash.hexdigest` return the digest value as a binary
string or a string of hex digits, and :meth:`copy` returns a new hashing object
with the same digest state.
@@ -1949,7 +1958,7 @@ doesn't include the SQLite code, only the wrapper module. You'll need to have
the SQLite libraries and headers installed before compiling Python, and the
build process will compile the module when the necessary headers are available.
-To use the module, you must first create a :class:`Connection` object that
+To use the module, you must first create a :class:`~sqlite3.Connection` object that
represents the database. Here the data will be stored in the
:file:`/tmp/example` file::
@@ -1957,8 +1966,8 @@ represents the database. Here the data will be stored in the
You can also supply the special name ``:memory:`` to create a database in RAM.
-Once you have a :class:`Connection`, you can create a :class:`Cursor` object
-and call its :meth:`execute` method to perform SQL commands::
+Once you have a :class:`~sqlite3.Connection`, you can create a :class:`~sqlite3.Cursor` object
+and call its :meth:`~sqlite3.Cursor.execute` method to perform SQL commands::
c = conn.cursor()
@@ -1977,7 +1986,7 @@ is insecure; it makes your program vulnerable to an SQL injection attack.
Instead, use the DB-API's parameter substitution. Put ``?`` as a placeholder
wherever you want to use a value, and then provide a tuple of values as the
-second argument to the cursor's :meth:`execute` method. (Other database modules
+second argument to the cursor's :meth:`~sqlite3.Cursor.execute` method. (Other database modules
may use a different placeholder, such as ``%s`` or ``:1``.) For example::
# Never do this -- insecure!
@@ -1996,8 +2005,8 @@ may use a different placeholder, such as ``%s`` or ``:1``.) For example::
c.execute('insert into stocks values (?,?,?,?,?)', t)
To retrieve data after executing a SELECT statement, you can either treat the
-cursor as an iterator, call the cursor's :meth:`fetchone` method to retrieve a
-single matching row, or call :meth:`fetchall` to get a list of the matching
+cursor as an iterator, call the cursor's :meth:`~sqlite3.Cursor.fetchone` method to retrieve a
+single matching row, or call :meth:`~sqlite3.Cursor.fetchall` to get a list of the matching
rows.
This example uses the iterator form::
@@ -2118,7 +2127,7 @@ Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
discusses the design. To start learning about the code, read the definition of
the various AST nodes in :file:`Parser/Python.asdl`. A Python script reads this
file and generates a set of C structure definitions in
- :file:`Include/Python-ast.h`. The :c:func:`PyParser_ASTFromString` and
+ :file:`Include/Python-ast.h`. The :c:func:`!PyParser_ASTFromString` and
:c:func:`!PyParser_ASTFromFile`, defined in :file:`Include/pythonrun.h`, take
Python source as input and return the root of an AST representing the contents.
This AST can then be turned into a code object by :c:func:`!PyAST_Compile`. For
@@ -2169,9 +2178,9 @@ Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
* Two new macros can be used to indicate C functions that are local to the
current file so that a faster calling convention can be used.
- ``Py_LOCAL(type)`` declares the function as returning a value of the
+ :c:macro:`Py_LOCAL` declares the function as returning a value of the
specified *type* and uses a fast-calling qualifier.
- ``Py_LOCAL_INLINE(type)`` does the same thing and also requests the
+ :c:macro:`Py_LOCAL_INLINE` does the same thing and also requests the
function be inlined. If macro :c:macro:`!PY_LOCAL_AGGRESSIVE` is defined before
:file:`python.h` is included, a set of more aggressive optimizations are enabled
for the module; you should benchmark the results to find out if these
@@ -2235,9 +2244,9 @@ code:
encoding declaration. In Python 2.4 this triggered a warning, not a syntax
error.
-* Previously, the :attr:`gi_frame` attribute of a generator was always a frame
+* Previously, the :attr:`!gi_frame` attribute of a generator was always a frame
object. Because of the :pep:`342` changes described in section :ref:`pep-342`,
- it's now possible for :attr:`gi_frame` to be ``None``.
+ it's now possible for :attr:`!gi_frame` to be ``None``.
* A new warning, :class:`UnicodeWarning`, is triggered when you attempt to
compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can't be converted to Unicode
@@ -2258,11 +2267,12 @@ code:
return a tuple of arguments instead. The modules also no longer accept the
deprecated *bin* keyword parameter.
-* Library: The :mod:`SimpleXMLRPCServer ` and :mod:`DocXMLRPCServer ` classes now
- have a :attr:`rpc_paths` attribute that constrains XML-RPC operations to a
+* Library: The :mod:`SimpleXMLRPCServer ` and :mod:`DocXMLRPCServer
+ ` classes now have a :attr:`~xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths`
+ attribute that constrains XML-RPC operations to a
limited set of URL paths; the default is to allow only ``'/'`` and ``'/RPC2'``.
- Setting :attr:`rpc_paths` to ``None`` or an empty tuple disables this path
- checking.
+ Setting :attr:`~xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths` to ``None``
+ or an empty tuple disables this path checking.
* C API: Many functions now use :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` instead of :c:expr:`int` to
allow processing more data on 64-bit machines. Extension code may need to make
diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/2.6.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/2.6.rst
index fc2de7124859a8c..c3762de77f2c52d 100644
--- a/Doc/whatsnew/2.6.rst
+++ b/Doc/whatsnew/2.6.rst
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ Python 2.6 incorporates new features and syntax from 3.0 while
remaining compatible with existing code by not removing older features
or syntax. When it's not possible to do that, Python 2.6 tries to do
what it can, adding compatibility functions in a
-:mod:`future_builtins` module and a :option:`!-3` switch to warn about
+:mod:`!future_builtins` module and a :option:`!-3` switch to warn about
usages that will become unsupported in 3.0.
Some significant new packages have been added to the standard library,
@@ -101,15 +101,15 @@ to break, they've been backported to 2.6 and are described in this
document in the appropriate place. Some of the 3.0-derived features
are:
-* A :meth:`__complex__` method for converting objects to a complex number.
+* A :meth:`~object.__complex__` method for converting objects to a complex number.
* Alternate syntax for catching exceptions: ``except TypeError as exc``.
* The addition of :func:`functools.reduce` as a synonym for the built-in
- :func:`reduce` function.
+ :func:`!reduce` function.
Python 3.0 adds several new built-in functions and changes the
semantics of some existing builtins. Functions that are new in 3.0
such as :func:`bin` have simply been added to Python 2.6, but existing
-builtins haven't been changed; instead, the :mod:`future_builtins`
+builtins haven't been changed; instead, the :mod:`!future_builtins`
module has versions with the new 3.0 semantics. Code written to be
compatible with 3.0 can do ``from future_builtins import hex, map`` as
necessary.
@@ -118,7 +118,7 @@ A new command-line switch, :option:`!-3`, enables warnings
about features that will be removed in Python 3.0. You can run code
with this switch to see how much work will be necessary to port
code to 3.0. The value of this switch is available
-to Python code as the boolean variable :data:`sys.py3kwarning`,
+to Python code as the boolean variable :data:`!sys.py3kwarning`,
and to C extension code as :c:data:`!Py_Py3kWarningFlag`.
.. seealso::
@@ -307,9 +307,9 @@ The :mod:`threading` module's locks and condition variables also support the
The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released once the
block is complete.
-The :func:`localcontext` function in the :mod:`decimal` module makes it easy
-to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates the desired
-precision and rounding characteristics for computations::
+The :func:`~decimal.localcontext` function in the :mod:`decimal` module makes
+it easy to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates
+the desired precision and rounding characteristics for computations::
from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext
@@ -337,12 +337,12 @@ underlying implementation and should keep reading.
A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:
* The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a "context
- manager". The context manager must have :meth:`~object.__enter__` and :meth:`~object.__exit__`
- methods.
+ manager". The context manager must have :meth:`~object.__enter__` and
+ :meth:`~object.__exit__` methods.
-* The context manager's :meth:`~object.__enter__` method is called. The value returned
- is assigned to *VAR*. If no ``as VAR`` clause is present, the value is simply
- discarded.
+* The context manager's :meth:`~object.__enter__` method is called. The value
+ returned is assigned to *VAR*. If no ``as VAR`` clause is present, the
+ value is simply discarded.
* The code in *BLOCK* is executed.
@@ -378,7 +378,7 @@ be to let the user write code like this::
The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs flawlessly or
rolled back if there's an exception. Here's the basic interface for
-:class:`DatabaseConnection` that I'll assume::
+:class:`!DatabaseConnection` that I'll assume::
class DatabaseConnection:
# Database interface
@@ -431,14 +431,15 @@ The contextlib module
The :mod:`contextlib` module provides some functions and a decorator that
are useful when writing objects for use with the ':keyword:`with`' statement.
-The decorator is called :func:`contextmanager`, and lets you write a single
-generator function instead of defining a new class. The generator should yield
-exactly one value. The code up to the :keyword:`yield` will be executed as the
-:meth:`~object.__enter__` method, and the value yielded will be the method's return
-value that will get bound to the variable in the ':keyword:`with`' statement's
-:keyword:`!as` clause, if any. The code after the :keyword:`!yield` will be
-executed in the :meth:`~object.__exit__` method. Any exception raised in the block will
-be raised by the :keyword:`!yield` statement.
+The decorator is called :deco:`~contextlib.contextmanager`, and lets you write
+a single generator function instead of defining a new class. The generator
+should yield exactly one value. The code up to the :keyword:`yield` will be
+executed as the :meth:`~object.__enter__` method, and the value yielded will
+be the method's return value that will get bound to the variable in the
+':keyword:`with`' statement's :keyword:`!as` clause, if any. The code after
+the :keyword:`!yield` will be executed in the :meth:`~object.__exit__` method.
+Any exception raised in the block will be raised by the :keyword:`!yield`
+statement.
Using this decorator, our database example from the previous section
could be written as::
@@ -469,7 +470,7 @@ statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a thread lock::
with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
...
-Finally, the :func:`closing` function returns its argument so that it can be
+Finally, the :func:`~contextlib.closing` function returns its argument so that it can be
bound to a variable, and calls the argument's ``.close()`` method at the end
of the block. ::
@@ -502,12 +503,12 @@ Python's :option:`-m` switch allows running a module as a script.
When you ran a module that was located inside a package, relative
imports didn't work correctly.
-The fix for Python 2.6 adds a :attr:`__package__` attribute to
-modules. When this attribute is present, relative imports will be
+The fix for Python 2.6 adds a :attr:`module.__package__` attribute.
+When this attribute is present, relative imports will be
relative to the value of this attribute instead of the
-:attr:`__name__` attribute.
+:attr:`~module.__name__` attribute.
-PEP 302-style importers can then set :attr:`__package__` as necessary.
+PEP 302-style importers can then set :attr:`~module.__package__` as necessary.
The :mod:`runpy` module that implements the :option:`-m` switch now
does this, so relative imports will now work correctly in scripts
running from inside a package.
@@ -538,7 +539,7 @@ If you don't like the default directory, it can be overridden by an
environment variable. :envvar:`PYTHONUSERBASE` sets the root
directory used for all Python versions supporting this feature. On
Windows, the directory for application-specific data can be changed by
-setting the :envvar:`APPDATA` environment variable. You can also
+setting the :envvar:`!APPDATA` environment variable. You can also
modify the :file:`site.py` file for your Python installation.
The feature can be disabled entirely by running Python with the
@@ -568,11 +569,12 @@ The :mod:`multiprocessing` module started out as an exact emulation of
the :mod:`threading` module using processes instead of threads. That
goal was discarded along the path to Python 2.6, but the general
approach of the module is still similar. The fundamental class
-is the :class:`Process`, which is passed a callable object and
-a collection of arguments. The :meth:`start` method
+is the :class:`~multiprocessing.Process`, which is passed a callable object and
+a collection of arguments. The :meth:`~multiprocessing.Process.start` method
sets the callable running in a subprocess, after which you can call
-the :meth:`is_alive` method to check whether the subprocess is still running
-and the :meth:`join` method to wait for the process to exit.
+the :meth:`~multiprocessing.Process.is_alive` method to check whether the
+subprocess is still running and the :meth:`~multiprocessing.Process.join`
+method to wait for the process to exit.
Here's a simple example where the subprocess will calculate a
factorial. The function doing the calculation is written strangely so
@@ -619,13 +621,16 @@ the object to communicate. (If the parent were to change the value of
the global variable, the child's value would be unaffected, and vice
versa.)
-Two other classes, :class:`Pool` and :class:`Manager`, provide
-higher-level interfaces. :class:`Pool` will create a fixed number of
-worker processes, and requests can then be distributed to the workers
-by calling :meth:`apply` or :meth:`apply_async` to add a single request,
-and :meth:`map` or :meth:`map_async` to add a number of
-requests. The following code uses a :class:`Pool` to spread requests
-across 5 worker processes and retrieve a list of results::
+Two other classes, :class:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool` and
+:class:`~multiprocessing.Manager`, provide higher-level interfaces.
+:class:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool` will create a fixed number of worker
+processes, and requests can then be distributed to the workers by calling
+:meth:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply` or
+:meth:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool.apply_async` to add a single request, and
+:meth:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map` or
+:meth:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map_async` to add a number of
+requests. The following code uses a :class:`~multiprocessing.pool.Pool` to
+spread requests across 5 worker processes and retrieve a list of results::
from multiprocessing import Pool
@@ -646,15 +651,18 @@ This produces the following output::
33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
...
-The other high-level interface, the :class:`Manager` class, creates a
-separate server process that can hold master copies of Python data
+The other high-level interface, the :class:`~multiprocessing.Manager` class,
+creates a separate server process that can hold master copies of Python data
structures. Other processes can then access and modify these data
structures using proxy objects. The following example creates a
shared dictionary by calling the :meth:`dict` method; the worker
processes then insert values into the dictionary. (Locking is not
done for you automatically, which doesn't matter in this example.
-:class:`Manager`'s methods also include :meth:`Lock`, :meth:`RLock`,
-and :meth:`Semaphore` to create shared locks.)
+:class:`~multiprocessing.Manager`'s methods also include
+:meth:`~multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Lock`,
+:meth:`~multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.RLock`,
+and :meth:`~multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Semaphore` to create
+shared locks.)
::
@@ -824,7 +832,7 @@ documentation for a :ref:`complete list `; here's a sample:
format, followed by a percent sign.
===== ========================================================================
-Classes and types can define a :meth:`__format__` method to control how they're
+Classes and types can define a :meth:`~object.__format__` method to control how they're
formatted. It receives a single argument, the format specifier::
def __format__(self, format_spec):
@@ -834,7 +842,7 @@ formatted. It receives a single argument, the format specifier::
return str(self)
There's also a :func:`format` builtin that will format a single
-value. It calls the type's :meth:`__format__` method with the
+value. It calls the type's :meth:`~object.__format__` method with the
provided specifier::
>>> format(75.6564, '.2f')
@@ -997,9 +1005,10 @@ sequence of bytes::
u'\u31ef \u3244'
Byte arrays support most of the methods of string types, such as
-:meth:`startswith`/:meth:`endswith`, :meth:`find`/:meth:`rfind`,
-and some of the methods of lists, such as :meth:`append`,
-:meth:`pop`, and :meth:`reverse`.
+:meth:`~bytearray.startswith`/:meth:`~bytearray.endswith`,
+:meth:`~bytearray.find`/:meth:`~bytearray.rfind`,
+and some of the methods of lists, such as :meth:`~bytearray.append`,
+:meth:`~bytearray.pop`, and :meth:`~bytearray.reverse`.
::
@@ -1028,56 +1037,58 @@ PEP 3116: New I/O Library
Python's built-in file objects support a number of methods, but
file-like objects don't necessarily support all of them. Objects that
-imitate files usually support :meth:`read` and :meth:`write`, but they
-may not support :meth:`readline`, for example. Python 3.0 introduces
-a layered I/O library in the :mod:`io` module that separates buffering
-and text-handling features from the fundamental read and write
-operations.
+imitate files usually support :meth:`!read` and
+:meth:`!write`, but they may not support :meth:`!readline`,
+for example. Python 3.0 introduces a layered I/O library in the :mod:`io`
+module that separates buffering and text-handling features from the
+fundamental read and write operations.
There are three levels of abstract base classes provided by
the :mod:`io` module:
-* :class:`RawIOBase` defines raw I/O operations: :meth:`read`,
- :meth:`readinto`,
- :meth:`write`, :meth:`seek`, :meth:`tell`, :meth:`truncate`,
- and :meth:`close`.
+* :class:`~io.RawIOBase` defines raw I/O operations: :meth:`~io.RawIOBase.read`,
+ :meth:`~io.RawIOBase.readinto`, :meth:`~io.RawIOBase.write`,
+ :meth:`~io.IOBase.seek`, :meth:`~io.IOBase.tell`, :meth:`~io.IOBase.truncate`,
+ and :meth:`~io.IOBase.close`.
Most of the methods of this class will often map to a single system call.
- There are also :meth:`readable`, :meth:`writable`, and :meth:`seekable`
- methods for determining what operations a given object will allow.
+ There are also :meth:`~io.IOBase.readable`, :meth:`~io.IOBase.writable`,
+ and :meth:`~io.IOBase.seekable` methods for determining what operations a
+ given object will allow.
Python 3.0 has concrete implementations of this class for files and
sockets, but Python 2.6 hasn't restructured its file and socket objects
in this way.
-* :class:`BufferedIOBase` is an abstract base class that
+* :class:`~io.BufferedIOBase` is an abstract base class that
buffers data in memory to reduce the number of
system calls used, making I/O processing more efficient.
- It supports all of the methods of :class:`RawIOBase`,
- and adds a :attr:`raw` attribute holding the underlying raw object.
+ It supports all of the methods of :class:`~io.RawIOBase`,
+ and adds a :attr:`~io.BufferedIOBase.raw` attribute holding the underlying
+ raw object.
There are five concrete classes implementing this ABC.
- :class:`BufferedWriter` and :class:`BufferedReader` are for objects
- that support write-only or read-only usage that have a :meth:`seek`
- method for random access. :class:`BufferedRandom` objects support
+ :class:`~io.BufferedWriter` and :class:`~io.BufferedReader` are for objects
+ that support write-only or read-only usage that have a :meth:`~io.IOBase.seek`
+ method for random access. :class:`~io.BufferedRandom` objects support
read and write access upon the same underlying stream, and
- :class:`BufferedRWPair` is for objects such as TTYs that have both
+ :class:`~io.BufferedRWPair` is for objects such as TTYs that have both
read and write operations acting upon unconnected streams of data.
- The :class:`BytesIO` class supports reading, writing, and seeking
+ The :class:`~io.BytesIO` class supports reading, writing, and seeking
over an in-memory buffer.
.. index::
single: universal newlines; What's new
-* :class:`TextIOBase`: Provides functions for reading and writing
+* :class:`~io.TextIOBase`: Provides functions for reading and writing
strings (remember, strings will be Unicode in Python 3.0),
- and supporting :term:`universal newlines`. :class:`TextIOBase` defines
+ and supporting :term:`universal newlines`. :class:`~io.TextIOBase` defines
the :meth:`readline` method and supports iteration upon
objects.
- There are two concrete implementations. :class:`TextIOWrapper`
+ There are two concrete implementations. :class:`~io.TextIOWrapper`
wraps a buffered I/O object, supporting all of the methods for
- text I/O and adding a :attr:`buffer` attribute for access
- to the underlying object. :class:`StringIO` simply buffers
+ text I/O and adding a :attr:`~io.TextIOBase.buffer` attribute for access
+ to the underlying object. :class:`~io.StringIO` simply buffers
everything in memory without ever writing anything to disk.
(In Python 2.6, :class:`io.StringIO` is implemented in
@@ -1134,7 +1145,7 @@ constraints upon the memory returned. Some examples are:
* :c:macro:`PyBUF_WRITABLE` indicates that the memory must be writable.
-* :c:macro:`PyBUF_LOCK` requests a read-only or exclusive lock on the memory.
+* :c:macro:`!PyBUF_LOCK` requests a read-only or exclusive lock on the memory.
* :c:macro:`PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS` and :c:macro:`PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS`
requests a C-contiguous (last dimension varies the fastest) or
@@ -1161,7 +1172,7 @@ Some object-oriented languages such as Java support interfaces,
declaring that a class has a given set of methods or supports a given
access protocol. Abstract Base Classes (or ABCs) are an equivalent
feature for Python. The ABC support consists of an :mod:`abc` module
-containing a metaclass called :class:`ABCMeta`, special handling of
+containing a metaclass called :class:`~abc.ABCMeta`, special handling of
this metaclass by the :func:`isinstance` and :func:`issubclass`
builtins, and a collection of basic ABCs that the Python developers
think will be widely useful. Future versions of Python will probably
@@ -1171,17 +1182,17 @@ Let's say you have a particular class and wish to know whether it supports
dictionary-style access. The phrase "dictionary-style" is vague, however.
It probably means that accessing items with ``obj[1]`` works.
Does it imply that setting items with ``obj[2] = value`` works?
-Or that the object will have :meth:`keys`, :meth:`values`, and :meth:`items`
-methods? What about the iterative variants such as :meth:`iterkeys`? :meth:`copy`
-and :meth:`update`? Iterating over the object with :func:`iter`?
+Or that the object will have :meth:`!keys`, :meth:`!values`, and :meth:`!items`
+methods? What about the iterative variants such as :meth:`!iterkeys`?
+:meth:`!copy`and :meth:`!update`? Iterating over the object with :func:`!iter`?
The Python 2.6 :mod:`collections` module includes a number of
different ABCs that represent these distinctions. :class:`Iterable`
-indicates that a class defines :meth:`__iter__`, and
-:class:`Container` means the class defines a :meth:`__contains__`
+indicates that a class defines :meth:`~object.__iter__`, and
+:class:`Container` means the class defines a :meth:`~object.__contains__`
method and therefore supports ``x in y`` expressions. The basic
dictionary interface of getting items, setting items, and
-:meth:`keys`, :meth:`values`, and :meth:`items`, is defined by the
+:meth:`!keys`, :meth:`!values`, and :meth:`!items`, is defined by the
:class:`MutableMapping` ABC.
You can derive your own classes from a particular ABC
@@ -1195,7 +1206,7 @@ to indicate they support that ABC's interface::
Alternatively, you could write the class without deriving from
the desired ABC and instead register the class by
-calling the ABC's :meth:`register` method::
+calling the ABC's :meth:`~abc.ABCMeta.register` method::
import collections
@@ -1205,10 +1216,10 @@ calling the ABC's :meth:`register` method::
collections.MutableMapping.register(Storage)
For classes that you write, deriving from the ABC is probably clearer.
-The :meth:`register` method is useful when you've written a new
+The :meth:`~abc.ABCMeta.register` method is useful when you've written a new
ABC that can describe an existing type or class, or if you want
to declare that some third-party class implements an ABC.
-For example, if you defined a :class:`PrintableType` ABC,
+For example, if you defined a :class:`!PrintableType` ABC,
it's legal to do::
# Register Python's types
@@ -1255,16 +1266,16 @@ metaclass in a class definition::
...
-In the :class:`Drawable` ABC above, the :meth:`draw_doubled` method
+In the :class:`!Drawable` ABC above, the :meth:`!draw_doubled` method
renders the object at twice its size and can be implemented in terms
-of other methods described in :class:`Drawable`. Classes implementing
+of other methods described in :class:`!Drawable`. Classes implementing
this ABC therefore don't need to provide their own implementation
-of :meth:`draw_doubled`, though they can do so. An implementation
-of :meth:`draw` is necessary, though; the ABC can't provide
+of :meth:`!draw_doubled`, though they can do so. An implementation
+of :meth:`!draw` is necessary, though; the ABC can't provide
a useful generic implementation.
-You can apply the ``@abstractmethod`` decorator to methods such as
-:meth:`draw` that must be implemented; Python will then raise an
+You can apply the :deco:`~abc.abstractmethod` decorator to methods such as
+:meth:`!draw` that must be implemented; Python will then raise an
exception for classes that don't define the method.
Note that the exception is only raised when you actually
try to create an instance of a subclass lacking the method::
@@ -1288,7 +1299,7 @@ Abstract data attributes can be declared using the
def readonly(self):
return self._x
-Subclasses must then define a :meth:`readonly` property.
+Subclasses must then define a ``readonly`` property.
.. seealso::
@@ -1328,7 +1339,7 @@ builtin returns the binary representation for a number::
>>> bin(173)
'0b10101101'
-The :func:`int` and :func:`long` builtins will now accept the "0o"
+The :func:`int` and :func:`!long` builtins will now accept the "0o"
and "0b" prefixes when base-8 or base-2 are requested, or when the
*base* argument is zero (signalling that the base used should be
determined from the string)::
@@ -1381,35 +1392,36 @@ This is equivalent to::
.. _pep-3141:
PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
-=====================================================
+======================================
Python 3.0 adds several abstract base classes for numeric types
inspired by Scheme's numeric tower. These classes were backported to
2.6 as the :mod:`numbers` module.
-The most general ABC is :class:`Number`. It defines no operations at
+The most general ABC is :class:`~numbers.Number`. It defines no operations at
all, and only exists to allow checking if an object is a number by
doing ``isinstance(obj, Number)``.
-:class:`Complex` is a subclass of :class:`Number`. Complex numbers
+:class:`~numbers.Complex` is a subclass of :class:`~numbers.Number`. Complex numbers
can undergo the basic operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and exponentiation, and you can retrieve the
real and imaginary parts and obtain a number's conjugate. Python's built-in
-complex type is an implementation of :class:`Complex`.
+complex type is an implementation of :class:`~numbers.Complex`.
-:class:`Real` further derives from :class:`Complex`, and adds
-operations that only work on real numbers: :func:`floor`, :func:`trunc`,
+:class:`~numbers.Real` further derives from :class:`~numbers.Complex`, and adds
+operations that only work on real numbers: :func:`~math.floor`, :func:`~math.trunc`,
rounding, taking the remainder mod N, floor division,
and comparisons.
-:class:`Rational` numbers derive from :class:`Real`, have
-:attr:`numerator` and :attr:`denominator` properties, and can be
+:class:`~numbers.Rational` numbers derive from :class:`~numbers.Real`, have
+:attr:`~numbers.Rational.numerator` and :attr:`~numbers.Rational.denominator`
+properties, and can be
converted to floats. Python 2.6 adds a simple rational-number class,
-:class:`Fraction`, in the :mod:`fractions` module. (It's called
-:class:`Fraction` instead of :class:`Rational` to avoid
+:class:`~fractions.Fraction`, in the :mod:`fractions` module. (It's called
+:class:`~fractions.Fraction` instead of ``Rational`` to avoid
a name clash with :class:`numbers.Rational`.)
-:class:`Integral` numbers derive from :class:`Rational`, and
+:class:`~numbers.Integral` numbers derive from :class:`~numbers.Rational`, and
can be shifted left and right with ``<<`` and ``>>``,
combined using bitwise operations such as ``&`` and ``|``,
and can be used as array indexes and slice boundaries.
@@ -1418,7 +1430,7 @@ In Python 3.0, the PEP slightly redefines the existing builtins
:func:`round`, :func:`math.floor`, :func:`math.ceil`, and adds a new
one, :func:`math.trunc`, that's been backported to Python 2.6.
:func:`math.trunc` rounds toward zero, returning the closest
-:class:`Integral` that's between the function's argument and zero.
+:class:`~numbers.Integral` that's between the function's argument and zero.
.. seealso::
@@ -1431,7 +1443,7 @@ one, :func:`math.trunc`, that's been backported to Python 2.6.
The :mod:`fractions` Module
---------------------------------------------------
+---------------------------
To fill out the hierarchy of numeric types, the :mod:`fractions`
module provides a rational-number class. Rational numbers store their
@@ -1439,7 +1451,7 @@ values as a numerator and denominator forming a fraction, and can
exactly represent numbers such as ``2/3`` that floating-point numbers
can only approximate.
-The :class:`Fraction` constructor takes two :class:`Integral` values
+The :class:`~fractions.Fraction` constructor takes two :class:`~numbers.Integral` values
that will be the numerator and denominator of the resulting fraction. ::
>>> from fractions import Fraction
@@ -1453,7 +1465,7 @@ that will be the numerator and denominator of the resulting fraction. ::
Fraction(5, 3)
For converting floating-point numbers to rationals,
-the float type now has an :meth:`as_integer_ratio()` method that returns
+the float type now has an :meth:`~float.as_integer_ratio` method that returns
the numerator and denominator for a fraction that evaluates to the same
floating-point value::
@@ -1488,7 +1500,7 @@ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
:issue:`1739468`.)
* The :func:`hasattr` function was catching and ignoring all errors,
- under the assumption that they meant a :meth:`__getattr__` method
+ under the assumption that they meant a :meth:`~object.__getattr__` method
was failing somehow and the return value of :func:`hasattr` would
therefore be ``False``. This logic shouldn't be applied to
:exc:`KeyboardInterrupt` and :exc:`SystemExit`, however; Python 2.6
@@ -1528,8 +1540,8 @@ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
the :exc:`StopIteration` exception will be raised. (Backported
in :issue:`2719`.)
-* Tuples now have :meth:`index` and :meth:`count` methods matching the
- list type's :meth:`index` and :meth:`count` methods::
+* Tuples now have :meth:`~tuple.index` and :meth:`~tuple.count` methods
+ matching the list type's :meth:`~list.index` and :meth:`~list.count` methods::
>>> t = (0,1,2,3,4,0,1,2)
>>> t.index(3)
@@ -1546,8 +1558,9 @@ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
.. Revision 57619
-* Properties now have three attributes, :attr:`getter`, :attr:`setter`
- and :attr:`deleter`, that are decorators providing useful shortcuts
+* Properties now have three decorators, :deco:`~property.getter`,
+ :deco:`~property.setter` and :deco:`~property.deleter`, that are
+ decorators providing useful shortcuts
for adding a getter, setter or deleter function to an existing
property. You would use them like this::
@@ -1574,10 +1587,10 @@ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
self._x = value / 2
* Several methods of the built-in set types now accept multiple iterables:
- :meth:`intersection`,
- :meth:`intersection_update`,
- :meth:`union`, :meth:`update`,
- :meth:`difference` and :meth:`difference_update`.
+ :meth:`~set.intersection`,
+ :meth:`~set.intersection_update`,
+ :meth:`~set.union`, :meth:`~set.update`,
+ :meth:`~set.difference` and :meth:`~set.difference_update`.
::
@@ -1595,8 +1608,8 @@ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
positive or negative infinity. This works on any platform with
IEEE 754 semantics. (Contributed by Christian Heimes; :issue:`1635`.)
- Other functions in the :mod:`math` module, :func:`isinf` and
- :func:`isnan`, return true if their floating-point argument is
+ Other functions in the :mod:`math` module, :func:`~math.isinf` and
+ :func:`~math.isnan`, return true if their floating-point argument is
infinite or Not A Number. (:issue:`1640`)
Conversion functions were added to convert floating-point numbers
@@ -1621,17 +1634,17 @@ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
:func:`complex` constructor will now preserve the sign
of the zero. (Fixed by Mark T. Dickinson; :issue:`1507`.)
-* Classes that inherit a :meth:`__hash__` method from a parent class
+* Classes that inherit a :meth:`~object.__hash__` method from a parent class
can set ``__hash__ = None`` to indicate that the class isn't
hashable. This will make ``hash(obj)`` raise a :exc:`TypeError`
and the class will not be indicated as implementing the
:class:`Hashable` ABC.
- You should do this when you've defined a :meth:`__cmp__` or
- :meth:`__eq__` method that compares objects by their value rather
+ You should do this when you've defined a :meth:`!__cmp__` or
+ :meth:`~object.__eq__` method that compares objects by their value rather
than by identity. All objects have a default hash method that uses
``id(obj)`` as the hash value. There's no tidy way to remove the
- :meth:`__hash__` method inherited from a parent class, so
+ :meth:`~object.__hash__` method inherited from a parent class, so
assigning ``None`` was implemented as an override. At the
C level, extensions can set ``tp_hash`` to
:c:func:`PyObject_HashNotImplemented`.
@@ -1643,7 +1656,7 @@ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
will not inadvertently catch :exc:`GeneratorExit`.
(Contributed by Chad Austin; :issue:`1537`.)
-* Generator objects now have a :attr:`gi_code` attribute that refers to
+* Generator objects now have a :attr:`!gi_code` attribute that refers to
the original code object backing the generator.
(Contributed by Collin Winter; :issue:`1473257`.)
@@ -1656,17 +1669,17 @@ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
will now round-trip values. For example, ``complex('(3+4j)')``
now returns the value (3+4j). (:issue:`1491866`)
-* The string :meth:`translate` method now accepts ``None`` as the
+* The string :meth:`~str.translate` method now accepts ``None`` as the
translation table parameter, which is treated as the identity
transformation. This makes it easier to carry out operations
that only delete characters. (Contributed by Bengt Richter and
implemented by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`1193128`.)
-* The built-in :func:`dir` function now checks for a :meth:`__dir__`
+* The built-in :func:`dir` function now checks for a :meth:`~object.__dir__`
method on the objects it receives. This method must return a list
of strings containing the names of valid attributes for the object,
and lets the object control the value that :func:`dir` produces.
- Objects that have :meth:`__getattr__` or :meth:`__getattribute__`
+ Objects that have :meth:`~object.__getattr__` or :meth:`~object.__getattribute__`
methods can use this to advertise pseudo-attributes they will honor.
(:issue:`1591665`)
@@ -1727,8 +1740,8 @@ Optimizations
one of these types. (Contributed by Neal Norwitz.)
* Unicode strings now use faster code for detecting
- whitespace and line breaks; this speeds up the :meth:`split` method
- by about 25% and :meth:`splitlines` by 35%.
+ whitespace and line breaks; this speeds up the :meth:`~str.split` method
+ by about 25% and :meth:`~str.splitlines` by 35%.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.) Memory usage is reduced
by using pymalloc for the Unicode string's data.
@@ -1744,7 +1757,7 @@ Optimizations
.. _new-26-interpreter:
Interpreter Changes
--------------------------------
+-------------------
Two command-line options have been reserved for use by other Python
implementations. The :option:`-J` switch has been reserved for use by
@@ -1788,15 +1801,15 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
were applied. (Maintained by Josiah Carlson; see :issue:`1736190` for
one patch.)
-* The :mod:`bsddb` module also has a new maintainer, Jesús Cea Avión, and the package
- is now available as a standalone package. The web page for the package is
- `www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm
+* The :mod:`!bsddb` module also has a new maintainer, Jesús Cea Avión, and the
+ package is now available as a standalone package. The web page for the package
+ is `www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm
`__.
The plan is to remove the package from the standard library
in Python 3.0, because its pace of releases is much more frequent than
Python's.
- The :mod:`bsddb.dbshelve` module now uses the highest pickling protocol
+ The :mod:`!bsddb.dbshelve` module now uses the highest pickling protocol
available, instead of restricting itself to protocol 1.
(Contributed by W. Barnes.)
@@ -1806,9 +1819,9 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
"/cgi-bin/add.py?category=1". (Contributed by Alexandre Fiori and
Nubis; :issue:`1817`.)
- The :func:`parse_qs` and :func:`parse_qsl` functions have been
- relocated from the :mod:`!cgi` module to the :mod:`urlparse ` module.
- The versions still available in the :mod:`!cgi` module will
+ The :func:`~urllib.parse.parse_qs` and :func:`~urllib.parse.parse_qsl` functions
+ have been relocated from the :mod:`!cgi` module to the :mod:`urlparse `
+ module. The versions still available in the :mod:`!cgi` module will
trigger :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning` messages in 2.6
(:issue:`600362`).
@@ -1816,27 +1829,27 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
contributed by Mark Dickinson and Christian Heimes.
Five new functions were added:
- * :func:`polar` converts a complex number to polar form, returning
+ * :func:`~cmath.polar` converts a complex number to polar form, returning
the modulus and argument of the complex number.
- * :func:`rect` does the opposite, turning a modulus, argument pair
+ * :func:`~cmath.rect` does the opposite, turning a modulus, argument pair
back into the corresponding complex number.
- * :func:`phase` returns the argument (also called the angle) of a complex
+ * :func:`~cmath.phase` returns the argument (also called the angle) of a complex
number.
- * :func:`isnan` returns True if either
+ * :func:`~cmath.isnan` returns True if either
the real or imaginary part of its argument is a NaN.
- * :func:`isinf` returns True if either the real or imaginary part of
+ * :func:`~cmath.isinf` returns True if either the real or imaginary part of
its argument is infinite.
The revisions also improved the numerical soundness of the
:mod:`cmath` module. For all functions, the real and imaginary
parts of the results are accurate to within a few units of least
precision (ulps) whenever possible. See :issue:`1381` for the
- details. The branch cuts for :func:`asinh`, :func:`atanh`: and
- :func:`atan` have also been corrected.
+ details. The branch cuts for :func:`~cmath.asinh`, :func:`~cmath.atanh`, and
+ :func:`~cmath.atan` have also been corrected.
The tests for the module have been greatly expanded; nearly 2000 new
test cases exercise the algebraic functions.
@@ -1868,14 +1881,14 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
variable(id=1, name='amplitude', type='int', size=4)
Several places in the standard library that returned tuples have
- been modified to return :func:`namedtuple` instances. For example,
- the :meth:`Decimal.as_tuple` method now returns a named tuple with
- :attr:`sign`, :attr:`digits`, and :attr:`exponent` fields.
+ been modified to return :func:`~collections.namedtuple` instances. For example,
+ the :meth:`decimal.Decimal.as_tuple` method now returns a named tuple with
+ :attr:`!sign`, :attr:`!digits`, and :attr:`!exponent` fields.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
* Another change to the :mod:`collections` module is that the
- :class:`deque` type now supports an optional *maxlen* parameter;
+ :class:`~collections.deque` type now supports an optional *maxlen* parameter;
if supplied, the deque's size will be restricted to no more
than *maxlen* items. Adding more items to a full deque causes
old items to be discarded.
@@ -1901,7 +1914,7 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
(Contributed by Arvin Schnell; :issue:`1638033`.)
* A new window method in the :mod:`curses` module,
- :meth:`chgat`, changes the display attributes for a certain number of
+ :meth:`~curses.window.chgat`, changes the display attributes for a certain number of
characters on a single line. (Contributed by Fabian Kreutz.)
::
@@ -1910,20 +1923,20 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
# and affecting the rest of the line.
stdscr.chgat(0, 21, curses.A_BOLD)
- The :class:`Textbox` class in the :mod:`curses.textpad` module
+ The :class:`~curses.textpad.Textbox` class in the :mod:`curses.textpad` module
now supports editing in insert mode as well as overwrite mode.
Insert mode is enabled by supplying a true value for the *insert_mode*
- parameter when creating the :class:`Textbox` instance.
+ parameter when creating the :class:`~curses.textpad.Textbox` instance.
-* The :mod:`datetime` module's :meth:`strftime` methods now support a
- ``%f`` format code that expands to the number of microseconds in the
+* The :mod:`datetime` module's :meth:`~datetime.datetime.strftime` methods now
+ support a ``%f`` format code that expands to the number of microseconds in the
object, zero-padded on
the left to six places. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro; :issue:`1158`.)
* The :mod:`decimal` module was updated to version 1.66 of
`the General Decimal Specification `__. New features
include some methods for some basic mathematical functions such as
- :meth:`exp` and :meth:`log10`::
+ :meth:`~decimal.Decimal.exp` and :meth:`~decimal.Decimal.log10`::
>>> Decimal(1).exp()
Decimal("2.718281828459045235360287471")
@@ -1932,28 +1945,29 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
>>> Decimal(1000).log10()
Decimal("3")
- The :meth:`as_tuple` method of :class:`Decimal` objects now returns a
- named tuple with :attr:`sign`, :attr:`digits`, and :attr:`exponent` fields.
+ The :meth:`~decimal.Decimal.as_tuple` method of :class:`~decimal.Decimal`
+ objects now returns a named tuple with :attr:`!sign`, :attr:`!digits`, and
+ :attr:`!exponent` fields.
(Implemented by Facundo Batista and Mark Dickinson. Named tuple
support added by Raymond Hettinger.)
-* The :mod:`difflib` module's :class:`SequenceMatcher` class
+* The :mod:`difflib` module's :class:`~difflib.SequenceMatcher` class
now returns named tuples representing matches,
- with :attr:`a`, :attr:`b`, and :attr:`size` attributes.
+ with :attr:`!a`, :attr:`!b`, and :attr:`!size` attributes.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
* An optional ``timeout`` parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
seconds, was added to the :class:`ftplib.FTP` class constructor as
- well as the :meth:`connect` method. (Added by Facundo Batista.)
- Also, the :class:`FTP` class's :meth:`storbinary` and
- :meth:`storlines` now take an optional *callback* parameter that
+ well as the :meth:`~ftplib.FTP.connect` method. (Added by Facundo Batista.)
+ Also, the :class:`~ftplib.FTP` class's :meth:`~ftplib.FTP.storbinary` and
+ :meth:`~ftplib.FTP.storlines` now take an optional *callback* parameter that
will be called with each block of data after the data has been sent.
(Contributed by Phil Schwartz; :issue:`1221598`.)
-* The :func:`reduce` built-in function is also available in the
+* The :func:`!reduce` built-in function is also available in the
:mod:`functools` module. In Python 3.0, the builtin has been
- dropped and :func:`reduce` is only available from :mod:`functools`;
+ dropped and :func:`~functools.reduce` is only available from :mod:`functools`;
currently there are no plans to drop the builtin in the 2.x series.
(Patched by Christian Heimes; :issue:`1739906`.)
@@ -1977,8 +1991,8 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
Another new function, ``heappushpop(heap, item)``,
pushes *item* onto *heap*, then pops off and returns the smallest item.
- This is more efficient than making a call to :func:`heappush` and then
- :func:`heappop`.
+ This is more efficient than making a call to :func:`~heapq.heappush` and then
+ :func:`~heapq.heappop`.
:mod:`heapq` is now implemented to only use less-than comparison,
instead of the less-than-or-equal comparison it previously used.
@@ -1992,14 +2006,14 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
Batista.)
* Most of the :mod:`inspect` module's functions, such as
- :func:`getmoduleinfo` and :func:`getargs`, now return named tuples.
+ :func:`!getmoduleinfo` and :func:`!getargs`, now return named tuples.
In addition to behaving like tuples, the elements of the return value
can also be accessed as attributes.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
Some new functions in the module include
- :func:`isgenerator`, :func:`isgeneratorfunction`,
- and :func:`isabstract`.
+ :func:`~inspect.isgenerator`, :func:`~inspect.isgeneratorfunction`,
+ and :func:`~inspect.isabstract`.
* The :mod:`itertools` module gained several new functions.
@@ -2060,7 +2074,7 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
``itertools.chain(*iterables)`` is an existing function in
:mod:`itertools` that gained a new constructor in Python 2.6.
``itertools.chain.from_iterable(iterable)`` takes a single
- iterable that should return other iterables. :func:`chain` will
+ iterable that should return other iterables. :func:`~itertools.chain` will
then return all the elements of the first iterable, then
all the elements of the second, and so on. ::
@@ -2069,14 +2083,15 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
(All contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
-* The :mod:`logging` module's :class:`FileHandler` class
- and its subclasses :class:`WatchedFileHandler`, :class:`RotatingFileHandler`,
- and :class:`TimedRotatingFileHandler` now
+* The :mod:`logging` module's :class:`~logging.FileHandler` class
+ and its subclasses :class:`~logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler`,
+ :class:`~logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler`,
+ and :class:`~logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler` now
have an optional *delay* parameter to their constructors. If *delay*
is true, opening of the log file is deferred until the first
- :meth:`emit` call is made. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip.)
+ :meth:`~logging.FileHandler.emit` call is made. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip.)
- :class:`TimedRotatingFileHandler` also has a *utc* constructor
+ :class:`~logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler` also has a *utc* constructor
parameter. If the argument is true, UTC time will be used
in determining when midnight occurs and in generating filenames;
otherwise local time will be used.
@@ -2105,8 +2120,8 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
* :func:`~math.log1p` returns the natural logarithm of *1+x*
(base *e*).
- * :func:`trunc` rounds a number toward zero, returning the closest
- :class:`Integral` that's between the function's argument and zero.
+ * :func:`~math.trunc` rounds a number toward zero, returning the closest
+ :class:`~numbers.Integral` that's between the function's argument and zero.
Added as part of the backport of
`PEP 3141's type hierarchy for numbers <#pep-3141>`__.
@@ -2126,14 +2141,15 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes and Mark Dickinson.)
-* :class:`~mmap.mmap` objects now have a :meth:`rfind` method that searches for a
+* :class:`~mmap.mmap` objects now have a :meth:`~mmap.mmap.rfind` method that
+ searches for a
substring beginning at the end of the string and searching
- backwards. The :meth:`find` method also gained an *end* parameter
+ backwards. The :meth:`~mmap.mmap.find` method also gained an *end* parameter
giving an index at which to stop searching.
(Contributed by John Lenton.)
* The :mod:`operator` module gained a
- :func:`methodcaller` function that takes a name and an optional
+ :func:`~operator.methodcaller` function that takes a name and an optional
set of arguments, returning a callable that will call
the named function on any arguments passed to it. For example::
@@ -2144,7 +2160,7 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
(Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Gregory Petrosyan.)
- The :func:`attrgetter` function now accepts dotted names and performs
+ The :func:`~operator.attrgetter` function now accepts dotted names and performs
the corresponding attribute lookups::
>>> inst_name = operator.attrgetter(
@@ -2162,12 +2178,12 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
the mode of a symlink. (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Christian
Heimes.)
- :func:`chflags` and :func:`lchflags` are wrappers for the
+ :func:`~os.chflags` and :func:`~os.lchflags` are wrappers for the
corresponding system calls (where they're available), changing the
flags set on a file. Constants for the flag values are defined in
the :mod:`stat` module; some possible values include
- :const:`UF_IMMUTABLE` to signal the file may not be changed and
- :const:`UF_APPEND` to indicate that data can only be appended to the
+ :const:`~stat.UF_IMMUTABLE` to signal the file may not be changed and
+ :const:`~stat.UF_APPEND` to indicate that data can only be appended to the
file. (Contributed by M. Levinson.)
``os.closerange(low, high)`` efficiently closes all file descriptors
@@ -2175,7 +2191,7 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
This function is now used by the :mod:`subprocess` module to make starting
processes faster. (Contributed by Georg Brandl; :issue:`1663329`.)
-* The ``os.environ`` object's :meth:`clear` method will now unset the
+* The ``os.environ`` object's :meth:`!clear` method will now unset the
environment variables using :func:`os.unsetenv` in addition to clearing
the object's keys. (Contributed by Martin Horcicka; :issue:`1181`.)
@@ -2186,7 +2202,7 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
into an infinite recursion if there's a symlink that points to a
parent directory. (:issue:`1273829`)
-* In the :mod:`os.path` module, the :func:`splitext` function
+* In the :mod:`os.path` module, the :func:`~os.path.splitext` function
has been changed to not split on leading period characters.
This produces better results when operating on Unix's dot-files.
For example, ``os.path.splitext('.ipython')``
@@ -2213,12 +2229,12 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
if no traceback is supplied. (Contributed by Facundo Batista;
:issue:`1106316`.)
-* The :mod:`pickletools` module now has an :func:`optimize` function
+* The :mod:`pickletools` module now has an :func:`~pickletools.optimize` function
that takes a string containing a pickle and removes some unused
opcodes, returning a shorter pickle that contains the same data structure.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
-* A :func:`get_data` function was added to the :mod:`pkgutil`
+* A :func:`~pkgutil.get_data` function was added to the :mod:`pkgutil`
module that returns the contents of resource files included
with an installed Python package. For example::
@@ -2235,22 +2251,22 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
(Contributed by Paul Moore; :issue:`2439`.)
-* The :mod:`pyexpat` module's :class:`Parser` objects now allow setting
- their :attr:`buffer_size` attribute to change the size of the buffer
+* The :mod:`!pyexpat` module's :class:`!Parser` objects now allow setting
+ their :attr:`!buffer_size` attribute to change the size of the buffer
used to hold character data.
(Contributed by Achim Gaedke; :issue:`1137`.)
-* The :mod:`Queue` module now provides queue variants that retrieve entries
- in different orders. The :class:`PriorityQueue` class stores
+* The :mod:`queue` module now provides queue variants that retrieve entries
+ in different orders. The :class:`~queue.PriorityQueue` class stores
queued items in a heap and retrieves them in priority order,
- and :class:`LifoQueue` retrieves the most recently added entries first,
+ and :class:`~queue.LifoQueue` retrieves the most recently added entries first,
meaning that it behaves like a stack.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
-* The :mod:`random` module's :class:`Random` objects can
+* The :mod:`random` module's :class:`~random.Random` objects can
now be pickled on a 32-bit system and unpickled on a 64-bit
system, and vice versa. Unfortunately, this change also means
- that Python 2.6's :class:`Random` objects can't be unpickled correctly
+ that Python 2.6's :class:`~random.Random` objects can't be unpickled correctly
on earlier versions of Python.
(Contributed by Shawn Ligocki; :issue:`1727780`.)
@@ -2273,11 +2289,11 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
(Contributed by Guido van Rossum from work for Google App Engine;
:issue:`3487`.)
-* The :mod:`rlcompleter` module's :meth:`Completer.complete()` method
+* The :mod:`rlcompleter` module's :meth:`~rlcompleter.Completer.complete` method
will now ignore exceptions triggered while evaluating a name.
(Fixed by Lorenz Quack; :issue:`2250`.)
-* The :mod:`sched` module's :class:`scheduler` instances now
+* The :mod:`sched` module's :class:`~sched.scheduler` instances now
have a read-only :attr:`queue` attribute that returns the
contents of the scheduler's queue, represented as a list of
named tuples with the fields ``(time, priority, action, argument)``.
@@ -2285,7 +2301,7 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
* The :mod:`select` module now has wrapper functions
for the Linux :c:func:`!epoll` and BSD :c:func:`!kqueue` system calls.
- :meth:`modify` method was added to the existing :class:`poll`
+ :meth:`~select.poll.modify` method was added to the existing ``poll``
objects; ``pollobj.modify(fd, eventmask)`` takes a file descriptor
or file object and an event mask, modifying the recorded event mask
for that file.
@@ -2296,8 +2312,8 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
and a list of the directory's contents, and returns a list of names that
will be ignored, not copied.
- The :mod:`shutil` module also provides an :func:`ignore_patterns`
- function for use with this new parameter. :func:`ignore_patterns`
+ The :mod:`shutil` module also provides an :func:`~shutil.ignore_patterns`
+ function for use with this new parameter. :func:`~shutil.ignore_patterns`
takes an arbitrary number of glob-style patterns and returns a
callable that will ignore any files and directories that match any
of these patterns. The following example copies a directory tree,
@@ -2321,7 +2337,7 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
Event loops will use this by opening a pipe to create two descriptors,
one for reading and one for writing. The writable descriptor
- will be passed to :func:`set_wakeup_fd`, and the readable descriptor
+ will be passed to :func:`~signal.set_wakeup_fd`, and the readable descriptor
will be added to the list of descriptors monitored by the event loop via
:c:func:`!select` or :c:func:`!poll`.
On receiving a signal, a byte will be written and the main event loop
@@ -2329,20 +2345,20 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
(Contributed by Adam Olsen; :issue:`1583`.)
- The :func:`siginterrupt` function is now available from Python code,
+ The :func:`~signal.siginterrupt` function is now available from Python code,
and allows changing whether signals can interrupt system calls or not.
(Contributed by Ralf Schmitt.)
- The :func:`setitimer` and :func:`getitimer` functions have also been
- added (where they're available). :func:`setitimer`
+ The :func:`~signal.setitimer` and :func:`~signal.getitimer` functions have also been
+ added (where they're available). :func:`~signal.setitimer`
allows setting interval timers that will cause a signal to be
delivered to the process after a specified time, measured in
wall-clock time, consumed process time, or combined process+system
time. (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; :issue:`2240`.)
* The :mod:`smtplib` module now supports SMTP over SSL thanks to the
- addition of the :class:`SMTP_SSL` class. This class supports an
- interface identical to the existing :class:`SMTP` class.
+ addition of the :class:`~smtplib.SMTP_SSL` class. This class supports an
+ interface identical to the existing :class:`~smtplib.SMTP` class.
(Contributed by Monty Taylor.) Both class constructors also have an
optional ``timeout`` parameter that specifies a timeout for the
initial connection attempt, measured in seconds. (Contributed by
@@ -2353,7 +2369,7 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
e-mail between agents that don't manage a mail queue. (LMTP
implemented by Leif Hedstrom; :issue:`957003`.)
- :meth:`SMTP.starttls` now complies with :rfc:`3207` and forgets any
+ :meth:`smtplib.SMTP.starttls` now complies with :rfc:`3207` and forgets any
knowledge obtained from the server not obtained from the TLS
negotiation itself. (Patch contributed by Bill Fenner;
:issue:`829951`.)
@@ -2363,11 +2379,11 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
environments. TIPC addresses are 4- or 5-tuples.
(Contributed by Alberto Bertogli; :issue:`1646`.)
- A new function, :func:`create_connection`, takes an address and
+ A new function, :func:`~socket.create_connection`, takes an address and
connects to it using an optional timeout value, returning the
connected socket object. This function also looks up the address's
type and connects to it using IPv4 or IPv6 as appropriate. Changing
- your code to use :func:`create_connection` instead of
+ your code to use :func:`~socket.create_connection` instead of
``socket(socket.AF_INET, ...)`` may be all that's required to make
your code work with IPv6.
@@ -2395,15 +2411,15 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
:c:func:`!TerminateProcess`.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes.)
-* A new variable in the :mod:`sys` module, :attr:`float_info`, is an
+* A new variable in the :mod:`sys` module, :data:`~sys.float_info`, is an
object containing information derived from the :file:`float.h` file
about the platform's floating-point support. Attributes of this
- object include :attr:`mant_dig` (number of digits in the mantissa),
- :attr:`epsilon` (smallest difference between 1.0 and the next
+ object include :attr:`~sys.float_info.mant_dig` (number of digits in the mantissa),
+ :attr:`~sys.float_info.epsilon` (smallest difference between 1.0 and the next
largest value representable), and several others. (Contributed by
Christian Heimes; :issue:`1534`.)
- Another new variable, :attr:`dont_write_bytecode`, controls whether Python
+ Another new variable, :data:`~sys.dont_write_bytecode`, controls whether Python
writes any :file:`.pyc` or :file:`.pyo` files on importing a module.
If this variable is true, the compiled files are not written. The
variable is initially set on start-up by supplying the :option:`-B`
@@ -2416,16 +2432,16 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
Information about the command-line arguments supplied to the Python
interpreter is available by reading attributes of a named
- tuple available as ``sys.flags``. For example, the :attr:`verbose`
+ tuple available as ``sys.flags``. For example, the :attr:`~sys.flags.verbose`
attribute is true if Python
- was executed in verbose mode, :attr:`debug` is true in debugging mode, etc.
+ was executed in verbose mode, :attr:`~sys.flags.debug` is true in debugging mode, etc.
These attributes are all read-only.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes.)
- A new function, :func:`getsizeof`, takes a Python object and returns
+ A new function, :func:`~sys.getsizeof`, takes a Python object and returns
the amount of memory used by the object, measured in bytes. Built-in
objects return correct results; third-party extensions may not,
- but can define a :meth:`__sizeof__` method to return the
+ but can define a :meth:`!__sizeof__` method to return the
object's size.
(Contributed by Robert Schuppenies; :issue:`2898`.)
@@ -2449,12 +2465,12 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
their UTF-8 representation. (Character conversions occur because the
PAX format supports Unicode filenames, defaulting to UTF-8 encoding.)
- The :meth:`TarFile.add` method now accepts an ``exclude`` argument that's
+ The :meth:`tarfile.TarFile.add` method now accepts an ``exclude`` argument that's
a function that can be used to exclude certain filenames from
an archive.
The function must take a filename and return true if the file
should be excluded or false if it should be archived.
- The function is applied to both the name initially passed to :meth:`add`
+ The function is applied to both the name initially passed to :meth:`~tarfile.TarFile.add`
and to the names of files in recursively added directories.
(All changes contributed by Lars Gustäbel).
@@ -2468,12 +2484,13 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
behaviour can now be changed by passing ``delete=False`` to the
constructor. (Contributed by Damien Miller; :issue:`1537850`.)
- A new class, :class:`SpooledTemporaryFile`, behaves like
+ A new class, :class:`~tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile`, behaves like
a temporary file but stores its data in memory until a maximum size is
exceeded. On reaching that limit, the contents will be written to
an on-disk temporary file. (Contributed by Dustin J. Mitchell.)
- The :class:`NamedTemporaryFile` and :class:`SpooledTemporaryFile` classes
+ The :class:`~tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile` and
+ :class:`~tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile` classes
both work as context managers, so you can write
``with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile() as tmp: ...``.
(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; :issue:`2021`.)
@@ -2484,7 +2501,7 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
context manager that temporarily changes environment variables and
automatically restores them to their old values.
- Another context manager, :class:`TransientResource`, can surround calls
+ Another context manager, :class:`!TransientResource`, can surround calls
to resources that may or may not be available; it will catch and
ignore a specified list of exceptions. For example,
a network test may ignore certain failures when connecting to an
@@ -2495,9 +2512,9 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
f = urllib.urlopen('https://sf.net')
...
- Finally, :func:`check_warnings` resets the :mod:`warning` module's
- warning filters and returns an object that will record all warning
- messages triggered (:issue:`3781`)::
+ Finally, :func:`~test.support.warnings_helper.check_warnings` resets the
+ :mod:`warnings` module's warning filters and returns an object that will record
+ all warning messages triggered (:issue:`3781`)::
with test_support.check_warnings() as wrec:
warnings.simplefilter("always")
@@ -2529,31 +2546,31 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
(Contributed by Dwayne Bailey; :issue:`1581073`.)
* The :mod:`threading` module API is being changed to use properties
- such as :attr:`daemon` instead of :meth:`setDaemon` and
- :meth:`isDaemon` methods, and some methods have been renamed to use
+ such as :attr:`~threading.Thread.daemon` instead of :meth:`!setDaemon` and
+ :meth:`!isDaemon` methods, and some methods have been renamed to use
underscores instead of camel-case; for example, the
- :meth:`activeCount` method is renamed to :meth:`active_count`. Both
+ :meth:`!activeCount` method is renamed to :func:`~threading.active_count`. Both
the 2.6 and 3.0 versions of the module support the same properties
and renamed methods, but don't remove the old methods. No date has been set
for the deprecation of the old APIs in Python 3.x; the old APIs won't
be removed in any 2.x version.
(Carried out by several people, most notably Benjamin Peterson.)
- The :mod:`threading` module's :class:`Thread` objects
- gained an :attr:`ident` property that returns the thread's
+ The :mod:`threading` module's :class:`~threading.Thread` objects
+ gained an :attr:`~threading.Thread.ident` property that returns the thread's
identifier, a nonzero integer. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith;
:issue:`2871`.)
* The :mod:`timeit` module now accepts callables as well as strings
for the statement being timed and for the setup code.
Two convenience functions were added for creating
- :class:`Timer` instances:
+ :class:`~timeit.Timer` instances:
``repeat(stmt, setup, time, repeat, number)`` and
``timeit(stmt, setup, time, number)`` create an instance and call
the corresponding method. (Contributed by Erik Demaine;
:issue:`1533909`.)
-* The :mod:`Tkinter` module now accepts lists and tuples for options,
+* The :mod:`tkinter` module now accepts lists and tuples for options,
separating the elements by spaces before passing the resulting value to
Tcl/Tk.
(Contributed by Guilherme Polo; :issue:`2906`.)
@@ -2562,11 +2579,11 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
Gregor Lingl. New features in the module include:
* Better animation of turtle movement and rotation.
- * Control over turtle movement using the new :meth:`delay`,
- :meth:`tracer`, and :meth:`speed` methods.
+ * Control over turtle movement using the new :func:`~turtle.delay`,
+ :func:`~turtle.tracer`, and :func:`~turtle.speed` methods.
* The ability to set new shapes for the turtle, and to
define a new coordinate system.
- * Turtles now have an :meth:`undo()` method that can roll back actions.
+ * Turtles now have an :func:`~turtle.undo` method that can roll back actions.
* Simple support for reacting to input events such as mouse and keyboard
activity, making it possible to write simple games.
* A :file:`turtle.cfg` file can be used to customize the starting appearance
@@ -2578,7 +2595,7 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
* An optional ``timeout`` parameter was added to the
:func:`urllib.urlopen ` function and the
- :class:`urllib.ftpwrapper` class constructor, as well as the
+ :class:`!urllib.ftpwrapper` class constructor, as well as the
:func:`urllib2.urlopen ` function. The parameter specifies a timeout
measured in seconds. For example::
@@ -2595,12 +2612,13 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
has been updated to version 5.1.0. (Updated by
Martin von Löwis; :issue:`3811`.)
-* The :mod:`warnings` module's :func:`formatwarning` and :func:`showwarning`
+* The :mod:`warnings` module's :func:`~warnings.formatwarning` and
+ :func:`~warnings.showwarning`
gained an optional *line* argument that can be used to supply the
line of source code. (Added as part of :issue:`1631171`, which re-implemented
part of the :mod:`warnings` module in C code.)
- A new function, :func:`catch_warnings`, is a context manager
+ A new function, :func:`~warnings.catch_warnings`, is a context manager
intended for testing purposes that lets you temporarily modify the
warning filters and then restore their original values (:issue:`3781`).
@@ -2608,12 +2626,13 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
classes can now be prevented from immediately opening and binding to
their socket by passing ``False`` as the *bind_and_activate*
constructor parameter. This can be used to modify the instance's
- :attr:`allow_reuse_address` attribute before calling the
- :meth:`server_bind` and :meth:`server_activate` methods to
+ :attr:`~socketserver.BaseServer.allow_reuse_address` attribute before calling the
+ :meth:`~socketserver.BaseServer.server_bind` and
+ :meth:`~socketserver.BaseServer.server_activate` methods to
open the socket and begin listening for connections.
(Contributed by Peter Parente; :issue:`1599845`.)
- :class:`SimpleXMLRPCServer` also has a :attr:`_send_traceback_header`
+ :class:`~xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer` also has a :attr:`!_send_traceback_header`
attribute; if true, the exception and formatted traceback are returned
as HTTP headers "X-Exception" and "X-Traceback". This feature is
for debugging purposes only and should not be used on production servers
@@ -2625,14 +2644,15 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
:class:`datetime.date` and :class:`datetime.time` to the
:class:`xmlrpclib.DateTime ` type; the conversion semantics were
not necessarily correct for all applications. Code using
- :mod:`!xmlrpclib` should convert :class:`date` and :class:`~datetime.time`
+ :mod:`!xmlrpclib` should convert :class:`~datetime.date` and :class:`~datetime.time`
instances. (:issue:`1330538`) The code can also handle
dates before 1900 (contributed by Ralf Schmitt; :issue:`2014`)
and 64-bit integers represented by using ```` in XML-RPC responses
(contributed by Riku Lindblad; :issue:`2985`).
-* The :mod:`zipfile` module's :class:`ZipFile` class now has
- :meth:`extract` and :meth:`extractall` methods that will unpack
+* The :mod:`zipfile` module's :class:`~zipfile.ZipFile` class now has
+ :meth:`~zipfile.ZipFile.extract` and :meth:`~zipfile.ZipFile.extractall`
+ methods that will unpack
a single file or all the files in the archive to the current directory, or
to a specified directory::
@@ -2647,8 +2667,9 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
(Contributed by Alan McIntyre; :issue:`467924`.)
- The :meth:`open`, :meth:`read` and :meth:`extract` methods can now
- take either a filename or a :class:`ZipInfo` object. This is useful when an
+ The :meth:`~zipfile.ZipFile.open`, :meth:`~zipfile.ZipFile.read` and
+ :meth:`~zipfile.ZipFile.extract` methods can now
+ take either a filename or a :class:`~zipfile.ZipInfo` object. This is useful when an
archive accidentally contains a duplicated filename.
(Contributed by Graham Horler; :issue:`1775025`.)
@@ -2659,7 +2680,7 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
.. whole new modules get described in subsections here
The :mod:`ast` module
-----------------------
+---------------------
The :mod:`ast` module provides an Abstract Syntax Tree
representation of Python code, and Armin Ronacher
@@ -2668,8 +2689,8 @@ common tasks. These will be useful for HTML templating
packages, code analyzers, and similar tools that process
Python code.
-The :func:`parse` function takes an expression and returns an AST.
-The :func:`dump` function outputs a representation of a tree, suitable
+The :func:`~ast.parse` function takes an expression and returns an AST.
+The :func:`~ast.dump` function outputs a representation of a tree, suitable
for debugging::
import ast
@@ -2715,13 +2736,13 @@ This outputs a deeply nested tree::
], nl=True)
])
-The :func:`literal_eval` method takes a string or an AST
+The :func:`~ast.literal_eval` method takes a string or an AST
representing a literal expression, parses and evaluates it, and
returns the resulting value. A literal expression is a Python
expression containing only strings, numbers, dictionaries,
etc. but no statements or function calls. If you need to
evaluate an expression but cannot accept the security risk of using an
-:func:`eval` call, :func:`literal_eval` will handle it safely::
+:func:`eval` call, :func:`~ast.literal_eval` will handle it safely::
>>> literal = '("a", "b", {2:4, 3:8, 1:2})'
>>> print ast.literal_eval(literal)
@@ -2731,20 +2752,20 @@ evaluate an expression but cannot accept the security risk of using an
...
ValueError: malformed string
-The module also includes :class:`NodeVisitor` and
-:class:`NodeTransformer` classes for traversing and modifying an AST,
+The module also includes :class:`~ast.NodeVisitor` and
+:class:`~ast.NodeTransformer` classes for traversing and modifying an AST,
and functions for common transformations such as changing line
numbers.
.. ======================================================================
-The :mod:`future_builtins` module
---------------------------------------
+The :mod:`!future_builtins` module
+----------------------------------
Python 3.0 makes many changes to the repertoire of built-in
functions, and most of the changes can't be introduced in the Python
2.x series because they would break compatibility.
-The :mod:`future_builtins` module provides versions
+The :mod:`!future_builtins` module provides versions
of these built-in functions that can be imported when writing
3.0-compatible code.
@@ -2759,15 +2780,15 @@ The functions in this module currently include:
return iterators, unlike the 2.x builtins which return lists.
* ``hex(value)``, ``oct(value)``: instead of calling the
- :meth:`__hex__` or :meth:`__oct__` methods, these versions will
- call the :meth:`__index__` method and convert the result to hexadecimal
+ :meth:`!__hex__` or :meth:`!__oct__` methods, these versions will
+ call the :meth:`~object.__index__` method and convert the result to hexadecimal
or octal. :func:`oct` will use the new ``0o`` notation for its
result.
.. ======================================================================
The :mod:`json` module: JavaScript Object Notation
---------------------------------------------------------------------
+--------------------------------------------------
The new :mod:`json` module supports the encoding and decoding of Python types in
JSON (Javascript Object Notation). JSON is a lightweight interchange format
@@ -2811,10 +2832,10 @@ Using the module is simple::
import sys
import plistlib
- import datetime
+ import datetime as dt
# Create data structure
- data_struct = dict(lastAccessed=datetime.datetime.now(),
+ data_struct = dict(lastAccessed=dt.datetime.now(),
version=1,
categories=('Personal','Shared','Private'))
@@ -2834,12 +2855,12 @@ Using the module is simple::
.. ======================================================================
ctypes Enhancements
---------------------------------------------------
+-------------------
Thomas Heller continued to maintain and enhance the
:mod:`ctypes` module.
-:mod:`ctypes` now supports a :class:`c_bool` datatype
+:mod:`ctypes` now supports a :class:`~ctypes.c_bool` datatype
that represents the C99 ``bool`` type. (Contributed by David Remahl;
:issue:`1649190`.)
@@ -2851,11 +2872,11 @@ where various combinations of ``(start, stop, step)`` are supplied.
.. Revision 57769
All :mod:`ctypes` data types now support
-:meth:`from_buffer` and :meth:`from_buffer_copy`
+:meth:`~ctypes._CData.from_buffer` and :meth:`~ctypes._CData.from_buffer_copy`
methods that create a ctypes instance based on a
-provided buffer object. :meth:`from_buffer_copy` copies
+provided buffer object. :meth:`~ctypes._CData.from_buffer_copy` copies
the contents of the object,
-while :meth:`from_buffer` will share the same memory area.
+while :meth:`~ctypes._CData.from_buffer` will share the same memory area.
A new calling convention tells :mod:`ctypes` to clear the ``errno`` or
Win32 LastError variables at the outset of each wrapped call.
@@ -2863,24 +2884,24 @@ Win32 LastError variables at the outset of each wrapped call.
You can now retrieve the Unix ``errno`` variable after a function
call. When creating a wrapped function, you can supply
-``use_errno=True`` as a keyword parameter to the :func:`DLL` function
-and then call the module-level methods :meth:`set_errno` and
-:meth:`get_errno` to set and retrieve the error value.
+``use_errno=True`` as a keyword parameter to the ``DLL`` function
+and then call the module-level methods :func:`~ctypes.set_errno` and
+:func:`~ctypes.get_errno` to set and retrieve the error value.
The Win32 LastError variable is similarly supported by
-the :func:`DLL`, :func:`OleDLL`, and :func:`WinDLL` functions.
+the ``DLL``, :func:`~ctypes.OleDLL`, and :func:`~ctypes.WinDLL` functions.
You supply ``use_last_error=True`` as a keyword parameter
-and then call the module-level methods :meth:`set_last_error`
-and :meth:`get_last_error`.
+and then call the module-level methods :func:`~ctypes.set_last_error`
+and :func:`~ctypes.get_last_error`.
-The :func:`byref` function, used to retrieve a pointer to a ctypes
+The :func:`~ctypes.byref` function, used to retrieve a pointer to a ctypes
instance, now has an optional *offset* parameter that is a byte
count that will be added to the returned pointer.
.. ======================================================================
Improved SSL Support
---------------------------------------------------
+--------------------
Bill Janssen made extensive improvements to Python 2.6's support for
the Secure Sockets Layer by adding a new module, :mod:`ssl`, that's
@@ -2892,9 +2913,9 @@ in the :mod:`socket` module hasn't been removed and continues to work,
though it will be removed in Python 3.0.
To use the new module, you must first create a TCP connection in the
-usual way and then pass it to the :func:`ssl.wrap_socket` function.
+usual way and then pass it to the :func:`!ssl.wrap_socket` function.
It's possible to specify whether a certificate is required, and to
-obtain certificate info by calling the :meth:`getpeercert` method.
+obtain certificate info by calling the :meth:`~ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert` method.
.. seealso::
@@ -3020,7 +3041,7 @@ Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
* The BerkeleyDB module now has a C API object, available as
``bsddb.db.api``. This object can be used by other C extensions
- that wish to use the :mod:`bsddb` module for their own purposes.
+ that wish to use the :mod:`!bsddb` module for their own purposes.
(Contributed by Duncan Grisby.)
* The new buffer interface, previously described in
@@ -3051,7 +3072,7 @@ Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
* Several functions return information about the platform's
floating-point support. :c:func:`PyFloat_GetMax` returns
- the maximum representable floating point value,
+ the maximum representable floating-point value,
and :c:func:`PyFloat_GetMin` returns the minimum
positive value. :c:func:`PyFloat_GetInfo` returns an object
containing more information from the :file:`float.h` file, such as
@@ -3062,7 +3083,7 @@ Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
* C functions and methods that use
:c:func:`PyComplex_AsCComplex` will now accept arguments that
- have a :meth:`__complex__` method. In particular, the functions in the
+ have a :meth:`~object.__complex__` method. In particular, the functions in the
:mod:`cmath` module will now accept objects with this method.
This is a backport of a Python 3.0 change.
(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`1675423`.)
@@ -3115,7 +3136,7 @@ Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
.. ======================================================================
Port-Specific Changes: Windows
------------------------------------
+------------------------------
* The support for Windows 95, 98, ME and NT4 has been dropped.
Python 2.6 requires at least Windows 2000 SP4.
@@ -3141,7 +3162,7 @@ Port-Specific Changes: Windows
* The :mod:`socket` module's socket objects now have an
:meth:`~socket.socket.ioctl` method that provides a limited interface to the
- :c:func:`WSAIoctl` system interface.
+ :c:func:`!WSAIoctl` system interface.
* The :mod:`_winreg ` module now has a function,
:func:`~winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings`,
@@ -3164,7 +3185,7 @@ Port-Specific Changes: Windows
.. ======================================================================
Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
------------------------------------
+-------------------------------
* When compiling a framework build of Python, you can now specify the
framework name to be used by providing the
@@ -3218,7 +3239,7 @@ Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
.. ======================================================================
Port-Specific Changes: IRIX
------------------------------------
+---------------------------
A number of old IRIX-specific modules were deprecated and will
be removed in Python 3.0:
@@ -3262,7 +3283,7 @@ that may require changes to your code:
* String exceptions have been removed. Attempting to use them raises a
:exc:`TypeError`.
-* The :meth:`__init__` method of :class:`collections.deque`
+* The :meth:`!__init__` method of :class:`collections.deque`
now clears any existing contents of the deque
before adding elements from the iterable. This change makes the
behavior match ``list.__init__()``.
@@ -3270,16 +3291,16 @@ that may require changes to your code:
* :meth:`object.__init__` previously accepted arbitrary arguments and
keyword arguments, ignoring them. In Python 2.6, this is no longer
allowed and will result in a :exc:`TypeError`. This will affect
- :meth:`__init__` methods that end up calling the corresponding
+ :meth:`!__init__` methods that end up calling the corresponding
method on :class:`object` (perhaps through using :func:`super`).
See :issue:`1683368` for discussion.
-* The :class:`Decimal` constructor now accepts leading and trailing
+* The :class:`~decimal.Decimal` constructor now accepts leading and trailing
whitespace when passed a string. Previously it would raise an
- :exc:`InvalidOperation` exception. On the other hand, the
- :meth:`create_decimal` method of :class:`Context` objects now
+ :exc:`~decimal.InvalidOperation` exception. On the other hand, the
+ :meth:`~decimal.Context.create_decimal` method of :class:`~decimal.Context` objects now
explicitly disallows extra whitespace, raising a
- :exc:`ConversionSyntax` exception.
+ :exc:`!ConversionSyntax` exception.
* Due to an implementation accident, if you passed a file path to
the built-in :func:`__import__` function, it would actually import
@@ -3297,14 +3318,14 @@ that may require changes to your code:
* The :mod:`socket` module exception :exc:`socket.error` now inherits
from :exc:`IOError`. Previously it wasn't a subclass of
- :exc:`StandardError` but now it is, through :exc:`IOError`.
+ :exc:`!StandardError` but now it is, through :exc:`IOError`.
(Implemented by Gregory P. Smith; :issue:`1706815`.)
* The :mod:`xmlrpclib ` module no longer automatically converts
:class:`datetime.date` and :class:`datetime.time` to the
:class:`xmlrpclib.DateTime ` type; the conversion semantics were
not necessarily correct for all applications. Code using
- :mod:`!xmlrpclib` should convert :class:`date` and :class:`~datetime.time`
+ :mod:`!xmlrpclib` should convert :class:`~datetime.date` and :class:`~datetime.time`
instances. (:issue:`1330538`)
* (3.0-warning mode) The :class:`Exception` class now warns
diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/2.7.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/2.7.rst
index 031777b9cf64131..de90c37a38d38ff 100644
--- a/Doc/whatsnew/2.7.rst
+++ b/Doc/whatsnew/2.7.rst
@@ -291,7 +291,7 @@ modules.
configuration files can now be read, modified, and then written back
in their original order.
-* The :meth:`~collections.somenamedtuple._asdict()` method for
+* The :meth:`~collections.somenamedtuple._asdict` method for
:func:`collections.namedtuple` now returns an ordered dictionary with the
values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple indices.
@@ -858,8 +858,8 @@ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
.. XXX bytearray doesn't seem to be documented
-* When using :class:`@classmethod ` and
- :class:`@staticmethod ` to wrap
+* When using :deco:`classmethod` and
+ :deco:`staticmethod` to wrap
methods as class or static methods, the wrapper object now
exposes the wrapped function as their :attr:`~method.__func__`
attribute.
@@ -1198,7 +1198,7 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
of the operands. Previously such comparisons would fall back to
Python's default rules for comparing objects, which produced arbitrary
results based on their type. Note that you still cannot combine
- :class:`!Decimal` and floating-point in other operations such as addition,
+ :class:`!Decimal` and floating point in other operations such as addition,
since you should be explicitly choosing how to convert between float and
:class:`!Decimal`. (Fixed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`2531`.)
@@ -1267,7 +1267,7 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
uploads thanks to an added *rest* parameter (patch by Pablo Mouzo;
:issue:`6845`.)
-* New class decorator: :func:`~functools.total_ordering` in the :mod:`functools`
+* New class decorator: :deco:`~functools.total_ordering` in the :mod:`functools`
module takes a class that defines an :meth:`~object.__eq__` method and one of
:meth:`~object.__lt__`, :meth:`~object.__le__`, :meth:`~object.__gt__`, or :meth:`~object.__ge__`,
and generates the missing comparison methods. Since the
@@ -1541,14 +1541,14 @@ changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
buffer API, which fixed a test suite failure (fix by Antoine Pitrou;
:issue:`7133`) and automatically set
OpenSSL's :c:macro:`!SSL_MODE_AUTO_RETRY`, which will prevent an error
- code being returned from :meth:`recv` operations that trigger an SSL
+ code being returned from :meth:`!recv` operations that trigger an SSL
renegotiation (fix by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`8222`).
The :func:`~ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket` constructor function now takes a
*ciphers* argument that's a string listing the encryption algorithms
to be allowed; the format of the string is described
`in the OpenSSL documentation
- `__.
+ `
- and :meth:`Element.write` methods now have a *method* parameter that can be
+ and :meth:`!Element.write` methods now have a *method* parameter that can be
"xml" (the default), "html", or "text". HTML mode will output empty
elements as ````
declarations are now output on the root element, not scattered throughout
the resulting XML. You can set the default namespace for a tree
- by setting the :attr:`default_namespace` attribute and can
+ by setting the :attr:`!default_namespace` attribute and can
register new prefixes with :meth:`~xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace`. In XML mode,
you can use the true/false *xml_declaration* parameter to suppress the
XML declaration.
@@ -2196,8 +2196,6 @@ Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
locale-independent way. (Added by Eric Smith;
:issue:`5793`.)
- .. XXX these macros don't seem to be described in the c-api docs.
-
* Removed function: :c:func:`!PyEval_CallObject` is now only available
as a macro. A function version was being kept around to preserve
ABI linking compatibility, but that was in 1997; it can certainly be
@@ -2234,7 +2232,7 @@ Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
* When using the :c:type:`PyMemberDef` structure to define attributes
of a type, Python will no longer let you try to delete or set a
- :c:macro:`T_STRING_INPLACE` attribute.
+ :c:macro:`!T_STRING_INPLACE` attribute.
.. rev 79644
@@ -2259,12 +2257,12 @@ Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
:issue:`6491`.)
* The :program:`configure` script now checks for floating-point rounding bugs
- on certain 32-bit Intel chips and defines a :c:macro:`X87_DOUBLE_ROUNDING`
+ on certain 32-bit Intel chips and defines a :c:macro:`!X87_DOUBLE_ROUNDING`
preprocessor definition. No code currently uses this definition,
but it's available if anyone wishes to use it.
(Added by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`2937`.)
- :program:`configure` also now sets a :envvar:`LDCXXSHARED` Makefile
+ :program:`configure` also now sets a :envvar:`!LDCXXSHARED` Makefile
variable for supporting C++ linking. (Contributed by Arfrever
Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; :issue:`1222585`.)
@@ -2680,14 +2678,12 @@ automatic ``PATH`` modifications to have ``pip`` available from the command
line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed through the Python
launcher for Windows as ``py -m pip``.
-As `discussed in the PEP`__, platform packagers may choose not to install
+As :pep:`discussed in the PEP <0477#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors>`,
+platform packagers may choose not to install
these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear and
simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually using
the system package manager).
-__ https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors
-
-
Documentation Changes
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/3.0.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/3.0.rst
index 888e6279754fc29..26e62080e819d85 100644
--- a/Doc/whatsnew/3.0.rst
+++ b/Doc/whatsnew/3.0.rst
@@ -150,8 +150,8 @@ Some well-known APIs no longer return lists:
sorted(d)`` instead (this works in Python 2.5 too and is just
as efficient).
-* Also, the :meth:`dict.iterkeys`, :meth:`dict.iteritems` and
- :meth:`dict.itervalues` methods are no longer supported.
+* Also, the :meth:`!dict.iterkeys`, :meth:`!dict.iteritems` and
+ :meth:`!dict.itervalues` methods are no longer supported.
* :func:`map` and :func:`filter` return iterators. If you really need
a list and the input sequences are all of equal length, a quick
@@ -170,7 +170,7 @@ Some well-known APIs no longer return lists:
:func:`itertools.zip_longest`, e.g. ``map(func, *sequences)`` becomes
``list(map(func, itertools.zip_longest(*sequences)))``.
-* :func:`range` now behaves like :func:`xrange` used to behave, except
+* :func:`range` now behaves like :func:`!xrange` used to behave, except
it works with values of arbitrary size. The latter no longer
exists.
@@ -192,33 +192,33 @@ Python 3.0 has simplified the rules for ordering comparisons:
operators: objects of different incomparable types always compare
unequal to each other.
-* :meth:`builtin.sorted` and :meth:`list.sort` no longer accept the
+* :meth:`sorted` and :meth:`list.sort` no longer accept the
*cmp* argument providing a comparison function. Use the *key*
argument instead. N.B. the *key* and *reverse* arguments are now
"keyword-only".
-* The :func:`cmp` function should be treated as gone, and the :meth:`__cmp__`
- special method is no longer supported. Use :meth:`__lt__` for sorting,
- :meth:`__eq__` with :meth:`__hash__`, and other rich comparisons as needed.
- (If you really need the :func:`cmp` functionality, you could use the
+* The :func:`!cmp` function should be treated as gone, and the :meth:`!__cmp__`
+ special method is no longer supported. Use :meth:`~object.__lt__` for sorting,
+ :meth:`~object.__eq__` with :meth:`~object.__hash__`, and other rich comparisons as needed.
+ (If you really need the :func:`!cmp` functionality, you could use the
expression ``(a > b) - (a < b)`` as the equivalent for ``cmp(a, b)``.)
Integers
--------
-* :pep:`237`: Essentially, :class:`long` renamed to :class:`int`.
+* :pep:`237`: Essentially, :class:`!long` renamed to :class:`int`.
That is, there is only one built-in integral type, named
- :class:`int`; but it behaves mostly like the old :class:`long` type.
+ :class:`int`; but it behaves mostly like the old :class:`!long` type.
* :pep:`238`: An expression like ``1/2`` returns a float. Use
``1//2`` to get the truncating behavior. (The latter syntax has
existed for years, at least since Python 2.2.)
-* The :data:`sys.maxint` constant was removed, since there is no
+* The :data:`!sys.maxint` constant was removed, since there is no
longer a limit to the value of integers. However, :data:`sys.maxsize`
can be used as an integer larger than any practical list or string
index. It conforms to the implementation's "natural" integer size
- and is typically the same as :data:`sys.maxint` in previous releases
+ and is typically the same as :data:`!sys.maxint` in previous releases
on the same platform (assuming the same build options).
* The :func:`repr` of a long integer doesn't include the trailing ``L``
@@ -251,7 +251,7 @@ changed.
that uses Unicode, encodings or binary data most likely has to
change. The change is for the better, as in the 2.x world there
were numerous bugs having to do with mixing encoded and unencoded
- text. To be prepared in Python 2.x, start using :class:`unicode`
+ text. To be prepared in Python 2.x, start using :class:`!unicode`
for all unencoded text, and :class:`str` for binary or encoded data
only. Then the ``2to3`` tool will do most of the work for you.
@@ -269,7 +269,7 @@ changed.
separate *mutable* type to hold buffered binary data,
:class:`bytearray`. Nearly all APIs that accept :class:`bytes` also
accept :class:`bytearray`. The mutable API is based on
- :class:`collections.MutableSequence`.
+ :class:`collections.MutableSequence `.
* All backslashes in raw string literals are interpreted literally.
This means that ``'\U'`` and ``'\u'`` escapes in raw strings are not
@@ -278,11 +278,11 @@ changed.
single "euro" character. (Of course, this change only affects raw
string literals; the euro character is ``'\u20ac'`` in Python 3.0.)
-* The built-in :class:`basestring` abstract type was removed. Use
+* The built-in :class:`!basestring` abstract type was removed. Use
:class:`str` instead. The :class:`str` and :class:`bytes` types
don't have functionality enough in common to warrant a shared base
class. The ``2to3`` tool (see below) replaces every occurrence of
- :class:`basestring` with :class:`str`.
+ :class:`!basestring` with :class:`str`.
* Files opened as text files (still the default mode for :func:`open`)
always use an encoding to map between strings (in memory) and bytes
@@ -357,8 +357,8 @@ New Syntax
provides a standardized way of annotating a function's parameters
and return value. There are no semantics attached to such
annotations except that they can be introspected at runtime using
- the :attr:`__annotations__` attribute. The intent is to encourage
- experimentation through metaclasses, decorators or frameworks.
+ the :attr:`!__annotations__` attribute. The intent is to
+ encourage experimentation through metaclasses, decorators or frameworks.
* :pep:`3102`: Keyword-only arguments. Named parameters occurring
after ``*args`` in the parameter list *must* be specified using
@@ -428,7 +428,7 @@ Changed Syntax
class C(metaclass=M):
...
- The module-global :data:`__metaclass__` variable is no longer
+ The module-global :data:`!__metaclass__` variable is no longer
supported. (It was a crutch to make it easier to default to
new-style classes without deriving every class from
:class:`object`.)
@@ -522,19 +522,19 @@ consulted for longer descriptions.
*encoding*, *errors*, *newline* and *closefd*. Also note that an
invalid *mode* argument now raises :exc:`ValueError`, not
:exc:`IOError`. The binary file object underlying a text file
- object can be accessed as :attr:`f.buffer` (but beware that the
+ object can be accessed as :attr:`!f.buffer` (but beware that the
text object maintains a buffer of itself in order to speed up
the encoding and decoding operations).
-* :ref:`pep-3118`. The old builtin :func:`buffer` is now really gone;
+* :ref:`pep-3118`. The old builtin :func:`!buffer` is now really gone;
the new builtin :func:`memoryview` provides (mostly) similar
functionality.
* :ref:`pep-3119`. The :mod:`abc` module and the ABCs defined in the
:mod:`collections` module plays a somewhat more prominent role in
the language now, and built-in collection types like :class:`dict`
- and :class:`list` conform to the :class:`collections.MutableMapping`
- and :class:`collections.MutableSequence` ABCs, respectively.
+ and :class:`list` conform to the :class:`collections.MutableMapping `
+ and :class:`collections.MutableSequence ` ABCs, respectively.
* :ref:`pep-3127`. As mentioned above, the new octal literal
notation is the only one supported, and binary literals have been
@@ -612,7 +612,7 @@ review:
:mod:`!CGIHTTPServer`, :mod:`!SimpleHTTPServer`, :mod:`!Cookie`,
:mod:`!cookielib`).
- * :mod:`tkinter` (all :mod:`Tkinter`-related modules except
+ * :mod:`tkinter` (all ``Tkinter``-related modules except
:mod:`turtle`). The target audience of :mod:`turtle` doesn't
really care about :mod:`tkinter`. Also note that as of Python
2.6, the functionality of :mod:`turtle` has been greatly enhanced.
@@ -628,47 +628,47 @@ Some other changes to standard library modules, not covered by
* Killed :mod:`!sets`. Use the built-in :func:`set` class.
-* Cleanup of the :mod:`sys` module: removed :func:`sys.exitfunc`,
- :func:`sys.exc_clear`, :data:`sys.exc_type`, :data:`sys.exc_value`,
- :data:`sys.exc_traceback`. (Note that :data:`sys.last_type`
+* Cleanup of the :mod:`sys` module: removed :func:`!sys.exitfunc`,
+ :func:`!sys.exc_clear`, :data:`!sys.exc_type`, :data:`!sys.exc_value`,
+ :data:`!sys.exc_traceback`. (Note that :data:`sys.last_type`
etc. remain.)
-* Cleanup of the :class:`array.array` type: the :meth:`read` and
- :meth:`write` methods are gone; use :meth:`fromfile` and
- :meth:`tofile` instead. Also, the ``'c'`` typecode for array is
+* Cleanup of the :class:`array.array` type: the :meth:`!read` and
+ :meth:`!write` methods are gone; use :meth:`~array.array.fromfile` and
+ :meth:`~array.array.tofile` instead. Also, the ``'c'`` typecode for array is
gone -- use either ``'b'`` for bytes or ``'u'`` for Unicode
characters.
* Cleanup of the :mod:`operator` module: removed
- :func:`sequenceIncludes` and :func:`isCallable`.
+ :func:`!sequenceIncludes` and :func:`!isCallable`.
* Cleanup of the :mod:`!thread` module: :func:`!acquire_lock` and
:func:`!release_lock` are gone; use :meth:`~threading.Lock.acquire` and
:meth:`~threading.Lock.release` instead.
-* Cleanup of the :mod:`random` module: removed the :func:`jumpahead` API.
+* Cleanup of the :mod:`random` module: removed the :func:`!jumpahead` API.
* The :mod:`!new` module is gone.
-* The functions :func:`os.tmpnam`, :func:`os.tempnam` and
- :func:`os.tmpfile` have been removed in favor of the :mod:`tempfile`
+* The functions :func:`!os.tmpnam`, :func:`!os.tempnam` and
+ :func:`!os.tmpfile` have been removed in favor of the :mod:`tempfile`
module.
* The :mod:`tokenize` module has been changed to work with bytes. The
main entry point is now :func:`tokenize.tokenize`, instead of
generate_tokens.
-* :data:`string.letters` and its friends (:data:`string.lowercase` and
- :data:`string.uppercase`) are gone. Use
+* :data:`!string.letters` and its friends (:data:`!string.lowercase` and
+ :data:`!string.uppercase`) are gone. Use
:data:`string.ascii_letters` etc. instead. (The reason for the
- removal is that :data:`string.letters` and friends had
+ removal is that :data:`!string.letters` and friends had
locale-specific behavior, which is a bad idea for such
attractively named global "constants".)
-* Renamed module :mod:`__builtin__` to :mod:`builtins` (removing the
- underscores, adding an 's'). The :data:`__builtins__` variable
+* Renamed module :mod:`!__builtin__` to :mod:`builtins` (removing the
+ underscores, adding an 's'). The :data:`!__builtins__` variable
found in most global namespaces is unchanged. To modify a builtin,
- you should use :mod:`builtins`, not :data:`__builtins__`!
+ you should use :mod:`builtins`, not :data:`!__builtins__`!
:pep:`3101`: A New Approach To String Formatting
@@ -702,9 +702,9 @@ new powerful features added:
idiom for handling all exceptions except for this latter category is
to use :keyword:`except` :exc:`Exception`.
-* :exc:`StandardError` was removed.
+* :exc:`!StandardError` was removed.
-* Exceptions no longer behave as sequences. Use the :attr:`args`
+* Exceptions no longer behave as sequences. Use the :attr:`~BaseException.args`
attribute instead.
* :pep:`3109`: Raising exceptions. You must now use :samp:`raise
@@ -765,20 +765,20 @@ Operators And Special Methods
When referencing a method as a class attribute, you now get a plain
function object.
-* :meth:`__getslice__`, :meth:`__setslice__` and :meth:`__delslice__`
+* :meth:`!__getslice__`, :meth:`!__setslice__` and :meth:`!__delslice__`
were killed. The syntax ``a[i:j]`` now translates to
- ``a.__getitem__(slice(i, j))`` (or :meth:`__setitem__` or
- :meth:`__delitem__`, when used as an assignment or deletion target,
+ ``a.__getitem__(slice(i, j))`` (or :meth:`~object.__setitem__` or
+ :meth:`~object.__delitem__`, when used as an assignment or deletion target,
respectively).
* :pep:`3114`: the standard :meth:`next` method has been renamed to
:meth:`~iterator.__next__`.
-* The :meth:`__oct__` and :meth:`__hex__` special methods are removed
- -- :func:`oct` and :func:`hex` use :meth:`__index__` now to convert
+* The :meth:`!__oct__` and :meth:`!__hex__` special methods are removed
+ -- :func:`oct` and :func:`hex` use :meth:`~object.__index__` now to convert
the argument to an integer.
-* Removed support for :attr:`__members__` and :attr:`__methods__`.
+* Removed support for :attr:`!__members__` and :attr:`!__methods__`.
* The function attributes named :attr:`!func_X` have been renamed to
use the :attr:`!__X__` form, freeing up these names in the function
@@ -802,7 +802,7 @@ Builtins
instance will automatically be chosen. With arguments, the behavior
of :func:`super` is unchanged.
-* :pep:`3111`: :func:`raw_input` was renamed to :func:`input`. That
+* :pep:`3111`: :func:`!raw_input` was renamed to :func:`input`. That
is, the new :func:`input` function reads a line from
:data:`sys.stdin` and returns it with the trailing newline stripped.
It raises :exc:`EOFError` if the input is terminated prematurely.
@@ -820,31 +820,31 @@ Builtins
argument and a value of the same type as ``x`` when called with two
arguments.
-* Moved :func:`intern` to :func:`sys.intern`.
+* Moved :func:`!intern` to :func:`sys.intern`.
-* Removed: :func:`apply`. Instead of ``apply(f, args)`` use
+* Removed: :func:`!apply`. Instead of ``apply(f, args)`` use
``f(*args)``.
* Removed :func:`callable`. Instead of ``callable(f)`` you can use
- ``isinstance(f, collections.Callable)``. The :func:`operator.isCallable`
+ ``isinstance(f, collections.Callable)``. The :func:`!operator.isCallable`
function is also gone.
-* Removed :func:`coerce`. This function no longer serves a purpose
+* Removed :func:`!coerce`. This function no longer serves a purpose
now that classic classes are gone.
-* Removed :func:`execfile`. Instead of ``execfile(fn)`` use
+* Removed :func:`!execfile`. Instead of ``execfile(fn)`` use
``exec(open(fn).read())``.
-* Removed the :class:`file` type. Use :func:`open`. There are now several
+* Removed the :class:`!file` type. Use :func:`open`. There are now several
different kinds of streams that open can return in the :mod:`io` module.
-* Removed :func:`reduce`. Use :func:`functools.reduce` if you really
+* Removed :func:`!reduce`. Use :func:`functools.reduce` if you really
need it; however, 99 percent of the time an explicit :keyword:`for`
loop is more readable.
-* Removed :func:`reload`. Use :func:`!imp.reload`.
+* Removed :func:`!reload`. Use :func:`!imp.reload`.
-* Removed. :meth:`dict.has_key` -- use the :keyword:`in` operator
+* Removed. :meth:`!dict.has_key` -- use the :keyword:`in` operator
instead.
.. ======================================================================
diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/3.1.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/3.1.rst
index 69b273e58385d27..b9606beb5f9ef95 100644
--- a/Doc/whatsnew/3.1.rst
+++ b/Doc/whatsnew/3.1.rst
@@ -205,9 +205,9 @@ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`4707`.)
-* Python now uses David Gay's algorithm for finding the shortest floating
- point representation that doesn't change its value. This should help
- mitigate some of the confusion surrounding binary floating point
+* Python now uses David Gay's algorithm for finding the shortest floating-point
+ representation that doesn't change its value. This should help
+ mitigate some of the confusion surrounding binary floating-point
numbers.
The significance is easily seen with a number like ``1.1`` which does not
@@ -215,7 +215,7 @@ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
equivalent, an expression like ``float('1.1')`` evaluates to the nearest
representable value which is ``0x1.199999999999ap+0`` in hex or
``1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625`` in decimal. That
- nearest value was and still is used in subsequent floating point
+ nearest value was and still is used in subsequent floating-point
calculations.
What is new is how the number gets displayed. Formerly, Python used a
@@ -224,7 +224,7 @@ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
using 17 digits was that it relied on IEEE-754 guarantees to assure that
``eval(repr(1.1))`` would round-trip exactly to its original value. The
disadvantage is that many people found the output to be confusing (mistaking
- intrinsic limitations of binary floating point representation as being a
+ intrinsic limitations of binary floating-point representation as being a
problem with Python itself).
The new algorithm for ``repr(1.1)`` is smarter and returns ``'1.1'``.
@@ -236,8 +236,8 @@ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
it does not change the underlying values. So, it is still the case that
``1.1 + 2.2 != 3.3`` even though the representations may suggest otherwise.
- The new algorithm depends on certain features in the underlying floating
- point implementation. If the required features are not found, the old
+ The new algorithm depends on certain features in the underlying floating-point
+ implementation. If the required features are not found, the old
algorithm will continue to be used. Also, the text pickle protocols
assure cross-platform portability by using the old algorithm.
@@ -550,7 +550,7 @@ Porting to Python 3.1
This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
that may require changes to your code:
-* The new floating point string representations can break existing doctests.
+* The new floating-point string representations can break existing doctests.
For example::
def e():
diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/3.10.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/3.10.rst
index b939ccd17903f21..6d501b018bf8209 100644
--- a/Doc/whatsnew/3.10.rst
+++ b/Doc/whatsnew/3.10.rst
@@ -551,11 +551,12 @@ Patterns and classes
If you are using classes to structure your data, you can use as a pattern
the class name followed by an argument list resembling a constructor. This
-pattern has the ability to capture class attributes into variables::
+pattern has the ability to capture instance attributes into variables::
class Point:
- x: int
- y: int
+ def __init__(self, x, y):
+ self.x = x
+ self.y = y
def location(point):
match point:
@@ -846,8 +847,8 @@ Other Language Changes
respectively.
(Contributed by Joshua Bronson, Daniel Pope, and Justin Wang in :issue:`31861`.)
-* Static methods (:func:`@staticmethod `) and class methods
- (:func:`@classmethod `) now inherit the method attributes
+* Static methods (:deco:`staticmethod`) and class methods
+ (:deco:`classmethod`) now inherit the method attributes
(``__module__``, ``__name__``, ``__qualname__``, ``__doc__``,
``__annotations__``) and have a new ``__wrapped__`` attribute.
Moreover, static methods are now callable as regular functions.
@@ -900,7 +901,7 @@ Improved Modules
asyncio
-------
-Add missing :meth:`~asyncio.events.AbstractEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket`
+Add missing :meth:`~asyncio.loop.connect_accepted_socket`
method.
(Contributed by Alex Grönholm in :issue:`41332`.)
@@ -932,7 +933,7 @@ Base32 Encoding with Extended Hex Alphabet.
bdb
---
-Add :meth:`~bdb.Breakpoint.clearBreakpoints` to reset all set breakpoints.
+Add :meth:`!clearBreakpoints` to reset all set breakpoints.
(Contributed by Irit Katriel in :issue:`24160`.)
bisect
@@ -995,7 +996,7 @@ dataclasses
__slots__
~~~~~~~~~
-Added ``slots`` parameter in :func:`dataclasses.dataclass` decorator.
+Added ``slots`` parameter in :deco:`dataclasses.dataclass` decorator.
(Contributed by Yurii Karabas in :issue:`42269`)
Keyword-only fields
@@ -1233,7 +1234,7 @@ also now un-stringize stringized annotations.
itertools
---------
-Add :func:`itertools.pairwise()`.
+Add :func:`itertools.pairwise`.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :issue:`38200`.)
linecache
@@ -1245,14 +1246,14 @@ When a module does not define ``__loader__``, fall back to ``__spec__.loader``.
os
--
-Add :func:`os.cpu_count()` support for VxWorks RTOS.
+Add :func:`os.cpu_count` support for VxWorks RTOS.
(Contributed by Peixing Xin in :issue:`41440`.)
Add a new function :func:`os.eventfd` and related helpers to wrap the
``eventfd2`` syscall on Linux.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`41001`.)
-Add :func:`os.splice()` that allows to move data between two file
+Add :func:`os.splice` that allows to move data between two file
descriptors without copying between kernel address space and user
address space, where one of the file descriptors must refer to a
pipe. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in :issue:`41625`.)
@@ -1292,7 +1293,7 @@ functions in the :mod:`os` module.
platform
--------
-Add :func:`platform.freedesktop_os_release()` to retrieve operation system
+Add :func:`platform.freedesktop_os_release` to retrieve operation system
identification from `freedesktop.org os-release
`_ standard file.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in :issue:`28468`.)
@@ -1397,7 +1398,7 @@ A new verify flag :const:`~ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN` has been added.
sqlite3
-------
-Add audit events for :func:`~sqlite3.connect/handle`,
+Add audit events for :func:`~sqlite3.connect`,
:meth:`~sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension`, and
:meth:`~sqlite3.Connection.load_extension`.
(Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in :issue:`43762`.)
@@ -1445,8 +1446,8 @@ as a positional-only argument.
types
-----
-Reintroduce the :data:`types.EllipsisType`, :data:`types.NoneType`
-and :data:`types.NotImplementedType` classes, providing a new set
+Reintroduce the :class:`types.EllipsisType`, :class:`types.NoneType`
+and :class:`types.NotImplementedType` classes, providing a new set
of types readily interpretable by type checkers.
(Contributed by Bas van Beek in :issue:`41810`.)
@@ -1484,9 +1485,9 @@ is a :class:`typing.TypedDict`.
Subclasses of ``typing.Protocol`` which only have data variables declared
will now raise a ``TypeError`` when checked with ``isinstance`` unless they
-are decorated with :func:`~typing.runtime_checkable`. Previously, these checks
+are decorated with :deco:`~typing.runtime_checkable`. Previously, these checks
passed silently. Users should decorate their
-subclasses with the :func:`!runtime_checkable` decorator
+subclasses with the :deco:`!runtime_checkable` decorator
if they want runtime protocols.
(Contributed by Yurii Karabas in :issue:`38908`.)
@@ -1927,7 +1928,7 @@ Changes in the Python API
(Contributed by Yurii Karabas, Andrew Svetlov, Yury Selivanov and Kyle Stanley
in :issue:`42392`.)
-* The :data:`types.FunctionType` constructor now inherits the current builtins
+* The :class:`types.FunctionType` constructor now inherits the current builtins
if the *globals* dictionary has no ``"__builtins__"`` key, rather than using
``{"None": None}`` as builtins: same behavior as :func:`eval` and
:func:`exec` functions. Defining a function with ``def function(...): ...``
diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/3.11.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/3.11.rst
index 7a74df330a86c77..c97088501ac9c52 100644
--- a/Doc/whatsnew/3.11.rst
+++ b/Doc/whatsnew/3.11.rst
@@ -388,7 +388,7 @@ Kumar Srinivasan and Graham Bleaney.)
PEP 681: Data class transforms
------------------------------
-:data:`~typing.dataclass_transform` may be used to
+:deco:`~typing.dataclass_transform` may be used to
decorate a class, metaclass, or a function that is itself a decorator.
The presence of ``@dataclass_transform()`` tells a static type checker that the
decorated object performs runtime "magic" that transforms a class,
@@ -686,8 +686,8 @@ enum
* Added the :func:`~enum.member` and :func:`~enum.nonmember` decorators,
to ensure the decorated object is/is not converted to an enum member.
-* Added the :func:`~enum.property` decorator,
- which works like :func:`property` except for enums.
+* Added the :deco:`~enum.property` decorator,
+ which works like :deco:`property` except for enums.
Use this instead of :func:`types.DynamicClassAttribute`.
* Added the :func:`~enum.global_enum` enum decorator,
@@ -740,7 +740,7 @@ fractions
functools
---------
-* :func:`functools.singledispatch` now supports :data:`types.UnionType`
+* :deco:`functools.singledispatch` now supports :data:`types.UnionType`
and :data:`typing.Union` as annotations to the dispatch argument.::
>>> from functools import singledispatch
@@ -768,6 +768,21 @@ functools
(Contributed by Yurii Karabas in :issue:`46014`.)
+.. _whatsnew311-gzip:
+
+gzip
+----
+
+* The :func:`gzip.compress` function is now faster when used with the
+ **mtime=0** argument as it delegates the compression entirely to a single
+ :func:`zlib.compress` operation. There is one side effect of this change: The
+ gzip file header contains an "OS" byte in its header. That was traditionally
+ always set to a value of 255 representing "unknown" by the :mod:`gzip`
+ module. Now, when using :func:`~gzip.compress` with **mtime=0**, it may be
+ set to a different value by the underlying zlib C library Python was linked
+ against.
+ (See :gh:`112346` for details on the side effect.)
+
.. _whatsnew311-hashlib:
hashlib
@@ -1149,7 +1164,7 @@ For major changes, see :ref:`new-feat-related-type-hints-311`.
type checker errors related to highly dynamic class, such as mocks.
(Contributed by Shantanu Jain in :gh:`91154`.)
-* The :func:`typing.final` decorator now sets the ``__final__`` attributed on
+* The :deco:`typing.final` decorator now sets the ``__final__`` attributed on
the decorated object.
(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in :gh:`90500`.)
@@ -1182,7 +1197,7 @@ For major changes, see :ref:`new-feat-related-type-hints-311`.
:data:`~typing.ClassVar` annotations. (Contributed by Gregory Beauregard
in :gh:`90711`.)
-* :func:`typing.no_type_check` no longer modifies external classes and functions.
+* :deco:`typing.no_type_check` no longer modifies external classes and functions.
It also now correctly marks classmethods as not to be type checked. (Contributed
by Nikita Sobolev in :gh:`90729`.)
@@ -2017,8 +2032,8 @@ Removed C APIs are :ref:`listed separately `.
It was introduced in Python 3.4 but has been broken since Python 3.7.
(Contributed by Inada Naoki in :issue:`23882`.)
-* Removed the undocumented private :meth:`!float.__set_format__()` method,
- previously known as :meth:`!float.__setformat__()` in Python 3.7.
+* Removed the undocumented private :meth:`!float.__set_format__` method,
+ previously known as :meth:`!float.__setformat__` in Python 3.7.
Its docstring said: "You probably don't want to use this function.
It exists mainly to be used in Python's test suite."
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`46852`.)
@@ -2123,7 +2138,7 @@ Build Changes
:issue:`45440` and :issue:`46640`.)
* Support for `IEEE 754 `_
- floating point numbers.
+ floating-point numbers.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :issue:`46917`.)
* The :c:macro:`!Py_NO_NAN` macro has been removed.
diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/3.12.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/3.12.rst
index 8757311a484257d..ed696252e09e62d 100644
--- a/Doc/whatsnew/3.12.rst
+++ b/Doc/whatsnew/3.12.rst
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ Summary -- Release highlights
.. This section singles out the most important changes in Python 3.12.
Brevity is key.
-Python 3.12 is the latest stable release of the Python programming language,
+Python 3.12 is a stable release of the Python programming language,
with a mix of changes to the language and the standard library.
The library changes focus on cleaning up deprecated APIs, usability, and correctness.
Of note, the :mod:`!distutils` package has been removed from the standard library.
@@ -146,7 +146,7 @@ New typing features:
* :ref:`PEP 692 `, using :class:`~typing.TypedDict` to
annotate :term:`**kwargs `
-* :ref:`PEP 698 `, :func:`typing.override` decorator
+* :ref:`PEP 698 `, :deco:`typing.override` decorator
Important deprecations, removals or restrictions:
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ Important deprecations, removals or restrictions:
reducing the size of every :class:`str` object by at least 8 bytes.
* :pep:`632`: Remove the :mod:`!distutils` package.
- See `the migration guide `_
+ See :pep:`the migration guide <0632#migration-advice>`
for advice replacing the APIs it provided.
The third-party `Setuptools `__
package continues to provide :mod:`!distutils`,
@@ -359,7 +359,7 @@ create an interpreter with its own GIL:
/* The new interpreter is now active in the current thread. */
For further examples how to use the C-API for sub-interpreters with a
-per-interpreter GIL, see :source:`Modules/_xxsubinterpretersmodule.c`.
+per-interpreter GIL, see ``Modules/_xxsubinterpretersmodule.c``.
(Contributed by Eric Snow in :gh:`104210`, etc.)
@@ -511,7 +511,7 @@ See :pep:`692` for more details.
PEP 698: Override Decorator for Static Typing
---------------------------------------------
-A new decorator :func:`typing.override` has been added to the :mod:`typing`
+A new decorator :deco:`typing.override` has been added to the :mod:`typing`
module. It indicates to type checkers that the method is intended to override
a method in a superclass. This allows type checkers to catch mistakes where
a method that is intended to override something in a base class
@@ -739,7 +739,7 @@ inspect
itertools
---------
-* Add :class:`itertools.batched()` for collecting into even-sized
+* Add :func:`itertools.batched` for collecting into even-sized
tuples where the last batch may be shorter than the rest.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in :gh:`98363`.)
@@ -811,6 +811,14 @@ pathlib
:meth:`pathlib.Path.rglob` and :meth:`pathlib.PurePath.match` for matching
the path's case sensitivity, allowing for more precise control over the matching process.
+platform
+--------
+
+* Add support for detecting Windows 11 and Windows Server releases past 2012.
+ Previously, lookups on Windows Server platforms newer than Windows Server 2012
+ and on Windows 11 would return ``Windows-10``.
+ (Contributed by Steve Dower in :gh:`89545`.)
+
pdb
---
@@ -1013,7 +1021,7 @@ typing
``__orig_bases__`` attribute. (Contributed by Adrian Garcia Badaracco in
:gh:`103699`.)
-* Add ``frozen_default`` parameter to :func:`typing.dataclass_transform`.
+* Add ``frozen_default`` parameter to :deco:`typing.dataclass_transform`.
(Contributed by Erik De Bonte in :gh:`99957`.)
unicodedata
@@ -1184,8 +1192,22 @@ Deprecated
(Contributed by Prince Roshan in :gh:`103636`.)
* :mod:`collections.abc`: Deprecated :class:`collections.abc.ByteString`.
- Prefer :class:`Sequence` or :class:`collections.abc.Buffer`.
- For use in typing, prefer a union, like ``bytes | bytearray``, or :class:`collections.abc.Buffer`.
+
+ Use ``isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)`` to test if ``obj`` implements
+ the :ref:`buffer protocol ` at runtime. For use in type
+ annotations, either use :class:`~collections.abc.Buffer` or a union
+ that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g.,
+ ``bytes | bytearray | memoryview``).
+
+ :class:`!ByteString` was originally intended to be an abstract class that
+ would serve as a supertype of both :class:`bytes` and :class:`bytearray`.
+ However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an
+ instance of :class:`!ByteString` never actually told you anything useful
+ about the object. Other common buffer types such as :class:`memoryview` were
+ also never understood as subtypes of :class:`!ByteString` (either at
+ runtime or by static type checkers).
+
+ See :pep:`PEP 688 <688#current-options>` for more details.
(Contributed by Shantanu Jain in :gh:`91896`.)
* :mod:`datetime`: :class:`datetime.datetime`'s :meth:`~datetime.datetime.utcnow` and
@@ -1251,10 +1273,10 @@ Deprecated
:exc:`DeprecationWarning` when it can detect being called from a
multithreaded process. There has always been a fundamental incompatibility
with the POSIX platform when doing so. Even if such code *appeared* to work.
- We added the warning to to raise awareness as issues encounted by code doing
+ We added the warning to raise awareness as issues encountered by code doing
this are becoming more frequent. See the :func:`os.fork` documentation for
more details along with `this discussion on fork being incompatible with threads
- `_ for *why* we're now surfacing this
+ `_ for *why* we're now surfacing this
longstanding platform compatibility problem to developers.
When this warning appears due to usage of :mod:`multiprocessing` or
@@ -1309,173 +1331,41 @@ Deprecated
may be removed in a future version of Python. Use the single-arg versions
of these functions instead. (Contributed by Ofey Chan in :gh:`89874`.)
-* :exc:`DeprecationWarning` is now raised when ``__package__`` on a
- module differs from ``__spec__.parent`` (previously it was
- :exc:`ImportWarning`).
+* :exc:`DeprecationWarning` is now raised when :attr:`~module.__package__` on a
+ module differs from
+ :attr:`__spec__.parent ` (previously
+ it was :exc:`ImportWarning`).
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in :gh:`65961`.)
-* Setting ``__package__`` or ``__cached__`` on a module is deprecated,
- and will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system in Python 3.14.
- (Contributed by Brett Cannon in :gh:`65961`.)
+* Setting :attr:`~module.__package__` or :attr:`~module.__cached__` on a
+ module is deprecated, and will cease to be set or taken into consideration by
+ the import system in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in :gh:`65961`.)
* The bitwise inversion operator (``~``) on bool is deprecated. It will throw an
- error in Python 3.14. Use ``not`` for logical negation of bools instead.
+ error in Python 3.16. Use ``not`` for logical negation of bools instead.
In the rare case that you really need the bitwise inversion of the underlying
``int``, convert to int explicitly: ``~int(x)``. (Contributed by Tim Hoffmann
in :gh:`103487`.)
* Accessing :attr:`~codeobject.co_lnotab` on code objects was deprecated in
Python 3.10 via :pep:`626`,
- but it only got a proper :exc:`DeprecationWarning` in 3.12,
- therefore it will be removed in 3.14.
+ but it only got a proper :exc:`DeprecationWarning` in 3.12.
+ May be removed in 3.15.
(Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in :gh:`101866`.)
-Pending Removal in Python 3.13
-------------------------------
-
-The following modules and APIs have been deprecated in earlier Python releases,
-and will be removed in Python 3.13.
-
-Modules (see :pep:`594`):
-
-* :mod:`!aifc`
-* :mod:`!audioop`
-* :mod:`!cgi`
-* :mod:`!cgitb`
-* :mod:`!chunk`
-* :mod:`!crypt`
-* :mod:`!imghdr`
-* :mod:`!mailcap`
-* :mod:`!msilib`
-* :mod:`!nis`
-* :mod:`!nntplib`
-* :mod:`!ossaudiodev`
-* :mod:`!pipes`
-* :mod:`!sndhdr`
-* :mod:`!spwd`
-* :mod:`!sunau`
-* :mod:`!telnetlib`
-* :mod:`!uu`
-* :mod:`!xdrlib`
-
-Other modules:
-
-* :mod:`!lib2to3`, and the :program:`2to3` program (:gh:`84540`)
-
-APIs:
-
-* :class:`!configparser.LegacyInterpolation` (:gh:`90765`)
-* ``locale.resetlocale()`` (:gh:`90817`)
-* :meth:`!turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle` (:gh:`50096`)
-* :func:`!unittest.findTestCases` (:gh:`50096`)
-* :func:`!unittest.getTestCaseNames` (:gh:`50096`)
-* :func:`!unittest.makeSuite` (:gh:`50096`)
-* :meth:`!unittest.TestProgram.usageExit` (:gh:`67048`)
-* :class:`!webbrowser.MacOSX` (:gh:`86421`)
-* :class:`classmethod` descriptor chaining (:gh:`89519`)
-* :mod:`importlib.resources` deprecated methods:
-
- * ``contents()``
- * ``is_resource()``
- * ``open_binary()``
- * ``open_text()``
- * ``path()``
- * ``read_binary()``
- * ``read_text()``
-
- Use :func:`importlib.resources.files()` instead. Refer to `importlib-resources: Migrating from Legacy
- `_ (:gh:`106531`)
-
-Pending Removal in Python 3.14
-------------------------------
-
-The following APIs have been deprecated
-and will be removed in Python 3.14.
-
-* :mod:`argparse`: The *type*, *choices*, and *metavar* parameters
- of :class:`!argparse.BooleanOptionalAction`
-
-* :mod:`ast`:
-
- * :class:`!ast.Num`
- * :class:`!ast.Str`
- * :class:`!ast.Bytes`
- * :class:`!ast.NameConstant`
- * :class:`!ast.Ellipsis`
-
-* :mod:`asyncio`:
-
- * :class:`!asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher`
- * :class:`!asyncio.FastChildWatcher`
- * :class:`!asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher`
- * :class:`!asyncio.SafeChildWatcher`
- * :func:`!asyncio.set_child_watcher`
- * :func:`!asyncio.get_child_watcher`,
- * :meth:`!asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher`
- * :meth:`!asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher`
-
-* :mod:`collections.abc`: :class:`!collections.abc.ByteString`.
-
-* :mod:`email`: the *isdst* parameter in :func:`email.utils.localtime`.
-
-* :mod:`importlib.abc`:
-
- * :class:`!importlib.abc.ResourceReader`
- * :class:`!importlib.abc.Traversable`
- * :class:`!importlib.abc.TraversableResources`
-
-* :mod:`itertools`: Support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle operations.
-
-* :mod:`pkgutil`:
-
- * :func:`!pkgutil.find_loader`
- * :func:`!pkgutil.get_loader`.
-
-* :mod:`pty`:
-
- * :func:`!pty.master_open`
- * :func:`!pty.slave_open`
-
-* :mod:`shutil`: The *onerror* argument of :func:`shutil.rmtree`
-
-* :mod:`typing`: :class:`!typing.ByteString`
-
-* :mod:`xml.etree.ElementTree`: Testing the truth value of an :class:`xml.etree.ElementTree.Element`.
+.. include:: ../deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.13.rst
-* The ``__package__`` and ``__cached__`` attributes on module objects.
+.. include:: ../deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.14.rst
-* The :attr:`~codeobject.co_lnotab` attribute of code objects.
-
-Pending Removal in Python 3.15
-------------------------------
-
-The following APIs have been deprecated
-and will be removed in Python 3.15.
-
-APIs:
-
-* :func:`locale.getdefaultlocale` (:gh:`90817`)
+.. include:: ../deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.15.rst
+.. include:: ../deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.16.rst
-Pending Removal in Future Versions
-----------------------------------
+.. include:: ../deprecations/pending-removal-in-3.17.rst
-The following APIs were deprecated in earlier Python versions and will be removed,
-although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal.
-
-* :mod:`array`'s ``'u'`` format code (:gh:`57281`)
-
-* :class:`typing.Text` (:gh:`92332`)
-
-* Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by keywords,
- for example ``0in x``, ``1or x``, ``0if 1else 2``. It allows confusing
- and ambiguous expressions like ``[0x1for x in y]`` (which can be
- interpreted as ``[0x1 for x in y]`` or ``[0x1f or x in y]``).
- A syntax warning is raised if the numeric literal is
- immediately followed by one of keywords :keyword:`and`, :keyword:`else`,
- :keyword:`for`, :keyword:`if`, :keyword:`in`, :keyword:`is` and :keyword:`or`.
- In a future release it will be changed to a syntax error. (:gh:`87999`)
+.. include:: ../deprecations/pending-removal-in-future.rst
+.. _whatsnew312-removed:
Removed
=======
@@ -1502,6 +1392,8 @@ configparser
* :class:`configparser.ConfigParser` no longer has a ``readfp`` method.
Use :meth:`~configparser.ConfigParser.read_file` instead.
+.. _whatsnew312-removed-distutils:
+
distutils
---------
@@ -1559,9 +1451,9 @@ hashlib
-------
* Remove the pure Python implementation of :mod:`hashlib`'s
- :func:`hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac()`, deprecated in Python 3.10. Python 3.10 and
+ :func:`hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac`, deprecated in Python 3.10. Python 3.10 and
newer requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 (:pep:`644`): this OpenSSL version provides
- a C implementation of :func:`~hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac()` which is faster.
+ a C implementation of :func:`~hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac` which is faster.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in :gh:`94199`.)
importlib
@@ -1570,7 +1462,7 @@ importlib
* Many previously deprecated cleanups in :mod:`importlib` have now been
completed:
- * References to, and support for :meth:`!module_repr()` has been removed.
+ * References to, and support for :meth:`!module_repr` has been removed.
(Contributed by Barry Warsaw in :gh:`97850`.)
* ``importlib.util.set_package``, ``importlib.util.set_loader`` and
@@ -1583,6 +1475,8 @@ importlib
* ``importlib.abc.Finder``, ``pkgutil.ImpImporter``, and ``pkgutil.ImpLoader``
have been removed. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in :gh:`98040`.)
+.. _whatsnew312-removed-imp:
+
imp
---
@@ -1597,8 +1491,8 @@ imp
``imp.NullImporter`` Insert ``None`` into ``sys.path_importer_cache``
``imp.cache_from_source()`` :func:`importlib.util.cache_from_source`
``imp.find_module()`` :func:`importlib.util.find_spec`
- ``imp.get_magic()`` :attr:`importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER`
- ``imp.get_suffixes()`` :attr:`importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES`, :attr:`importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES`, and :attr:`importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES`
+ ``imp.get_magic()`` :const:`importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER`
+ ``imp.get_suffixes()`` :const:`importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES`, :const:`importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES`, and :const:`importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES`
``imp.get_tag()`` :attr:`sys.implementation.cache_tag `
``imp.load_module()`` :func:`importlib.import_module`
``imp.new_module(name)`` ``types.ModuleType(name)``
@@ -1739,7 +1633,7 @@ unittest
* Undocumented :meth:`TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule
` parameter *use_load_tests*
- (deprecated and ignored since Python 3.2).
+ (deprecated and ignored since Python 3.5).
* An alias of the :class:`~unittest.TextTestResult` class:
``_TextTestResult`` (deprecated in Python 3.2).
@@ -1849,7 +1743,7 @@ Changes in the Python API
around process-global resources, which are best managed from the main interpreter.
(Contributed by Donghee Na in :gh:`99127`.)
-* The undocumented locking behavior of :func:`~functools.cached_property`
+* The undocumented locking behavior of :deco:`~functools.cached_property`
is removed, because it locked across all instances of the class, leading to high
lock contention. This means that a cached property getter function could now run
more than once for a single instance, if two threads race. For most simple
@@ -2024,7 +1918,7 @@ New Features
The :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT` and :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF`
flags have been added. This allows extensions classes to support object
- ``__dict__`` and weakrefs with less bookkeeping,
+ :attr:`~object.__dict__` and weakrefs with less bookkeeping,
using less memory and with faster access.
* API for performing calls using
@@ -2143,7 +2037,7 @@ Porting to Python 3.12
internal-only field directly.
To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method
- :py:meth:`~class.__subclasses__` (using :c:func:`PyObject_CallMethod`,
+ :py:meth:`~type.__subclasses__` (using :c:func:`PyObject_CallMethod`,
for example).
* Add support of more formatting options (left aligning, octals, uppercase
@@ -2162,7 +2056,7 @@ Porting to Python 3.12
:c:func:`PyUnicode_FromFormatV`.
(Contributed by Philip Georgi in :gh:`95504`.)
-* Extension classes wanting to add a ``__dict__`` or weak reference slot
+* Extension classes wanting to add a :attr:`~object.__dict__` or weak reference slot
should use :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT` and
:c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF` instead of ``tp_dictoffset`` and
``tp_weaklistoffset``, respectively.
@@ -2347,92 +2241,15 @@ Deprecated
overrides :c:member:`~PyTypeObject.tp_new` is deprecated.
Call the metaclass instead.
-Pending Removal in Python 3.14
-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-
-* The ``ma_version_tag`` field in :c:type:`PyDictObject` for extension modules
- (:pep:`699`; :gh:`101193`).
+.. Add deprecations above alphabetically, not here at the end.
-* Global configuration variables:
+.. include:: ../deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-3.14.rst
- * :c:var:`Py_DebugFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.parser_debug`
- * :c:var:`Py_VerboseFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.verbose`
- * :c:var:`Py_QuietFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.quiet`
- * :c:var:`Py_InteractiveFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.interactive`
- * :c:var:`Py_InspectFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.inspect`
- * :c:var:`Py_OptimizeFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.optimization_level`
- * :c:var:`Py_NoSiteFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.site_import`
- * :c:var:`Py_BytesWarningFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.bytes_warning`
- * :c:var:`Py_FrozenFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings`
- * :c:var:`Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.use_environment`
- * :c:var:`Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.write_bytecode`
- * :c:var:`Py_NoUserSiteDirectory`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.user_site_directory`
- * :c:var:`Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.buffered_stdio`
- * :c:var:`Py_HashRandomizationFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.use_hash_seed`
- and :c:member:`PyConfig.hash_seed`
- * :c:var:`Py_IsolatedFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.isolated`
- * :c:var:`Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag`: use :c:member:`PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding`
- * :c:var:`Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio`
- * :c:var:`!Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.filesystem_encoding`
- * :c:var:`!Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.filesystem_encoding`
- * :c:var:`!Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors`: use :c:member:`PyConfig.filesystem_errors`
- * :c:var:`!Py_UTF8Mode`: use :c:member:`PyPreConfig.utf8_mode` (see :c:func:`Py_PreInitialize`)
+.. include:: ../deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-3.15.rst
- The :c:func:`Py_InitializeFromConfig` API should be used with
- :c:type:`PyConfig` instead.
+.. include:: ../deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-3.16.rst
-* Creating :c:data:`immutable types ` with mutable
- bases (:gh:`95388`).
-
-Pending Removal in Python 3.15
-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-
-* :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock`: use :c:func:`PyImport_ImportModule`
-* :c:type:`!Py_UNICODE_WIDE` type: use :c:type:`wchar_t`
-* :c:type:`Py_UNICODE` type: use :c:type:`wchar_t`
-* Python initialization functions:
-
- * :c:func:`PySys_ResetWarnOptions`: clear :data:`sys.warnoptions` and
- :data:`!warnings.filters`
- * :c:func:`Py_GetExecPrefix`: get :data:`sys.exec_prefix`
- * :c:func:`Py_GetPath`: get :data:`sys.path`
- * :c:func:`Py_GetPrefix`: get :data:`sys.prefix`
- * :c:func:`Py_GetProgramFullPath`: get :data:`sys.executable`
- * :c:func:`Py_GetProgramName`: get :data:`sys.executable`
- * :c:func:`Py_GetPythonHome`: get :c:member:`PyConfig.home` or
- the :envvar:`PYTHONHOME` environment variable
-
-Pending Removal in Future Versions
-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-
-The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed,
-although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal.
-
-* :c:macro:`Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE`: unneeded since Python 3.8
-* :c:func:`PyErr_Fetch`: use :c:func:`PyErr_GetRaisedException`
-* :c:func:`PyErr_NormalizeException`: use :c:func:`PyErr_GetRaisedException`
-* :c:func:`PyErr_Restore`: use :c:func:`PyErr_SetRaisedException`
-* :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilename`: use :c:func:`PyModule_GetFilenameObject`
-* :c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork`: use :c:func:`PyOS_AfterFork_Child`
-* :c:func:`PySlice_GetIndicesEx`: use :c:func:`PySlice_Unpack` and :c:func:`PySlice_AdjustIndices`
-* :c:func:`!PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject`: use :c:func:`PyCodec_Decode`
-* :c:func:`!PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode`: use :c:func:`PyCodec_Decode`
-* :c:func:`!PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject`: use :c:func:`PyCodec_Encode`
-* :c:func:`!PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode`: use :c:func:`PyCodec_Encode`
-* :c:func:`PyUnicode_READY`: unneeded since Python 3.12
-* :c:func:`!PyErr_Display`: use :c:func:`PyErr_DisplayException`
-* :c:func:`!_PyErr_ChainExceptions`: use ``_PyErr_ChainExceptions1``
-* :c:member:`!PyBytesObject.ob_shash` member:
- call :c:func:`PyObject_Hash` instead
-* :c:member:`!PyDictObject.ma_version_tag` member
-* Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:
-
- * :c:func:`PyThread_create_key`: use :c:func:`PyThread_tss_alloc`
- * :c:func:`PyThread_delete_key`: use :c:func:`PyThread_tss_free`
- * :c:func:`PyThread_set_key_value`: use :c:func:`PyThread_tss_set`
- * :c:func:`PyThread_get_key_value`: use :c:func:`PyThread_tss_get`
- * :c:func:`PyThread_delete_key_value`: use :c:func:`PyThread_tss_delete`
- * :c:func:`PyThread_ReInitTLS`: unneeded since Python 3.7
+.. include:: ../deprecations/c-api-pending-removal-in-future.rst
Removed
-------
diff --git a/Doc/whatsnew/3.13.rst b/Doc/whatsnew/3.13.rst
index 69264a3672bbbf3..fdf2c656deb25d5 100644
--- a/Doc/whatsnew/3.13.rst
+++ b/Doc/whatsnew/3.13.rst
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
What's New In Python 3.13
****************************
-:Editor: Thomas Wouters
+:Editors: Adam Turner and Thomas Wouters
.. Rules for maintenance:
@@ -46,19 +46,13 @@
when researching a change.
This article explains the new features in Python 3.13, compared to 3.12.
-
+Python 3.13 was released on October 7, 2024.
For full details, see the :ref:`changelog `.
.. seealso::
:pep:`719` -- Python 3.13 Release Schedule
-.. note::
-
- Prerelease users should be aware that this document is currently in draft
- form. It will be updated substantially as Python 3.13 moves towards release,
- so it's worth checking back even after reading earlier versions.
-
Summary -- Release Highlights
=============================
@@ -66,14 +60,38 @@ Summary -- Release Highlights
.. This section singles out the most important changes in Python 3.13.
Brevity is key.
-Python 3.13 beta is the pre-release of the next version of the Python
-programming language, with a mix of changes to the language, the
-implementation and the standard library. The biggest changes to the
-implementation include a new interactive interpreter, and experimental
-support for dropping the Global Interpreter Lock (:pep:`703`) and a
-Just-In-Time compiler (:pep:`744`). The library changes contain removal of
-deprecated APIs and modules, as well as the usual improvements in
-user-friendliness and correctness.
+Python 3.13 is the latest stable release of the Python programming
+language, with a mix of changes to the language, the implementation
+and the standard library.
+The biggest changes include a new `interactive interpreter
+`_,
+experimental support for running in a `free-threaded mode
+`_ (:pep:`703`),
+and a `Just-In-Time compiler `_ (:pep:`744`).
+
+Error messages continue to improve, with tracebacks now highlighted in color
+by default. The :func:`locals` builtin now has :ref:`defined semantics
+` for changing the returned mapping,
+and type parameters now support default values.
+
+The library changes contain removal of deprecated APIs and modules,
+as well as the usual improvements in user-friendliness and correctness.
+Several legacy standard library modules have now `been removed
+`_ following their deprecation in Python 3.11 (:pep:`594`).
+
+This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification
+of all new features, but instead gives a convenient overview.
+For full details refer to the documentation,
+such as the :ref:`Library Reference `
+and :ref:`Language Reference `.
+To understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a change,
+refer to the PEP for a particular new feature;
+but note that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date
+once a feature has been fully implemented.
+See `Porting to Python 3.13`_ for guidance on upgrading from
+earlier versions of Python.
+
+--------------
.. PEP-sized items next.
@@ -82,111 +100,160 @@ Interpreter improvements:
* A greatly improved :ref:`interactive interpreter
` and
:ref:`improved error messages `.
-
-* Color support in the new :ref:`interactive interpreter
- `,
- as well as in :ref:`tracebacks `
- and :ref:`doctest ` output. This can be disabled through the
- :envvar:`PYTHON_COLORS` and |NO_COLOR|_ environment variables.
-
+* :pep:`667`: The :func:`locals` builtin now has
+ :ref:`defined semantics ` when mutating the
+ returned mapping. Python debuggers and similar tools may now more reliably
+ update local variables in optimized scopes even during concurrent code
+ execution.
+* :pep:`703`: CPython 3.13 has experimental support for running with the
+ :term:`global interpreter lock` disabled. See :ref:`Free-threaded CPython
+ ` for more details.
* :pep:`744`: A basic :ref:`JIT compiler ` was added.
It is currently disabled by default (though we may turn it on later).
- Performance improvements are modest -- we expect to be improving this
+ Performance improvements are modest -- we expect to improve this
over the next few releases.
-
-* :pep:`667`: :attr:`FrameType.f_locals ` when used in
- a function now returns a write-through proxy to the frame's locals,
- rather than a ``dict``. See the PEP for corresponding C API changes
- and deprecations.
+* Color support in the new :ref:`interactive interpreter
+ `,
+ as well as in :ref:`tracebacks `
+ and :ref:`doctest ` output.
+ This can be disabled through the :envvar:`PYTHON_COLORS` and |NO_COLOR|_
+ environment variables.
+
+Python data model improvements:
+
+* :attr:`~type.__static_attributes__` stores the names of attributes accessed
+ through ``self.X`` in any function in a class body.
+* :attr:`~type.__firstlineno__` records the first line number of a class
+ definition.
+
+Significant improvements in the standard library:
+
+* Add a new :exc:`PythonFinalizationError` exception, raised when an operation
+ is blocked during :term:`finalization `.
+* The :mod:`argparse` module now supports deprecating command-line options,
+ positional arguments, and subcommands.
+* The new functions :func:`base64.z85encode` and :func:`base64.z85decode`
+ support encoding and decoding `Z85 data`_.
+* The :mod:`copy` module now has a :func:`copy.replace` function,
+ with support for many builtin types and any class defining
+ the :func:`~object.__replace__` method.
+* The new :mod:`dbm.sqlite3` module is now the default :mod:`dbm` backend.
+* The :mod:`os` module has a :ref:`suite of new functions `
+ for working with Linux's timer notification file descriptors.
+* The :mod:`random` module now has a :ref:`command-line interface `.
+
+Security improvements:
+
+* :func:`ssl.create_default_context` sets :data:`ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN`
+ and :data:`ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT` as default flags.
+
+C API improvements:
+
+* The :c:data:`Py_mod_gil` slot is now used to indicate that
+ an extension module supports running with the :term:`GIL` disabled.
+* The :doc:`PyTime C API ` has been added,
+ providing access to system clocks.
+* :c:type:`PyMutex` is a new lightweight mutex that occupies a single byte.
+* There is a new :ref:`suite of functions `
+ for generating :pep:`669` monitoring events in the C API.
New typing features:
* :pep:`696`: Type parameters (:data:`typing.TypeVar`, :data:`typing.ParamSpec`,
and :data:`typing.TypeVarTuple`) now support defaults.
-
-* :pep:`742`: :data:`typing.TypeIs` was added, providing more intuitive
- type narrowing behavior.
-
-* :pep:`705`: :data:`typing.ReadOnly` was added, to mark an item of a
+* :pep:`702`: The new :func:`warnings.deprecated` decorator adds support
+ for marking deprecations in the type system and at runtime.
+* :pep:`705`: :data:`typing.ReadOnly` can be used to mark an item of a
:class:`typing.TypedDict` as read-only for type checkers.
-
-Free-threading:
-
-* :pep:`703`: CPython 3.13 has experimental support for running with the
- :term:`global interpreter lock` disabled when built with ``--disable-gil``.
- See :ref:`Free-threaded CPython ` for more details.
+* :pep:`742`: :data:`typing.TypeIs` provides more intuitive
+ type narrowing behavior, as an alternative to :data:`typing.TypeGuard`.
Platform support:
-* :pep:`730`: Apple's iOS is now an officially supported platform. Official
- Android support (:pep:`738`) is in the works as well.
+* :pep:`730`: Apple's iOS is now an :ref:`officially supported platform
+ `, at :pep:`tier 3 <11#tier-3>`.
+* :pep:`738`: Android is now an :ref:`officially supported platform
+ `, at :pep:`tier 3 <11#tier-3>`.
+* ``wasm32-wasi`` is now supported as a :pep:`tier 2 <11#tier-2>` platform.
+* ``wasm32-emscripten`` is no longer an officially supported platform.
-Removed modules:
+Important removals:
* :ref:`PEP 594 `: The remaining 19 "dead batteries"
- have been removed from the standard library:
+ (legacy stdlib modules) have been removed from the standard library:
:mod:`!aifc`, :mod:`!audioop`, :mod:`!cgi`, :mod:`!cgitb`, :mod:`!chunk`,
:mod:`!crypt`, :mod:`!imghdr`, :mod:`!mailcap`, :mod:`!msilib`, :mod:`!nis`,
- :mod:`!nntplib`, :mod:`!ossaudiodev`, :mod:`!pipes`, :mod:`!sndhdr`, :mod:`!spwd`,
- :mod:`!sunau`, :mod:`!telnetlib`, :mod:`!uu` and :mod:`!xdrlib`.
-
-* Also removed were the :mod:`!tkinter.tix` and :mod:`!lib2to3` modules, and the
- ``2to3`` program.
+ :mod:`!nntplib`, :mod:`!ossaudiodev`, :mod:`!pipes`, :mod:`!sndhdr`,
+ :mod:`!spwd`, :mod:`!sunau`, :mod:`!telnetlib`, :mod:`!uu` and :mod:`!xdrlib`.
+* Remove the :program:`2to3` tool and :mod:`!lib2to3` module
+ (deprecated in Python 3.11).
+* Remove the :mod:`!tkinter.tix` module (deprecated in Python 3.6).
+* Remove the :func:`!locale.resetlocale` function.
+* Remove the :mod:`!typing.io` and :mod:`!typing.re` namespaces.
+* Remove chained :class:`classmethod` descriptors.
Release schedule changes:
-* :pep:`602` ("Annual Release Cycle for Python") has been updated:
+:pep:`602` ("Annual Release Cycle for Python") has been updated
+to extend the full support ('bugfix') period for new releases to two years.
+This updated policy means that:
+
+* Python 3.9--3.12 have one and a half years of full support,
+ followed by three and a half years of security fixes.
+* Python 3.13 and later have two years of full support,
+ followed by three years of security fixes.
- * Python 3.9 - 3.12 have one and a half years of full support,
- followed by three and a half years of security fixes.
- * Python 3.13 and later have two years of full support,
- followed by three years of security fixes.
New Features
============
+
.. _whatsnew313-better-interactive-interpreter:
-A Better Interactive Interpreter
+A better interactive interpreter
--------------------------------
-On Unix-like systems like Linux or macOS, Python now uses a new
-:term:`interactive` shell. When the user starts the :term:`REPL` from an
-interactive terminal, and both :mod:`curses` and :mod:`readline` are
-available, the interactive shell now supports the following new features:
+Python now uses a new :term:`interactive` shell by default, based on code
+from the `PyPy project`_.
+When the user starts the :term:`REPL` from an interactive terminal,
+the following new features are now supported:
-* Colorized prompts.
* Multiline editing with history preservation.
+* Direct support for REPL-specific commands like :kbd:`help`, :kbd:`exit`,
+ and :kbd:`quit`, without the need to call them as functions.
+* Prompts and tracebacks with :ref:`color enabled by default
+ `.
* Interactive help browsing using :kbd:`F1` with a separate command
history.
* History browsing using :kbd:`F2` that skips output as well as the
:term:`>>>` and :term:`...` prompts.
* "Paste mode" with :kbd:`F3` that makes pasting larger blocks of code
easier (press :kbd:`F3` again to return to the regular prompt).
-* The ability to issue REPL-specific commands like :kbd:`help`, :kbd:`exit`,
- and :kbd:`quit` without the need to use call parentheses after the command
- name.
-
-If the new interactive shell is not desired, it can be disabled via
-the :envvar:`PYTHON_BASIC_REPL` environment variable.
+To disable the new interactive shell,
+set the :envvar:`PYTHON_BASIC_REPL` environment variable.
For more on interactive mode, see :ref:`tut-interac`.
(Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Łukasz Langa, and
-Lysandros Nikolaou in :gh:`111201` based on code from the PyPy project.)
+Lysandros Nikolaou in :gh:`111201` based on code from the PyPy project.
+Windows support contributed by Dino Viehland and Anthony Shaw.)
+
+.. _`PyPy project`: https://pypy.org/
+
.. _whatsnew313-improved-error-messages:
-Improved Error Messages
+Improved error messages
-----------------------
-* The interpreter now colorizes error messages when displaying tracebacks by default.
- This feature can be controlled via the new :envvar:`PYTHON_COLORS` environment
- variable as well as the canonical |NO_COLOR|_ and |FORCE_COLOR|_ environment
- variables. See also :ref:`using-on-controlling-color`.
+* The interpreter now uses color by default when displaying tracebacks in the
+ terminal. This feature :ref:`can be controlled `
+ via the new :envvar:`PYTHON_COLORS` environment variable as well as
+ the canonical |NO_COLOR|_ and |FORCE_COLOR|_ environment variables.
(Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado in :gh:`112730`.)
.. Apparently this how you hack together a formatted link:
+ (https://www.docutils.org/docs/ref/rst/directives.html#replacement-text)
.. |FORCE_COLOR| replace:: ``FORCE_COLOR``
.. _FORCE_COLOR: https://force-color.org/
@@ -198,809 +265,1054 @@ Improved Error Messages
standard library module. When this results in errors, we now
display a more helpful error message:
- .. code-block:: shell-session
+ .. code-block:: pytb
- $ python random.py
- Traceback (most recent call last):
- File "/home/random.py", line 1, in
- import random; print(random.randint(5))
- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^
- File "/home/random.py", line 1, in
- import random; print(random.randint(5))
- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
- AttributeError: module 'random' has no attribute 'randint' (consider renaming '/home/random.py' since it has the same name as the standard library module named 'random' and the import system gives it precedence)
+ $ python random.py
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "/home/me/random.py", line 1, in
+ import random
+ File "/home/me/random.py", line 3, in
+ print(random.randint(5))
+ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+ AttributeError: module 'random' has no attribute 'randint' (consider renaming '/home/me/random.py' since it has the same name as the standard library module named 'random' and prevents importing that standard library module)
Similarly, if a script has the same name as a third-party
- module it attempts to import, and this results in errors,
+ module that it attempts to import and this results in errors,
we also display a more helpful error message:
- .. code-block:: shell-session
+ .. code-block:: pytb
- $ python numpy.py
- Traceback (most recent call last):
- File "/home/numpy.py", line 1, in
- import numpy as np; np.array([1,2,3])
- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
- File "/home/numpy.py", line 1, in
- import numpy as np; np.array([1,2,3])
- ^^^^^^^^
- AttributeError: module 'numpy' has no attribute 'array' (consider renaming '/home/numpy.py' if it has the same name as a third-party module you intended to import)
+ $ python numpy.py
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "/home/me/numpy.py", line 1, in
+ import numpy as np
+ File "/home/me/numpy.py", line 3, in
+ np.array([1, 2, 3])
+ ^^^^^^^^
+ AttributeError: module 'numpy' has no attribute 'array' (consider renaming '/home/me/numpy.py' if it has the same name as a library you intended to import)
(Contributed by Shantanu Jain in :gh:`95754`.)
-* When an incorrect keyword argument is passed to a function, the error message
- now potentially suggests the correct keyword argument.
+* The error message now tries to suggest the correct keyword argument
+ when an incorrect keyword argument is passed to a function.
+
+ .. code-block:: pycon
+
+ >>> "Better error messages!".split(max_split=1)
+ Traceback (most recent call last):
+ File "", line 1, in
+ "Better error messages!".split(max_split=1)
+ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+ TypeError: split() got an unexpected keyword argument 'max_split'. Did you mean 'maxsplit'?
+
(Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado and Shantanu Jain in :gh:`107944`.)
- >>> "better error messages!".split(max_split=1)
- Traceback (most recent call last):
- File "", line 1, in
- "better error messages!".split(max_split=1)
- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^
- TypeError: split() got an unexpected keyword argument 'max_split'. Did you mean 'maxsplit'?
-* Classes have a new :attr:`~class.__static_attributes__` attribute, populated by the compiler,
- with a tuple of names of attributes of this class which are accessed
- through ``self.X`` from any function in its body. (Contributed by Irit Katriel
- in :gh:`115775`.)
+.. _whatsnew313-free-threaded-cpython:
-Incremental Garbage Collection
-------------------------------
+Free-threaded CPython
+---------------------
-* The cycle garbage collector is now incremental.
- This means that maximum pause times are reduced
- by an order of magnitude or more for larger heaps.
+CPython now has experimental support for running in a free-threaded mode,
+with the :term:`global interpreter lock` (GIL) disabled.
+This is an experimental feature and therefore is not enabled by default.
+The free-threaded mode requires a different executable,
+usually called ``python3.13t`` or ``python3.13t.exe``.
+Pre-built binaries marked as *free-threaded* can be installed as part of
+the official :ref:`Windows `
+and :ref:`macOS ` installers,
+or CPython can be built from source with the :option:`--disable-gil` option.
-Support For Mobile Platforms
-----------------------------
+Free-threaded execution allows for full utilization of the available
+processing power by running threads in parallel on available CPU cores.
+While not all software will benefit from this automatically, programs
+designed with threading in mind will run faster on multi-core hardware.
+**The free-threaded mode is experimental** and work is ongoing to improve it:
+expect some bugs and a substantial single-threaded performance hit.
+Free-threaded builds of CPython support optionally running with the GIL
+enabled at runtime using the environment variable :envvar:`PYTHON_GIL` or
+the command-line option :option:`-X gil=1`.
+
+To check if the current interpreter supports free-threading, :option:`python -VV <-V>`
+and :data:`sys.version` contain "experimental free-threading build".
+The new :func:`!sys._is_gil_enabled` function can be used to check whether
+the GIL is actually disabled in the running process.
+
+C-API extension modules need to be built specifically for the free-threaded
+build. Extensions that support running with the :term:`GIL` disabled should
+use the :c:data:`Py_mod_gil` slot. Extensions using single-phase init should
+use :c:func:`PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL` to indicate whether they support
+running with the GIL disabled. Importing C extensions that don't use these
+mechanisms will cause the GIL to be enabled, unless the GIL was explicitly
+disabled with the :envvar:`PYTHON_GIL` environment variable or the
+:option:`-X gil=0` option.
+pip 24.1 or newer is required to install packages with C extensions in the
+free-threaded build.
+
+This work was made possible thanks to many individuals and
+organizations, including the large community of contributors to Python
+and third-party projects to test and enable free-threading support.
+Notable contributors include:
+Sam Gross, Ken Jin, Donghee Na, Itamar Oren, Matt Page, Brett Simmers,
+Dino Viehland, Carl Meyer, Nathan Goldbaum, Ralf Gommers,
+Lysandros Nikolaou, and many others.
+Many of these contributors are employed by Meta, which has
+provided significant engineering resources to support this project.
-* iOS is now a :pep:`11` supported platform. ``arm64-apple-ios``
- (iPhone and iPad devices released after 2013) and
- ``arm64-apple-ios-simulator`` (Xcode iOS simulator running on Apple Silicon
- hardware) are now tier 3 platforms.
+.. seealso::
- ``x86_64-apple-ios-simulator`` (Xcode iOS simulator running on older x86_64
- hardware) is not a tier 3 supported platform, but will be supported on a
- best-effort basis.
+ :pep:`703` "Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython"
+ contains rationale and information surrounding this work.
- See :pep:`730`: for more details.
+ `Porting Extension Modules to Support Free-Threading
+